LenzBernhardSta 2011 BuildingServicesSyste SustainableBuildingSe

Building services systems
• Heating
• Cooling
• Air supply
• Power supply
• Water supply
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Heating sive utilisation of solar radiation) are con- the emitting surfaces (e.g. radiators), the
sidered as heat gain factors. The features design heat load must be calculated. The
Worldwide, but particularly in Europe, the of the building envelope should contrib- heat load is the amount of heat which
heat supply to buildings is a focal issue. ute towards creating an even balance must be supplied to a building from a
The first aim of a sustainability concept is between loss and gain. The difference heating system so that the room tempera-
for buildings to be constructed in such a between these determines the necessary ture can be maintained on the coldest
way that comfort is achieved with minimal heat load, which must be supplied day of the year.
demand for energy. This is achieved pri- through building services. Since the inter- The total design heat load, which is the
marily by developing an energy concept nal heat sources are determined mainly sum of the design heat loads of all rooms
which optimises building volume, building by the building’s use, the building enve- within a building, is made up of the
envelope and selection of materials. In lope offers the greatest potential to mini- design transmission heat load ΦT and the
addition, the operation of buildings in mise loss and maximise solar gain design ventilation heat load ΦV.
most climate zones requires a heat sup- (Fig. 3.1). The design heat load ΦHL for a building
ply capable of being regulated. The tech- The average thermal resistance of the is calculated according to the following
nical measures implemented in this case heat loss surfaces can be used as the equation:
have a considerable impact on the user’s target value (or characteristic value) to
comfort as well as the local environment. evaluate the thermal efficiency of the ΦHL = Σ ΦT + Σ ΦV
The building services involved in supply- building envelope. It gives an indication
ing heat in close coordination with the of the level of fabric heat loss which may The thermal insulation of the building has
building envelope is seen as an integral be expected. The supply of outside air at the greatest impact on the level of the
component of the energy master plan. A low ambient air temperatures is a further heat load. The better the building enve-
distinguishing feature of an energy- cause of heat loss, which becomes more lope is, the greater the impact of the ven-
efficient building envelope is that the significant the higher the air change rate tilation heat load. For this reason, it will be
required indoor climate conditions can be or air leakage becomes. In addition, the necessary to install more mechanical ven-
maintained throughout the year with little proportion of glass, conditional upon ori- tilation systems in future if the aim is to
energy demand and without, as far as this entation, effects the potential for the pas- reduce these ventilation losses further
is possible, complex supply technology. sive utilisation of solar radiation. It follows with the help of heat recovery systems.
The planning is based on a detailed anal- that improvements to the building enve- Due to today’s generally high-quality
ysis of the climatic conditions, the build- lope’s thermal characteristics in winter building envelopes, the heat loss to the
ing’s utilisation and related matters. A depend upon harmonisation of the follow- exterior is decreasing steadily. Con-
building envelope optimised to reduce ing aims in coordination with building versely, the significance of internal heat
energy use will maximise passive meas- services engineering: loads is increasing in well-insulated build-
ures and is therefore the basis for a • Space optimisation and envelope ings. The passive solar heat gain arising
future-proof energy concept. geometry due to large window areas or internal
With regard to winter comfort, the main • Thermal insulation of opaque compo- loads in office buildings can already
aim is to retain as much of the building’s nents exceed the heat demand of today. The
Copyright @ 2011. DETAIL.
heat as possible. Concerning the loss • Thermal insulation of transparent com- slower cooling of buildings reduces the
factors, there is a need to distinguish ponents savings potential that was achieved in
between transmission heat loss and venti- • Passive utilisation of solar radiation former times by lowering the heating at
lation heat loss. Internal heat sources • Minimisation of ventilation heat loss night (reduction of the heating medium’s
(waste heat from occupants, lighting and temperature and therefore the room tem-
electrical equipment) as well as the Heat supply systems perature at night). The thermal capacity of
energy input through solar radiation via In order to size the heat generators and the heat generator is not only sized
glazing and transparent surfaces (pas- the heat distribution systems as well as according to the heat load as in former
22
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Heating
kWh/m 2 a
times, but also by the need for hot water. bustion. Condensing boilers offer the 200
The domestic hot water is also usually greatest fuel efficiency since they make QS
produced by the heat supply system. use of the latent heat contained in the
The heat load is the criterion which steam of the flue gas through a condens- QS QV QI
defines the basic design of the heat ing process. Depending on the operating
source and the heat distribution system. conditions, the standard utilisation ratio, QV QI
The design heat load is expressed in which is related to the net calorific value, 100
Watts (W) and is a commonly used term reaches values of up to 108 %. In relation
in heating technology. The term heat to the gross calorific value, this corre-
demand, in contrast, relates to the energy sponds to 98 %. The aim today is to avoid
QT QH QT QH
qualities of a building. Heat demand is fossil fuels in heat generation and use
calculated in kilowatt-hours per year renewable energy mediums instead.
(KWh/a) and, for comparison purposes, Buffer storage tanks are important com-
figures are shown according to 1 m2 of net ponents in heat supply systems. As an
Office building Residential building
living or net floor area. Figure 3.2 addition to boilers, they are able to bal- a
presents an overview of the development ance irregular heat generation. Buffer
kWh/m 2 a
of energy standards and their character- storage tanks are water tanks which are 200
Possible impact
istic values concerning primary energies. able to store water for heating purposes. of building
envelope
There are no explicit limit values for the The condensing boiler and the buffer
heat demand of a building since the storage tank can be combined to form a
Energy Performance of Buildings Direc- single unit (Fig. 3.4, p. 24).
tive not only requests the observation of
minimum standards for thermal insulation Biomass boiler 100
but also limits the primary energy All organic material, which is produced
demand of a building. The latter can vary by plants and animals, is referred to as
depending on which plant technology biomass. Apart from timber (logs, wood QV QS
QV QS
(heat generation system) is selected. To chip), other processed wood products QI QI
some extent, energy loss in poorly insu- (pellets) are also extremely suitable
QT QH QT QH
lated buildings can be compensated for energy sources for generating heat in
by implementing energy-efficient plant buildings. Biomass heating systems are
Office building Residential building
technology and vice versa. This gives an carbon-neutral and technically sophisti-
b 3.1
architect greater freedom when designing cated. They are therefore able to offer an
a building. The surface-area-to-volume ecologically sustainable solution for heat- 400
kWh/m²a
Domestic power
ratio (SA:V), a key factor in the past, is ing buildings. Wood is not only a domes- Fan power
350 Hot water
becoming less and less important when tic raw material, it is also a very reliable Heating
considering energy matters in buildings material from the point of view of supply. 300
today. The impact of an unfavourable However, biomass heating systems do
250
building shape can be balanced by make specific demands on the building
selecting intelligent plant technology. design. It is absolutely essential, at an 200
early stage, to reach agreement with all
150
Heat generation persons involved in the planning process
The chemical energy stored in the fossil in order to ensure that the structural 100
fuels, oil and gas, is converted into ther- requirements (storage room, fuel delivery,
50
mal energy in boilers with the aid of com- etc.) are integrated into the design. Bio-
0
EnEV 2002
EnEV 2009
EnEV 2012
WSVO 84
WSVO 95
Heat source Heat pump Suitable Heat stor- Combination Other

building
Existing
Passive
house
required forward-flow age required with heat important

temperature for network parameters
heat distribution
Near-surface 3.2
yes low no rarely
geothermal energy
Ambient air yes low no no low efficiency
Biomass
no low to high possibly possible
combustion 3.1 Heat gain and loss in different buildings
(QV = ventilation heat loss, QT = transmission

additional
Solar no low yes possible heat loss, QS = solar radiation, QH = heat
heating required
demand, QI = internal heat sources)
depends on a in existing buildings
Waste heat low to high no almost always
temperature b low-energy standard
Waste water yes low no almost always 3.2 Development of energy standards in Germany
and distribution of the energy demand
BTTP no low to high no almost always according to the individual consumers in
Deep geothermal buildings
no low to high no almost always 3.3 Impact of the different heat sources on the
energy
planning of building services
3.3
23
mass heating systems are divided into system (for oil approx. six Cent and for
automatic and manual feed systems. gas approx. five Cent per kilowatt hour).
Whereas manual feed systems may be
suitable for smaller buildings, larger Heat pumps
buildings should use only automatic feed Heat pumps are machines which help to
systems for their heating. Pellets and convert heat which is not immediately
wood chip represent the most common usable (anergy) into usable heat (exergy).
biomass for automatic heating systems in Heat pumps and refrigeration cycles for
larger buildings. The boiler should be cooling (air conditioning) both operate
located in the immediate vicinity of the according to the same Carnot cycle in a
storage room since long conveyor sys- counter-clockwise direction (Fig. 3.8).

tems are more susceptible to faults The heat from indirectly stored solar
(Fig. 3.5). Today automatic biomass sys- energy in air, water and ground, but also
tems offer levels of comfort and conve- from heat in waste water and exhaust air
3.4 nience similar to those of conventional can be absorbed into the cycle (Fig. 3.9).
systems operated with oil or gas. Their The most frequently used heat source is
annual fuel efficiency lies at approxi- the outside air, which, however, also has
mately 70 – 75 %. the lowest energy density. Ground water
as a heat source offers a stable, relatively
Wood-chip boiler high temperature throughout the year
Wood chips are small pieces of wood and, therefore, a favourable annual coeffi-
(5 – 50 mm long) and are produced from cient of performance. However, the use of
woodland timber, leftovers from sawing or ground water requires larger capital
wood product processing. The quality of investments and cannot be employed
the wood chip depends on the raw mate- everywhere. When using near-surface
rial and the chipping process. In compari- geothermal energy by installing bored
son to logs, wood chip has the advantage piles or ground probes, the nature of the
of being pourable and combustion can soil and the moisture content of the
therefore be performed in a fully auto- ground play an important role (Fig. 3.10).
matic heating system (Fig. 3.6 a). The For frost protection purposes, when using
3.5
energy content of dried wood chip (water this heat source, a glycol/water mixture is
content < 25%) is approximately used as the heat transport medium in
3.6 kWh / kg and therefore only slightly order to prevent the piping system from
more than a third of the calorific value of a freezing.
litre of light fuel oil.
7 Refrigerants
Pellet boiler In heat pump processes, refrigerants are
Wood pellets are produced industrially used as the working fluid for the energy
from wood shavings and compacted saw- transfer. Depending on the mode of appli-
2 dust. They are regular cylindrical pressed cation, they are selected according to the
1 pieces with a diameter of approximately following criteria:
3 4 to 10 mm and a length of 20 to 50 mm. • The thermodynamics of the process
5 Their uniform shape means that pellets should be adjusted to meet the needs
8 can be transported from the storage ves- of the application. This means that the
a sel to the boiler automatically. The small- refrigerant used must be able to evapo-
est systems have a capacity of approxi- rate at the required temperature. Con-
mately 2.5 kW and today offer the same densation and evaporation take place
level of user comfort as oil and gas boil- at the pressure and temperatures
7 ers (Fig. 3.6 b). The compacting process appropriate to each application.
reduces the wood volume considerably. • The enthalpy of vaporisation (thermal
The result is a homogeneous fuel with an absorption capacity) should be as high
energy content of approximately as possible.
5 kWh / kg at a density of approximately • The optimal ratio between the cooling

650 kg / m3. At present, there are approxi- capacity and the driving power should
6
4 mately 100,000 systems in operation in be achievable.
Germany (in 2010) and the market is • The refrigerant should have good ther-
1
3
growing. The generation of a kilowatt hour mal transfer properties.
5 of heat costs just over four Cent which is • Furthermore, refrigerants should be non-
8 significantly lower than comparable costs toxic and non-combustible. They should
b of a fuel oil or natural gas-fired heating not be harmful to the environment.
3.6
24
Heating
In recent years, use of refrigerants has Fuel Calorific value Space requirement in relation to energy
been subject to regulation due to the content
effects of global warming and ozone Solid fuels
Wood pellets 5.1 kWh/kg 0.35 m3/MWh
depletion. The environmental rating of Wood chip 5.1 kWh/kg 0.9 –1.3 m3/MWh
refrigerants is assessed according to the Logs (stacked) 5.1 kWh/kg 0.5 – 0.7 m3/MWh
following three indicators: Liquid fuels
Rapeseed oil 10.3 kWh/kg 0.10 m3/MWh
Biodiesel 10.2 kWh/kg 0.11 m3/MWh
• Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), Ethanol 7.4 kWh/kg 0.17 m3/MWh
Extra light heating oil 11.9 kWh/kg 0.10 m3/MWh
R11 equivalent:
Gaseous fuels
The percentage of chlorine in a com-
Biogas 6.0 kWh/m3 166 m3/MWh

pound indicates the degree of harm. Natural gas 10.0 kWh/m3 100 m3/MWh
Due to its high percentage of chlorine, 3.7
R 11 is the reference value to evaluate
the ozone depletion potential (the ODP
value of R11 is defined as 1.0).
• Global Warming Potential (GWP),
e.g. 45C
CO2 equivalent: Condenser
The greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide (heat dissipation)
Domestic heat supply
(CO2), has been defined as a reference
value to evaluate the global warming Expansion valve Compressor G
potential of refrigerants. The GWP value Work Electricity
describes the global warming potential Power plant
Evaporator
in relation to carbon dioxide (CO2). For (heat absorption) e.g. 10 C
example 1 kg of R 22 (GWP = 1650)
has the same global warming potential Ground with earth pipe
as 1650 kg CO2 in the atmosphere.
• Total Equivalent Warming Impact
(TEWI): 3.8
As well as considering the leakage rate
of a system and the recycling rate, the
TEWI value also takes into account the Ground heat Ground heat Ground- Air Energy
CO2 emissions which are produced by collector probe water piles
the energy demand when operating a Availability preferably everywhere acc. to local everywhere in new
in open space availability builds
refrigeration plant (compressor power).
Space requirement high low low low low
Average temperature - 5 to +5 °C 0 to 10 °C 8 to 12 °C - 25 to +15 °C - 3 to +5 °C
Coefficient of performance in winter
In order to assess the performance of a Water use no almost always no no
refrigerant cycle, the ratio of heat output subject to approval always
Typical annual 4.0 4.5 4.5 3.3 –
to energy input must be established. This performance factor ß
characteristic value is called coefficient of of the heat pump
performance (COP):
3.9
εw = Q/P = (Q0 + P)/P
εw = Coefficient of performance Subsoil Specific extraction output

for 1800 h for 2400 h
Q = Useful heat
Dry, light soil 10 W/m2 8 W/m2
P = Compressor power
2
Moist, heavy soil 20 – 30 W/m 16 – 24 W/m2
2
Annual performance factor Saturated, granular soil 40 W/m 32 W/m2
The annual performance factor (APF) 3.10

determines the heat output and the
energy input over a year. This value also
3.4 Condensing boiler with an integrated 7 Heat exchanger
considers the energy use of auxiliary and buffer storage tank 8 Inspection opening
peripheral devices, such as circulation 3.5 Pellet store 3.7 Calorific values and space requirement for
3.6 Firing system for a wood energy medium different fuels
pumps and control systems (Fig. 3.11, a Wood chip boiler 3.8 Brine/water heat pump with ground
p. 26). b Pellet boiler collector
1 Helical conveyor 3.9 Comparison of different heat sources for heat
To operate a heat pump, electric power is 2 Combustion chamber pumps
required, which reduces the energy effi- 3 Burner plate 3.10 Reference values for extracting heat with ground
4 Electronic ignition heat collectors according to VDI 4640
ciency of the system appreciably. The 5 Ash box (Extraction output of ground probes see
smaller the difference is between the tem- 6 Fan Fig. 3.69, p. 40)
25
Definition Meaning perature of the heat source and the tem-

Coefficient of Ratio of the defined heat output to the Efficiency of the heat pump perature of the heating medium, the
performance (COP) ε required electric driving power at a certain point under test conditions higher the efficiency of the heat genera-
in time and at certain temperature conditions
tion system. For the heat distribution, it is
Annual performance Ratio per year of the supplied heat (Q) Efficiency of the total heat
factor (APF) β to the necessary driving power (W). Amongst pump heating system therefore preferable to use panel or
other things, it is used to determine operational underfloor heating systems with heat
fluctuations.
pumps, which function well at lower tem-
Annual efficiency ratio Reciprocal of the annual coefficient of performance; Efficiency of the total heat
it defines the ratio of the driving power to the pump system according peratures. Basically, there are two differ-
supplied heat. to VDI 4650 ent types of heat pump: the compression
3.11 heat pump operates with a closed cycle
where the refrigerant passes over an

evaporator, a compressor, a condenser
and an expansion valve. Compression
2 t CO2
heat pumps are used mostly in smaller
Natural gas heating heat pump systems. The heat transfer in
10 MWh
10 MWh Heat an absorption heat pump is based on the
Primary energy
(natural gas) physical-chemical process of a solvent
cycle. However, the necessary energy
a
input to increase the pressure and tem-
1.65 t CO2 perature is achieved by using a heat
Power station 2.9 MWh 2.9 MWh Heat pump source.
7.6 MWh Electricity Electricity
10 MWh
Primary energy
(coal, gas,
Heat Zeolite heating
uranium) Waste heat Zeolite heating units are adsorption heat
4.7 MWh
7.1 MWh pumps which operate on the basis of a
Ambient heat
b zeolite-water system. The difference to an
absorption heat pump is that the refriger-
ant is accumulated on the surface of a
0 t CO2
solid. In this case, the refrigerant is an
Sun/wind etc. 2.9 MWh 2.9 MWh Heat pump
Electricity Electricity aqueous alkaline or alkaline-earth alumi-
10 MWh nosilicate with varying water content.
Heat
3.12 When heated, the zeolites release water
7.1 MWh whilst maintaining their stability due to
Ambient heat their crystalline structure and absorb
c 3.13 other compounds and ions. When
reversed, the generated heat can be
used for heating purposes.
CO2 reduction (%)
100
Standard utilisation ratio (%)
150
135% 90 Like absorption heat pumps, these sys-
Ambient 80
tems are powered by heat rather than
108%
heat electricity. However, in this case, two heat
70
Heat of con- sources are needed: a gas condensing
100 93 % densation 60 water heater, which initiates the process,
50 and an ambient heat source. Water,
40 which is naturally harmless, is used as the
50 Sensible 30% refrigerant. On average, this system can
heat 30
20% achieve an efficiency of 135 % per year
20
(Fig. 3.14). The first heating units in oper-
10 ation have reached thermal outputs of
0 0 10 kW in modulating modes of operation.
Non-conden- Condensing Zeolite-water Compared Compared They are therefore suitable for heating
sing boiler boiler heating system with non-con- with conden-
densing boiler sing boiler residential buildings.
3.14
Efficiency
3.14 Standard utilisation ratios of different heating Heat pump heating is not necessarily sig-
3.11 Characteristic values for heat pumps systems and CO2 reduction by using zeolite
3.12 Air/water heat pump heating unit nificantly cheaper nor more favourable
3.13 Exemplary energy and CO2 balances 3.15 Energy efficiency of a decentralised combined from an ecological point of view than a
a Natural gas heating with condensing heat and power plant and separate energy
technology generation
well-designed heating system with a
b Compression heat pump operated with 3.16 Combination of several BTTPs and a boiler to boiler. The CO2 balance improves only if
conventional power cover peak loads
c Compression heat pump operated with 3.17 Schematic configuration of a mini BTTP
renewable energy sources are used to
regenerative power 3.18 Micro BTTP operating on vegetable oil drive the compressor (Fig. 3.13).
26
Heating
In most cases, the compressors in heat plants, this process is also used in 62 kWh
BTTP Heat
pumps are powered by electrical energy. decentralised block-type thermal power 100 kWh
ηth = 62 % 28 kWh
In the light of today’s efficiency levels of stations or fuel cells. For economic rea- ηel = 28 % Electricity
approximately 33 % in generating electric sons, it is important that all CHP plants 10 kWh Loss
power in conventional power stations, an are designed to operate for sustained
annual performance factor of approxi- periods of time. These systems are there-
mately 3 is required in the heat pump fore especially designed to cover heat 73 kWh Boiler
62 kWh
process to prevent a negative energy and and electricity base loads. Additional ηth = 85 %
Heat
CO2 balance. Otherwise it would make supply systems to cover peak loads may 153 kWh
11 kWh Loss
more sense ecologically to burn the pri- be necessary.
mary energy medium directly. Assuming 80 kWh Power

station 28 kWh
an increase in the future efficiency of Power stations ηel = 35 % Electricity
electric power generation in power plants, The extraction of heat in power stations is
52 kWh Loss
it will only take a few years until heat performed by the condensation of steam
3.15
pumps reach an annual performance from the industrial process. This steam
factor of 2.5 and perform better than a drives turbines which by means of a gen-
Thermal capacitiy (%)

100
condensing boiler fired with a fossil erator produce electricity. The heat is
energy medium. transported to the consumers via a dis- 80
However, there are several reasons why trict heating network.
these average annual performance fac- Peak load heat generator
tors, may often not be met: Block-type thermal power stations 60
• Over-dimensioned auxiliary drive sys- Block-type thermal power stations (BTTP)

tems (e.g. brine circulating pumps) should preferably be situated close to 40
• Design of the heat distribution system where the heat consumption takes place.
with too high forward and return flow In this case, the generator is powered by
20 BTTP 2
temperatures a combustion engine (diesel motor or gas
• Unfavourable hydraulics in the heat dis- turbine) (Fig. 3.17). The engine’s waste
0 BTTP 1
tribution system which causes the heat heat is used for heating purposes. The
pump to short cycle electricity yield is not affected by use of 2000 4000 6000 8000
• A poorly adjusted control system or the motor’s waste heat, however, for this Utilisation period (h / a)
3.16
faulty programming of the system reason, the temperature level of the waste
heat should be around 70 – 90 °C. Insulated housing
These facts highlight why heat pump In recent years, there have been frequent
Sound
systems are often not able to meet their examples of BTTP stations powered by attenuator
economic and ecological expectations. palm oil. In order to gain and produce Forward
Exhaust
The installation of a heat pump should palm oil, large areas of rain forest in tropi- gas heat Heat flow
therefore always be planned and carried cal countries must be cleared. It is there- exchanger exchanger
out according to the specific needs of a fore necessary to make sure that this fuel Return
Fuel Engine Gene- flow
project. originates from a sustainable cultivation rator
process. Furthermore, large amounts of
Combined heat and power generation methane are released during palm oil
The process of creating mechanical production, which has a much greater Acoustically
= decoupled
energy (converted into electricity) and ozone depletion potential than carbon ~ installation
heat simultaneously in one plant is dioxide. In these areas biogas plants Public Private
referred to as combined heat and power have been successfully combined with mains mains
generation (CHP). The overall efficiency BTTP stations. 3.17
of the combined heat and power genera-
tion (the electricity and useful thermal Micro CHP plants
energy produced in relation to the fuel Micro CHP plants are small combined
energy used) is approximately 80 – 95 % heat and power plants, which can be
and therefore considerably higher than installed in residential buildings
the efficiency of a conventional power (Fig. 3.18). According to the definition of
plant (Fig. 3.15). In order to achieve the the Bundesverband KWK (German CHP
same heat output and power in separate Association), the upper limit of electrical
conventional power plants, approximately output is 15 kW. Apart from fuel cells,
50 – 60 % more fuel must be used than in steam and Stirling engines or micro gas
a CHP plant. In electricity generation, the turbines, combustion engines are usually
German power stations attain an average employed to drive the system. Most of
efficiency of approximately 33 %. these are fuelled with natural gas.
Alongside the extraction of heat in power Due to the relatively high investment
3.18
27
costs, the market share of these systems

for residential buildings is still well below
1 %. As with all CHP systems, it is impor-
tant that the plant is designed for a long
service life.
Fuel cells
In a fuel cell, electric power is normally
gained directly from the hydrogen energy
medium in an electrochemical process.
Heat is produced in the reaction of hydro-

gen and oxygen, which is extracted and
used for heating purposes (Fig. 3.22). As
in block-type thermal power stations, the
3.19 3.20
extraction of heat does not affect the
Air supply Exhaust gas electricity generation and the temperature
H2O / CO2 level of the waste heat should also be set
House
central at approximately 70 °C (in PEM cells). Fig-
station
Control ure 3.23 offers an overview of the different
Fuel cell
fuel cell types currently available. The
Peak
burner polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell
Pre-reformer (PEMFC) is the fuel cell type most fre-
quently used in heating systems today. Its
Heat
store Humidifier Power working principles are displayed in Fig-
= grid
+
ure 3.24. This low temperature fuel cell
– changes chemical energy into electric
Natural gas
Desulfuriser ~
power by using hydrogen (H2) and oxy-
Natural gas Air gen (O2). A polymer membrane which is
Cold water Heat coated with a catalytic electrode serves
Warm water Exhaust gas
as the electrolyte. The H2 molecules dis-
3.21 3.22
sociate at the anode and by releasing two
Description Electrolyte Mobile Gas of the Gas of P (kW) T (°C) η (%) electrons are each oxidised into two pro-
ion anode the cath-
ode tons (hydrogen nucleus H+). These pro-
Alkaline fuel cell KOH OH- H2 O2 10 – 100 < 80 60 –70 tons diffuse through the membrane. Oxy-
(AFC) gen is reduced by the electrons at the
Polymer Polymer H+ H2 O2 0.1 – 500 60 – 80 35 cathode, after having generated power in
electrolyte membrane
membrane fuel
the electrical circuit. They then react with
cell (PEMFC) the protons which travelled through the
Direct methanol Polymer H+ CH3OH O2 < 0.001 – 90 –120 40 electrolyte and produce water. The anode
fuel cell (DMFC) membrane 100 and cathode are connected to the power
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 H3O+ H2 O2 < 10 000 200 38 supply, so that the generated electricity
fuel cell (PAFC)
can be used.
Molten carbonate Molten alkaline CO32- H2, CH4, O2 100 000 650 48
fuel cell (MCFC) carbonate coal gas
Without financial incentives, it does not
yet make economic sense to use fuel
Solid oxide fuel Ceramic oxide O2- H2, CH4, O2 (air) < 100 000 800 –1000 47
cell (SOFC) electrolyte coal gas cells to heat buildings. However, fuel cell
3.23 technology is a promising concept for
environmentally-friendly heating. If valu-
Anode Cathode able resources are used efficiently, fuel
3.19 Mini BTTP with free-piston Stirling engine
3.20 Free-piston Stirling engine for mini BTTP - + cells will be able to make a useful contri-
3.21 Home energy station with fuel cell bution towards climate protection.
3.22 Schematic configuration of a fuel cell BTTP ℮-
3.23 Overview of available fuel cells Hydrogen H2 Air/oxygen O2 Hydrogen can play an important role as
3.24 Working principle of a PEM fuel cell an energy source in future energy supply
3.25 Working principle of a flat-plate solar collector
3.26 Comparison of emissivity and thermal 2H2-4℮- = 4H+ O2+4℮- = 2O -- systems. However, since it does not exist
conduction H +
as a natural resource, the very energy-
a Normal sheet metal
b Selective absorber intensive chemical processes to produce
3.27 Solar irradiance on a collector surface according hydrogen must be developed and opti-
to orientation
3.28 Efficiency and application fields of different Water mised further. In evaluations comparing
collector types in dependence of the operating the environmental impact and efficiency
temperature. The temperature difference
between the outside air and the absorber is Heat Polymer 2O --+4H+= 2H2O of different energy choices, the impacts
relevant. (80 ˚C) electrolyte of hydrogen production should be con-
3.24
28
Heating
sidered alongside fuel transportation and engineering is used to regulate the Yield
efficiency. energy flow within these components. Loss
The aim of active heat supply systems is Rain, wind,
Stirling engine to achieve independence between the Direct snow
radiation
The Stirling engine is a hot air engine that periods of solar radiation and the periods
Reflection Housing
keeps the gas sealed inside the engine. utilising the heat. A storage vessel in
Apart from an external heat source (nec- combination with automatic control is Diffuse
essary for the Stirling engine to operate), therefore an important function within the radiation Insulation
usually generated by combustion, this overall system (see p. 33ff.).
Heat radiation Convection
engine works without any waste gas The basic principle of a solar thermal
Glass pane
emission. In contrast to the Otto engine, system is the conversion of shortwave Absorber
an internal combustion engine, the Stirling solar radiation into long-wave thermal Thermal output
engine (Fig. 3.19, 3.20) does not require radiation. This process takes place when
any fuel, since it relies on an exchange of sunlight makes contact with a surface.
3.25
heat. It is of no relevance where the heat The intensity depends on the conductiv-
comes from. Apart from fossil fuels such ity and absorptivity of the material Emissivity
as oil or gas, renewable energy sources (Fig. 3.26). An ideal absorber has low (heat radiation) Reflection
such as solar energy, geothermal energy reflection and transmission losses. At the
or waste heat from manufacturing pro- same time, however, the absorbed ther-
cesses can also be used. mal energy is not to be radiated but Solar absorption
In comparison to conventional block-type should be, as far as possible, transferred Thermal conductivity
(useable heat)
thermal power stations, the Stirling to the medium via thermal conduction.
a
engine, used as a drive unit in smaller This has led to the development of selec-
BTTP modules, has many advantages: tive solar absorber materials, which, for Emissivity
(heat radiation) Reflection
due to the enclosed workings of the Stir- technical reasons, range from dark blue
ling engine, particulate matter produced to black. Although other colours can also
by combustion cannot enter the inside of be used, this decreases the efficiency
Solar absorption
the engine. The result is little wear and considerably.
Thermal conductivity
tear and long maintenance-free running In order to limit the thermal loss to the (useable heat)
periods. The servicing intervals are up to surroundings, the absorbers are usually b
6,000 hours. The operation costs are extended to form collectors, which are 3.26
much lower than those of Otto gas insulated on the rear side facing away
engines. Furthermore, the amount of pol- from the sun and provided with special
lutants emitted by today’s Stirling burner solar glass with highly transparent coat-
0°
is approximately only one tenth of that ings on the side facing the sun. A heat- 15° 87 74
30° 100 60
45° 109 91
produced by the Otto gas engine with a transfer medium (usually a glycol/water 114 106 99 80
38 North
catalytic converter. There is very little mixture) flows through the collectors in 90° 112 108 95 70
noise and vibration associated with this order to transfer the usable heat. 80 107 90 48
engine. What is more, the efficiency is
78 65
almost twice as high as that of conven- Building integrated solar thermal systems South
tional combustion engines. The collector which converts the solar

radiation into thermal energy to generate
East
Solar thermal energy heat is key to the systems design. On the (West)
Unlike so-called passive solar energy uti- one hand, the collector is a part of the
3.27
lisation, the active utilisation of solar ther- building services, but, at the same time, if
mal energy can be achieved independ- so planned, it can be a component of the
Process heat
ently from the interior of the building. With building envelope. Its integration from a Heating
efficient storage technology, active solar technical and aesthetical viewpoint is Hot water production
systems are able to use solar energy therefore a special challenge. In princi- Swimming pool heating
almost independently from the actual irra- ple, this synergy effect of building inte- 100
Efficiency (%)
diance conditions and the indoor climate. gration also offers financial advantages. A
80
In contrast to the use of passive solar variety of collectors are in common use
Vacuum tube collector

gains, the functions of active solar ther- and a few frequently installed types are 60
mal energy systems, solar energy displayed in Figure 3.29 (p. 30). In techni-
40
absorption, conversion and storage, are cal terms, solar thermal collectors are
taken care of not by the building itself but divided into different categories: 20
by technical systems. In general, these Open absorbers are the most simple kind Open absorber Flat-plate collector
of solar thermal collector. However, due 0
systems consist of a collector, heat trans- 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
fer medium, transport equipment and a to the high thermal loss, their efficiency Temperature difference outside air/absorber (K)
heat storage facility. Automatic control remains very low. They are used for the 3.28
29
Type Open absorber Air collector Flat-plate collector Evacuated

solar heating of swimming pools or serve
tube collector as a heat source for heat pumps
Section
(Fig. 3.30).
In flat-plate collectors, the absorber is
Flow of energy provided with a special solar glass coat-
medium ing on the side facing the sun and the
rear face is insulated (Fig. 3.32). With this
configuration, it is fairly easy, from a
structural point of view, to integrate the
collectors into the building envelope. Flat
plate collectors are the most commonly

used type of collector for providing heat
Efficiency 40 % 60–65 % 65–70 % 80–85 %
Typical operating 30–40 °C 40–50 °C 60–90 °C 70–130 °C in buildings. In rare cases, the air space
temperature Hot water production, is filled with noble gas to minimise heat
Typical Pool heating, Air heating, Hot water prodution, heating, solar cooling,
applications heat pump solar cooling heating, solar cooling process heat losses from convection.
3.29 As an alternative to flat-plate collectors,
which heat water, solar air collectors can
be used in combination with a warm-air
heating system as a solar preheater
(Fig. 3.31). The configuration is similar to
that of flat-plate collectors. However,
these collectors do not transfer the ther-
mal energy into a fluid circuit. Instead
fans draw in air which is warmed as it
passes over metal fins heated by solar
radiation.
In evacuated tube collectors, the flat or
round absorber is located in an evacu-
ated glass tube (Fig. 3.33, p. 30).
Convective thermal losses are almost
3.30 3.31
completely avoided by using this method.
Depending on the type of system,
mirrored surfaces can be used to con-
centrate solar gains in a given area. Of
all solar collectors, evacuated tube col-
lectors are the most efficient and can
reach the highest operating tempera-
tures. Many products offer the possibility
to twist the individual tubes so that they
can be adjusted to the solar irradiance.
This way, collectors fitted either horizon-
tally or at very steep angles, are able to
work very efficiently.
By means of special lenses or mirror
3.32 3.33 areas, collectors can achieve very high
temperatures (> 300 °C) with high direct
radiation. However, these so-called con-
centrating collectors are only installed for
3.29 Typical types of collectors and their fields of
application the heat supply of production processes
3.30 Mat absorber for the solar heating of a and for the generation of solar thermal
swimming pool
3.31 Air collector with photovoltaic-powered fan electric power (Fig. 3.34). They can really
3.32 Solar thermal flat-plate collector only be used effectively in areas with
3.33 Evacuated tube collector
3.34 Parabolic trough collector large proportions of direct radiation (close

3.35 Flat-plate collectors as a fully-fledged roof to the equator).
element, residential estate in Innsbruck (A)
3.36 Facade integrated flat-plate collectors, multi- Nowadays solar thermal collectors are
family dwelling in Bennau (CH), Grab manufactured mainly as standard prod-
Architekten
3.37 Evacuated tube collectors as balustrades, multi-
ucts with fixed dimensions and technical
family dwelling in Zurich (CH), Beat Kämpfen specifications. The integration of solar
3.38 Facade collectors in a residential building in
Tübingen, Plathe, Schlierf und Sonnenmoser
systems into the building envelope, how-
Architekten ever, requires individual solutions, which
3.34
30
Heating
currently are supplied by only a few man- it is possible for the exterior wall to be
ufacturers. Flat-plate collectors especially formed as a collector. The result is a
are ideal for creating flat surfaces and highly efficient wall with a fairly slim make
therefore highly suitable for the integra- up. These systems provide a similar mois-
tion in facades and roofs. Custom-made ture and building fabric performance to
products offer the possibility to align the non-ventilated collectors.
formats as well as the horizontal and verti- If a large amount of low-temperature heat
cal structuring of the collector areas with is required (< 40 °C, e.g. as a heat source
the building design. The colour of the for heat pumps), conventional metal ele-
panels and the optics of the glass coating ments (metal roof covering or facade ele-
can also be selected. Collectors are usu- ments) without glass coatings can be
ally fully prefabricated and are available used as thermal collectors. A fluid heat
in sizes of up to 30 m2. exchanger is simply fitted to the rear side
of the metal element to extract heat from
Facade integration the warm metal areas. However, their effi- 3.35
Flat plate collectors can be fitted to solid ciency is limited to the target temperature
exterior walls as a ventilated exterior wall of approximately 40 °C (Fig. 3.45, p. 32).
cladding. In this case, the collectors Where warm-air heating systems are
replace the conventional facade and, as used, the supply air can also be pre-
well as generating energy, also provide heated by means of facade-integrated
weather protection. The wall make-up is solar air collectors. This can be achieved
not altered when collectors are mounted with an appropriate facade structure, for
with rear ventilation, although thermal example a combination of a solid exterior
bridges must be avoided when installing wall and mounted glass elements. Alter-
the second leaf. Alternatively, collectors natively, prefabricated air collectors can
can be integrated in the wall configuration be installed. In principle, their structural
without cavity ventilation (Fig. 3.36). This configuration corresponds to that of
construction method is desirable as the water-circulating flat-plate collectors,
insulation of the collector can simultane- but in this case the absorber is formed as
ously function as the insulation of the a flat shaft structure, through which out-
3.36
exterior wall. side air flows. Their integration is similar
A further positive effect is that, even in the to that of flat plate collectors, however,
case of diffuse solar irradiance, high tem- the vents for drawing in the air must be
peratures develop behind the absorber, carefully designed (Fig. 3.31).
which reduces heat flow to the exterior. In The integration of evacuated tube collec-
a similar way to structures with transpar- tors in terms of construction and design is
ent insulation, this can result in exterior currently still of minor importance.
walls having no thermal loss. When col- Despite having great aesthetic potential,
lectors are integrated without cavity venti- the possibilities concerning geometry
lation, it is necessary to make sure that and design are very limited due to the
the heat conduction from the outside to modular character of the tube collectors.
the inside in the summer months does not A few projects have been realised so
lead to excessive heat gains within the far including that shown in Fig. 3.37
building. The collectors and the wall where tube collectors are used as balus-
should therefore be provided with high- trades. The synergy effects associated
3.37
quality insulation. Furthermore, the entire with solar shading devices are also worth
wall configuration should be carefully considering.
assessed with regard to diffusion and
condensation. Roof integration
It is also possible to introduce solar ther- Roofs are the most common location for
mal flat-plate collectors into a refurbish- solar thermal systems. Collectors on flat
ment, especially when facade rehabilita- roofs are usually placed upon supports.
tion work is being carried out in combina- Evacuated tube collectors can be fitted
tion with composite thermal insulation horizontally, without a decrease of yield, if
systems. When mounted without cavity the absorbers in the tubes are adjusted
ventilation, the collector areas also according to solar irradiance (Fig. 3.44,
improve the building fabric’s thermal effi- p. 32).
ciency and can, therefore, replace other In terms of construction and design, in-
insulation measures. In timber stud struc- clined roofs are especially suited to the
tures without solid structural components, integration of flat-plate collectors. As with
3.38
31
the facade, they can take on the function

of the roof covering and can be prefabri-
cated as complete roof elements to cover
large areas (Fig. 3.35, p. 31).
Solar collector array Hot water
extraction In short, similar conditions regarding
Outside air Bypass Combi
Forward flow technical matters and building physics
store heating
apply as for integrated solar thermal
Exhaust air Fan Heat generator
facades. In terms of construction and
Supply air
Outlet air
design, it is also possible to integrate
Return flow
heating evacuated tube collectors in the roof
Solar collector array Heat recovery Pump

Cold feed
area, for example when used as a sun
protection device.
3.39 3.40
Solar thermal concepts for buildings

In Europe, solar thermal energy gener-
Forward flow ated in decentralised units is usually used
heating
Outside air within a temperature range of up to 80 °C
Hot water
extraction and applied mainly to heat domestic hot
Solar collector array Hot water
extraction Combi heat store
water and support heating systems in
Standard Heat residential buildings. Solar pool heaters
solar heat store pump
Heat generator are also becoming established as an eco-
Latent Return flow nomic alternative. At present, there are
heat heating
store pilot-projects that use solar collectors for
Pump Cold feed
Cold feed the cooling of buildings with the help of
Solar fluid 15–25 °C appropriate refrigeration plant (see
Solar fluid 25–100 °C
p. 45ff.).
3.41 3.42
So far solar thermal systems have been
used mainly for the heating of domestic
Roof Facade hot water (Fig. 3.41). The dimensions of
Heat demand Heat demand
the systems are influenced by the
heat which
cannot be used demand for hot water and the volume to
for heating purposes be heated by solar energy. A typical plant
size for a single-family home with four
Solar yield
Solar yield persons is a collector area of approxi-
mately 5 m2 with a solar storage volume of
0.3 to 0.4 m3 and an annual percentage of
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
solar coverage of approximately 50 to
3.43
60 %. For greater, all-year-round demand
for hot water, for example in residential
3.39 System concept: Solar air heating system 3.43 Heat demand of a building during the course of estates, hotels, multi-family dwellings or
3.40 System concept: Solar back-up heater a year and possible solar yields (roof/facade) in hospitals, plants with several hundred
3.41 System concept: Solar domestic hot water comparison. Roof integrated collectors produce
heating system a surplus of heat in the summer months, which square metres of collectors and corre-
3.42 System concept: Solar heating with hybrid must be removed. Facade collectors achieve a sponding storage volumes are being con-
collector (water/air), latent heat store and heat more even solar yield.
pump. The heat pump uses the solar-fed latent 3.44 Evacuated tube collectors on a flat roof structed. Flat-plate collectors are
heat store as a heat source. 3.45 Metal roof covering as a solar thermal absorber employed in most cases, but tube collec-
tors with higher efficiencies are also quite
common.
If the solar heat is to be used to support
the heating system, in addition to heating
the domestic hot water, the size of the
plant must be increased according to the
desired percentage of solar coverage.
Typical collector areas for a single-family

home in Germany with four persons range
from 10 to 20 m2 with a storage volume of
0.7 to 2.0 m3. In energy-efficient buildings,
this plant size would allow between 20
and 30 % of the total heat demand to be
covered by solar thermal energy
(Fig. 3.48, p. 34).
3.44 3.45
32
Heating
The buffer storage tank for the heating entire heat supply of large residential capacity), whereas the area-specific effi-
circuit is either added to the hot water areas or town quarters can be achieved ciency of the system and therefore also
tank, or a combined storage tank is entirely with a renewable heat supply. The the profitability declines.
installed (Fig. 3.40). By selecting appro- solar collectors can either be located in Alongside the load profile and the orienta-
priate dimensions for the collector area one central place or distributed on the tion of the collectors, the efficiency of a
and the storage volume, which is ideally roofs and facades of buildings. In this solar plant is influenced mostly by the
placed inside the thermal envelope, it is case, in addition to the design of individ- availability of local solar radiation. In
possible to achieve a one hundred ual buildings, the urban design of the Europe, there is considerable variation,
per cent solar coverage of the total heat area to be supplied is also significant. with values between approximately
demand in single-family homes. These The scale of this type of plant depends on 850 to 1750 kWh/m2a being achieved for
high efficiencies assume a low heating the individual circumstances of each site horizontal surfaces. Since availability of
load thanks to a good building envelope such as the size of the community, spe- solar radiation is time limited, compara-
and the use of a low temperature heating cific heat demand, type of interseasonal tively large investments are required in
system. heat store, temperature level, etc. A col- plant for energy conversion and storage.
Systems that combine a hybrid solar lector area of approximately 1.5 m2 and a Due to the different irradiance conditions,
collector using air and water, a combi- storage volume of approximately 3 m3 per the solar gain of roof and facade collec-
storage tank, a latent heat store based on MWh of annual heat demand can be used tors differs. In comparison to ideally ori-
an ice/water cycle and a heat pump are as reference values. ented roof collectors, facade collectors in
relatively new on the market (Fig. 3.42). In Solar thermal heat generation is ideally Europe should be approximately
the case of solar radiation, these systems suited to the heating of public and private 20 to 25 % larger in order to generate the
function in the same way as conventional swimming pools since the main demand same annual amount of energy (Fig. 3.27,
plants; the heated solar fluid flows directly is in the summer months (Fig. 3.47, p. 29). However, with regard to the utilisa-
into the combi-storage tank. In bad p. 34). These systems are relatively sim- tion of thermal solar energy, it is not the
weather conditions, a fan draws ambient ple, with open absorbers normally used. annual yield which is most important,
air through the collector. This process Since there is no need for a buffer stor- rather the proportion of solar coverage
raises the temperature of the solar fluid, age, due to the volume of water in the and this, in turn, is dependent on the load
which then flows into the latent heat stor- pool itself, it is possible to achieve a very profile.
age device, where it is then used as a cost effective solution. If minor tempera- If collectors are used for the generation of
heat source for the heat pump. Heat ture fluctuations are acceptable, it is gen- heat, a vertical arrangement of collectors
pumps applied in these kind of systems erally possible to dispense with an addi- is often more favourable, since the yield
reach annual coefficients of performance tional heat generation system. In Central during the heating period is larger and
between five and seven. Europe, the area of the absorbers should the danger of the collector fluid overheat-
Local district heat supply is another correspond to approximately 50 to 80 % ing in the summer months is reduced
important field for the application of solar of the pool area. (Fig. 3.43).
thermal energy. The heating networks can Emissions from solar thermal systems
be supplied with heat from solar thermal Efficiency and profitability arise only from the manufacturing pro-
plants that are equipped with long-term The quality of a solar collector can in part cess and the provision of electric power
heat storage facilities (Fig. 3.46, p. 34). be judged by its efficiency, which is necessary to operate pumps (auxiliary
The time lag between high levels of radia- defined as the quotient of two factors: the energy). Active solar thermal heating sys-
tion in the summer months and heat heat flow extracted from the heat trans- tems are a mature technology and manu-
demand in winter is to a large extent port medium divided by the global solar factured to reach a high technological
evened out by storing heat in an intersea- radiation received on the collector. It standard. Progress is reflected in the con-
sonal heat storage tank (approx. 50 % largely depends on the temperature dif- tinuous improvements in the individual
solar coverage of the total heat demand). ference between the ambient air and the components and especially through opti-
Solar-assisted local district heating net- absorber. Apart from the collector effi- mised system design and electronic con-
works with interseasonal heat storage ciency, the »percentage of solar cover- trol strategies.
make sense in residential areas with more age« within the overall system is signifi-
than about 100 dwelling units. The heat cant. It specifies the proportion of the Storage
gained in the collectors is transported to building’s total thermal energy demand Storage is a fundamental component of
the heating station via pipes and distrib- which is covered by the useful energy every heating system. Storage tanks are
uted directly to the buildings on demand. gained through the solar system in per used to improve the operating cycle of
The surplus solar heat gained during the cent. The percentage is influenced by the heat generators or the efficiency of the
summer is fed into the interseasonal heat time lag between the available solar radi- combustion process (solid fuel), to bridge
storage tank (see p. 34 f.). The thermal ation and the demand for energy, includ- periods of power cuts effecting heat
energy is then extracted from the storage ing the solar radiation which is not used pumps or as a temporary storage facility
tank during the heating period and, if and the loss through conduction and stor- for useful energy from a passive source
required, supplied with additional heat age. Based on these conditions, it is gen- (solar thermal power plant).
from a central heat generator. erally accepted that the percentage of
If the solar heat generation plant is sup- solar coverage increases with the size of Short-term storage
plemented by a biomass system, the the plant (absorption area and storage If the thermal demand cannot be pro-
33
vided by a heat generator immediately

and in an efficient way, it is necessary to
Solar collectors provide a buffer storage tank (Fig. 3.50).
Water has proved to be an effective
storage medium. In Germany, buffer
Heating station storage tanks are prescribed according
to BlmSchV (Federal Immission Control
Act) for wood boilers with an output of
more than 15 kW. The boiler can always
work at nominal load, i.e. at ideal operat-
ing conditions, and is not subject to a

Heat network Solar network fluctuating load.
forward flow return flow The buffer storage tank should typically
return flow forward flow
be sized to allow 25 litres storage capac-
Interseasonal heat store
ity per kW of boiler output. If the tank is
3.46
also intended to cover peak demands, a
buffer capacity of at least 50 litres per kW
Plastic absorber
of boiler output should be provided. Fur-
thermore, the boiler output should be
selected in order to allow an adequate
Control
recovery time (30 minutes to one hour) for
the buffer storage as well as sufficient
thermal output (new buildings according
to EnEV: 35 W/m2; passive houses:
Non-return
valve
10 W/m2) in winter. Buffer storage tanks
should also be planned for CHP systems.
Similar to block-type thermal power
Chlorinated pool water
Mixing stations, heat pumps should also have
valve
continuous and long operating periods at
Filter nominal output. Here too, buffer storage
Pump tanks provide the flexibility necessary to
3.47
adapt to peak demands.
Solar coverage ratio (%)
110
100
40 m³
Latent heat stores
90 Today there are already more than 100
20 m³
80 phase change materials (including paraf-
10 m³
70 fins and salt hydrates) which are suitable
7 m³
for use in latent heat stores and are able
60
4 m³ to cover the temperature range from
50
2 m³ Solar charge controller about – 40 °C to about 130 °C (Fig. 3.49).
40
2-stage
In the meantime, the PCM capsule tech-
3-stage
30 nologies – micro and macro encapsula-
20 tion – are state of the art. Building materi-
10 als which use microencapsulated PCM
0 are available in many different forms
10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 today. Examples are gypsum plaster,
Collector area (m2)
gypsum plasterboard as well as compos-
3.48
ite materials with PCM (see p. 51 and
Optimising existing buildings, p. 127).
3.46 System concept for local solar heating plant Storage system / Energy density/
3.47 System concept for the solar heating of a storage medium operating temperature
swimming pool Long-term storage
3.48 Assessment of the solar coverage for a single- Sensible / approx. 60 kWh /m 3 Interseasonal heat stores, which are
family home in relation to the collector area and
water < 100 °C designed to cover the heat supply of, for
the storage capacity (useful floor area 200 m2,
KfW 40 insulation standard, location Munich, example, a residential area and are fed
orientation of collector south/angle 45) Latent / up to 120 kWh /m3
3.49 Heat store mediums and their characteristic values salt hydrate approx. 30 – 80 °C by solar thermal plants in summer, are
3.50 Typical short-term heat stores: solar water tank paraffins approx. 10 – 60 °C sized according to their own specific cri-
and tank-in-tank system
3.51 Configuration of different long-term heat stores Thermochemical/ 200 – 500 kWh /m3
teria. The individual consumers are con-
3.52 Assembly of a building-integrated long-term metal hydride approx. 280 – 500 °C nected to this storage facility via the local
heat store in a multi-family dwelling in Bennau silica gel approx. 40 – 100 °C
(CH), Grab Architekten zeolite approx. 100 – 300 °C
heat supply network (insulated under-
3.53 Seasonal heat store ground piping). Systems like these are
3.49
34
Heating
being tested in several projects, however, Domestic solar hot water store Tank-in-tank system
the economics are still to be proven.
Hot water Forward flow heating
Whereas the short-term storage of ther-
mal energy is quite common today, the Hot water
storage for longer periods is still not
widely used. The high capital costs are Back-up heating Back-up heating
viewed as a major obstacle. However, the
costs can be reduced considerably by Hot water tank
building thermal stores below ground
(Fig. 3.51). Apart from borehole thermal
Solar plant Solar plant

energy storage systems, which access
the ground close to the surface or strata Cold water
in depths of 20 to 100 metres as their
storage media, and steel tanks Cold water Return flow heating
(Fig. 3.53), naturally occurring, self-con- 3.50
tained layers of groundwater (aquifers)
have also been used to store heat in
recent years. Insulation is not required.
Aquifer thermal stores with high tempera-
ture levels only make sense for very large
storage volumes (over 100,000 m³) and
are therefore only suitable for application
in conjunction with power stations.
Heat distribution
In hot water systems, the diameters of the
heating pipes should be dimensioned so
that it is cost effective to transport heat Water-based interseasonal heat store Pebble bed-water heat store
throughout the building. Small pipe diam-
eters have the advantage of low material
costs and minimal space requirement.
However, small pipe diameters cause
greater pressure loss which, in turn, leads
to a higher electric power demand of the
circulation pump.
The choice of the temperature difference
between the forward flow and return flow
temperature has a significant impact on
the heat output that can be transported in
the system. This difference is specified
for a maximum thermal output, for exam-
ple 15 K for a 70/55 °C heating circuit
(Fig. 3.57, p.36). The greater this temper- Borehole heat store Aquifer heat store
ature difference is, the more heat can be
transported at the same mass flow rate. In 3.51
heating engineering, standardised steel

or copper pipes are predominately used
to transport water. Plastic pipes are fre-
quently applied for underfloor heating
systems.
The pipe network for the heating, air-con-
ditioning and ventilation systems is
designed to distribute the water flow to

the areas where heating or cooling is
needed. Based on careful calculations,
the pipe diameters are dimensioned so
that each heating surface is supplied with
the right amount of heating water. At the
same time, the energy requirement of the
circulation pumps should be kept at the
3.52 3.53
35
lowest level possible. In the main pipe-

work, the flow velocity ranges between
0.3 –1.5 m/s and 0.5 m/s in pipes feeding
radiators or underfloor heating. The aver-
age pressure differences are
50 – 100 Pa/m.
Decentralised pump systems are a very
recent development. In this case, small
pumps are fixed to each radiator instead
of thermostatic or butterfly valves and
draw the heating medium directly into

each radiator (Fig. 3.59). Compared to a
central heating circulating pump, the
advantages are shorter operation peri-
Central pump Decentralised pump system ods and lower electricity consumption
3.54
under the assumption that a lot of heat-
ing networks are nowadays badly
regulated and the therefore high system
Heat transfer systems
pressure produced in the network is
throttled at the individual heating ele-
ments (Fig. 3.55). The electricity con-
sumption of decentralised heating pumps
Radiators Panel heating is approximately one Watt. Energy saving
is primarily based on the quality of con-
trol, minimised loss during the generation
Flat Convection Underfloor Ceiling
and the distribution of heat as well as the
Radiators Thermo- Wall heating
radiators heaters heating active heating demand led distribution of heat. In com-
components parison to heating systems, which are
3.55 operated with central circulating pumps
and thermostatic valves, electricity sav-
ings of as much as approximately 90 %
can be expected. Due to the better
Summer Winter control, it is also possible to save up to
20 % of heating energy.
+ 26 °C + 20°C
Heating system Design temperatures Heat emission

Radiators 70 / 55 °C to 60 / 40 °C Heating surfaces emit warmth to their
Underfloor / 40 / 30 °C to 35 / 30 °C
environment either through convection
wall heating (with air as the heat transfer medium) or
Thermo-active by radiation. The effects of thermal con-
+ 22°C +22 °C 30 / 28 °C to 28 / 25 °C
components
duction can be neglected in the case of
cool heat
radiators. Due to their consistently low
temperature over a large area (e.g.
3.56 3.57 underfloor heating) and the low airflow
rate they create, radiation heating is, from
a physiological point of view, found more
pleasant than convection heating. Heat-
ing elements should ideally be placed in
Capillary tube Concrete core Floor Double-layer immediate vicinity to cold exterior sur-
ceiling system activation activation component
activation
faces in order to avoid uncomfortable
Floor covering
situations, which can arise due to asym-
Screed
metric radiation causing air movement.
The heat output of radiators is not only

Insulation influenced by the size, but also by the
choice of the heating circuit temperature
Ceiling slab with and the situation concerning the installa-
reinforcement tion. In addition to thermal comfort, the
Ceiling plaster wellbeing of residents also depends on
their sensitivity to smell. Heating surfaces,
3.58
which are operated at temperatures
36
Heating
higher than 50 °C, can lead to the forma- perform a precise analysis of thermal
tion of unpleasant smells caused by the comfort.
carbonisation of dust. In addition to con-
siderations concerning energy matters, Wall heating
this is a further reason to operate heating This system can either be laid in plaster
surfaces at temperatures below 50 °C. or dry-wall construction systems, usually
with a layer of insulation in the case of
Radiators, panel heaters and convectors solid masonry walls, and permits almost
Depending on the design, most of the any level of operating temperature, even
radiators and panel heaters installed emit high ones, during the heating period.
approximately 50 – 80 % of their heat Wall heating is installed primarily on the

through radiation off the visible surfaces exterior walls of a building and the heat is
(Fig. 3.60). emitted via radiation (Fig. 3.62). An
Depending on the design and the tem- exception is wall heating with integrated
perature of the heater, the method of heat air ducts which transfer heat to a facing 3.59
transfer varies. The performance ranges layer by convection. The surface temper-
differ considerably since the heaters can ature of wall heating can reach higher
be adjusted gradually by stringing values than that of underfloor heating. It
members together or by changing the is not necessary to observe the maxi-
height, length or depth of the panel to mum temperatures that apply to floor
meet the appropriate demand. Panel heating.
heaters consist of smooth or profiled
water circulating panels with fins welded Thermo-active building systems – TABS
to the rear to improve the convective heat In contrast to underfloor heating, the
transfer. Due to their configuration, plastic tubes in this system are placed
convectors almost exclusively transfer into the primary construction (concrete
their heat through convection and do not floor slab) and, as a slab heating system,
emit any noteworthy amount of radiant contribute towards the heating of the
heat (Fig. 3.61). Their application in low- adjoining rooms (Fig. 3.56). The position
temperature heating systems is therefore and arrangement of the tubes should be
3.60
limited. coordinated with the structural engineer
at an early planning stage. By activating
Underfloor heating the structural mass, the need for heating
In principle, floor, ceiling and wall sur- can be delayed to low-load periods. The
faces can be utilised to heat rooms via required maximum heat output of the
their large surface area. In underfloor heating system can therefore be reduced.
heating, the system consists of heating With a slab surface temperature of
coils, panel elements or other hollow approximately 30 °C, heat loads of up to
bodies which are laid into the floor and 30 W/m2 can be transmitted, which is
circulate water as their heating medium sufficient to heat a building today. A
(Fig. 3.58). These pipe systems are fixed combination of such heating surfaces
onto insulating boards which are mounted with fast-reacting heating elements is still,
onto a load-bearing substructure. Usually from a technical point of view, advisable
the heat is transferred to the screed. Due even in well-insulated buildings. Thermo-
to the large thermal mass (floor structure), active building systems can also be used
3.61
the system’s response to control is fairly for cooling purposes (see p. 49 ff.).
sluggish. The specific heat output of
underfloor heating systems is defined by
the temperature difference between the
maximum surface temperature (29 °C and
35 °C along the edges) and the room tem-
perature. Depending on the floor cover- 3.54 Comparison of a central and a decentralised
pump system
ing, up to 80 W/m2 can be transmitted to 3.55 Overview of the most common heat transfer
the room. If these systems are also to be systems
3.56 Principle of year-round utilisation of component
used for cooling, it is necessary to make activation
sure that the specific cooling load of 3.57 Typical design temperatures for heating systems
3.58 Typical constructions for the thermal activation
approximately 30 W/m2 is not exceeded of a ceiling slab
since, depending on the floor covering, 3.59 Decentralised heating pump
3.60 Vertical flat radiator
this could be regarded as uncomfortable 3.61 Floor-integrated convector
under foot. In this case, it is advisable to 3.62 Panel heating to be integrated in dry wall
3.62
37
Cooling hours and approximately 2 W/m2 outside

People working hours (Fig. 3.65).
There are numerous different passive, Generally only the thermal gains are con-
Lighting1
hybrid and active technologies available sidered when calculating the heat loads.
internal
to cool buildings. In most cases, it makes Latent gains and losses, which occur due
Equipment
sense not to cool a building with a single to vaporisation and breathing, are not
system, but to combine a passive with usually taken into consideration. How-
Production
either a hybrid or an active system. A ever, latent loads must be taken into
Heat load
passive system operates without a account when systems are used that
mechanical drive and utilises the build- operate on the basis of evaporative cool-
Solar radiation1
ing’s structure for cooling purposes, as is ing since they influence the system’s
external Transmission1 the case with, for example, natural venti- performance considerably.
lation. Before deciding on a cooling system, the
1
Significant potential to Outside air A hybrid system is a combination of a building should be optimised in order to
influence lighting via
building envelope 3.63 mechanical system and a natural pro- reduce the cooling loads as much as
cess, for example a thermo-active floor possible. Furthermore, the availability of
slab combined with an energy pile sys- existing heat sinks should be looked into
Night-time cooling potential tem. Technologies like conventional com- and, based on this, the ideal cooling
Temperature (°C)
35 Outside air temperature ta

pression refrigerating plants or solar- strategy can be selected.
powered absorption refrigerating systems If the same level of thermal comfort is to
are amongst the active systems used for be maintained in the building interior
30 cooling (see p. 45 ff.). By way of example, throughout the year, there are approxi-
Figure 3.66 shows the approach for mately 50 to 200 cooling hours a year in
selecting a suitable cooling system. residential buildings located in Central
25 Europe. In administrative buildings,
Cooling loads dependent on the heat load, approxi-
The cooling load that is to be removed is mately 1000 cooling hours per year are to
20 the result of the thermal requirements, the be expected.
internal and external heat loads, which in
turn are dependent on the microclimatic Cooling systems
15 conditions of the site and the type of con- Air, water or brine can be used to cool a
28 July 29 July 30 July 31 July struction (e.g. the thermal quality of the building. Alongside air-conditioning units,
3.64 building envelope) (Fig. 3.63). other systems, such as induction units, air
Heat loads are differentiated according to recirculating cooling units, downflow cool-
convective and radiant heat loads. Con- ers, cooling ceilings or thermo-active
vective loads lead to a direct increase of building components, can be considered
Area-related heat output (W/m2)
25 People
Lighting room air temperature whereas radiant (Fig. 3.68).
Equipment
loads increase the temperature of sur- • The application of induction units
20
faces. With regard to internal gains, it is requires the installation of an air duct
generally assumed that the ratio is and a cold water network. In this sys-
15 approximately 55 % convective to 45 % tem, the supply air is preconditioned in
radiant heat. a central plant and then fed to the
10
Ideally the heat loads are not extracted decentralised cooling coil via ductwork.
immediately but stored temporarily. The The cooling coil is connected to a cold
condition for temporary storage is that the water network so that the supply air is
5 building has a sufficiently large thermal cooled even further as it flows into the
storage capacity. In order to avoid over- room. The induction effect causes room
heating in the building structure, the ther- temperature air to be drawn into the
0 6.00 12.00 18.00 24.00 mal mass must be able to discharge its system, which results in a flow of
3.65 thermal load once within a 24-hour cycle. cooled mixed air leaving the induction
This can, for example, be performed dur- unit.
ing the night hours (Fig. 3.64). • Recirculating cooling units also require
Because it is mainly the day-time heat the installation of a cold water network;
loads that are of interest, heat loads are an air duct system is not needed. In
3.63 Heat loads in a building
3.64 Qualitative potential for night-time ventilation not stated in Watt, but in Watt hours per principle, this system consists of a cold
3.65 Typical profile of internal heat loads in a building square metre and day (Wh/m2d). The water-circulating fan convector. Aided
during the course of a day
3.66 Decision tree for a cooling strategy:
internal heat gains in residential buildings by the fan, the room temperature air is
a systematic approach can provide help in are around 120 Wh/m2d. For office build- forced past the convector and cooled.
selecting the appropriate cooling system.
3.67 Possibilities available for cooling buildings
ings, internal gains of approximately In comparison to induction units, there
3.68 Typical features of cooling systems 15 W/m2 are assumed during working are no ducts for supply air.
38
Cooling
Start
Calculation satisfied Structural not Modification

of internal loads requirements satisfied of the building
peri- External loads

Zones pheral 50 Wh/m2d
central
Artificial Cooling load no Cooling load no Cooling load

lighting < 150 Wh/m2d < 250 Wh/m2d > 250 Wh/m2d
ja yes
yes
yes Days with
Δt = ti -ta≥10 K
no
Days with yes Cross ventilation

Δt = ti - ta ≥ 5 K possible
yes no
no Ventilation no Close to lake

system yes or river
yes no
yes no Night-time
Frequency Ventilation Groundwater no Installation of
temperature
ta − tFC system usable air-conditioning
ta < 20 °C
no yes yes no no yes
Air quality no yes Demand for

Pile foundations
adequate cold and heat
yes no yes no
Protection yes
no Ventilation Cooling
against
system system
outside noise
yes no slow fast
Water
Natural Mechanical Adiabatic Ground Energy Dry cooling Wet cooling Heat pump Refrigeration
Air cooler cooling Earth pipes
ventilation ventilation evaporation probes piles tower tower machine
(direct)
yes
Security Heat pump
problem
no
yes no
Window ventilation Window ventilation Sub-floor Component Ventilation with Cooling ceiling
Mixed ventilation Local cooling
only during the day day and night ventilation cooling conditioned air (cooling medium water)
3.66
Cooling Forward flow Controll- Cold Passive / Notes
Outside air capacity temperature ability output regenera-
(W/m2) (°C) tive cold
Natural Ground
heat sinks Cooling ceiling 80 –120 10 –18 very good radiation + dew-point regulation
Water Thermo-active
~50 16 –20 low radiation ++ no suspended ceilings
ceiling
Direct adiabatic Floor cooling 20 – 30 16 –20 low radiation ++ risk of discomfort
Evaporative cooling
condensation drainage
Building cooling Downflow cooler 60 –100 6 –10 good convection -
Indirect adiabatic might be necessary
cooling
cooling condensation drainage
Induction unit 60 –100 6 –10 good convection -
might be necessary
Compression Recirculating condensation drainage
80 –120 6 –10 very good convection --
Cooling cooling cooler might be necessary
machine Sorption Air-conditioning large amount of installation
80 –120 6 –10 good convection --
cooling plant work
3.67 3.68
39
• Downflow coolers are usually installed a difference between ground probes and necessary to drill a borehole into the
behind panelling. In this system, a cold energy piles. This source is also referred ground. A ground probe consists of twin
water circulating convector is fitted to as near-surface geothermal energy. tubes which are connected at the lowest
close to the ceiling so that the airflow is Pile foundations are generally used when point; they function as the forward and
directed downwards. An additional fan the bearing capacity of the top ground is return flow of the system (Fig. 3.72). In
can increase convection and lead to limited. They are therefore necessary addition, a ground probe is equipped
better results. In practice, this system is from a building construction point of view with a third pipe which is used to fill the
comparable to a recirculating cooling and reach down to a depth of approxi- borehole. The difference to energy piles
unit. mately 20 to 25 metres. The difference is that the borehole is not filled with con-
• Cooled ceilings circulate water through- between the construction of an energy crete but usually with a bentonite-water
out a system of panels. Cooling panels pile and a normal foundation pile is cement-mixture. Depending on the
can, for example, be suspended from merely that pipes are installed into the desired application, shorter ground
the ceiling in a sail-like arrangement. reinforcement cages of the piles, which probes are used if cooling is the primary
Energy is exchanged via radiation. circulate water once the building has function, whereas longer ones are neces-
• Thermo-active building components been completed (Fig. 3.73).This method sary for heating purposes. The installation
generally include water pipes (see thermally activates the reinforced con- depth of a ground probe is approximately
p. 49f.), which are either embedded in crete pile. In summer, heat is dissipated 75 to 150 metres. As in the case of
the floor slab or retrofitted underneath via the soil; in winter, heat is absorbed. energy piles, water is pumped through a
the slab. In contrast to energy piles, ground probes probe system, the result being that
are not necessary building components ground probes and energy piles are both
Energy piles and ground probes from a statics point of view and can there- efficient thermal exchangers between the
These building components are closed- fore be retrofitted. They are usually ground and the building services. The
loop systems which make use of the tem- installed to provide heat to operate a heat pipes which are installed in the ground
perature of the ground water or the ground pump in winter or to provide a heat sink probes or energy piles are routed to a
itself. In comparison to ground loops, for the cooling of buildings in summer. distribution unit inside the building which
which are installed at a depth of between in turn is connected to the heat ex-
two and four metres, probe systems reach Construction and function changer of the air handling unit, the heat
down to a depth of 100 metres or more. The installation of ground probes is simi- pump or the surfaces selected for com-
When it comes to vertical systems, there is lar to that of pile foundations, in that it is ponent cooling.
yes Groundwater flow no

Flow velocity
> 0.5 m/day
Heat extraction Recharging

independent from 80 – 90 % of the
no Gradual cooling
cold extraction heat extraction,
of the ground
(no seasonal if higher, danger
freezing problems
storage of heat of ground
and cold) overheating
yes
Thermal conduc-
Thermal Thermal
tivity of the
conductivity of conductivity of
ground: 3.70
the ground: the ground:
1.3 – 2.3 W/(m ∙ K)
1.3 W/(m ∙ K) 2.3 W/(m ∙ K)
(little impact,
(sand, dry) (lime, clay, grit) Supply air
groundwater)
Water/
glycol
circuit
Heat extraction: Heat extraction: Heat extraction:
> 50 W/m > 25 – 30 W/m > 30 – 35 W/m
> 100 kWh/(m ∙ a) > 50 kWh/(m ∙ a) > 65 – 80 kWh/(m ∙ a)
Water
TABS circuit
Cold extraction: Cold extraction:

> 30 W/m < 30 W/m on average
> 80 kWh/(m ∙ a) > 20 – 60 kWh/(m ∙ a) Ground
probes
3.69 3.71
40
Cooling
Planning and operation System performance

If several energy piles or ground probes In winter, the systems are used to extract
are installed in the subsoil, careful the energy stored during the cooling
attention should be paid to the direction period. In order to maintain the efficiency
of the ground water flow and the dis- of the system, the energy must be loaded
tance between the individual systems. and unloaded in alternating cycles
Interaction between the piles or probes throughout a year. An even annual energy
must be avoided. The minimum distance balance is needed to avoid overheating
between the ground probes or energy or freezing of the ground. Usually the sys-
piles should be approximately 10 % of tem is designed for cooling applications
the depth. so that approximately 10 – 20 % less heat

The temperature of the ground, down to is fed into the system in summer than is
depths of approximately 15 m, fluctuates extracted in winter. The heat extraction is
according to the air temperature and is also limited in the case of energy piles in
also influenced by long-term snow cover- order to avoid freezing of components 3.72
age. At lower depths, the temperature is functioning primarily as the building foun-
more or less stable. At a depth of ap- dation. As a general rule, the ground
proximately10 m, the ground temperature functions as an enormous interseasonal
is approximately 1 – 2 K above the aver- heat store, which is loaded and unloaded
age annual temperature. With increasing annually – heat is supplied in summer,
depth, the temperature rises; the increase discharged in winter. Since only the natu-
is approximately 2.5 – 4 K per 100 m ral storage capacity of the ground is
depth. being used, no structural measures are
The flow velocity of groundwater is usu- required. Warming of the subsoil by the
ally only a few centimetres a day, so that building located above should be pre-
the ground can be used as an intersea- vented as much as possible, as this might
sonal heat store, which is loaded and otherwise decrease the cooling effi-
unloaded during the course of a year. If ciency.
the groundwater flow velocity exceeds The efficiency of ground probes is gener-
approximately 0.5 m per day, the ground ally dependent on the ground character-
3.73
constantly regenerates. In this case, there istics. In contrast to ground with good
is no seasonal loading and unloading of thermal conductivity, the source tempera-
the system’s surrounding soil. ture in ground with bad thermal conduc-
Ideally the system is not operated with tivity rises much quicker during the
brine, but simply with water. Apart from course of the heat input. Depending on
the advantage concerning possible the heat input, however, even if heat input
leakages, water has the advantage of and output are balanced, seasonal
achieving a higher heat transfer rate and increases in the source temperature can
can function with a lower pumping arise. In order to cover long-lasting peak
capacity for the same volume flow. Sys- loads that may occur due to short heat
tems that are to be combined with heat waves, the probe length must be deter-
pumps should, as a rule, be operated mined in a way that will prevent excessive
with a glycol/water cycle. seasonal increases. The average cold
extraction efficiency is approximately
Field of application 20 – 30 W/m of probe length (Fig. 3.69).
3.74
Ground probes and energy piles can
generally be used in combination with Cooling with groundwater
different applications. It is, for example, In groundwater cooling, the low tempera-
possible to connect thermo-active build- ture of the groundwater is used to cool
ing components or cooling ceilings. There the building. The system consists of an
3.69 Approximate dimensions for energy piles and
is also the possibility to discharge waste extraction well and an infiltration well ground probes
heat from appliances into the ground. In (Fig. 3.74). According to the water 3.70 Building cooling via ground or surface water.
Groundwater can be extracted with a pumping
the ideal situation, ventilation and cooling resources act, the utilisation of groundwa- well and reintroduced into the ground at a
are combined (Fig. 3.71). This form of ter in Germany requires official approval. different place with an infiltration well.
3.71 Schematic diagram for integrating ground
combination has the advantage that the probes into the building services system.
air exchange rate for the building ventila- Construction and design A glycol/water mixture is used in frost danger
zones (ventilated side).
tion can be reduced to a hygienically In order to utilise groundwater, a pumping 3.72 Probehead with a double U tube
satisfactory level and the heat can be well is installed to extract water from the 3.73 Reinforcement cage of an energy pile with
plastic tubing connected in the longitudinal axis
removed effectively by using cooled ground which is then fed through a heat for cooling the building.
building components. exchanger. The warm return flow from a 3.74 View into an extraction well
41
Heat or cold Air humidification cold water supply or warm supply air is tem is more straightforward. This system
recovery or evaporation channelled through the heat exchanger in is very suitable if simply cooling rather
Water the opposite direction. During the pro- than ventilation is required.
cess of absorbing heat, the temperature
Exhaust air
of the groundwater is increased by Performance range
20 °C 26 °C
30 °C approximately three degrees before it is The system performance is sensitive to
finally returned to the ground via an infil- the volume of extracted water and the
tration well. prevailing ground water temperature. The
latter depends on the time of year and the
Planning and operation location but is usually in the range of 8 to
The extraction well should reach down to 12 °C.

Fresh air 32 °C 22 °C
approximately 5 m below the actual
groundwater level. In relation to the flow Evaporative cooling (adiabatic cooling)
Room
of groundwater, the infiltration well must Adiabatic cooling occurs when water
3.75 be positioned downstream from the evaporates in a medium that is not satu-
Water supply extraction well (Fig. 3.71, p. 40). If the rated by water vapour. Since the energy
direction of flow is unknown, the minimum that is required for the evaporation of the
distance between both wells should be water is extracted from the surrounding
around 15 m. As a rule, the geological medium, its temperature is automatically
conditions and the chemical composition reduced. The principle of cooling is
of the groundwater should be known. In based on the fact that a comparatively
the case of large proportions of divalent large amount of energy is required to
iron ions, careful attention must be paid to convert a small amount of water into
ensure that groundwater in the installation water vapour and therefore change the
Evaporation mat
systems does not come into contact with physical state of water. This process is
oxygen as this could lead to a precipita- generally referred to as adiabatic or
tion of ferric hydroxide. This could give evaporative cooling.
rise to clogging within the water-circula-
Warm Cool
dry air humidified air tion systems. Reduced performance or Construction and function
failure of the cooling system could be the Generally, a distinction is drawn between
3.76
result. Care should be taken to ensure direct and indirect systems in evaporative
that the level of the water extraction is cooling. In the case of direct evaporative
always clearly below the groundwater cooling, the evaporation of water takes
table. place directly in the volume flow of the
cooling air (Fig. 3.75). In the case of indi-
Fields of application rect systems, the exhaust air is cooled
Cooling with groundwater can, for exam- adiabatically and then channelled
ple, be used in combination with a through a heat exchanger, which has
mechanical ventilation system. Central- supply air flowing in the opposite direc-
ised cooling is possible by passing sup- tion. In this process, the volume of cold
ply or recirculated air through a heat exhaust air absorbs the thermal energy
exchanger at the same time as having a from the supply air, which leads to a cool-
counterflow of cool groundwater. The ing down of the supply air. In indirect
conditioned air is then distributed evaporative cooling, an increase of the
throughout the building via ductwork. relative, not the absolute, humidity occurs
3.77
Alternatively the cold groundwater can within the supply air volume. In the case
3.75 Indirect adiabatic cooling (evaporative cooling) also be fed through a heat exchanger of direct evaporative cooling, both humid-
via air-conditioning and ventilation plant which has a closed-loop water cycle ity values increase.
3.76 Cooling and simultaneous humidifying of warm
air by means of an evaporation mat flowing in the opposite direction. The Evaporation mats (Fig. 3.76 and 3.77) or
3.77 Evaporation mat made of cellulose fibre water, which has been cooled by the air washing systems are suitable devices
3.78 Schematic diagram of an open-circulating
radiant cooling system groundwater, is then distributed in the for the humidification of air. The use of
3.79 Release of water through the human body in building via the forward flow of the cold rainwater is ideal as process water. It can
relation to physical activity. The moisture content
of the air is a decisive factor when applying an water network. The cold water flows be collected in rainwater tanks and pro-
adiabatic evaporative cooling system. through a heat exchanger in the parts of vided to the adiabatic cooling system on
(1 met = 58.15 W/m2 body surface)
3.80 Unglazed metal roof collectors can also be used the building which require cooling. The demand.
for the reverse operation. They can dissipate heat exchanger could, for example, be
heat to the ambient air during the night.
3.81 Exemplary development of cooling load and
a fan convector, which cools the room air Planning and operation
cooling performance in a test building. The in a recirculation process. Since the operation of the system is influ-
cooling is performed via radiation, convection
and evaporative cooling. A roof area measuring
A cold water network has the advantage enced by the condition of the air, it is
75 m2 was provided for the cooling process. that the installation of the distribution sys- not possible to guarantee a maximum
42
Cooling
acceptable supply air temperature. If fans require a high level of efficiency, the
Rain Recooling
maximum supply air temperatures are to recooling rate of the heat transfer medium
be maintained, even in unfavourable needs to be high and the energy con-
weather conditions, it makes sense to sumption of the air humidifier should be
combine the system with a compression kept low. The highest specific cooling Transfer of cold to room
cooling machine installed downstream. If output that can be achieved is approxi-
the thermal loads are not to be dis- mately 3 W/m3/h. In indirect systems, the
charged exclusively via the ventilation water consumption in relation to the heat Secondary circuit
system, a combination of adiabatic cool- transfer medium can be as much as
ing and thermo-active building compo- 2.5 kg per kWh of usable cooling energy.
Primary Heat
nents could be a practical solution. circuit exchanger
Radiant cooling
Fields of application The principle of radiant cooling is based
In Central Europe, direct humidification of on the fact that the sky temperature (radi- Water storage tank
the supply air is not normally necessary ant temperature of the atmosphere) is
as the relative humidity in the supply air often below the outside air temperature 3.78
would increase too much. Since a high on clear nights. It is therefore possible to
Total release of water (g/h)

relative humidity prevents the human achieve cooling below the level of the 250
body from cooling quickly due to the outside air temperature by means of radi-
evaporation of perspiration, high air ation. Radiant cooling can be imple- 200
humidity is often regarded as uncomfort- mented either as an open or closed
able. It is therefore more appropriate in hydraulic system. The two variants differ
150
Central Europe to cool the volume flow of in the way they recool.
exhaust air adiabatically. Evaporative
cooling systems can be used in hot dry Construction and function 100
regions. However, due to the water con- Radiant cooling generally consists of
sumption, it is necessary to examine cooling panels, one or more primary cir- 50
whether an alternative system might be cuits, a secondary circuit, a water storage
more appropriate. tank and a recooling system. The primary
0
Whether or not the utilisation of adiabatic circuit is a closed-loop cold water circuit
0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
cooling can be integrated in the concept which consists of a forward and return Activity (MET)
of building services generally depends on flow. The primary circuit flows through the 3.79
the condition of the outside air and the cooling surfaces as well as the heat
exhaust air requiring humidification. The exchanger, which integrates the second-
application is especially practical when ary circuit in counterflow direction. It gen-
the temperature of the exhaust air, which erally makes sense to divide a building
is to be humidified, is high and, at the into zones with different primary circuits
same time, the relative humidity is low. so that there is flexibility in reacting to the
The humidity values of exhaust air are different cooling loads. The secondary
subject to the building’s use and vary circuit is connected to a rainwater cistern
according to the number of persons with a forward and return flow (Fig. 3.78).
occupying the building and their activi- In order to cool a building, the warm room
ties. One person performing activities in a air passes over a cooled surface, which
seated position (approximately 1.2 met) could, for example, be a recirculating 3.80
dissipates almost 100 g of water per hour cooler or a cooling ceiling. Due to this
Cooling capacity (kW)
as a result of perspiration. This release of process, the room heat can be dis- Arising cooling load
moisture rises with an increase in activity charged to the primary and secondary 10
(average value: 3.2 kW)
(Fig. 3.79). circuits via the cooling surfaces and then Cooling capacity of roof
(average value: 3.0 kW)
finally to the water in the rainwater cistern.
8
Performance range The cistern water is a cold store, which
At outside air temperatures of up to 30 °C, gradually heats up during the course of a
6
it is possible to achieve air supply tem- day. To prevent the cistern water from
peratures of approximately 22 °C in aver- heating up too much, it must be recooled

age office applications without adding in cycles. In open systems, this is 4
additional cooling technology. The effi- achieved, for example, by pumping the
ciency of an evaporative cooling device cistern water up onto the roof of the build- 2
depends particularly on the available air ing at night where it is distributed across
temperatures and the humidity as well as the surface. This method, causes the heat 0
the efficiency of the heat transfer medium. to dissipate by means of convection, 0 12 0 12 0 12 0 12
In order to achieve high performance, the evaporation and radiation. Due to the Time (h)
3.81
43
Gross solar energy heat dissipation via radiation, the mini-

Collector array mum water temperature that can be
reached is below the dew point. The
Downtime loss cooled water is then guided back to the
cistern. In closed systems, closed collec-
tors are responsible for the recooling
(Fig. 3.80, p. 43).
Planning and operation

HT Heating
The nighttime recooling is put into opera-
Museum HT Heating tion as soon as the outside temperature

Summer drops below a defined level. Because
Winter air supply
air supply part of the cooling water evaporates in an
Evaporative cooling open recooling system, the water level
Reheating sinks. This loss of water is ideally replen-
Surface
heating
Surface ished during the next rainfall. There is no

cooling loss of water in a closed system.
Cooling
tower Wood
pellet
Absorption boiler Fields of application
cooling maschine Open systems can only be used in
Heat pump
regions where there is sufficient water, for
example in Central Europe. However, the
Compression
cooling cloudy weather conditions often experi-
maschine enced in Central Europe reduce the theo-
retical system efficiency.
Energy piles If frequent cloudiness is expected, due to
the mesoclimatic conditions, the system
can be used to recool machines and
technical equipment which can make use
of recooling temperatures above 20 °C.
3.82
Primarily rainwater should be used as the
cooling agent.
Collector efficiency
1
DEC Single-stage absorption The recooling provided by metal roof col-
Adsorption Two-stage absorption lectors in closed systems is not as effi-
0.8 cient as an open cooling system due to
the lack of evaporative cooling. However,
Evacuat
ed tube
collecto it does have the advantage of not con-
0.6 r
suming any water. Closed systems are
therefore more suitable for hot dry
0.4 regions. Since these areas are seldom
Fla
So t-pl
ate very cloudy, a relatively constant system
la r col
air lec efficiency can be assumed.
co to r
02 llec
tor As well as water, frost-resistant glycol
mixtures are also suitable for the second-
0
ary circuit in closed systems. With these
25 50 75 100 125 150 175
liquids, it is also possible to make use of
Average fluid temperature (°C)
the radiative cooling at temperatures
3.83
below zero. Despite the same volume
of liquid, the amount of energy con-
sumed by the pumps is greater when
Technology Absorption Adsorption DEC
using glycol due to the different viscosity.
Single-stage Two-stage
The thermal exchange rate is also
Refrigerant water water water –
reduced.
Sorbent lithium bromide lithium bromide silica gel silica gel or
Cooling agent water water water lithium chloride
Performance range
Low temperature range 6 – 20 °C 6 – 20 °C 6 – 20 °C 16 – 20 °C
The efficiency of the system is directly
High temperature range 75 – 100 °C 140 – 170 °C 65 – 95 °C 55 – 100 °C
associated with the attainable tempera-
Range of cooling capacity
per unit
15 – 20 500 kW 170 – 23 300 kW 70 – 350 kW 6 – 300 kW ture of the return flow and the necessary
temperature of the cooling water. The
COP 0.6 – 0.7 1.1 – 1.4 0.6 – 0.7 0.5 – 1.0
higher the cooling water temperature can
3.84
44
Cooling
be selected, the more efficient the system In absorption and adsorption systems, a
becomes. Since a large proportion of the distinction is made between single-stage
total energy demand is used to operate and two-stage systems. Single-stage
the pumps, it is important to make sure systems can be operated at low tempera-
that these work efficiently. tures, however, they are not as efficient
The size of the system depends on the as two-stage systems (Fig. 3.83). Either
maximum admissible increase of room air liquid or solid materials are used as
temperature. With the implementation of sorbents. Absorption systems operate
an open prototype, a maximum specific with liquid sorbents, adsorption machines
cooling output of approximately 50 – 150 W with solid ones. Systems using liquid
was achieved during the cooling period. sorbents have the advantage that the
This represents a daily specific cooling desorbed sorption agent can be stored
output of approximately 40 W per square temporarily. Due to the possibility of
metre of roof area. For a situation with an using a temporary storage facility, peri-
average cooling load of approximately ods with low energy yield can simply be 3.85
3.2 kW and an available roof area of bridged. The cooling capacity is not
75 m2, an almost even energy balance reduced during this period; it is also not
was achieved (Fig. 3.81, p. 43). The necessary to switch to an additional
measured coefficient of performance conventional cooling system based on
(COP) of the system is around 14 to 24 compression.
and therefore much higher than the effi-
ciency level of a highly efficient compres- Planning and operation
sion cooling plant. The required driving temperature for a
single-stage system is approximately
Absorption and adsorption cooling systems 75 – 100 °C, that of two-stage systems
Sorption cooling systems can be used for approximately 140 – 170 °C (Fig. 3.84).
solar cooling. They operate at extreme High-temperature waste heat is therefore
negative pressure so that the refrigerant, required to operate the two-stage system.
water, can evaporate at a fairly low tem- Alternatively a high-efficiency collector
perature in a closed circuit (Fig. 3.85). plant, such as parabolic trough collectors
3.86
The energy required for the evaporation with a uniaxial tracking system, can be
of the refrigerant is absorbed from the integrated to cover the demand. How-
return flow of the cooling supply network. ever, these collectors are not suitable for
The result is the availability of cold water use in Central Europe, since the propor-
in the forward flow of the network. tion of direct radiance in relation to the
total global radiation is not sufficiently
Construction and function high in these latitudes.
In order to maintain the evaporation pro- In general, the collector area required to
cess within a sorption cooling machine, drive the system is strongly dependent
the vapour produced during the evapora- on the microclimatic site conditions and
tion of the refrigerant must be discharged systems already installed have shown
continually. This is achieved through that these can vary considerably. In
sorption. good conditions, a specific collector area
Since the absorbability of the sorbents is of approximately 2.5 m2/kW is required
limited, a continual discharge of water for single-stage absorption cooling
3.87
vapour can be guaranteed only if the machines and approximately 3.4 m2/kW
sorbents are desorbed once the sorption for adsorption cooling machines
process has been completed. The proc- (Fig. 3.88, p. 46).
ess of sorption and desorption takes 3.82 Cooling concept for the Ritter museum in
place in cycles, which means that some Fields of application Waldenbuch, architect: Max Dudler. The arrows
show the direction of each heat flow. Part of the
of the sorbents are absorbing water In comparison to compression cooling cooling is provided by a solar-powered
vapour at the same time as others are plants, the application of absorption and absorption cooling machine.
3.83 Sorption cooling machines are operated at
releasing water vapour. The water vapour adsorption cooling systems makes different temperatures in accordance with their
produced during the desorption process sense from a primary energy point of design. If they are powered by solar energy,
different collector systems are required.
is condensed and reintroduced into the view, if a minimum amount of the required 3.84 Overview of solar thermal cooling procedures
evaporation process (Fig. 3.90, p. 46). thermal energy is provided by solar 3.85 Absorption cooling plant
3.86 Tube collectors used to power a sorption
Solar thermal energy or waste heat from a energy or available waste heat. Accord- cooling plant on the roof of a wine cellar in the
block-type thermal power station, for ing to comparable systems, single-stage south of France.
3.87 Tube collectors used to power a sorption
instance, could be used for the desorp- systems require minimum coverage ratios cooling plant; Ritter museum in Waldenbuch,
tion process of the sorbents. between around 50 and 75 %. architect: Max Dudler
45
Solar coverage rate (%)
100 Whether the integration of a sorption cool- Sorption-assisted air-conditioning

Store size: 2 m3 4m3 8 m3
ing machine into the concept of building (desiccant and evaporative cooling, DEC)
90
services makes sense depends not only This technology, in a similar way to sorp-
on the microclimatic site conditions but tion cooling machines, involves a cooling
80 especially on the amount and configura- system which can be powered by solar
tion of the thermal loads which need to be thermal energy. The difference is that
70 discharged. These systems are, for cold air is produced. A sorption-assisted
example, suitable to provide cold water air-conditioning plant is integrated into
60 for an air-conditioning system the building services concept in a similar
(Fig. 3.90). way to an air-conditioning system and
50 Due to the changing meteorological operates with a supply and exhaust air
conditions, it can generally be said that system. The energy to power the system
40 systems which rely solely on solar is either heat gained from solar collectors
40 50 60 70 80
radiation cannot offer one hundred per or waste heat from a combined process
Collector area (m 2)
3.88
cent coverage of the required cooling (e.g. a block-type thermal power station).
output. For this reason, it can be As in the case of sorption cooling sys-
Solar radiation
Cooling demand
expected that the standards of thermal tems, the substances used as sorbents or
comfort will not be met for a number of refrigerants should not have an ozone
hours during the year. The number and depletion potential (ODP). The cold air is
distribution of the predicted high-temper- produced in an adiabatic evaporative
ature hours can only be determined cooling process. Merely the fans and
0.00 4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 approximately by using simulations. In pumps are powered by electrical energy
order to cover this uncertainty of supply (Fig. 3.93).
Solar radiation
Cooling demand
resulting from changing meteorological

conditions, the cooling system can be Construction and function
supplied with a back-up system, for In contrast to direct or indirect adiabatic
instance, a small compressor cooling evaporative cooling systems, these sys-
plant (Fig. 3.82, p. 44). tems operate with an upstream dehumidi-
J F M A M J J A S O N D Particularly in the case of plants with low fication (desorption) of the supply air. The
3.89 coefficients of performance, it is in no way dehumidification is achieved through
sensible, from a primary energy point of sorption. Liquid (absorption) or solid
view, to compensate for the lack of solar (adsoprtion) sorbents can be used as
thermal energy by using a fossil fuel. In sorption agents.
hot and dry regions and temperatures In systems with solid sorbents, the out-
Collector array
above approximately 32 °C, sorption cool- side air is dehumidified as it flows through
ing plants require an evaporative cooling a sorption rotor placed within the volume
Cooling element
tower or something similar for recooling. flow of the supply and exhaust air
Heat
Store The application of a cooling tower in (Fig. 3.91). Then the supply air is chan-
generator
these regions should be examined care- nelled through an integrated heat
Thermal fully regarding the consumption of water exchanger where it meets exhaust air
drive
resources. Sorption cooling machines flowing in the opposite direction. Before
Sorption
can be used in hot humid areas as long entering the heat exchanger, the exhaust
Recooler cooling as the issue concerning recooling is air is humidified, which has the effect of
system resolved. cooling it adiabatically. The result is that
Room
the supply air is precooled by the exhaust
3.90
Heater Water
Performance range air in the heat exchanger. The dehumidi-
(solar) Cold water temperatures ranging from fied and precooled supply air is finally
+ approximately 6 – 20 °C can be achieved cooled further by humidification in a con-
with one and two-stage sorption cooling ditioning unit.
Exhaust air
50 °C
20°C 26°C machines. The range of cooling capacity In order to guarantee a continuous dehu-
that can be attained with absorption or midification of the supply air before enter-
adsorption cooling plants depends on ing the heat exchanger, the sorption rotor
40 °C
70 °C Water the size of the plant. The coefficient of must be dehumidified (desorbed) at the
performance (COP), which in this case same time. This is performed by heating
means the relation of heat input to cold the exhaust air after the cooling process
output, for one-stage absorption systems and guiding it past the humidified sorb-
Fresh air 32 °C 45 °C 24°C 17°C and adsorption devices is approximately ent. The thermal energy required to heat
0.6 – 0.7, for two-stage absorption the exhaust air and, therefore, carry out
Sorption Heat Humidifier
machines approximately 1.1 – 1.4 the desorption of the sorbent can, for
wheel exchanger Room (Fig. 3.84, p. 44). example, be supplied by solar collectors.
3.91
46
Cooling
Is a central ventilation plant no Moderate

appropriate and/or Cold water system or extreme Thermally driven cooling machine and cold water network
requested? climate
yes
Thermally driven cooling system, cold water network and supply air system
Is the building sufficiently no Moderate
Supply air system and
airtight for a supply and or extreme
cold water system
exhaust air system? climate
Standard DEC system; cold water network
yes Supply and exhaust air system; thermally driven cooling machine;
cold water network
Moderate
climate Humid-climate DEC system; cold water network
Can the cooling load be no Supply and exhaust
covered by the hygienic air system as well as
level of air exchange? cold water system Supply and exhaust air system; thermally driven cooling machine;
Extreme
cold water network
climate
yes Standard DEC system

Moderate
climate
Supply and exhaust air Supply and exhaust air system; thermally driven cooling machine
system
Extreme
climate Humid-climate DEC system; cold water network
Supply and exhaust air system; thermally driven cooling machine;

cold water network
3.92
Concentrated
Exhaust air
hygroscopic liquid
Cool supply air with

Hot dry outside air
Hot humid outside air average humidity
Infill of filling material Evaporative cooling
Diluted
Outlet air
hygroscopic liquid
Solar heat
Collector Heat exchanger
3.93
2.0
Primary energy expenditure
per unit of useful cold kWh/kWh
COP = 0.6 COP = 0.7 3.88 Dimensions of a solar 15 kW absorption cooling

COP = 0.8 COP = 0.9
COP = 1.0 COP = 1.1 machine (example for a 20 MWh/a demand of
COP = 1.2 cooling energy)
1.5 3.89 Temporal conformity of solar radiation and
cooling demand from external loads
COPCCM = 2.5 3.90 Schematic diagram of solar thermal cooling with
a sorption cooling system
1.0 3.91 Sorption-assisted air-conditioning with sorption
wheel (DEC)
3.92 Decision tree for the selection of a thermally
driven cooling system
0.5 COPCCM = 4.5 3.93 Treatment of supply air in a sorption-assisted
air-conditioning system (DEC)
3.94 Primary energy expenditure required for the
generation of cold by a solar-powered cooling
0 machine in relation to the solar coverage rate.
The primary energy expenditure values of a
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
compression cooling machine are applied as
Solar coverage rate of the thermal drive for cooling reference values (COP CCM).
3.94
47
Planning and operation to the permanent consumption of water, process. It transfers the moisture to a
If the adiabatic humidification is operated sorption-assisted air-conditioning sys- second similarly closed loop air volume
with untreated drinking water, a continu- tems are in no circumstances suitable for flow. In this second cycle, the moisture
ous elutriation of the system is required. hot dry regions. If the system is to be absorbed from the first air volume flow is
Elutriation is necessary to prevent the installed in hot humid regions, the system regained by supplying heat (e.g. solar
mineral and salt content in the flow of configuration must be adjusted slightly by energy). The released water vapour is
process water rising steadily due to the integrating an additional cooling unit, for then removed by condensation and
evaporating water. Depending on the example a compression cooling device. reintroduced to the system.
plant configuration, small amounts of bio- In contrast to sorption cooling plants,
cide might have to be added to prevent Performance range which are operated at extreme negative
the growth of Legionella in the humidifica- The coefficient of performance (COP) of a pressure, this system can be operated in
tion units. sorption-assisted air-conditioning unit is normal conditions.
approximately 0.5 – 1.0. A cold output of
Fields of application approximately 0.5 – 1.0 kW can therefore Planning and operation
A sufficient supply of thermal energy is be achieved with 1 kW of thermal energy. The system is integrated into the building
required for a sensible integration of this Cooling capacities of approximately 5 to services concept in a similar way to con-
system. Depending on the sorbent used, 6 kW can be reached with an air volume ventional air-conditioning systems. By
a temperature of between approximately flow of 1000 m3/h. cooling the hot outside air, the relative
65 and 95 °C is needed for the desorption humidity of the supply air is increased so
of the sorbing agent. To generate the Closed desorption and evaporation-assisted that humidification is generally not
energy required for the desorption proc- air-conditioning required before entering the building inte-
ess, a specific collector area, subject to Solar thermal energy or waste heat can be rior. Integrating an additional humidifica-
the location, of approximately 8.2 m2 is used to drive this new innovative system. tion unit into the system may be neces-
required for an air volume flow of The technology belongs to the group of sary only in locations with climate condi-
1000 m3/h. solar cooling and air-conditioning systems. tions where the relative humidity of the
To achieve an advantage with regard to Electrical energy is required only for the supply air is permanently below 30 %.
the use of primary energies over com- transportation of air and water, for fans Ductwork is necessary for the distribution
pression cooling systems, depending on and pumps. The technology has been de- of the supply air and the extraction of the
the system, approximately 55 – 75 % of the veloped especially for hot dry regions. exhaust air. To guarantee high solar ther-
required thermal energy should be pro- mal yield, the integration and orientation
vided in the form of solar energy or waste Construction and function of solar collectors should be considered
heat (Fig. 3.94, p. 47). The system consists basically of two at an early phase of the design or refur-
Apart from the microclimatic site condi- closed loop air circuits, a new kind of bishment planning.
tions, the quantity and quality of the loads sorption or desorption component, two Furthermore, it is important to make sure
that are to be removed as well as the air heat exchangers, a condenser, a solar that the outside air heat exchangers are
tightness of the building are important collection array and water as the refriger- correctly positioned. They should not be
factors influencing the choice and dimen- ant. Within the system, the refrigerant placed in direct sunlight. The supply air
sions of the system (Fig. 3.92, p. 47). Due appears partly as water vapour and partly should be drawn in from a shaded area
as water in its fluid form. During a work and not directly above a sun-exposed
cycle, the refrigerant undergoes a phase surface.
change from fluid to vapour.
In a first step, the hot dry outside air is fed Fields of application
3.95 Schematic diagram of a closed-loop desorption
and evaporation-assisted air-conditioning through a heat exchanger where it meets Both sorption-assisted air-conditioning
system exhaust air in counterflow from the build- systems (see p. 46) and sorption cooling
1 Outside air
2 Supply air inside ing interior. In this first step, the supply air machines (see p. 45) can be operated
3 Exhaust air inside is warmed and preconditioned. Then the with thermal energy, such as solar energy.
4 Exhaust air
5 Cold air flow preconditioned air is channelled through When the outside air temperatures are
6 Desorption flow another heat exchanger which has a high, sorption cooling machines require
7 Forward flow hot water
8 Condensate drainage closed loop of cooling air moving in the recooling with water spray systems. Their
9 Return flow hot water opposite direction. In this second cooling use in hot dry regions would, therefore,
10 Countercurrent heat exchanger
11 Sorption cylinder process, the supply air meets its desired lead to high water consumption. Sorption-
12 Solar collectors temperature. In order to produce the vol- assisted conditioning systems consume
13 Heat exchanger and condenser
14 Fans ume flow of cooling air, the air volume is water. For this reason, the use of both of
3.96 Detail view of a sorption rotor which removes dehumidified through sorption and cooled these technologies should be avoided in
moisture from the outside air. The following
adiabatic cooling process is therefore much by an outside air heat exchanger within a hot dry regions if the aim is to plan a sus-
more efficient. cycle. Finally the cooling air is humidified tainable building.
3.97 Thermal activation is possible in normal flat
slabs or special constructions, such as so-called
adiabatically causing the temperature to In contrast, the new innovative closed
bubble ceilings. drop further. loop desorption and evaporation-assisted
3.98 To thermally activate the floor slab, water-
bearing plastic tubes are embedded on the
The dehumidification is achieved by an air-conditioning system depends only
neutral axis of the concrete floor slab. innovative, patented moisture exchange on an adequate supply of solar radiation
48
Cooling
or waste heat; water is generally not components are pooled so that one build- 14 10
required. This system is therefore ideal for ing is divided into several zones and 4 3
hot dry regions, for example in the Persian therefore different cooling circuits. The 10 14
Gulf countries. 1 2
aim of this zoning is the ability to react to
different internal and external loads (e.g.
Performance range due to different levels of solar gains) with 5
This technology can produce cold air. At appropriate component temperatures. If 14
11
outside air temperatures of around 40 °C the zoning is performed according to
and a relative humidity of 12 %, it is possi- internal as well as external loads, the 9
ble to achieve a supply air temperature of zones should be arranged in a way that
12
approximately 25 °C and a relative air allows sufficient flexibility for future refur-
14 6 8
humidity of 30 %. At the same exterior air bishments. In buildings without zones, 13
conditions, an assumed exhaust air tem- there is a danger of undercooling in
7
perature of 29 °C and a relative humidity rooms with low heat loads.
of around 35 %, it is possible to remove a In order to avoid obstruction of heat 3.95
heat load of approximately 14 kJ with the transmission, thermo-active building
exchange of a kilogram of air. components should not be encased
and suspended ceilings should not be
Heat dissipation via thermo-active building used. This means that if acoustic fittings
systems (TABS) are required, alternative positions
This method is a panel cooling system in should be considered early in the plan-
which the heat dissipation is separated ning stage.
from the ventilation. It uses the mass of
the building, for example the floor slabs, Planning and operation
to store heat loads temporarily. The The system can be operated in addition
stored loads are not removed immedi- to a ventilation plant or natural ventilation.
ately but extracted later. This method Due to the high mass, which is either
prevents extreme temperature fluctuation heated or cooled, a rapid change of room
in the building interior. The thermo-active temperature is not possible. If the room
building components can be used to cool temperature is to be controlled locally
3.96
the building during the cooling period and if certain upper or lower temperature
and heat the building during the heating limits are to be observed, it is necessary
period. to install an additional cooling or heating
system. In this case, it makes sense to
Construction and function use either a heat pump or link up to a dis-
In contrast to underfloor heating, the trict heating network. Building compo-
water circulating tubes in thermo-active nents are usually activated in summer as
building components are embedded in well as winter in order to provide the
the structural component itself along with building with a basic temperature. In this
the reinforcement (Fig. 3.98). Alterna- case, it is supplemented by an air-condi-
tively, the tubes can be laid in the bonded tioning system. In order to limit the
concrete screed. The tube registers can required cooling output, the system
either be integrated in normal flat slabs or should only be operated during working
in special constructions, like, for example, hours and the thermo-active building
so-called bubble deck ceilings components should only be unloaded
3.97
(Fig. 3.97). outside working hours. In this operation
Water circulates within the cooling circuit mode, the cooling capacity must not be
causing the complete ceiling to function provided for both systems at the same
as a large-scale heat exchanger. The time since this reduces the maximum
heat absorbed by the thermo-active necessary cooling output. Sufficient stor-
building components is transferred to the age mass is the precondition for opera-
water circulating within the cooling circuit tion at separate times.
and removed with the flow. The heated Due to the large overall mass, the thermo-
water is guided to a recooling unit where active building components only heat up
it is cooled back to its original tempera- very slowly during the course of a day
ture and then transported back to the (Fig. 3.100). If there is an exceptionally
same space (Fig. 3.99, p. 50). Ideally the large proportion of convective load,
recooling is performed with natural heat due to the building’s use, the result may
sinks, for example ground probes. be an above-average increase of room air
Generally, the thermo-active building temperature. In this case, the system
3.98
49
Adiabatic Without air-conditioning: TRoom TCeiling surface

recooling unit With night-time ventilation, 4 times, with concrete core activation: TRoom TCeiling surface
Temperature (C)
38 TOutside air
34
30
26
22
Thermo-active
floor slab 18
14
10
00.00 12.00 00.00 12.00 00.00 12.00 00.00 12.00 00.00
22 Aug 23 Aug 24 Aug 25 Aug 26 Aug
3.99 3.100
should be combined with an air-condi- in winter. When using an evaporative Performance range
tioning plant. cooling tower, the expected water con- Due to the slight temperature difference
The forward flow temperatures within a sumption must be taken into account. between the building components and
TABS are determined according to indi- the air temperature, the system can make
vidual demand. The lower the necessary Fields of application use of its self regulating effects. If the
cooling and the building’s energy con- Temperature-controlled building compo- room temperature drops below that of the
sumption is, the higher the forward flow nents are frequently combined with, for floor slab in summer, the slab is no longer
temperature can be in summer and the example, energy piles or ground probes. able to absorb heat and the cooling com-
lower it can be in winter. As a rule, the Providing that the system is placed below ponent then works as a radiant heating
thermo-active building components are the frost line, the circuit can be operated element. The reverse situation occurs in
connected to low-temperature systems with water. In contrast to brine, water has winter. If the room temperature rises in
since the flow temperatures differ only advantages with regard to the transmis- winter, for example due to solar irradi-
slightly from the room temperatures. The sion of heat and the required pump ance, the temperature of the ceiling slab
minimum water temperature within an capacity. If frost protection cannot be fully falls below that of the room with the effect
activated building component is approxi- guaranteed, the fluid circuit in the building that heat can no longer be transmitted to
mately 18 °C. Too low a temperature is operated with water and the circuit of the room. The excess heating or cooling
would lead to a drop below the dew-point the heat sink or heat source outside the capacity is, in both cases, distributed
temperature of the indoor air leading to building with brine. In this case, the differ- evenly throughout the building.
the development of condensation on the ent circuits are linked by a heat If the system has been planned accu-
ceiling face. At a room temperature of exchanger. rately, it can be assumed that each kW of
26 °C and a relative air humidity of 50 %, The principle of thermo-active building electrical energy, which is invested for
the dew-point temperature is approxi- components is not limited to new build- pumps, allows more than 10 kW of heat to
mately 15 °C. ings; it can also be used in refurbish- be dissipated from the building. Internal
With regard to recooling, if this is to be ments. In this case, capillary tube mats heat loads should be under 30 W/m2.
provided by outside air (cooling tower), in are fixed to the underside of the existing External loads should be minimised by an
contrast to recooling via the ground, there floor slab and then plastered (see Optimi- appropriate standard of insulation and by
is no heat source for heating the building sation of existing buildings, p. 120f.). providing transparent building compo-
1600
KW
Temperature
1200
Cooling Cooling
Latent heat 800
3.99 Schematic diagram of a thermo-active building e
system (TABS) with adiabatic recooling ibl Base load Base load
ns 400
3.100 Comparable simulations of room and surface se
temperatures according to different cooling 0
strategies. A wet cooling tower performed the 12.00 0.00 12.00
recooling for the concrete core activation. Without ice storage
3.101 Temperature development and quantity of

1600
KW
stored heat in the case of sensible and latent

e
heat storage ibl 1200
3.102 24-hour development of the cooling energy Temperature ns
of the phase se
consumption in a large office building with and 800 Ice pro-
change latent
without ice storage Base load duction Base load
3.103 Cooling ceiling system with PCM le 400
3.104 Construction of a large ice storage nsib
3.105 Ice storage in the office tower One Bryant Park, se 0
New York (USA), architects: Cook + Fox 12.00 0.00 12.00
3.106 Heat exchanger fins of an ice storage system Stored heat With ice storage
3.101 3.102
50
Cooling
nents with shading devices. The station- The cold storage is operated by loading
ary cooling capacity is approximately the ice storage via the cooling system at
30 – 50 W/m2. At a temperature difference night and removing the cold thermal
of 5 K, approximately 6 – 10 W/m2K of heat energy during the day. Ice storage sys-
can be transferred to the building compo- tems make particular sense if extreme
nents (Fig. 3.100). fluctuations in the cooling demand of a
building arise during the course of a day.
PCM cooling systems Since cooling plants must be dimen-
Efficient heat dissipation can also be sioned to meet peak loads, plants with
achieved using a combination of capillary large demand fluctuations should operate
tube mats and a facade ventilation sys- for long periods with low utilisation rates.
tem with a PCM storage. The capillary If systems are not operated within the
tube mat system can either be retrofitted range of their nominal output, increased
to a light suspended ceiling structure or quantities of energy are consumed. An
mounted on the underside of the ceiling ice storage system can balance these 3.103
slab and plastered (Fig. 3.103). fluctuations and increase the efficiency of
Heat produced in the building interior is, the system significantly (Fig. 3.102).
in this case, absorbed by the ceiling and Apart from optimising the cooling plant,
removed via the capillary tube system the system can be dimensioned a lot
and transferred to the facade ventilation smaller. The main advantage of an ice
system. However, the heat produced dur- storage system is the reduction of the
ing the day is not immediately dissipated daily peak electricity loads. For power
to the exterior but stored in the facade supply companies this means a more
ventilation system. This is where phase optimal use of the electricity grid. Apart
change materials (PCM) come into action. from the higher energy efficiency of the
They are integrated in the facade ventila- plant, the user has the economic benefit
tion system and change their physical of being able to use the off-peak tariff
state when heat is supplied. Paraffin, for valid during the night.
example, liquefies when it absorbs heat. In contrast to a cold water storage sys-
As a result of changing its physical state, tem, ice storage is not only able to store
3.104
the PCM becomes a latent heat store, sensible but also latent energy. This
which means that the thermal energy is means that an ice store can achieve a
stored without the material itself heating much higher storage density than a water
up (Fig. 3.101). Due to the phase change, store.
the heat transporting medium, water, The integration of an ice storage facility
cools down in the capillary tube mats corresponds to that of a warm water stor-
enabling heat to be extracted from the age system. The dimensions of an ice
room. storage facility are comparably small,
Because the heat is only stored and not since only the maximum cooling output
decomposed in the PCM, it must be for one day is stored at one time. The
dissipated at a later stage. This is usu- cold storage is carried out by forming ice
ally performed during the night when the with a proportion of the storage water. If
outside temperatures tend to be a lot temperatures for the storage are selected
lower. A second water circuit, which below 0 °C, saline solutions can also be
connects the heat store with a facade used.
3.105
integrated heat transfer medium, dissi-
pates the heat at night into the cold night
air. A particular advantage of this system
is the time delayed heat dissipation utilis-
ing the low night temperatures without
any need to open windows or ventilation
flaps, thus avoiding potential security
problems.
Ice storage
If only electrical compression cooling
plants can be used due to a high cooling
demand, the possibility of integrating an
ice storage into the overall concept
should be considered (Fig. 3.104 – 106).
3.106
51
Bacteria Air supply

or germs
Propagation In addition to supplying oxygen, the prin-

through
aerosols cipal aims of building ventilation are to
remove pollutants and smells from rooms
Mites inside the building. In this context, partic-
Acceptable zone ular reference has to be made to CO2,
Mould fungi
ozone, formaldehyde, emissions from
building and interior finishing materials
Desiccation
and body odour compounds from the
Formaldehyde occupants of the building, for example

propionic, caprylic and butyric acid. A
Ozone person in sedentary occupation dissi-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 pates 0.0047 l/s CO2. For physiological
Relative humidity (%) reasons, the Pettenkofer limit of 0.1 vol %
3.107 or 1000 ppm (parts per million) is usually
recommended as the maximum CO2 con-
Category Description
centration (Fig. 3.112). The CO2 concen-
IDA 1 high room air quality tration of the outside air is approximately
IDA 2 medium room air quality 300 – 400 ppm. In offices, the concentra-
tions frequently range between 600 and
IDA 3 moderate room air quality
800 ppm, which is clearly too high, while
IDA 4 low room air quality in classrooms levels can exceed
3.108
1500 ppm. An excessive CO2 concentra-
tion leads to tiredness, a dry throat, lack
Category CO2 content above the content in the outdoor air (ppm) of concentration and headaches.
normal range standard value In contrast to older buildings, in newer
IDA 1 ≤ 400 350 properties moisture dissipation from the
IDA 2 400 – 600 500
interior should also be considered. Older
buildings used not to be draught proof.
IDA 3 600 –1000 800
They were traditionally heated with wood
IDA 4 > 1000 1200 burners, which generated negative pres-
sure in the interior and, as a result, cool
3.109
relatively dry fresh air was drawn in
Category Non-smoker Smoker through the building’s gaps. The risk of
m3/(h x person) m3/(h x person)
condensation building up in the construc-
IDA 1 72 144 tion or the rooms inside was to all intents
IDA 2 45 90 and purposes eliminated. Moisture arising
in the air was constantly extracted along
IDA 3 29 58
with the flue gases. New buildings, which
IDA 4 18 36 are equipped with extremely airtight
3.110 building envelopes and therefore ensure
Month 1
Shock ventilation (duration in
minimal ventilation heat loss, should
min.) also be ventilated to avoid excessive
December to February 4–6
humidity values in the buildings’ interiors.
March and November 8 –10 Excessively high values can lead to
April and October- 12 –15 mould infection and occupants feeling
May and September 16 –18 uncomfortable. The limiting value for an
June to August 25 – 30
unclothed person to sense high humidity
1
Frequency: at least 3 to 4 times a day 3.111 is approximately 14.3 g of water per kilo-
gram of air according to VDI 2089. In nor-
mal situations, when a person is clothed,
3.107 Comfort zones according to Lazzarin: in order 3.112 Air quality and CO2concentration in a room
to ensure perfect room air quality at all times, with different levels of air exchange (according the absolute humidity must be kept below
the relative humidity should range between to Pettenkofer) 11.5 g of water per kilogram of air. The
approximately 30–65 %. 3.113 Pollutant load in building interior with natural
3.108 Categories for room air quality (IDA) according ventilation without filter as well as mechanical relative air humidity should be between
to DIN EN 13 779 ventilation with filter 30 and 65 %. Apart from criteria concern-
3.109 Recommended values for the CO2 content in (Example: Acropolis Museum in Athens;
building interiors according to DIN EN 13 779 exemplary diagram for sulphur dioxide)
ing comfort, the relative air humidity also
3.110 Volume of outside air per person according to 3.114 Utilisation of wind energy for building affects the emission of pollutants from
DIN EN 13 779 ventilation
3.111 Window ventilation required to maintain 3.115 Facade-integrated solar chimney for building
materials and the growth of bacteria and
hygienically necessary air exchange rate ventilation fungi. Very high air humidity values
52
Air supply
increase the growth of germs, relatively according to the relation between the 0.5
CO2 content (%)

MAK value )
t
low humidity values lead to higher ozone classification of the available outside air Specific room volume: 30 m3/person tigh
ir
CO2 emission: 18 l/h (a
concentrations (Fig. 3.107). quality and the desired classification of 0.4 on
e rs
Window ventilation, especially in the win- the indoor air quality. It should also be p
3 /h
ter months, leads to very unsatisfactory noted that the class of filter selected has 0
m
0.3
results. On the one hand, the minimum a decisive impact on the pressure loss son
3 /h
per
Limit value acc. to m
ventilation periods can hardly be met within the ductwork. Significant pressure Pettenkofer 5
and, on the other hand, the ventilation loss must be compensated for by higher 0.2
rson
15 m /h pe
3
heat loss from opening the window for the fan power and therefore directly influ-
necessary period is very high (Fig. 3.111). ences the energy efficiency of the ventila- 25 m3/h person
0.1
Furthermore, the intensity of window ven- tion system. A mechanical or forced sys- 50 m3/h person
tilation is dependent on the physical driv- tem can only work efficiently if there are
0
ing force, which means that different low pressure losses within the ductwork
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
weather conditions have a significant or within the building. Time (h)
impact on the quantity of fresh air.
3.112
As a rule, the air volume flow should be Natural ventilation − updraught
Air pollution SO2 (μg)

200
limited to the hygienically necessary air Natural ventilation systems borrow from
180
exchange. Ideally, thermal loads should nature in numerous ways. The under-
not be removed by increasing the air ground burrows of the prairie dogs, for 160
exchange rate. In order to reduce the air example, or the mounds of termites 140
exchange rate, particularly during the above the ground are naturally ventilated 120
heating period to a practical 30 m3/h per to prevent their homes from overheating.
100
person, it is essential to use special low- Natural ventilation systems require open-
emission products. If the activities within ings within the building envelope to 80
a building are not limited to low-intensity exploit naturally occurring pressure differ- 60
activities, such as sedentary work, but ences. These pressure differences can Concentration in building interior
40 air-conditioning system with filter
also, for example, cooking which leads to arise either due to different temperatures Concentration in building interior
20 natural ventilation
higher humidity values, the air exchange between the inside and the outside
Concentration in outside space
frequency must be increased corre- space or due to wind pressure. Aspects
4 8 12 16 20 24
spondingly. particularly worth considering are the
Time (h)
When dimensioning the ventilation plant, shape and size of the openings as well as
3.113
it is important to pay attention to the their position in relation to each other. It Wind
required room air quality. The room air follows that the shape and appearance
quality is divided into four categories of the building should be coordinated Negative pressure
(IDA 1 – 4) according to DIN EN 13 779 with the ventilation system. In principle,
(Fig. 3.108). systems that operate with wind pressure
The required quality can either be defined require smaller dimensions than systems
directly according to the CO2 concentra- based on updraught (Fig. 3.114 and
tion and the amount of certain pollutants 3.115).
or indirectly by using the outside air vol- The simplest form of ventilation is window
ume flow per person or per square metre opening. Its effectiveness is influenced
(Fig. 3.109 – 110). According to DIN, a especially by the height of the window or
supply of approximately 30 m3/h per per- the height difference between two open-
son to a room with normal air conditions is ings and the cross-sectional areas of the
capable of achieving only “medium” room openings. In the case of window ventila-
Wind-driven ventilation
air quality. A high room air quality, tion, the depth of the room to be venti- 3.114
according to DIN, requires an air lated should not exceed 2.5 times the
exchange rate of 36 – 54 m3/h. However, room height, as otherwise the ventilation
Thermal buoyancy
for energy conservation reasons, an air of the space furthest away from the open-
exchange rate of only 30 m3/h per person ing can no longer be guaranteed. If cross
is usually applied. ventilation is used, the maximum room
According to DIN EN 13 779, the quality depth should not exceed five times the
of supplied outside air is divided into room height. Where window ventilation is
three categories (IDA 1 – 3). Since filters selected, the window should be equipped
cannot be used in natural ventilation sys- with a device which automatically inter-
tems, they should ideally be used only rupts the waterflow of the radiator.
when the outside air quality is high
(Fig. 3.113). If mechanical ventilation sys- Utilising updraught systems
tems are to be installed, the class of the The use of updraught requires the provi-
installed filter must be determined sion of elevated atria or solar chimneys. Solar chimney
3.115
53
Their effectiveness derives from the fact pressure differences and only very high
that air pressure decreases linearly with ventilation shafts could theoretically
increasing height at constant temperature improve the situation.
and that warm air has a lower density As an alternative, it is possible to achieve
than cold air. If the temperature differ- an adequate pressure difference by
ence is sufficient, thermal buoyancy heating the volume flow of exhaust air
occurs which can be exploited for ventila- with waste heat thereby making it much
tion purposes. warmer than the outside air. In terms
A solar chimney generally consists of a of energy efficiency, the combustion of
vertical shaft, which is situated either fossil fuels for this purpose must be
above or next to the ventilated zones. avoided. Possible means for heating the
The efficiency of a solar chimney can be exhaust air include use-related thermal
increased if it is either fully or partially loads, for example server waste heat. The
glazed (Fig. 3.116). heating process should not affect the
Occasionally active heating systems thermal conditions of the rooms located
based on waste heat or surplus solar nearby.
energy are integrated at the top of the It is absolutely essential to consider the
chimney (Fig. 3.117). They are especially installation of weather and temperature
suitable where a significant excess of controlled apertures during the planning
solar thermal energy is produced during process since these often require expen-
the day. The surplus energy can be sive measurement and control equip-
stored and guided to the solar chimney ment.
via the heating system at night. The chim- A considerable advantage of natural ven-
3.116
ney is then also available for ventilation tilation is that no energy is required to
purposes at night. power the air movement during the oper-
ation and that very little maintenance
Planning and operation work is involved. The main disadvantage
To achieve the best results, the supply air is the dependence on the mesoclimatic
inlet should be placed at the lowest pos- site factors.
sible position of the building and the
exhaust air outlet at the highest. The tem- Application
perature difference between the exhaust Urban, highly polluted locations often
air and the outside air should be as large prove to be very difficult. In contrast to a
as possible; the flow resistance, which building with air-conditioning, in these
leads to pressure loss, should be as low locations natural ventilation, especially
as possible. during the day, can lead to higher pollut-
Because the thermal buoyancy changes ant loads (without CO2) in the interior. Fil-
in accordance with the temperature differ- ters, similar to those used in air-condition-
ence and the height of the shaft, varying ing systems, cannot normally be applied
pressure differences can arise in the indi- in naturally ventilated buildings because
vidual storeys if several levels are con- the pressure drop caused is higher than
nected to one buoyancy area. To guaran- the negative pressure produced by the
tee minimum ventilation of the uppermost system.
floor, it must be located well below the In contrast to buildings with a mechanical
3.117 highest point of the ventilation shaft or the ventilation system, maximum tempera-
atrium roof. The air outlets can be dimen- tures cannot be guaranteed in naturally
sioned slightly smaller on the lower levels ventilated buildings. However, it is gener-
in order to counter-balance the varying ally the case that occupants of mechani-
3.116 Utilisation of wind energy for building pressure differences. cally ventilated buildings are far more
ventilation, office building of BRE in When investigating the necessary pres- sensitive to deviations from the perfect
Hertfordshire (GB), Feilden Clegg Architects
3.117 Ventilation system in a residential building in sure differences, it is most important to room temperature than users of naturally
Paris (F), Barthélémy & Griňo Architectes/ consider the extreme seasonal fluctua- ventilated buildings. The reason for this
Bernhard Lenz. Surplus heat produced by
collectors during the day is stored in a buffer tions. In summer nights and during the phenomenon is that the occupants have
and channelled into the solar chimney in a winter months, the pressure differences had to adapt to the air temperature fluctu-
controlled way so that it can also be utilised for
ventilation purposes during the night. are usually sufficiently high due to the ations.
3.118 Residential building in Watford (GB) with a large temperature differences between
wind catcher, Sheppard Robson Architects
a Wind catcher and pholtovoltaic plant
the exhaust air and the outside air. Spring Performance
b Section and autumn, however, can cause prob- The thermal buoyancy results from the
3.119 School in Ladakh (IND), Arup Associates
a Solar-powered ventilation shaft
lems. Temperature differences of only a different densities of two air volumes and
b Section few Kelvin do not lead to sufficiently high the possible height that the air mass can
54
Air supply
rise. Because warm air has a lower den- the approaching wind flow is specified as
sity than cold, it is lighter. The relative wind pressure coefficient and can only be
humidity has only a small impact on the determined by CFD simulations (Compu-
thermal buoyancy. However, at the same tational Fluid Dynamics) or wind tunnel
temperature, damp air is lighter than dry tests. The same applies for the determin-
air. Despite the same air volume flow, the ation of the distribution of pressure fields,
air flow rate decreases at extremely low which, depending on the geometry of the
air pressure, which is the reason why less building, can be extremely complex.
energy can be transported. As a rule, the distribution of pressure and
The thermal buoyancy can be calculated tension zones caused by the wind flow
by multiplying the available height that around buildings is not balanced. It is,
the air may rise and the density difference therefore, difficult to ensure even ventila-
between the outside air and the air in the tion with the same amount of supply and
vertical shaft. Assuming that the solar exhaust air. For instance, an orthogonal
chimney has a height of h = 10 m, the wind flow produces an increase of posi- a
temperature of the exhaust air is tive pressure at the bottom of the building
increased to 60 °C due to solar irradiance on the windward facade and an increase
and the outside temperature is tOA = 30 °C, of negative pressure in the upper area of
the following pressure difference can be the leeward facade.
determined: In order to make effective use of wind
pressure, special structural elements are
ΔPtherm = h · g · (ρA - ρI) advantageous, for example windcatchers
= 10 m · 9.81 m/s2 · that have for a long time been used in the
(1.059 kg/m3 - 1.164 kg/m3) Middle East.
= -10.3 Pa
Construction and function
ρA = Density of outside air (kg/m3) In its most basic form, a windcatcher con-
ρI = Density of exhaust air (kg/m3) sists of a simple shaft, which has one or
g = Gravity (m/s2) several openings in the upper section. If
h = Height of rising exhaust air (m) the windcatcher is used merely as a sup-
b 3.118
ply duct, it only has to be provided with
Thermal buoyancy, however, only takes one opening on the side facing the pre-
place if the pressure loss of the in-flowing vailing wind direction. If an additional
air is below the buoyant force produced exhaust air outlet is to be provided, it
by the vertical shaft. In order to achieve should be placed on the leeward side of
an effective buoyant force, large tempera- the tower. The main function of a wind-
ture differences or tall chimneys are catcher is to cool the supply air.
needed. It is theoretically possible to pro- When channelled through the wind-
duce these differences by using excess catcher, the supply air, which in compari-
heat, which is, for example, not needed in son to the building material of the wind-
summer, to boost the system perform- catcher only has a very low heat storage
ance by channelling it into the flow of capacity, dissipates energy to the cooler
exhaust air. mass of the building and cools down.
The performance can also be increased The process of the outside air cooling
by using available wind pressure and tak- down as it enters the structure leads to
a
ing advantage of the Venturi effect. The an increase of air density, which makes
Venturi effect states that the velocity of a the air sink and thus draw in more outside
fluid (e.g. air) flowing through a tube air. The degree of convection achieved in
increases if its section is reduced. This the windcatcher depends especially on
phenomenon can be used for ventilation the height of the tower, since with
purposes in buildings. increasing height there is greater expo-
sure to the structural mass and more ther-
Natural ventilation – wind mal energy can be transferred to the

If wind blows perpendicular to a building, structure. Furthermore, the period of con-
a positive pressure zone is created on the tact between the air mass and the cool
windward side and a negative pressure surface of the windcatcher at the same air
zone on the leeward side as well as on velocity is longer, the higher the tower is.
the side walls. This effect can either be The natural wind pressure supports the
used for cross ventilation or cross-corner resulting downwind leading to higher air
ventilation purposes. The resistance to velocities.
b 3.119
55
Planning and operation by cooldowns, the wind velocity influ- p. 42) can only be used in hot-dry
A windcatcher should generally be made ences the performance of a windcatcher. regions.
of a material with a high thermal mass Tall or free-standing buildings can there-
and sufficient thickness to ensure that the fore make far greater use of the wind Mechanical ventilation systems
necessary level of cooling is achieved pressure than low ones. In contrast to natural ventilation, these
continuously throughout the day. If the The expected air velocity at the height of systems have the advantage that they
storage capacity of the material is inad- the air inlet can be determined approxi- can easily be provided with a control
equate, the reversal effect could occur in mately. Assuming that the air velocity at a mechanism, they can be used with filters
the evening. In this case the windcatcher height of ten metres is 5.5 m/s, that the and recover heat. However, unlike in nat-
dissipates unwanted heat into the cooler windcatcher is twelve metres tall and ural ventilation systems, these mechani-
evening air and works in a similar way to located within the surface topography of cal systems require energy to operate the
a solar chimney. In systems that work with a small town, the following wind velocities fans (Fig. 3.121).
downwind and updraught, in sections can be estimated: In mechanical ventilation systems, it is
arranged one behind the other, the heat necessary to distinguish between central
transmission between the supply and VCat = V10 · ln (z2 /z0) / ln (zref /z0) and local systems. In central systems,
exhaust air ducts must be minimised. = 5.5 m/s · ln (12 m /0.4) / ln(10/0.4) there is also a differentiation between
Within a windcatcher, the downwind 5.8 m/s exhaust air systems and air supply and
results generally from a mix of tempera- exhaust systems (Fig. 3.120). Central
ture induced convective airdrop and VCat = Wind velocity at the height of the systems require ductwork (Fig. 3.123).
available wind pressure. Contemporary windcatcher Local air supply and exhaust systems are
variants of windcatchers planned and V10 = Reference velocity of the wind integrated in an exterior wall and do not
built in climates without extreme tempera- zref = Reference height of the wind require any kind of ductwork.
ture differences during the day, only velocity
make use of wind pressure and can z0 = Roughness of the topography Air exhaust systems
therefore be made of construction materi- z2 = Height of the air inlet Air exhaust systems require ductwork
als with low thermal mass (Fig. 3.118, simply to discharge the exhaust air. The
p. 55). The wind pressure acting on a building or supply air is introduced to the building
Since the utilisation of the wind takes a ventilation aperture is generally directly interior in a local fashion via openings cut
place close to the ground, the topogra- dependent upon the pressure coefficient, into the exterior wall specifically for this
phy of the site has a significant impact on the air density and the wind velocity. The purpose (Fig. 3.125, p. 58).
the function and efficiency of a wind- maximum pressure expected to act on It is necessary to make sure, when posi-
catcher. A built-up environment usually the air inlet can be estimated according tioning the wall penetrations, that the sup-
has a reducing effect on the wind velocity to the specific wind velocity and the air ply air is drawn into the building interior
and can lead to wind shear. density which can be derived from the air immediately above a heat source to pre-
temperature: vent draughts occurring in winter. It there-
Application fore makes sense to locate the wall pene-
The use of a windcatcher requires a high Pw = CpL· [(ρL · Uo2)/2] tration immediately above a radiator. The
daily temperature amplitude, as found in = 1.0 · [(1.165 kg/m3 · 5.8 m/s2)/2] air inlet should be equipped with an auto-
hot-dry regions. In particular, the low 19.6 Pa matic volume flow limiter so that, even at
night-time temperatures are extremely high wind pressure, only the required air
important, since the thermal unloading of Pw = Wind pressure volume enters the room. For reasons con-
the storage mass, that was charged dur- CPL = Pressure coefficient cerning energy efficiency, the air inlets
ing the day, is the condition for the opera- ρL = Air density should close at night in buildings that are
tion of this ventilation system. Prevailing Uo = Wind velocity used only during the day. Automatic sys-
wind directions, characteristic of most tems are available for this purpose.
hot-dry regions, are also a clear advan- At an assumed air temperature of 30 °C Waste air valves should be located close
tage. The operation of a windcatcher is and a specific air velocity of 5.8 m/s, with to smell and moisture zones. In kitchens,
therefore extremely dependent on the a windcatcher, it is possible to achieve a the extraction system should not be
mesoclimatic site factors. It is important to maximum positive pressure of approxi- placed directly above the stove due to
note that the pressure differences gener- mately 20 Pa. In comparison, a standard the formation of grease. It makes sense to
ated by wind are usually a lot higher than air filter (grade F 5) fitted inside a ventila- equip the extraction hood with a regener-
the pressure differences induced by tion system can lead to a pressure drop able grease filter. A booster switch is
updraught. The utilisation of wind can of at least 100 Pa. For this reason, if a extremely useful for extraction units
therefore not only increase the buoyancy windcatcher is to be used efficiently for located in areas with high moisture levels,
generated by updraught but also reduce the building ventilation, it is very important such as bathrooms.
it and possibly also lead to a reversal of to minimise pressure loss. As a rule, it does not make sense from an
the flow direction. The cooling capacity of a windcatcher energy perspective to discharge exhaust
can be increased if it is combined with a air to the exterior without extracting the
Performance direct adiabatic evaporation system. heat. Concepts which make provision for
Apart from downwinds, which are caused However, direct adiabatic cooling (see use of the heat contained in the exhaust
56
Air supply
air should take precedence over systems

purely for extraction. Fresh air technology
Exhaust systems in combination with heat

pumps local central
If the building services concept includes
the operation of a heat pump, it is appro-
priate to use the waste heat as a heat Air exhaust Air supply
and exhaust
source for the operation of the heat systems
systems
pump. By using a heat exchanger, a pro-
portion of the energy contained in the

waste air is extracted and increased to a with with with
without with without heat recovery heat recovery heat recovery
higher level of energy by a heat pump. heat recovery heat recovery heat recovery via air-to-water via heat exchan- via air-to-air
The energy can either be used to heat the heat pump ger heat pump
building or for the domestic hot-water
3.120
production. Since the formation of ice
must be avoided on the heat pump’s
evaporator coil, the temperature of the
exhaust air should not be reduced any
Cooling capacity (kW)

70 Total Ventilation Component cooling
further than approximately 5 °C. Energy
saving 60
Air supply and exhaust systems without Auxiliary energy

ventilation 50
ductwork
These systems consist of a heat 40
exchanger and a small fan which is inte- Ventilation Ventilation
grated into a penetration in the exterior 30
wall. To operate local ventilation units with
20
heat recovery, at least one unit should be
installed into the exterior wall of each Transmission Transmission
10
room requiring ventilation (Fig. 3.124).
The ventilation is based on the principle 0
of cross ventilation. This means that half Natural ventilation Mechanical ventilation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
with heat recovery system Time (d)
of the units are removing exhaust air from
the building interior for a period of about 3.121 3.122
one minute, at the same time as the other
units are drawing in fresh outside air. This
procedure alternates, so that all rooms
take turns in either being supplied with
fresh air or having their exhaust air Supply Waste Supply
Exhaust Waste Supply Outside
air air air air
removed. The heat exchangers integrated air air air
in the local units, regain part of the heat
contained in the exhaust air and use it to
preheat the supply air. The ventilation
system is controlled so that the ventilating Local
fans operate in an even push-pull mode. ventilation
Outside air units
To integrate this kind of system, a wall Exhaust
air
opening measuring approximately
20 ≈ 20 cm must be provided.
Air-to-air
heat exchanger
Air supply and exhaust systems with
ductwork
Earth pipe
In contrast to a system which is intended 3.123 3.124
purely for the removal of exhaust air, in

this case the fresh air is drawn in at a
central location and channelled through a
heat exchanger which has the exhaust air 3.122 Combined dissipation of cooling loads from
3.120 Overview of central and local ventilation buildings via component activation and
volume flow moving in a counterflow systems. The systems differ according to the ventilation
direction (Figs. 3.123 and 3.127). During extent of installation work and the level of 3.123 Controlled air supply and air exhaust in
efficiency. residential building with ductwork in summer.
the heating period, a large proportion of 3.121 Potential savings through heat recovery in 3.124 Cross ventilation using a local supply and
the energy contained in the exhaust air residential buildings exhaust air system without ductwork in summer
57
can be transferred to the cold supply air. air can be provided by a heating coil that
In summer, the outside air can be cooled is either connected to the heating system
down in the same way. If the outside or operated electrically.
temperatures are too low, the supply air The post heating of supply air causes dif-
may have to be heated further. It can be ficulties in rooms that have a high
omitted if the temperature of the supply demand for fresh air but, at the same
air is increased to at least 17 °C by the time, low demand for heat, for instance in
exhaust air. bedrooms. In order to avoid this problem,
Generally, it is important to balance the it is necessary to split the air supply duct
air volume flow of the supply and before the heat coil, so that rooms with
exhaust air in order to avoid inefficiencies low heat demand can be supplied with
or, in the worst case, structural damage. cooler air and rooms with high heat
If the supply air volume flow is greater demand can be supplied with warmer air.
than that of the exhaust air, the inside of A disadvantage in this case is the greater
3.125 the building will be subject to positive air cost and effort involved in installation.
pressure and air exfiltration. In this situa- If a building is to be heated exclusively
tion, air is dissipated to the exterior via a ventilation system, the building
through leakage points. In the worst case, envelope must be built according to pas-
this can lead to condensation and struc- sive house standards regarding both
tural damage. If the supply air volume insulation and air tightness. A passive
flow is lower than that of the exhaust air, house may not exceed an annual heat
an infiltration of outside air will occur. In requirement of 15 kWh/m2a. The actual
addition to the controlled air supply, out- heat demand may be above 15 kWh/ m2a,
side air is then drawn in through the however, the excess demand must be
leakage points in the building envelope. covered by internal and external heat
Problems concerning building physics gains. The annual primary energy
are not to be expected, however, there is demand including domestic power may
no opportunity to condition the infiltrated not exceed 120 kWh/m2a.
air. In the worst case, draughts may
occur. Units that are equipped with a Planning and operation of ventilation
3.126
mass balance system, do not have to be plants
adjusted and do not lead to differences in Ideally, office buildings are divided into
the volume flows. different ventilation zones. It should be
Twice the amount of ductwork is required possible for operation of the ventilation
to channel the supply and exhaust air, plant to reflect the office hours, so that the
with the result that these systems require air supply can be adjusted according to
significantly more construction space. In the varying size of the workforce during
places where the supply air and exhaust flexitime and core working hours as well
air ducts cross, it is particularly important as closed periods. In this case, the plant
to ensure that sufficient construction is controlled by the central building con-
height is provided to accommodate both trol system. It is not necessary to arrange
ducts (Fig. 3.128). It goes without saying zones in residential buildings.
that the ductwork should be kept as short In general, care should be taken to main-
as possible in order to minimise pressure tain a low volume flow and consequently
loss. also low pressure loss within the ventila-
3.127
tion system. The pressure loss increases
Air supply and exhaust systems in with the square of the volume flow and
combination with heat pumps the power consumption of the fan with the
As an alternative to systems that transfer third power of the volume flow. The rec-
heat directly from the volume flow of ommended flow velocity is about
exhaust air to the supply air, a heat pump 2 – 3 m / s. Large duct cross sections have
can be used to extract heat from the the effect of reducing the pressure loss
exhaust air (Fig. 3.134). In contrast to a and the flow velocity.

heat exchanger, the temperature of the When planning the infrastructure of the
supply air that can be achieved by a heat building services, the air ductwork should
pump is clearly greater than the tempera- be given priority since circuitous routing
ture level that can be achieved by a heat of the air ducts, in contrast to that for
exchanger. This kind of system can also heating and water pipework, can have
be used as a warm-air heating system. detrimental effects. Air ductwork should
Alternatively, post heating of the supply generally be taken through heated areas
3.128
58
Air supply
of the building. In Germany, VDI 3803 Type Cross flow Counter-flow Closed loop Rotary heat
heat exchanger heat exchanger heat exchanger exchanger with and
provides guidance on the dimensioning without hygroscopic
of air ductwork (Figs. 3.130 and 3.131). storage mass
For an energy-efficient operation, it is System
vital to reduce the pressure loss, which
can be caused by duct fittings, such as
sound attenuators or complicated bypass
situations. Furthermore, flood vents and
air inlets should also ensure low flow
resistance. Flood vents required
Heat up to 60 % up to 90 % up to 50 % up to 80 %
between the individual zones should be recovery
designed in such a way that they cannot Moisture no moisture no moisture no moisture up to 70 %
be closed. regain exchange exchange exchange
If there are no special requirements con- 3.129
cerning sound protection in residential
Duct section calculation Volume flow Required
buildings, non-visible flood vents can be (m3/h) diameter (mm)
used simply by raising the height of the Vh
40 60
A=
door lintel to create a gap between the w · 3600 50 70
lintel and the door lining. By shaping the 60 80
A = Duct section (m2 =10 000 cm2) 70 90
reveal accordingly, the space is con- 80 100
w = Air velocity in duct (m / s) 90 105
nected to the two adjoining rooms and
Vh = Air volume flow (air volume) (m3 /h) 100 110
therefore functions as a flow duct 120 120
between both rooms. In office buildings, d2 · π 140 130
d A= 160 140
flood vents should generally be equipped 4 180 150
with sound protection devices. Figure 200 155
w A=l·w 220 165
3.132 provides guidance on the dimen-
sioning of flood vents. If the vents are not l
3.130 3.131
correctly dimensioned, the effect of the
ventilation may be limited and ventilation
Required volume flow Required section Required gap width (mm)
heat loss might occur due to forced air (m3/h) (cm2) for a length of 1 m
infiltration or exfiltration. 20 56 6
In order to avoid sound transmission 30 83 8
40 111 11
between individual rooms via the duct- 50 139 14
work, sound attenuators must be fitted in 60 167 17
70 194 19
the ductwork between the rooms. Round 222 22
80
or flat sound attenuators are preferable to
insertable sound attenuators, which 3.132
should be avoided as far as possible Air velocity in ducts
since they cause significant pressure Low-pressure Air velocity (m/s)
loss. To reduce pressure loss, single flow- plants Comfort plants Industrial plants
resistant elements, such as sound attenu- Outside air 2–3 4–6
ators, should not be placed immediately Main ducts 4–8 8 –12
Branch ducts 3–5 5–8
behind duct elbows (Fig. 3.128). Exhaust/recirculation air louver 2–3 3–4
To prevent the ductwork from becoming 3.133
soiled, the supply air and exhaust air
stacks should be equipped with filters.
The choice of filter is directly related to
the energy efficiency of the system. A 1 1
3.125 Opening in exterior wall for local ventilation
8 9
system
fine filter prevents the ductwork from 2
3.126 Local ventilation system in an office building
becoming soiled, however, it increases 12 built according to passive house standards
3.127 Supply and exhaust air system with cross-flow
the flow resistance which leads to greater 3 4 10 11
heat exchanger
energy consumption by the fan and 3.128 Exposed air ducts with integrated sound
attenuator
therefore higher costs. In order to mini- 1 Fan 3.129 Principles of heat recovery in ventilation plants
mise the pressure drop caused by the fil- 5 2 Air condenser 3.130 Approximate calculations of duct sections
3 Vaporiser according to VDI 3803
ters, it is necessary to inspect them regu- 7 4 Compressor 3.131 Required diameters of air ducts (for max. air
larly and replace any coated filters as 5 Booster heater velocity cmax=3.0 m/s)
6 Water condenser 3.132 Cross-sectional area of flood vents in
soon as possible. Therefore easy acces- 7 Coil (heat exchanger)
dependence of required air volume flow
8 Outlet air
sibility of the inspection flaps should be 9 Exhaust air 3.133 Maximum air velocities in ducts
10 Outside air 3.134 Compact ventilation unit for residential building
considered during planning. with heat recovery, an integrated air-source
6 11 Supply air
When selecting the fans, their energy effi- 12 Air heat exchanger heat pump and a water storage tank
3.134
59
Outside air temperature ta

ciency is an important aspect. Ideally
Storage mass 200 kg/m2 fans with highly efficient EC motors
Storage mass 500 kg/m2 should be installed.
Storage mass 1000 kg/m2
Temperature (°C)
35
Application
It generally makes sense to install a venti-
30 lation plant if the building envelope is
well-insulated and airtight. If the building
envelope is of a high quality, the greatest
loss of energy is caused by ventilation
25
heat loss. A controlled supply of fresh air
and extraction of exhaust air can reduce
20 this loss significantly. Primarily, applica-
tion of the different ventilation systems
should be viewed in the light of the
15
desired annual heat requirement and suit-
28 July 29 July 30 July 31 July
ability for integration into the overall build-
3.135
ing services concept.
Outside temperature ot
Performance
Natural ventilation: day 100%; nightNacht 0% Looking at an exhaust system for a four-
Natural ventilation: day 0%; night 10% (bottom-hinged sash) person household, it is appropriate to
Temperature (°C)
35
assume a required air volume flow of
approximately 120 m3/h. In the case of a
highly efficient exhaust system with an
30
assumed power consumption of
0.15 W/ m3/h, the fan would have an
energy consumption of 118 kWh in a win-
25
ter with an assumed heating period of
6550 hours. The advantage of using pri-
mary energy can only be established
20 once the building residents’ behaviour in
relation to natural ventilation is known.
When operating an air exhaust system
15 with a heat pump, an exhaust air volume
28 July 29 July 30 July 31 July
flow of 120 m3/h and a possible cool-
3.136
down of the exhaust air to 5 °C, a capac-
ity of approximately 650 W is available for
other purposes. If the heat pump’s coeffi-
3.135 Exemplary presentation of a room with an air can be obtained with ventilation via a cient of performance (COP) is assumed
change rate of two during the day and four at mechanical plant with an air exchange rate of to be 3.0, a capacity of almost 2 kW is
night. It proves that the thermal storage mass approximately 6.
has a considerable influence on the heat rise in 3.137 Night-time ventilation vents in a school in then available.
a room. Frankfurt/Main built according to passive The efficiency of air supply and exhaust
3.136 Simulation of night-time ventilation in a building house standards, 4a Architekten
with a large storage mass. The night-time a Exterior view systems without ductwork is especially
ventilation leads to results similar to those that b Detail view from the inside dependent on the power consumption of
the fan and the heat recovery factor of
the heat exchanger. The pressure loss
also has to be considered when selecting
the system, as this is a further aspect that
influences the efficiency.
The energy demand of air supply and
exhaust systems with ductwork is directly
related to the installed filters, sound

attenuators, the ductwork and the cen-
tral plant utilised. Assuming that the
electrical energy demand of a perfectly
dimensioned plant is only approximately
0.4 W/m3/h, the power consumption of
the system is almost 50 W at a volume
a b flow of 120 m3/h.
3.137
60
Air supply
Night-time ventilation system can be improved by combining it hours (Fig. 3.136). As the summer night-
Night-time ventilation can be used as the with an exhaust air shaft (see p. 53f.), time temperatures in Central Europe usu-
sole method for cooling a building if the which is based on thermal buoyancy. ally fall below 20 °C, it is likely to achieve
internal and external heat gains are low. Since a temperature difference occurs a heat sink in the interior rooms. At higher
Sufficient thermal mass is a prerequisite between the outside air and the exhaust altitudes, where the night-time tempera-
(Fig. 3.135). Floor slabs that function as air, the dissipated heat, especially in ture falls below 16 °C, greater heat loads,
thermal storage mass should remain clear summer nights, can be used to as high as approximately 250 Wh/m2d,
uncladded. Any acoustic fittings that are increase the thermal buoyancy and, can be dissipated.
required should already be considered through this, the efficiency of the ventila-
during the planning phase. tion system. Earth pipes
If a building equipped with a controlled These systems are also referred to as

Construction and function supply and exhaust air system is to be earth-to-air heat exchangers and can be
A perfectly designed ventilation concept cooled at night by natural ventilation, the used to draw in air to a central unit. Earth
should, as far as possible, function cool outside air should clearly not be pipes are primarily used to precondition
without fans. If this is not the case, the channelled through the heat exchanger, supply air during the cooling period. A
expenses for the auxiliary energy since this process would heat the sup- prerequisite for operating an earth-to-air
required to power the fans must be taken plied air. In this case, the ventilation sys- heat exchanger is the installation of a
into account. To guarantee good ventila- tem should be planned with a bypass, ventilation plant. Since earth pipes cannot
tion and maximum heat dissipation with- which can be used to draw the cool out- limit maximum temperatures, their appli-
out fans, the ventilation openings must be side air into the building in summer cation presupposes that it is acceptable
adequately dimensioned. It is generally nights. A further advantage of the bypass for the room air temperature to rise on hot
possible to increase the air exchange rate is a lower pressure drop due to the fact days.
with fans to well above the air exchange that the heat exchanger is circumvented.
rate achieved through natural ventilation. Construction and function
However, if the fans are operated eco- Application An earth pipe is a heat exchanger which
nomically, the air exchange rate that can The investment costs for a night-time ven- cools the supply air by drawing outside
be achieved with fans is no higher than tilation system are clearly below those of air in through the pipes and dissipating
n = 4 h-1 and, therefore, clearly below the an air-conditioning plant. Maximum room the heat to the surrounding ground. The
air exchange rates which can be reached temperatures and prescribed cooling earth pipe with its surrounding ground
with natural ventilation and ideally dimen- loads cannot be guaranteed. However, a functions as a temporary heat store,
sioned ventilation openings. night-time ventilation system can contrib- which means that it should be able to
ute considerably towards cooling the regenerate periodically in order to remain
Planning and operation building in spring and autumn. During hot in good working order. In winter it can
If the building is planned so that it is periods, especially in the case of high also be used to preheat the supply air
cooled exclusively by night-time ventila- night-time temperatures, this ventilation as the ground temperature, in contrast to
tion, the ventilation concept should be system can support the heat sink of a the situation in the summer months, is
flexible enough to cater for future building in only a very limited way. clearly above the outside temperature
changes and refurbishments. If ventilation is carried out by opening (Fig. 3.139, p. 62). The earth pipes or the
Furthermore, it makes sense to have a windows or vents, differing wind condi- collective ducts are connected to the
large amount of thermal mass which is tions surrounding the building may lead building’s ventilation system. The earth
distributed evenly throughout the space, to different degrees of cooling and possi- pipes are either placed in the ground next
as this contributes towards the thermal bly also undercooling of certain rooms in to the building, beneath a foundation slab
mixing of the incoming air. Not only the the building interior. It is theoretically pos- or between isolated footings. If the earth
floor areas, but also the ceiling areas sible to integrate control mechanisms, pipe is placed below the building, the
should make contact with the air to dis- such as mechanically controlled vents, basement rooms should not be heated.
charge the accumulated heat. however, this is usually not a very eco- Earth pipes are generally only used up to
If fans are used in the ventilation concept, nomical solution unless, for example, an air volume of approximately
it has to be considered that the use of an smoke extraction vents are in any event 20 000 m3/h. If larger air volumes are
air intake fan leads to an increase of required. required, so called thermal labyrinths are
approximately 1 K in the temperature of used. These are, in effect, large concrete
the supply air. For this reason, air intake Performance ducts, which have a correspondingly
fans should not be operated until the pre- Night-time ventilation is particularly much larger heat transfer surface and are
determined minimum temperature differ- appropriate for Central Europe where only usually laid below the building. Since the
ence between the outside and inside air low heat loads of, at the most, approxi- thermal labyrinth is not placed in the
has been reached. The definition of this mately 150 Wh/ m2d occur (Fig. 3.137). To ground but integrated within the building,
temperature difference is particularly use night-time ventilation to dissipate the sufficient time to regenerate should be
dependent on the minimum coefficient of heat absorbed by the building mass dur- considered.
performance achieved by the system. ing the day, the outside air temperature Because the saving of energy alone does
As an alternative to operating fans, the should be at least 5 K below the inside not justify the considerable construction
cooling performance of the ventilation room temperature for at least five to six costs, synergies should be found for the
61
implementation of this system, for exam- supply air into the building via a bypass.
ple, the necessary excavation of a foun- The thermal regeneration of the earth
dation pit. pipe takes place during this period as
the heat previously absorbed is dissi-
Planning and operation pated to the surrounding ground. If the
Heat pump The size of an earth pipe system building has a building services control
depends on the required air volume flow system, it is also possible to control the
Heat store and the possible area required for its fresh air supply by setting a defined
installation. The typical diameter of an temperature difference between the out-
earth pipe is approximately 20 cm. side and inside air temperature.
Larger diameters are usually used only In order to remove condensation, the
in the case of office buildings and then system has to be installed with a one to
they are predominately designed as two percent gradient in the opposite
3.138
accessible air supply galleries. The dis- direction to the air flow. Furthermore, the
Summer (cooling) tance to be maintained between the laid installation of a condensation drain is
28 °C 17 °C 18 °C
pipes depends upon the pipe diameter required. If the earth pipe is placed in
and the nature of the soil. However, to groundwater, the system should be
avoid thermal interference between the waterproof.
individual pipes, the distance apart With careful planning, the growth of bac-
should not be less than one metre. In the teria and fungi can be avoided within the
case of office buildings, the depth of the earth pipe system. To keep the system
pipes should be around two to three clean, a G 4 or higher class filter should
meters. Depending on the time of the be fitted to prevent dirt from entering the
Earth pipe Room year and the geographical location, the pipe system. If the earth pipe is used in
ground temperature in Germany at this regions where considerable amounts of
Winter (heating) depth ranges between 6 and 15 °C radon diffuse from the ground, care
-10 °C 5 °C 17 °C 18 °C
(Fig. 3.140). If the earth-to-air heat should be taken to ensure that there is
exchanger is placed close to the base- sufficient distance between the air inlet
ment wall, heat could flow from the and the ground.
building’s basement to the earth pipe.
This effect leads to a slightly improved Application
performance of the earth pipe, although Ideal mesoclimatic site factors are fun-
it does not lead to an energy gain. The damental for the efficient usage of an
ground temperatures in the soil sur- earth-to-air heat exchanger. Generally,
rounding the building are usually only the application of earth pipes does not
Earth pipe Room
slightly higher than the temperature of depend upon the region. However, the
Heat exchanger the undisturbed ground. cooling capacity of an earth pipe is
3.139
The earth pipe should be dimensioned inversely related to the average annual
February May August November
so that there are no significant fluctua- temperature and, in cooler regions, there
Depth (m)
0
tions within the system during the course is only a small demand for cooling
of the day and the temperature in the (Fig. 3.142). If the outside temperature is
5
earth pipe barely rises. The specific duct 45 °C and the ground temperature is
surface area required for the heat trans- 28 °C, as is the case in Dubai, an earth
10
fer should be selected in accordance pipe would have to be about 400 m
with the air volume flow. To avoid high long to cool the supply air down to
15 pressure loss and associated high 28 °C. On the one hand, this kind of
energy consumption by the fans, a low installation would lead to a high cooling
20 air velocity of approximately 2 m/s capacity, but on the other hand the
should be ensured. In Germany, the extreme length of the duct would cause
50 necessary surface required for the heat considerable pressure loss and there-
100 exchange is approximately 0.04 m2/m3/h fore also a very high energy consump-
(Fig. 3.141). tion to operate the fans. In contrast,
200 Normally, the earth pipe system is oper- Central European sites, like, for exam-
ated only during the day. The ground ple, Frankfurt am Main, are ideal for the
300 can then regenerate its thermal capacity use of earth pipes.
at night. It is possible to control the A building cannot be cooled effectively
400
regeneration period via the outside tem- with a hygienic air exchange rate and
perature. If, for example, the outside typical heat load of over 120 Wh/m²d.
0 5 10 15 20 25 temperature falls below 19 °C, the venti- However, it is still useful to reduce the
Temperature (C) lation can be continued by drawing the temperature peaks. In order to dissipate
3.140
62
Air supply
typical heat loads, earth pipes are usu-
Inside diameter (cm)

50 s /s
m/ 1.0 m /s
ally combined with another cooling 45 0.5 1.5 m
system. In this case, the earth pipe is s
40 2.0 m/
used to draw in outside air without /s
35 2.5 m
simultaneously adding further heat load 3.0 m/s
to the interior. The cooling loads of the 30 3.5 m/s
building interior can, for example, be 25
dissipated via thermo-active cooling 20
systems.
15
If a controlled ventilation system with
10
an efficient heat recovery system is to
be installed, the capacity of the earth 5
pipe in winter is reduced so much 0

that it can simply be regarded as a frost 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
protector for the heat exchanger during Air volume flow in pipe (m3/h)
the heating period. There are hardly 3.141
any advantages in terms of energy
Annual Average cooling capacity in relation Average operation time (h) in relation
saving. mean to the outside temperature (°C) to the outside temperature (°C)
temp.
(°C) 15 ± 0.5 20 ± 0.5 25 ± 0.5 30 ± 0.5 15 20 25 30
Performance
Rome 14.5 2.2 2.4 5.1 8.2 142 3,8 153 75
The reduction or increase of the supply
Marseilles 14.3 1.9 2.4 5.0 7.8 170 392 201 59
air temperature is not in proportion to
the length of the ground-to-air heat Madrid 13.9 2.2 2.3 5.3 8.3 173 393 164 60
exchanger. For this reason, it is neces- Milan 12.3 2.8 3.0 6.0 9.2 201 324 164 62
sary to balance the changes in the sup- Locarno 11.1 2.7 3.9 6.8 9.9 223 299 143 11
ply air temperature with the pressure Paris 10.9 2.2 4.2 7.4 10.3 359 344 65 1
loss resulting from the length of the London 10.5 2.0 5.0 8.3 – 493 198 47 0
earth pipe. The gain is largely depend- Geneva 10.0 2.5 4.7 7.5 10.7 266 226 99 25
ent on the prevailing outside tempera- Bonn 9.7 1.9 5.2 7.9 11.3 376 240 58 1
tures. An earth pipe can deliver high
Zurich 9.0 2.4 5.3 8.3 11.2 383 194 62 7
performance in both summer and winter.
Hamburg 8.5 2.5 5.8 8.9 12.6 398 161 47 1
Depending on the location, well
Innsbruck 8.2 2.8 5.9 8.8 11.7 386 187 42 8
designed earth pipes can, on very hot
Copenhagen 7.7 3.0 6.1 9.6 – 449 142 24 0
days, reduce the temperature of the
supply air by approximately 10 K (out- 3.142
side air temperature > 30 °C). During
Energy supply (kWh/a)
Frequency (h/a)
2500 500
the heating period, a heat rise of up to Frequency
20 °C can be expected. Cooling
Heating
In spring and autumn, with outside tem- 2000 400
peratures of around 12 °C to 18 °C, the

earth pipe is normally not used since the 1500 300
supply air neither has to be heated nor
cooled (Fig. 3.143). The operation of an
earth-to-air heat exchanger would lead 1000 200
first of all to the passive cooling of the

supply air by the earth pipe and then 500 100
having to heat it actively by the heating
plant. The same applies for the reverse
0 0
situation. The use of a bypass is there-
-10 -6 -2 2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38
fore especially important during spring
Outside temperature (°C)
and autumn. Due to this period without
3.143
any air conditioning, the amount of
energy that can be provided by the 3.138 Schematic diagram of a building‘s cooling diameter: 0.3 m, installation depth: 2.5 m, pipe
earth pipe is modest when viewed over system including an earth pipe and a heat length: 30 m). The cooling capacity describes
pump the temperature difference which can be
the year as a whole. 3.139 Temperature development of the supply air achieved after cooling the outside air in an
The energy consumption for the trans- when cooled or heated by earth pipes earth pipe in relation to the outside air
3.140 Exemplary development of the ground temperature.
portation of the supply air should be temperature at different times of the year 3.143 Annual utilisation period of the earth pipe in
around 0.2 W/m3/h. It is possible to con- 3.141 Diameter of earth pipes according to the relation to the outside temperature. The earth
required air velocity and air volume flow pipe is not usually used at temperatures
vey an air volume of approximately 250 3.142 Cooling capacities of an earth pipe at different between 12 – 18 C as it is not necessary to
m3/h with a pipe diameter of 20 cm. annual mean temperatures and locations (pipe cool or heat the supply air in this case.
63
Ventilated thermo-active building systems

(TABS)
A ventilated system is a special type of

thermo-active building system. In con-
trast to conventional thermo-active sys-
tems with water pipes laid in the con-
crete floor slabs, this system integrates
air ducts into the floor slabs (Fig. 3.144).
Unlike in water-conveying TABS, the
functions of heating, cooling and build-
ing ventilation are, in this case, com-

bined in one system. The air exchange
is used to remove moisture and to ther-
mally condition the building.
3.144
Air temperature (°C) 21.4°C 21.0°C Construction and function
21.2°C 20.8°C In contrast to conventional ventilation
Air temperature (°C)
22
systems, the supply air is first chan-
20 nelled through the floor slab before it is
then introduced into the rooms. The out-
18 side air is channelled through an air-
conditioning and ventilation plant and
16 conditioned according to the supply air
temperature and the humidity level.
14
Because the heat exchange rate of con-
12
crete ceilings is around 90 %, the out-
side air does not usually have to be
10 reheated in winter but can be introduced
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 directly to the building. Air is not recircu-
Length (m) lated. The temperature of the supply air
3.145
approaches the ceiling temperature
Temperature (°C)
35 T outside asymptotically when flowing through the

T apparent
T ceiling slab-integrated ducts (Fig. 3.145).
30
Planning and operation
25
The position and arrangement of the
pipes should be determined with the
structural engineer in good time. As a
20 rule, the aluminium cooling or heating
tubes are embedded on the neutral axis
15 of the ceiling slab. To improve their heat
transfer properties, the tubes are ribbed
on the inside. The diameter of the tubes
10
is 60 or 80 mm. In contrast to conven-
00.00 12.00 00.00 12.00 00.00 12.00 00.00 12.00 00.00 12.00 00.00 12.00 00.00 12.00 00.00
29 Aug. 30 Aug. 31 Aug. 1 Sep. 2 Sep. 3 Sep. 4 Sep. 5 Sep. tional ventilation systems, the ceiling-
Time integrated tube system allows the storey
3.146
height to be reduced. It is possible to
clean and inspect the ribbed tubes in
accordance with VDI 6022.
Application
In winter it is easy to make use of inter-
Mixed ventilation, tangential Mixed ventilation, radial Sub-floor ventilation nal and external heat gains arising in the
building simply by transferring them to
the cold air supply. Given an outside air
temperature of 10 °C, a floor slab tem-
perature of 22 °C and a ventilation tube
length of ten metres, in a standard office
Facade ventilation with Facade ventilation with building it can be assumed that the tem-
centralised extraction system decentralised extraction system Displacement ventilation perature of the supply air will increase to
3.147
64
Air supply
approximately 21 °C before it flows into

the interior of the building. Since the
supply air in summer also absorbs
energy via the floor slab, but a tempera-
ture rise should be avoided, the warm
outside air has to be cooled down to
approximately 12 °C before entering
the thermo-active building system
(Fig. 3.146). At cooling loads of around
40 to 60 W/m2, it is not usually necessary
to provide an additional building cooling

system.
Performance
In contrast to water-bearing TABS, air- 3.148 3.149
conveying TABS do not require any
pumps. If the building needs night-time a non-woven material or perforated Displacement ventilation
cooling, the length of time in which fans sheet metal. The supply air is best dis- A displacement ventilation system guar-
are required to operate is longer than tributed by using raised flooring antees room air with an extremely high
the operation periods of fans in buildings (Fig. 3.148). As the temperature of the degree of purity. The air is introduced
with a combination of ventilation and supply air is only approximately 2 K into the room via large enclosing sur-
water-bearing TABS. below the room air temperature, a sub- faces (e.g. the ceiling) and then
The heat transfer of the embedded floor ventilation system can only achieve extracted on the opposite side of the
tubes is approximately 20 – 30 W/m2K. A a cooling output of 20 W/ m2. It is not room. Due to the large-scale and clearly
rate of two air changes per hour requires possible to use this system to heat the defined surfaces, a laminar flow is
an air supply of around 6 m3/h m2. room. With the supply air being only established without turbulences, which
slightly cooler than the room air, due to is able to extract impurities very suc-
Ventilation systems the character of the system, sub-floor cessfully. Because of the very large air
A perfect ventilation strategy does not ventilation systems can be disadvanta- inlet and outlet surfaces, the installation
only contribute towards improving the geous from an energy point of view if work involved is considerable. Displace-
thermal comfort, it can also influence the large cooling loads need removing from ment ventilation systems are therefore
energy consumption of a building. Venti- the interior. usually only used in special situations
lation systems do not only differ accord- (e.g. laboratories or clean rooms).
ing to the extent of installation work and Mixed ventilation
cost, but also according to the achieva- In contrast to sub-floor ventilation sys-
ble quality of ventilation. According to tems, the supply air in mixed ventilation
the various airflow patterns, there is a systems is introduced into the room at
distinction between sub-floor ventilation, high speed (usually by jet or twist out-
mixed ventilation and displacement ven- lets). Due to the high velocity, the supply
tilation (Fig. 3.147). air quickly mixes with the room air
(induction method). For this reason, only
Sub-floor ventilation small inlets are required, for example, in
Sub-floor ventilation systems are usually the ceiling area, which generally calls for
used in office buildings and are able to less elabo-rate installation work. Due to
provide very good air quality inside the the intensive mixing of room and supply
rooms. air, the temperature of the supply air can
In this case, supply air is introduced into be well above or below the room tem-
the room at floor level at a slightly lower perature. This airflow system can there-
temperature than the room air. The air fore also meet a proportion of the heat-
velocity is generally below 0.2 m/s so ing or cooling loads. However, as a rule, 3.144 Air-conveying thermo-active building systems
(TABS). The supply air pipes are embedded in
that large air ducts are required to trans- water-bearing cooling or heating sys- the neutral zone of the concrete floor slab.
port the air. Due to the low air velocity tems should be given precedence, since 3.145 Increase of supply air temperature through
TABS in relation to the outside air temperature
and the comparatively cool supply air, a air has a very low storage capacity. and the pipe length.
fresh air pool is created within the room. Mixed ventilation systems are used 3.146 Air temperature changes in relation to the
outside temperature and using TABS (design
After having been heated by occupants when a high air exchange is required or data: air volume flow 7.5 m/hm, air inlet
and internal heat sources, the air rises part of the heat load is to be removed temperature 12 C, total maximum cooling load
60 W/m)
and is finally extracted at ceiling level via the ventilation. The controlled supply 3.147 Airflow patterns of mechanical ventilation
(Fig. 3.149). Due to the very low air and discharge of air in single family systems in office rooms
3.148 Supply air outlets in raised flooring system
velocity, there are very few draughts. homes is also a mixed ventilation sys- (without pedestals and panelling)
The air inlets are usually made of either tem. 3.149 Air extraction at suspended ceiling level
65
Power supply generated in conventional power stations owner, the electricity is stepped down
by burning or using fossil fuels (coal, to a service voltage of 230/400 Volt
The world-wide electricity industry is uranium, natural gas). The power stations (Fig. 3.151). The heat that is produced in
undergoing an incredible change. In striv- are generally located outside the residen- this process must be considered when
ing for sustainable development, the tial and commercial areas that are sup- planning the arrangement of the trans-
Europeans, in particular, are promoting plied. As a consequence the electricity is formers. If the transformer station is
the development of decentralised renew- transmitted over great distances. In order located in the basement, it should be
able energy production. In addition to its to minimise heat loss and keep conductor placed next to an exterior wall where the
previous function of distributing power sizes as small as possible, transmission is heat can be removed naturally via light
from central power stations, the mains performed at high voltage and therefore wells. In buildings with a connected load
grid has now had to take on a new man- low current. of up to 100 kW, it is more economical for
agement task. It will, in future, have The anticipated use (electric power) is a them to be supplied via a low-voltage
increased responsibility for coordinating key factor in defining the voltage range of connection. In this case the electricity
the balance between supply and the current supply. The connected load is supply company is responsible for trans-
demand. the sum of all the power (in kW) required forming the voltage.
In this context, building planning fulfils an by all of the connected electrical appli-
important function: especially in non-resi- ances and installations. The power Installation systems
dential buildings, the electricity demand demand of a consumer’s installation is the The main task of the electrical installation
for functions such as lighting, ventilation sum of all the electric power consumed at system is to provide the electrical energy
and cooling is of greater significance than the same time. Ideally all the appliances safely to the consumers at any place
the heat demand. The fact is that the and electrical installations should be within the building with the help of a suit-
electricity demand in energy-efficient known so that the planning of the electri- ably branched wiring system. The tradi-
buildings cannot be reduced by built-in cal cables and lines can be based on tional electrical installation system also
measures in the same way as the heating optimal conditions. served, to a certain degree, to control
or cooling demand. Alongside minimising Alternatively the assessment can be per- procedures within a building, for example
the demand for electric power, it is, for formed according to areas. The power by closing (switching on a power con-
this reason, necessary to examine demand is then calculated by summing sumer) or interrupting (switching off) the
whether and to what extent the building up the installed power, the connected electric circuit. With the increase of tech-
itself can become a power generator load and a utilisation factor (between 0 nologies and appliances in a building, the
within the electricity industry. In contrast and 1). This factor takes account of the demand for cables and wires, and hence
to the numerous possibilities for heat gen- fact that the power consuming appliances also the fire risk, has risen in buildings
eration, from a building planning point of are never all switched on at the same (Fig. 3.152). For this reason, a different
view, the opportunities to produce elec- time. When defining the power demand, a principle is followed today: the idea of
tricity from a renewable source are limited certain reserve margin should also be transmitting energy and information in
basically to decentralised combined heat considered. separate lines has led to the introduction
and power generation and photovoltaics. of so-called bus systems. Standard sys-
This underlines the special importance of Significance of electricity in architecture − tems that are well known and used today
solar technology in future energy con- design aspects include KNX (successor of EIB ((Euro-
cepts for buildings: architecture without Major consumers are supplied via a high- pean Installations Bus)), LON (Local
photovoltaics will become an exception in voltage network (10 – 20 kV), and large Operating Network) and BACnet (Data
the long-term. properties, such as hospitals or large Communication Protocol for Building
office buildings, via medium-high voltage. Automation and Control Network).
Electricity supply With the help of transformers, which are In all of these systems, all consumers
Today, electricity is still predominantly usually installed in the building by the (= actuators) and controlling device
(= sensors) are combined to a single
Industry Domestic Trade Transport
Lighting
copper conductor (Fig. 3.153). This instal-
PJ
900
Room heating Mechanical energy lation bus transmits all the information to
Mechanical energy 816
5.1% Process heat
49.8% 5.0 %
Information and control appliances within a building.
ICT 7.4 % 750
3.2%
2.6%
1.5%
communication
1.8%
There are also systems which transfer

2. %
11.1% technology (ICT)

2.9
5%
Room heating data via fibre optic cables (e.g. glass

600
508 522 fibre). Optical data transfer is far superior
8.6% 11.2%
450
64.1% 8.1%
21.3 % to electrical when it comes to resistance
Electricity
1904 PJ to interference, the reach and the rate of
32.3%
=100%
9.7% 300
transmission. However, to transfer data
40.5 %
via fibre optic cables, the electrical signal
36.5%
27.5%
11.2%
150
must be converted into an optical signal.
26.2% 23.6 %
2.2 %
At the receiver, it then has to be con-

2.2
11.0 % 59
%
5.8% 9.0 %
0
4.3% 12.1% 5.6 % 85.0 % verted back into an electrical signal. This
Industry Households Trade Transport process leads to high investment costs
Lighting 10.3% Process heat 27.4% 42.9% 26.6 % 27.4 % 3.1%
and is the reason why fibre optic technol-
3.150
66
Power supply
ogy has so far only been applied in large Transformer

Power plant Electricity grid
plants. 220/380 kV
The electrical installation today is a funda-
mental and integral part of all building
technology, however, particularly for
building automation. Without bus sys- Research, 110/220 kV 110 kV
large-scale Rail transport
tems, it would be difficult to respond to industry 110 kV
the growing demands for greater comfort
(remote and intelligent control systems), 220/380 V 20 kV 20 kV
Industry, trade,
security (motion and fire detectors) and 20 kV
office and
energy or cost saving measures. Residential areas commercial buildings
Information and telecommunication com- 230/400 V
ponents (telecommunications, data net- Small companies, agriculture,
works, internet and broadcasting sys- single-family homes
tems) are supplied from a central connec- 3.151
tion point via a star-shaped network
(Fig. 3.154). Structured building networks
planned according to the EN 50 173 Lighting control system Alarm system Heating, air-conditioning, ventilation
Blind and shutter control system Energy and load management
standard offer a high degree of flexibility
regarding the future use of space. It
makes sense, when planning the commu- Door contact Wind Thermostat Glass tampering Luminosity Lamp
switch monitor sensor sensor
nication infrastructure in buildings, to con-
Motion IR remonte Heating Alarm Luminosity
sider the installation of suitable cables detector control light sensor
and provisional conduits. Anticipatory
measures help to avoid follow-on costs
Timer
for retrofitting cables at later dates to
meet the needs of future users.
Maximum
monitor
Electricity consumers, their significance and
saving potentials Fan Switch Blind Timer
Household appliances, (computers, Alarm system
washing machines, televisions) are cate- Lamp Electric drive block lock Switch
gorised in the EU according to their 3.152

energy efficiency (classes A – G). How-
ever, these appliances do not only con-
Door contact Wind Luminosity Thermostat Alarm system Glass tampering
sume electricity during operation, but also switch monitor sensor block lock sensor
when in standby mode. The standby elec- Motion Timer Maximum IR remote
tricity loss in Germany alone adds up to detector monitor Switch control
approximately 22 billion kWh. If today, for
Sensors
example, a colour laser printer with a (Controlling
power consumption of 50 Watt is kept in device)
standby mode for a whole year, it con- Installation bus

sumes approximately 438 kWh of electric-
ity. At an average electricity price of 230 V/AC Actuators
0.2 €/kWh, this adds up to costs of (Consumers)
approximately 88 €.
As of 2010, household appliances, Electric
Lamp drive Blind Fan Lamp Heating Alarm light
depending on the design, are allowed to
consume only 1 − 2 Watts when in standby 3.153
mode. Due to the reduced power input,
the heat load decreases, resulting in
lower cooling demand. This leads to a fur-
ther reduction of the operating costs in

buildings, as even those with complex
installations have less need for cooling in Line topology Tree topology Star topology
the summer months.
3.154
Whereas the household appliances in
residential buildings are responsible for 3.150 Electricity consumption in Germany 2007, according to consumers
categorised according to power consumption 3.152 Conventional electrical installation system
approximately 70 % of the power con- and application 3.153 Electrical installation with bus system
sumption and the heating and lighting 3.151 Power distribution and supply voltages 3.154 Possible installation structures for bus systems
67
Category PSFP (W · m-3 · s) installations for approximately 30 %, the

SFP 1 < 500 balance of the power consumption in
office buildings varies considerably,
SFP 2 500 –750
depending on the type of air-conditioning
SFP 3 750 –1250
system and the building services sys-
SFP 4 1250 – 2000
tems. In this case, the largest consumers
SFP 5 2000 – 3000
of electricity are the refrigeration
SFP 6 3000 – 4500 machines or heat pumps, the mechanical
SFP 7 > 4500 ventilation system and the lighting.
3.155
Energy-efficient power systems
Category Description
A tried and tested way of saving energy is
IDA – C1 Continuous operation
the application of frequency converters
IDA – C2 Manual control system (FC) to control the rotational speed of
The system is subject to manual control.
HVAC plants. If systems that generate a
IDA – C3 Time-based control system
The plant is operated according to a predetermined time schedule. volume flow (circulation pumps, fans,
IDA – C4 Presence-dependent control system
compressors) are applied without speed
The plant is operated according to the presence of persons (light switches, infrared sensors, etc.). control, the flow of the corresponding
IDA – C5 Demand-dependent control system (number of persons) medium must be throttled by using valves
The plant is operated according to the number of persons present in the room concerned. or flaps when the plant is not operated in
IDA – C6 Demand-dependent control system (gas sensors) accordance with the design load (maxi-
The plant is operated by sensors that measure room air parameters or predetermined criteria
(e.g. CO2 or mixed-gas sensors, VOC sensors). The applied parameters have to be adapted mum load). However, by throttling the
to the type of activities performed in the room concerned. flow, the energy already invested to
power the system is wasted. By using
3.156 energy-optimised engines and speed-
controlled plant, the power input to the
Expression Description Unit Reflection off ceiling
components can be reduced.
Symbol Relation Abbreviation
Luminoux flux lumen
power of light Mechanical ventilation systems
Φ (lm) Luminous flux ( )
Luminous efficacy luminous flux lumen / watt The air flow in mechanical ventilation sys-
η=Φ/P electric power (lm / W) tems is performed by fans powered by
Reflection
Light output luminous flux · lumen hour off wall electric motors. The target value of the
Q=Φ ·t time (lm · h)
Luminance (L) Vertical specific fan power (SFP) gives an indica-
Luminous intensity luminous flux candela
l = Φ/ω radiation angle (cd) Luminous illuminance tion of the expected level of power
intensity (I)
Illuminance luminous flux lux
demand for all supply air and extract air
E area (lx = lm / m2) fans in a building. The value should be
Luminance luminous intensity candela /m2 determined at an early planning stage so
L area (cd /m2) Horizontal
illuminance that the service output demand and
Degree of therefore the energy consumption
reflection of light (%)
reflection
Reflection off floor required for the airflow can be assessed
3.157 and the effects this has on the design
process can be considered.
3.155 Classification of the specific fan power 3.157 Characteristic values of lighting technology
demand according to DIN EN 13 779 including their equivalent units
3.156 Control types for air-conditioning and 3.158 LED office lighting in the Unilever Head- SFP = Psf + Pef /qmax
ventilation plants according to DIN EN 13 779 quarters in Hamburg, Behnisch Architekten
where:
· SFP = Required specific fan power
demand (in Ws/m3)
· Psf = Total fan power of the supply air
fans at design air flow rate (in W)
· Pef = Total fan power of the extract air
fans at design air flow rate (in W)
· qmax = Design airflow rate through the

building. This value should correspond
with the extracted airflow rate (in m3/s).
The SFP value is dependent on the pres-

sure loss in the ductwork, on the effi-
ciency of the fan and the design of the
motor. Also note that leakages in the
a b 3.158
68
Power supply
ductwork can increase the SFP value. In power consumption is higher than that Fluorescent tubes develop less heat at
order to minimise the energy consump- for direct lighting offering the same the same light output as incandescent
tion of the fans, the pressure loss in the illuminance. The reason for this is that lamps. If a light fitting has a power limit,
plant components should be kept as low indirect lighting requires a higher lumi- more light can be emitted if an energy
as possible. This means that the dimen- nous flux to compensate for the light that saving lamp is used.
sions of the air ducts should not be too is absorbed by wall or ceiling surfaces. The main disadvantage of many energy
small and the airflow velocity in the ducts It is therefore important to make sure that saving lamps is their temperature-
should not be too high. Fittings mounted the corresponding surfaces are suffi- dependent luminosity. They do not reach
inside the ductwork or in the ventilation ciently reflective. their full light output until after a warm-up
unit increase the pressure loss, which phase of approximately 1 − 2 minutes. For
must be compensated for by the fan and Lighting products this reason, it does not make sense to use
increases power consumption. Economic In general, the following lighting products these lighting products in light fittings that
assessments of heat recovery measures, (light bulbs) are used, as appropriate, in are only turned on for short periods of
such as installing additional heat light fittings throughout buildings: time or that are controlled by motion
exchangers into the system, must con- • Up until recently incandescent light detectors.
sider the higher electricity costs. For bulbs were widely used due to their Light-emitting diodes (LED) have a rela-
energy-saving reasons, the SFP catego- warm light colour and good colour ren- tively low light intensity and have up until
ries 2 – 4 should be taken as the target dering properties. However, due to their now been used mainly in display illumina-
values for the individual fans in accord- low luminous efficacy and related high tion. However, improvements in the lumi-
ance with the design concept energy consumption, as well as their nous efficacy (up to 20 lumens per watt
(Fig. 3.155). short life expectancy, the production of can be achieved today), appropriate con-
Since electricity costs are directly related these bulbs is being reduced. trol systems and very efficient optical sys-
to the operating periods of the fans, the • The halogen lamp is a special kind of tems for an exact distribution of light,
control system of the air-conditioning incandescent light bulb. These are usu- mean that LEDs can now also be used for
units has a major impact on the costs. ally operated with a transformer as low- general lighting purposes.
Figure 3.156 indicates the different con- voltage halogen lamps. Despite current higher investment costs,
trol setting possibilities for an air-condi- • Fluorescent lamps are usually used as LEDs can lead to good economic results
tioning and ventilation plant designed to tubes with differing lengths, efficiencies in certain situations due to their long life
provide a predetermined level of indoor and light colours. These lighting prod- expectancy, limited maintenance require-
air quality (IDA). A demand-dependent ucts can achieve high luminous efficacy ment and hence low operating costs.
control system should generally be with low energy consumption. White LEDs have not been very popular
favoured (e.g. CO2 sensor or a presence • Compact fluorescent lamps are espe- with lighting designers up until recently
monitor). The classes IDA C5 and C6 cially small fluorescent lamps. Com- because of the cold light that they emit.
have potential for further energy savings pared to other fluorescent lamps, the However, recently developed LEDs can
as the air volume flow can be altered (var- tube where the gas is discharged is a achieve a colour temperature of 3200 Kel-
iable air volume regulator). lot smaller and is curved or folded sev- vin and therefore allow the application of
eral times so that the bulb can fit into LEDs with warm-white light, the light col-
Illumination small light fittings. our almost corresponding to that of a hal-
The electricity consumption of lighting • Energy saving lamps are compact ogen lamp. These LEDs are already avail-
plant contributes considerably towards fluorescent lamps with an integrated able in modules with different shapes and
the energy consumption of buildings. ballast and an Edison screw (screw light colours.
When designing a building, it is important base), which allows them to replace
to make sure that sufficient daylight is incandescent light bulbs. The ballast is Lighting control
provided. In this regard, there is great necessary in gas-discharge lamps and Apart from increasing user comfort, auto-
potential for energy savings in the build- fluorescent lamps to limit the flow of mated lighting control systems have great
ing’s geometry (room depths) and the current. energy savings potential. Lighting control
facade construction, which should be systems with motion detectors are ideal
carefully considered. Apart from the basic The advantage of energy saving lamps is for rooms that are used only occasionally
planning parameters that should always their high luminous efficacy of approxi- for short periods. By integrating a day-
be observed (illuminance, glare, contrast, mately 60 lm/W. Incandescent light bulbs light-dependent lighting control system,
colour rendering properties) to attain opti- have a luminous efficacy of only 12 to certain light fixtures or groups of light fix-
cal comfort, aspects affecting energy use 15 lm/W and therefore convert less than tures can be switched on and off accord-
should also be taken into account. 2 % of the current into light. At the same ing to a defined light level. Furthermore
The efficiency of a light source is defined luminosity, an energy saving light the light output of individual light fixtures
as the luminous efficacy (quotient of lumi- requires around 80 % less electric power can be adjusted gradually to meet the
nous flux to power) (Fig. 3.157). When and the life expectancy is about 5 to 15 desired levels of illuminance.
developing the lighting concept, it is nec- times greater than that of a normal incan-
essary to make sure that the indirect light- descent light bulb. Their life expectancy Transportation systems
ing, which undoubtedly has a more pleas- fluctuates, depending on the quality, In normal circumstances, cable lifts con-
ant feel, is not unduly emphasised. The between 3,000 and 15,000 hours. sume approximately 30 % less energy
69
7000 than hydraulic lifts. The drive is just one of

Energy consumption (kWh/a)
Total Lighting Electronics Drive

several electrical components influencing
6000
the lift’s energy consumption. The lighting
5000 and the motors to open and close the
doors are further power consumers.
4000 By using new drive technology, it is
possible today to regain a percentage of
3000
the energy generated by the loaded,
2000
descending lift. The saving potential can
be as much as 20 % of the lift’s total
1000 energy consumption. However, the lift

lighting is responsible for about 40 %
0
Hydraulic Cable lift Lift without Vector control Energy of the lift’s energy consumption
7000 kWh/a with 2 speeds engine room drive¹ recovery² (Fig. 3.159). For this reason, energy-effi-
5000 kWh/a 3000 kWh/a 1870 kWh/a 1540 kWh/a
cient, long-life fluorescent tubes or LED
1)
No energy recovery, cabin illumination with fluorescent tube lights and standby function lamps should be used instead of halogen
2)
In addition: Cabin illumination with LEDs, standby function for illumination, ventilation and drive
3.159 lamps. LED spotlights last up to ten times
as long and consume up to 80 % less
energy than traditional halogen light
bulbs.
Fuel
for example Electricity is also consumed for lighting
vegetable oil CHP generator Electricity and ventilation when the lift is not moving.
bioethanol for example
heating oil engine + generator
Energy-efficient control systems are able
Consumer
natural gas gas turbine + generator to monitor the utilisation as well as put all
coal steam turbine + generator Heat
systems into a sleep mode when the lift is
wood and straw fuel cell
biogas not being used.
municipal waste
Combined heat and power
3.160
The term combined heat and power
(CHP) refers to the simultaneous genera-
Otto engine Diesel engine Stirling engine Fuel cell tion of useful heat and electricity with the
Electric power (kW) 1– 5000 5 – 20 000 1 – 40 1 – 250
aid of a technical system (Fig. 3.160).
This principle was developed from the
Overall efficiency (%) up to 90 up to 90 up to 85 up to 90 generation of electric power. Large
Electrical efficiency (%) 25 – 42 28 – 44 10 – 30 30 – 47 amounts of waste heat are inevitably emit-
ted in the mechanical transition process
Power to heat ratio 0.4 – 1.1 0.5 – 1.1 0.4 0.3 – 0.7
from water vapour to electrical energy.
Partial load performance good good not so good very good For reasons of logistics, large power sta-
tions are rarely able to use this waste
Current state of technology established established small series pilot plants
heat. It sometimes even has a negative
Fuels applied biogas, vegetable oil, solar, hydrogen, impact on the environment (increased
natural gas diesel oil wood gas
temperature in rivers etc.), since addi-
3.161 tional cooling is required when it is dis-
charged. It only makes sense to feed the
CO 2 equivalent (g/kWh)
1200 Systems without CHP CHP systems heat into a district heating network if the
1000 ¹ COSAG: Combined steam and gas power plants
distance between the power plant and
800 the supply area is just a few kilometres.
600 An alternative, which is currently being
400 explored, is to generate the electric
200
power in decentralised stations close to
the consumers. In this way the electricity
0
and the heat produced can be directly
-200 integrated into the energy concept of the

-400 building or its neighbourhood. Electricity
COSAG¹power plant
which is not required is simply fed into the

COSAG¹CHP plant
grid; if additional power is required, it is

Bituminous coal
Bituminous coal
BTTP 500 kW
Hydroelectric
BTTP 500 kW
Photovoltaics
drawn from the grid.

power plant
power plant
Natural gas
Natural gas
power plant
Natural gas
Natural gas
Brown coal
Brown coal
BTTP 5 kW
CHP plant
CHP plant
50 MW
Biogas
CHP technologies
Based on the different technologies, there
3.162
70
Power supply
is a variety of fuels that can be used for subject to very high loss factors of up to
the decentralised combined heat and 50 %, which need to be considered in the
power generation. In the context of sus- overall balance. Although fuel cell heating
tainability, renewable energy sources, systems operate well with partial loads,
such as biomass, hydrogen, waste heat so far only a few prototypes with low out-
or solar radiation, should be favoured for put (< 100 kWel) are in operation. A rollout
running the system. for residential buildings is expected over
the next few years.
Electricity from biomass: Engine systems
To generate heat and power in a CHP Electricity from waste heat/solar energy
plant with biomass, power-generating A further possibility with regard to decen-

systems are used with an engine-oper- tralised combined heat and power gener-
ated generator. In this case, the engine is ation is the Stirling engine, which is able
a slightly modified version of those used to convert heat directly into electricity
in the automobile industry, which oper- (Fig. 3.164). Due to the possibility of sup- 3.163
ates within an acoustic enclosure. The plying the Stirling system with an external
heat produced in the process is inte- heat source, it can be combined with
grated into the heating circuit via a heat other forms of heat generators. In the
exchanger (see p. 27, Fig. 3.17). These case of a renewable cogeneration of heat
devices are called block-type thermal and power, biomass heating systems with
power stations and can be integrated into wood pellets or wood chip can be used.
the building’s energy concept as a stand- When combined with a Stirling engine,
ard component (Fig. 3.163). the waste heat produced is used to gen-
The classification is undertaken accord- erate electricity. There are already some
ing to performance specifications. While a small compact systems on the market
BTTP has a thermal and power output, with low power output that can, for exam-
the specification is generally based on ple, be fitted in single-family homes (see
the power output. Systems with low power p. 28, Fig. 3.19).
output (< 50 kWel) are referred to as mini
BTTPs. Combined cooling, heating and power 3.164
Engine systems are by far the most com- (CCHP)
0.58 kWh 1.3 kWh
mon form of decentralised cogeneration A combined heat and power generator Waste heat Waste heat
of heat and power. Otto, diesel as well as that is supplemented by a machine able cooling tower recooler
gas powered engines are commonly to produce cold from waste heat during 1 kWh
0.3 kWh Useful
used for driving the system. If using bio- the cooling period is referred to as a com- 0.9 kWh PE Power Power electric cold
mass as engine fuel, vegetable oils bined cooling, heating and power gener- station CM
(especially rapeseed and soja oil) have ator (Fig. 3.165). a
proven successful. If biogas is available, In this case, conventional sorption refrig-
0.2 kWh 2.5 kWh
the use of an appropriate gas engine eration machines, like the ones applied Waste gas Waste heat
would also be possible. for solar cooling, are used (see p. 45ff.). loss cooling tower
1 kWh
Due to the additional heat consumption in 3.0 kWh PE (electricity) 1.6 kWh Useful
Heat thermal cold
Electricity from hydrogen: Fuel cells the summer months, this block-type ther- 2.7 kWh PE (gas) BTTP CM
In the future, alongside engine-powered mal power plant also operates in months
systems, fuel cells will become more sig- when no heating is required. CM: Cooling machine
nificant in combined heat and power gen- b BTTP: Block-type thermal power station
eration. Fuel cells produce electricity from Energy concept with CHP 3.165
hydrogen fuel in an electrochemical pro- Systems for combined heat and power 3.159 Average power consumption by lifts. Basis for
cess. In the case of a decentralised appli- generation can be integrated into the calculation:
Lift speed 1.0 m/s (in hydraulic lift: 0.63 m/s),
cation, the useful heat that is emitted can energy concept of a building as a stand- nominal load (8 persons) 630 kg and 200 000
be integrated into the heating circuit in ard component. In this context, a differen- trips/year
3.160 Functional principle of a combined heat and
the same way as in a block-type thermal tiation must be made according to the pri- power system
power station. Hydrogen is required to mary function of the system: in principle, 3.161 Common systems for the cogeneration of heat
and power
operate the fuel cell, which, in the case of a CHP generator can be integrated either 3.162 CO2 emissions from electric power generating
a sustainable development, should be in a power or heat-based system depend- systems
3.163 Standardised module (CHHP) for cogeneration
produced and stored by renewable ener- ing on which function is considered most of heat and power in building application
gies. Since the necessary infrastructure is important and used for dimensioning the 3.164 Compact Stirling engine powered by wood
pellets for a single-family home
not yet available, fuel cells tend to be system. In order to increase the overall 3.165 Comparison of decentralised combined heat,
operated with hydrogen gained from nat- efficiency, the system selected is often cold and power plant and conventional cooling
a Energy flow in the case of electric cooling
ural gas. The supply chain for hydrogen based on the heat demand. In this case, b Energy flow in the case of thermal cooling
production, storage and application is surplus electricity is fed into the grid. If with BTTP and sorption cooling machine
71
the generation of electricity is regarded

Primary energy Final energy Useful energy
as the prime focus, the heat produced as
320 kWh 289 kWh BTTP ηth = 52 % 150 kWh heat
a by-product cannot normally be used as
ηel = 35 % 100 kWh electricity an energy supply.
184 kWh 167 kWh Boiler ηth = 90 % 150 kWh heat
260 kWh Germany‘s energy mix PF1 = 2.6 100 kWh electricity Efficiency
1
The efficiency of a CHP system is calcu-
PF = Primary energy factor
lated as the ratio of the energy fuel used
Comparison method Credit method
and the total amount of energy produced
(heat and electricity). In terms of heat, a
Primary energy boiler 184 kWh BTTP 320 kWh

BTTP has, in comparison to a boiler sys-
+ primary energy power plant + 260 kWh − credit for electricity − 260 kWh
tem, an efficiency ratio of approximately
Separate generation 444 kWh BTTP (heat) 60 kWh
50 %. However, since electrical energy is
− primary energy BTTP − 320 kWh − boiler (heat) − 184 kWh
produced at the same time with an effi-
Savings 124 kWh (= 28 %) Savings 124 kWh (= 67 %) ciency of about 25−40 % (Fig. 3.167),
3.166 the overall efficiency that is attained is
around 80−90 %. In order to add up the
different forms of energy, the assessment
must be based on the primary energy
Electrical efficiency (%)
50 120
Payback period in years
Natural gas engines Heating oil engines 100% sale of electricity at

Bio gas engines domestic electricity prices (Fig. 3.166).
45 100% fed into grid Apart from the overall efficiency, the so-
100
called power to heat ratio is an important
40 80 parameter in the cogeneration of heat
and power. The value indicates the per-
35 60 centage of electrical energy generated
per kilowatt hour of heat output. A typical
30 40 value for decentralised BTTPs is 0.5,
which means that 0.5 kWh of electricity is
25 20 generated in addition to each kilowatt
hour of heat.
20 0
1 10 100 1000 10000 10 0000 2000 4000 6000 8000 Profitability
kWel (%) Utilisation period in hours/year Compared with a purely heat generating
3.167 3.168 system, the combined heat and power
system has the advantage that, in addi-
tion to generating heat, it produces elec-
tricity »for free« at the same time, and this
Tilt angle of module surface Useful solar area Specific irradiance Useful irradiance
(°) (%) (%) (%) has an impact on the financial return. The
0 100 100 100
economic analysis of a BTTP compares
the costs associated with capital (invest-
ment costs and interest on capital) with
10 75 106 80
the value of the energy generated. In non-
productive periods, the system still has to
20 61 111 68 be financed, although it is not producing
income. In terms of financial efficiency, it
30 53 113 60 is therefore important that plants for the
decentralised cogeneration of heat and
power largely operate at full capacity
40 48 113 54
throughout the year. The capacity is
determined according to the operating
3.169 time or the full-load hours of the BTTP.
Depending on the mode of operation, it is
determined on the basis of the power or

3.166 Savings by means of decentralised CHP 3.170 Possible multiple functions of building heat demand.
system presented on behalf of a natural gas- integrated photovoltaic plant
powered BTTP 3.171 Exemplary loss of output due to shading of From an ecological point of view, a
3.167 Efficiency values of BTTPs with different single solar cells in thin-film and crystalline heating bias is advantageous in that all
performance figures and different power modules
systems 3.172 Facade integrated thin-film photovoltaic
of the generated heat is used, thus opti-
3.168 Payback periods for BTTPs in Germany, elements, residential and commercial building mising the overall efficiency of the sys-
dependent on annual utilisation period in Munich, a+p Architekten
3.169 Comparison of tilt angles for mounting 3.173 Semi-transparent PV facade, office building,
tem. A good utilisation rate can be
photovoltaic modules on flat roof Tobias Grau in Rellingen, BRT Architekten achieved if there is an even demand for
72
Power supply
heat throughout the year. This especially essential to plan non-shaded, correctly Requirements con- Impact of active solar
applies to hospitals and nursing homes oriented arrays. A detailed site and build- cerning the building energy utilisation
envelope
with a high demand for domestic hot ing analysis is fundamental for the plan-
Thermal separation o
water. In most cases, the same approach ning of photovoltaics. Weather protection +
leads to using the output of the BTTP (or South-facing, single-pitched or saw-tooth Visual screening +
several systems) to cover only a propor- roofs are most suitable. On flat roofs, the Sun protection +
tion of the heat load and supplementing it modules can be placed on supports, Glare protection o
by a second heat generator for the heat- similar to the arrangement found in photo- Noise protection o
ing period. In this way economically voltaic power plants. The supports allow Security o
attractive systems can reach annual oper- the modules to be oriented perfectly and Daylight untilisation –
Visual links –
ating times of over 4000 hours thereby achieve high efficiency. Due to
Design +
(Fig. 3.168). the angle of incidence of solar radiation in
Passive solar energy –
Providing the conditions are favourable, Europe, the photovoltaic elements must utilisation
the additional electricity generation be widely spaced to prevent the modules o neutral + symbiotic – competitive
makes it possible to either partially or from casting shadows on each other. This 3.170
fully amortise the investment costs over requirement reduces the effective energy
the technical life expectancy of the sys- yield of an available roof area by approxi-
tem. From an economic viewpoint, the mately 50 %. The modules can also be
decentralised cogeneration of heat and arranged so that they cover the whole
power is, therefore, worth considering. roof area with very low tilt angles or even
BTTPs can also be used as stand-by horizontally. In this case, the efficiency of
generators, creating an interesting syn- the modules is reduced, but the overall
ergy due to the savings in terms of energy yield in relation to the gross roof
investment costs. area is maximised (Fig. 3.169).
Facade surfaces also have potential for
Photovoltaics the active utilisation of solar energy. The
Photovoltaic technology is a method of radiation on vertical surfaces in Central
generating electrical energy without Europe is approximately 30 % lower than
mechanical wear and tear, emissions or on inclined surfaces, however, in return,
5% 20% 50% 100 %
noise. The technology works independ- the photovoltaic elements are able to offer 3.171
ently of the building and is therefore also a considerable energy and economic
used in power plants spread over large saving potential by replacing high-quality
areas of land. Since the early 80s, photo- facade elements (e.g. metal panelling,
voltaic elements have also been inte- natural stone). The fact that they are used
grated in buildings. In this application, as design elements and also take on
apart from being used to generate additional functions, including the gener-
energy, they can also fulfil additional ation of electrical energy, justifies their
functions, such as weather and sun pro- use in facades (Fig. 3.172).
tection or visual screening. As an insu- Photovoltaic modules are very suitable for
lated glass module, they can also be the integration in solar shading devices
used to provide thermal insulation. In since, in this function, they are subject to
these functions, the modules are not only direct solar radiation. This applies to both
part of the building services system, but fixed and movable elements in which the
also part of the building envelope and solar modules replace opaque or partially
therefore significant from a design per- transparent materials, such as metal pan-
3.172
spective (Fig. 3.170). els or printed glass.
Photovoltaic modules can also be used
Energy concept with photovoltaics directly as integrated shading elements
Solar building components place (Fig. 3.173). By selecting the percentage
demands on the building design concern- of active cells, it is possible to influence
ing inclination, orientation and shading. the transparency of the building compo-
These conditions all have an impact on nent. In this case, it is necessary to con-
the energy efficiency of the system. In sider the high level of thermal radiation on
principle, all structural surfaces can be the inside which arises due to the heat
used for photovoltaics. However, in con- development within the solar cells. Even
trast to the use of solar thermal energy, at low levels of transparency, it is possi-
even partial shading of the solar cells can ble to achieve very good results (reduc-
reduce the energy yield considerably. ing the G-value to 0.1) plus high shading
This applies especially to crystalline mod- effects, while, at the same time, utilising
ules (Fig. 3.171). For this reason, it is daylight.
3.173
73
Solar cells glass and can be installed accordingly form subsystems. The typical rated
Solar cells are the basis of every photo- (Fig. 3.175). capacity for modular inverters is three to
voltaic array. They are divided into differ- If the modules are to be integrated into an six kilowatts, which corresponds to a
ent categories according to their structure architectural concept, there are three dif- module area of approximately 30 to 60 m2.
and the materials used (Fig. 3.174). ferent categories: standard modules that Larger plants may therefore require sev-
Most of the solar cells used today are are mass produced are the most widely eral inverters. The site of installation and
made of silicon (Si). There is a fundamen- used. The technical parameters are fixed the necessary space with access for
tal difference between crystalline cells and they are relatively inexpensive. Most maintenance work must be considered
and thin-film cells. module manufacturers produce standard whilst planning the system. Whether the
In the manufacture of crystalline modules, modules measuring approximately 0.5 to plant is connected to the public grid, is
depending on the process, either single 1.5 m2 with fixed dimensions and perform- fundamental for the design and scaling of
crystals or clusters of crystals are cre- ance values stated in terms of maximum the plant (Fig. 3.176).
ated. The cells are then referred to as energy yield per area. There is a difference between standalone
monocrystalline or multicrystalline respec- In addition, some manufacturers offer systems, which have to guarantee an
tively. special modules tailored to individual autonomous power supply throughout the
The thin-film technology with solar cells requirements. For an additional charge of year, and grid-connected systems, which
made of amorphous silicon was devel- up to 100 %, numerous parameters, such have an additional electricity supply from
oped in the 1970s. In this case, the as dimensions, formats, colours, transpar- the national grid. In order to guarantee
substrate of glass, metal or plastic is ency, glass quality, insulation values, etc. the supply in standalone systems, a stor-
coated directly with the silicon material. can be specified to meet the demands of age facility is needed for the fluctuating
This production process offers high sav- the building. For technological reasons, energy yield. The photovoltaic system
ings potential in terms of material and the maximum dimensions of a photo- may also have to be supplemented by a
energy. Recently, other semiconductor voltaic module with crystalline solar cells further energy supplier. If a grid connec-
materials are being used, such as cad- are currently limited to approximately 6 m2. tion is available, there is no need to store
mium telluride (CdTe) or copper indium Nowadays, thin-film modules can be the surplus energy. The excess is simply
selenide (CIS). In the thin-film technology, coated onto solid materials smaller than fed into the grid and reimbursed; if elec-
the size and shape of the cells can be about 1 m2. Together with further mod- tricity is needed, it is drawn off the grid.
chosen in accordance with the sub- ules, they can be assembled to form
strate’s dimensions and the desired larger units. Other modules, such as solar Performance
electrical properties. The planner there- roof tiles, solar membranes, etc. are also A fundamental criterion of a solar cell is
fore has great scope for creativity in the available for special applications. its energy conversion efficiency. The
design. value defines the percentage of solar
Crystalline solar cells will continue to play Inverters energy absorbed by the solar cells and
a dominant role due to available produc- The purpose of an inverter is to convert converted into electrical current. It is
tion capacities. However, the thin-film the direct current produced by photo- dependent on the material as well as the
technology will become increasingly voltaic modules into mains-compliant cell structure (Fig. 3.177).
important since the lower quantity of alternating current. The size, type and In the field of research, the maximum effi-
materials used offers the possibility of arrangement of the photovoltaic array ciency currently achieved is around
significant cost savings. influences the choice of inverter system. 35–40 %. In Germany, the annual irradi-
Central inverters, which connect all mod- ance on a horizontal surface is on aver-
Photovoltaic modules ules to a single device, are only used if age 1100 kWh/m2, in Southern Europe up
An assembly of several solar cells to the modules are not shaded and all face to 1600 kWh/m2. The maximum energy
achieve higher performance figures is in exactly the same direction. Modular from solar radiation measured is approxi-
called a photovoltaic module. The mod- inverter systems are commonly used in mately 2500 kWh/m2 (e.g. in the Sahara
ules are predominantly used in laminated buildings if smaller units are connected to Desert). Standard solar cells can convert
Crystalline Thin-film
Nano solar cells
silicon cells solar cells
Compound (In)organic
Monocrystalline Polycrystalline Silicon
semiconductor semiconductor
Special types: Special types: • Amorphous • Cadmium telluride Organic:

• High-efficiency solar • Ribbon solar cells • Micromorphous (CdTe) • Colour solar cells
cells • Microcrystalline • Copper indium • Plastic solar cells
• Hybrid cells gallium diselenide/ Inorganic:
copper indium • CIS
disulfide (CIS)
• Wafer technology: Round to square single elements • Vacuum technology, galvanic: Usually large area coating • Printing process
• Wafer thickness 0.2 mm, side lengths 10 –15.6 cm • Coating thickness 0.5 – 5 μm, width of cell strips 0.5 –17 mm • Nano structure
• Market share of approx. 90 %, established technology • Market share of approx. 10 %, upward trend • Pilote stage
3.174
74
Power supply
approximately 8 % (amorphous silicon) to +

17 % (monocrystalline silicon) of the solar
energy into electrical energy. Since solar
cells are always integrated in modules,
the module conversion efficiency is very
important. Apart from being dependent
on the cell technology, the value also
depends on the fill factor of solar cells
and is on average around ten to twelve
per cent.
The maximum power output of a photo- Solar glass

voltaic array under standard test condi- PVB film/cast resin
Encapsulated cells
tions is defined as peak performance and PVB film/cast resin –
measured in peak watts (Wp). Standard Rear glass
test conditions are defined as optimal
irradiance of 1000 W/m2 and a module
temperature of 25 °C. The peak perform-
ance is based on measurements taken in
these optimal conditions. If the irradiance
is, for example, 1000 W per square metre
and the conversion efficiency is ten per
cent, the peak performance is 100 W.
Solar glass Solar glass Solar glass Solar glass
The achievable annual energy yield is Encapsulated cells Encapsulated cells Encapsulated cells Encapsulated cells
measured in kilowatt hours per square Rear laminated film Rear laminated Glass pane/ Glass pane/
safety glass laminated film laminated film
metre per year (kWh/m²a). It is, of Air space Air space
course, dependent on the solar irradiance Inside insulation glass Inside insulation glass
LSG
that strikes the module surface and is
therefore strongly influenced by the loca- 3.175
tion as well as the orientation of the mod-
ules (Fig. 3.178, p. 76). Alternating current Direct current
The maximum annual yield achievable in
Germany requires the modules to face
south and a tilt angle of approximately
35°. The yield on a vertical south-facing
facade is approximately only 70 % of this
value. Nevertheless, if a lower yield is
acceptable, greater deviations from the
ideal position are possible. Meter
Battery
Furthermore, the yield is dependent on
the quality of the photovoltaic array, Inverter Charge regulator
which is expressed in the performance
ratio, a value independent of site condi-
3.176
tions. The ratio of the actual yield to the
theoretical yield indicates the perform-
3.174 Types of common solar cells on the market 3.176 Different inverter systems: grid-connected and
ance of the system and lies above 70 % in 3.175 Typical layer configuration (from outside to standalone system
high-quality systems. inside) of a building-integrated photovoltaic 3.177 Efficiency, area requirement and temperature
module behaviour of different solar cells
The amount of shading also has a large
impact on the system performance. Due Cell type Maximum Module Output per Area require- Loss of output
to the serial connection of solar cells cell efficiency efficiency m2 of module ment for due to
(laboratory) (commercial) area 1 kWp increased
and modules, even partial shading will (%) (%) (Wp) (m2) temperature
generally cause a disproportionate reduc- (% / °C)
tion in yield. Furthermore, the conversion Monocrystalline, standard 21.6 12 – 16 120 – 160 6.5 – 9 0.4 – 0.5
high-efficiency cell 24.7 16 – 20 160 – 200 5 – 6.5 0.3 – 0.4
of the energy by inverters is subject to hybrid HIT cells 20.2 16 – 17 160 – 170 6 – 6.5 0.33
loss (5 to 15 %) and the efficiency is Polycrystalline 20.3 11.5 – 15 115 – 150 7–9 0.4 – 0.5
dependent on the temperature of the Silicon, amorphous 13.2 5–7 50 – 70 15 – 21 0.1 – 0.2
solar cells. A high temperature also leads microcrystalline 15.2 5–7 50 – 70 15 – 21 0.5 – 0.7
micromorph 13.0 7–9 70 – 90 11 –14 0.3 – 0.4
to reduced efficiency and if the modules
CIS, standard (selenide) 20.0 8 – 11 80 – 110 9 – 13 0.3 – 0.4
are assembled without rear ventilation, sulphur 13.1 6–7 60 – 70 15 – 17 0.3
the yield decreases by a further five to ten nano solar cells 14.0 8 – 10 80 – 100 10 – 13
per cent. CdTe 16.5 6 – 11 60 – 110 9 – 17 0.2 – 0.3
3.177
75
Annual solar radiation Depending on the cell typology and the tariff for solar-generated power, which is
on horizontal surface fill factor, the specific yield of correctly distinctly higher than the current electric-
oriented systems without shading in Cen- ity price. These favourable terms are
Irradiance on tral Europe is approximately 40 kWh/ m2a locked in by legally binding agreements
module area
Tilt angle and for semi-transparent thin-film modules with guaranteed durations, in the case of
orientation
and up to 130 kWh/ m2a for monocrystal- Germany it is 20 years, so that, from an
Electricity line cells with a maximum fill factor. economic point of view, there is a high
input in
module
Module degree of investment security. With these
efficiency
Profitability reliable profits, it is possible to amortise
The investment costs of photovoltaics the extra costs of a photovoltaic system
Electricity
input in System integrated into buildings are frequently during the operating period (Fig. 3.179).
system technology
compared with those for alternative mate- The feed-in tariff according to the Renew-
Feed into grid rials, such as glass, metal panels, stone able Energy Sources Act is fixed uni-
slabs or roof tiles. If these materials can formly and reduced at regular intervals.
a be replaced by photovoltaic modules, not This reflects the price and market devel-
only the initial investment costs for the opment in the photovoltaic sector. The
Solar power output solar modules themselves must be con- aim of the act is for the guaranteed tariff
(kWh / m2module area a) sidered, but also the additional costs to enable repayment of the investment
Solar cell Oslo Berlin Thessaloniki compared to alternative materials, less costs within the contract term of 20 years,
technology
the cost savings for energy or income assuming normal operating conditions.
Crystalline 90 –100 95 –110 125 –140
monocrystalline from energy sales. It is interesting to con- If savings of the specific investment costs
polycrystalline sider the time it takes for the additional can be achieved through the additional
Thin film 60 –75 65 – 80 90 –110 costs and the values placed on the benefits of integrating photovoltaics into
CIS
CdTe
energy yield to balance out. The initial the building envelope, the profitability
Thin film 35 – 55 40 – 60 55 – 80
investment costs for photovoltaic systems improves accordingly. Furthermore, in
amorphous are related to the power output and deter- Germany the operator of a solar power
silicon mined per kilowatt peak. In 2010, in plant can obtain a license as a business
Translucent Reduction according to Europe, a standard system including the from the tax office and can therefore set
modules transparency
necessary technology and assembly, off VAT expenditure against received
b cost on average approximately VAT. In this case, the choice of solar cell
3000 €/ kWp. type (crystalline or thin-film) is generally
1.4
In order to convert these prices to the unit of minor importance, since the investment
Correction factor compared with
horizontal installation (-)
Oslo area, square metre, commonly used in costs for photovoltaics are related to the
1.3
the building industry, the specific area power output, and the yield is more or
Berlin
1.2 requirement per kWp should be applied less comparable at the same output and
Thessaloniki for evaluation purposes. Depending on situation concerning the installation. The
1.1
the type of solar cell and the fill factor, an fitting of complex, bespoke modules is
1.0 area of approximately 8 m2 is required per often a financial disadvantage in compari-
0.9 kWp in the case of crystalline solar mod- son to simple free-standing photovoltaic
ules and up to 20 m2 in the case of trans- systems. Integrating solar cells into the
0.8
lucent thin-film modules. Based on these building envelope has a positive impact
0.7 facts, the investment costs for a standard on building costs, especially if standard
system vary between 150 and 375 €/ m2 photovoltaic products and simple sys-
0.6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 but can exceed this. The profitability tems can match the function and quality
Tilt angle from the horizontal (°) depends on these costs and the energy of higher cost materials. Almost every
yield, which varies according to orienta- type of building has great potential to
c 3.178 tion, tilt angle, rear ventilation and shad- generate electricity provided that solar
ing. Approximately one to two per cent of technology is incorporated into the plan-
the investment costs are allocated for ning from the very beginning.
servicing, maintenance and provisions.
Apart from investment costs and the Decentralised electricity storage
costs for repaying any related loans, it is In countries with a well-developed elec-
important whether the electricity gener- tricity supply network, it is usually not
3.178 Approximate determination of photovoltaic ated replaces the supply costs for con- necessary to store the power that has
plant dimensions
a Loss factors ventional electricity off the grid or whether been generated. The aim is not to operate
b Solar power yield in the case of horizontal the electricity is sold on. In numerous more buildings off the grid. It is far more
arrangement
c Correction factor for tilted arrangement
countries (Germany; Renewable Energy to develop an interconnected grid, which
3.179 Profitability assessment of building-integrated Sources Act (EEG)), there are funding leads to greater flexibility in generating
photovoltaic systems
3.180 Possibilities to store electricity and typical
programmes which commit the energy electricity and improved security of sup-
characteristic values supply companies to pay a fixed feed-in ply. However, in some cases it does
76
Power supply
make sense to store electricity for a Investment costs of Annual electricity yield of
longer period. Especially if the varying complete photovoltaic system photovoltaic system
demand for electricity requires a buffer –
Costs for saved components
storage facility due to an increase in the and their assembly
use of renewable energy systems. In Amount of electricity Amount of electricity
used by the residents fed into the grid
regions without an electricity supply net- Extra costs for photovoltaics
work, the provision of a storage facility for
≈ ≈
the continuous supply of power is a pre- Annual capital costs
requisite. This especially applies to power (annuity)
Electricity tariff Feed-in tariff
generation from solar radiation or wind +
according to EEG according to EEG

energy. There are several ways to store Annual operating costs
(maintenance and upkeep)
electricity (Fig. 3.180):
Total costs of photovoltaics per annum Total yield of photovoltaics per annum
Condensers
Electricity can be stored directly in con- 3.179
densers in a very efficient way. However,
the storage density that can be achieved Flywheel Hydrogen
is not very high. Condensers are fre- Another way to store electricity is to Hydrogen, as an energy medium, has the
quently used in electronic components. convert it into kinetic energy. In this case, potential to assume an important role in
Alternatively, there is the possibility to the so-called flywheel storage system is energy storage. The process of electroly-
store electricity indirectly by converting it an interesting option. The electrical sis, makes it possible to produce hydro-
into another form of energy. This allows energy sets a magnetically supported gen from water by using electrical
large amounts of energy to be stored over mass into rotation. Due to the extremely energy. The fuel cell can transform stored
long periods. Electricity storage can be high speed of the gyrator (> 50,000 rota- electrical energy back into useful energy.
achieved by using one of the following tions per minute) and the almost friction- However, hydrogen requires careful
devices: less bearing of the rotor, kinetic energy handling when being stored due to its
can be stored over long periods of time. chemical and physical characteristics
Accumulator By reducing the speed of the flywheel, (highly explosive in conjunction with air).
For this storage facility, which is also electrical energy is released using a The challenge therefore is to identify suit-
referred to as »battery«, a chemical con- dynamo. able storage possibilities for hydrogen as
version is required before the storage can well as develop an all-embracing concept
take place. Most widely used are accumu- Compressed air (hydrogen cycle).
lators and these operate with a variety of Alternatively electricity can be stored by
substances. Whereas efficient substances using a compressed air storage facility.
are used in the automobile industry or in This system uses the electrical energy to
the construction of electric cars (e.g. lith- compress air within an enclosed space.
ium ion batteries), lead-acid batteries are The compressed air can be converted
mainly used in buildings without access to back into electricity by releasing the air.
the grid. These batteries offer a high This process is easy to perform, inexpen-
degree of reliability and are cost effective. sive and low maintenance. The efficiency,
However, the short life expectancy and however, is fairly low (approx. 50 %), since
the waste disposal issues are, from an the heat generated in the compression
ecological viewpoint, unsatisfactory. process can usually not be used.
Storage facility Energy density Energy density Investment acc. Number of cycles Costs for Typical Efficiency Storage site
(kWh/kg) (kWh/m³) to capacity (life expectancy) storage storage period (%) e.g.
(Euro/kWh) (Euro/kWh) (hours)
Super 0.005 10 50 000 500 000 0.100 0.1 > 95 Motor vehicle,
condensers energy plant
Flywheel 0.14 1000 1500 1 000 000 0.002 0,5 85 – 90 Motor vehicle,
energy storage energy plant
Accumulators (Pb) 0.03 100 100 500 0.200 12 60 –70 Motor vehicle
Accumulators (Li) 0.12 – 0.19 300 150 1500 0.100 12 90 Motor vehicle
Pumped storage, 0.0006 0,6 150 12 000 0.013 12 70 – 85 Power station

250 m depth
Compressed-air, 0.03 2 27 12 000 0.002 12 approx. 72 Power station
energy storage, 60 bar
Hydrogen 33 180 27 12 000 0.002 500 27 Power station
cavern storage, 60 bar
3.180
77
Water supply Electronic taps, which use a proximity or sure of two to ten bar. At this pressure, it
motion detector to supply water only on is also possible to provide water to supply
Less than one per cent of the world’s demand, are sensible alternatives for points on the top storeys of buildings.
water can be directly treated for use as public bathroom facilities. The water mains connection consists of a
drinking water; the remainder is salt In the case of thermostatic mixing valves, shut-off valve, a water meter and a filter
water. With the growing world population the consumer extracts water at the with a backflow preventer. If the pressure
and rising water consumption, the supply desired temperature without wasting at the connection point exceeds five bar,
of rainwater from natural evaporation is no water before the desired temperature is a pressure reducer has to be installed
longer sufficient. Already today, more reached. For this reason, thermostatic behind the water metering device and the
than one billion people live without mixing valves are especially suitable for filter to protect the pipework and the fit-
access to clean drinking water. In Ger- showers. tings. Depending on the quality of the
many, drinking water is more tightly WC flushing tanks with a water content of water, it may be necessary to install fur-
monitored than any other food product. six litres are standard today and have ther fittings or water treatment systems
The list of pollutants and pathogens is replaced the previous systems with a (e.g. decalcification or proportioning
being extended continuously and thresh- nine-litre capacity. The amount of water devices) before distributing the water to
old values are being tightened. used for flushing can be selected with the the supply points.
Supplying clean drinking water has push of an integrated button on a dual For economic reasons, the connection
become a challenge in many regions. flush mechanism. rate to the central water supply network
This especially applies to places that are However, notwithstanding all measures to frequently only reaches 75 % in Germa-
not connected to a central water supply save water, it is also necessary to make ny’s sparsely populated areas. As a con-
network. sure that the volume of waste water suf- sequence, there are several private indi-
fices to remove all residues in the drain- vidual water supply companies in Ger-
Water consumption age system. The pipework in new builds many. The quality of their well or spring
The daily water consumption in Germany has to be dimensioned according to water, however, often fails to meet the
currently amounts to approximately 120 l these low volumes of water. When per- required standards.
per person. Two thirds of this drinking forming refurbishments with the existing The development of a decentralised
water is used in bathrooms, for washing drainage system retained, the flush vol- water conditioning plant, consisting of
and flushing toilets (Fig. 3.182). Apart ume should not be reduced too far. In this mechanical filters and chemical systems,
from the steadily rising water prices, case, it may be necessary to apply a dis- is a fairly expensive affair. According to
water consumption also has an effect on charge intensifier, a device which is the latest technology, ultrafiltration plants,
the amount of energy consumed. For this installed either at the bottom of the waste in particular, are very effective systems to
reason, it is important to install taps that stack or immediately behind the toilet treat drinking water. This technology
reduce water consumption without reduc- bowl to collect the small amounts of enables the removal of pathogens as well
ing the level of comfort. flushed water. Due to effect caused by as turbidity in a single process. By add-
Today, modern sanitary fittings are siphonage, the collected volume of waste ing an activated carbon filter, it is also
equipped with integrated water-saving tap is released periodically with a surge-like possible to remove traces of pharmaceu-
flow regulators. These are, for example, flush, therefore, preventing residues from ticals and pesticides from drinking water.
tap aerators, which reduce the water jet remaining in the pipework. The filters used in ultrafiltration plants are
by almost 50 % (Fig. 3.181 and 3.184). The economical use of water resources is membrane filters with pores only measur-
Flow regulators can be fitted to almost all also an important aim in terms of the sup- ing approximately 15 nanometers
bathroom and kitchen taps as well as ply of drinking water. However, by reduc- (nano = 10-9). They can trap and almost
between the shower mixer and the ing consumption, the standing time of completely retain microorganisms and
shower hose. They function like a partially water in the supply lines increases. This viruses. It is not really necessary to per-
closed valve. often requires greater effort in maintaining form any additional disinfecting measures
water hygiene standards on behalf of the by adding chemicals or performing UV
public supply network. The supply lines irradiation, although this remains manda-
have to be flushed more frequently so tory.
that the consumer has access to safe
drinking water at all times. The charges Water installations
made by the public utilities for water line Pipes made of plastic, metal or composite
maintenance are included in the fixed materials are used for the water distribu-
charges rather than the unit costs for tion network.
water consumption. Economy concerning The selection of the pipe material

water supply is, therefore, to a certain depends upon the quality of the supplied
degree, in conflict with ecology. drinking water. Copper pipes should, for
example, only be used in the case of high
Water mains connection pH values. Chemical analyses of water
Domestic water usually enters the build- and recommendations for the correct
ing via a public water supply network. choice of material can be obtained from
The public water utilities work with a pres- the water utilities. In addition, the maxi-
3.181
78
Water supply
mum pressure and temperature in the

pipework should be considered when
selecting the material. The pipework is
dimensioned according to the estimated 27%
Toilet flushing
volume flow (peak volume flow) and the 33 l 36% Baths/showers/
pressure loss calculation (friction head body hygiene
43 l
loss). The inside diameter or the nominal
width is relevant for the pipe diameters
(nominal diameter DN). 12%
Washing laundry
15 l
9%
Pressure increasing system 6%
Small businesses
6% 4%
A pressure increasing system is a pump, 11 l
Cleaning,
which has to be installed if the pressure washing cars, garden 7 l Eating and drinking
5l
supplied by the public utility is not suffi-
Dish washing 7 l
cient to provide the minimum level of
3.182
pressure at the water outlet in the building
that is the most inconvenient from a Type of building Installation Saving device Normal installation
hydraulics point of view. Pressure increas- Toilet flushing 24 l 45 l
ing systems are therefore frequently Residential
Washing machine 10 l 20 l
installed in high-rise buildings. However, building
due to the increasing application of water Garden watering 0.2– 0.55 l/m2
meters, filters and water conditioning sys- Office building Toilet flushing 12 l 20 – 30 l
tems, all of which lead to greater pressure
Toilet flushing 6l 5 –10 l
loss, pressure increasing systems are Schools and
sports facilities
often installed in residential buildings with Sprinkler irrigation system 0.55 l/m2
only a small number of storeys. 3.183

Safety valves protect the water in the Installation1 Unit without with Savings
pipework from contamination by prevent- control device control device
1 DU 10 DU
ing backflow, backsiphonage and back-
1 Washbasin 2
pressure. • Volume flow l/min 13 6 7 70
The water utility is responsible for select- • Daily consumption l/d 31.2 14.4 16.8 168
ing the size and type of measuring 1 Shower 3
• Volume flow l/min 19 9 10 100
device, according to the demand of the • Daily consumption l/d 87.4 41.4 46 460
building, and for fitting the domestic Total consumption l/d 118.6 55.8 62.8 628
water meter. The pressure loss caused Annual amount m3/a 41.5 19.5 22.0 220
by the water meter must be taken into Energy consumption 4 kWh/a 1593.2 749.6 843.6 8436
account to ensure that the functioning of CO2 kg/a 525.7 247.4 278.4 2784
down-stream plants and fittings is not Annual costs 5 €/a 348.7 164.1 184.6 1846
adversely affected.
Calculation parameters:
Waste water 1
1 dwelling unit (DU) with 2 persons, 1 washbasin and 1 shower
Waste water is usually discharged by 2
Period of washbasin use: approx. 1.2 minutes per day and person on 350 days a year
3
Period of shower use: approx. 2.3 minutes per day and person on 350 days a year
means of a gravity dewatering system. 4
The heating of 1 m3 of water from 9 °C (cold water temperature) to 42 °C requires 38.38 kWh of energy, at the
Vacuum or pressure systems are an alter- same time emitting approx. 12.66 kg of CO2
native to the usual gravity systems. Where 5
1 m³ of hot water costs approx. 8.40 € (costs incl. fresh water, waste water and energy for heating the water)
such systems are used, flush toilets can 3.184
Country Water consumption
be replaced by vacuum toilets similar to per person and day ( l )
the ones used in airplanes, ships and Basic requirements
trains or residential buildings in some according to WHO 50
Belgium 120
Scandinavian countries.
Germany 127
By using decentralised or semi-decentral- Netherlands 130 3.181 Electronic washbasin tap with a reduced flow
ised waste water purification plants, it is England 149 volume (6 l / min) due to the installation of an
aerator
possible to save costs which would other- France 156

Sweden 197 3.182 Use of drinking water in Germany: average
wise be incurred by maintenance work on Italy 213
values per person according to the water
supplied to residential and small commercial
the sewage system. Switzerland 237 buildings
Spain 270 3.183 Water demand for different building categories
India 25 and types of installation per person and day
Drainage system 3.184 Potential savings of warm water in residential
Japan 278
Drains made of metal or plastic are USA 295 buildings by applying water-saving flow
regulators
applied in the drainage system. SML cast Dubai 500
3.185 International comparison of water consumption
iron pipes (seamless soil pipes) and plas- 3.185 per person and day (2007, without industry)
79
Type of waste water Definition tic piping systems (high temperature

pipes and sewer pipes) have become
Blackwater Waste water from toilets and urinals, toilet flushing water containing faeces
established in practical operation.
Yellow water Urine from separation toilets and urinals, with and without flushing water Depending on fire protection or sound
Brown water Blackwater without urine or yellow water proofing requirements, it may be neces-
sary to follow special technical directives.
Greywater Domestic waste water from kitchens, bathrooms (shower, bath, washbasin)
and washing machines The waste water is discharged horizon-
tally to the soil stack via fixture or branch
3.186
drains. Then the sewage flows down verti-
Drinking water cally, through the stack, passing one or
Service water
Greywater more storeys, until it reaches the collec-
Vent Vent
Blackwater tion pipe underneath the floor slab of the
lowest level. The stack is vented via the
Bucket Washing Urinal WC
sink machine roof. The building drain channels the sew-
Alternative
age underneath the ground slab until it
Bath Shower meets the public sewer.
40 % of the German sewer system needs
to be renovated in the short to medium
Garden term. A lot of sewers are leaky, not only
Odour trap Greywater allowing groundwater to enter the sewer
reclamation
plant
Drinking water system, but also sewage to seep into the
Floor drain
ground thereby contaminating the
Public sewer
groundwater.
3.187
Waste water lifting systems
The installation of a waste water lifting
Filter chamber First recycling Main recycling Domestic water UV lamp for water
tank tank supply tank degermination system is required if the waste water is
Fresh collected below the flood level. The
water feed responsible authority usually defines the
flood level as the top level of the road at
the building’s tie-in point. Plumbing fix-
tures located below the flood level must
be protected against backflow. It is also
necessary to install a lifting system if the
sewage cannot be removed by means of
a slope or if rainwater does not seep
away below the flood level.
Waste water lifting systems consist of a
collection tank and pumps, which raise
the waste water to above the flood
level via a pressure pipe. Depending on
the type of waste water, they are gener-
ally divided into systems for sewage con-
Sediment removal taining faeces and those without fecal
(fully automatic) 3.188 matter.
Hot water
Heating
3.186 Composition of domestic waste water

3.187 Integration of a greywater reclamation system
3.188 Configuration of a greywater reclamation
system
3.189 Integration of a greywater reclamation system
with a heat exchanger into the domestic hot Forward flow
water heating system with a storage tank cold water Greywater
3.190 Greywater reclamation system reclamation plant
3.191 Different ways in which water can be used in Storage tank with heat exchanger
buildings
3.189 3.190
80
Water supply
Venting of drains Most domestic water circulating pumps wash basins can be used (Fig. 3.187).
In principle, all soil stacks in Germany are controlled via timers today. The user The average daily production of grey-
have to be led through the roof. The vents can programme and set the timer at the water in residential buildings is approxi-
remove the sewage gas and prevent pos- pump. However, because the daily utilisa- mately 40 l per person, which is sufficient
itive or negative pressure occurring in the tion profile regarding hot water consump- to cover the demand for water to flush
sewer system. Air admittance valves tend tion is not always predictable, unneces- toilets. Due to this double usage, the
to be used these days since they contrib- sary amounts of hot water are frequently domestic water consumption and the
ute towards simplifying the venting of the conveyed through the pipes. In addition amount of sewage are each reduced by
drainage system. They can be installed to a timer, modern circulation pumps are approximately 30 %. The use of waste
into the main venting system to prevent also equipped with a thermostat, which water from washing machines or rainwa-
negative pressure situations. This obvi- makes sure that hot water is only circu- ter really only makes sense if the building
ates the need to penetrate the building lated once it has reached a predefined owner has a high demand for service
envelope. In particular, this means less temperature of, for example, 35 to 60 °C. water.
complicated construction work and no The domestic hot water circulation pumps Through the filtration and polishing pro-
danger of thermal bridges. installed today, in line with those for heat- cesses that are part of the water treat-
ing systems, are generally very efficient ment procedure in a greywater reclama-
Domestic hot water systems energy saving devices and consume no tion system, approximately 30 % of the
The heat generation system installed for more than approximately ten watts. greywater is removed and may not be
heating the building is usually also A further, very simple possibility is to con- reused in the building. The remaining
intended for heating drinking water. The trol the circulation pump via a push-but- 70 % of the greywater can be reused as
domestic hot water is usually stored in ton switch or a sensor. It can be installed service water. At an average daily grey-
tanks ready for use. The different types close to the water outlet and activated by water production of 40 l per person in a
and concepts of storage are explained in the user just before the hot water is residential building, approximately 30 l
greater detail from page 32 onwards. required. In this case, the switch makes can be recovered per person and day
Systems for the solar thermal generation sure that the circulation pump is only and used as toilet flushing water. The
of hot water in residential buildings are operated if there is a true demand for amount of service water required in resi-
generally also economically viable in Ger- domestic hot water. dential buildings is usually below the pos-
many without state subsidies (see Heat- sible amount of greywater. Depending on
ing, p. 32ff). A single-family home with Greywater reclamation systems the building’s use, the amount of greywa-
four persons usually requires a collector Greywater reclamation systems produce ter varies considerably in non-residential
area of approximately 5 m2 and a storage hygienically clear water from greywater buildings and has to be evaluated in each
volume of 0.3 to 0.4 m3. On average, a (waste water without fecal matter). This individual case.
plant this size covers around 50 to 60 % process not only reduces the consump- Greywater can be transformed into ser-
of the hot water demand. tion of drinking water, but also the volume vice water using a variety of methods and
of sewage. This is one of the reasons why depends on the system manufacturer.
Energy-saving hot water circulation these plants will be used more frequently Generally, a mechanical process is used
In order to avoid unnecessary amounts of in future. initially, followed by a physical process,
drinking water and energy being wasted Domestic sewage consists of black, yel- or by applying a biological treatment
before the water flows out of the fixture at low, brown and greywater (Fig. 3.186). process. If this were not the case, the
the desired temperature, domestic water Waste water from kitchens is not usually ingredients and pathogenic germs in the
circulating pumps can be applied. They treated by greywater reclamation plants greywater would soon lead to strong
convey the domestic hot water from the due to the greater effort and expense unpleasant odours when kept in storage
hot water tank to the water outlet. Depend- involved in the removal of food waste and containers for extended periods. Even
ing on the requirements, there are differ- grease. However, waste water without though there are no legal requirements in
ent possibilities to control the pumps. fecal matter from baths, showers and Germany concerning the quality of
Water flow Treatment Applications Further use

Rainwater Simple filtration (gravel bed) Irrigation Groundwater replenishment
Filtration Cooling (technical resource) –
Shower, washing machine Greywater
Toilet flushing Yellow and blackwater
Biological purification Water supply –
Greywater Sterilisation Washing machine Greywater

Toilet flushing Yellow and blackwater
Filtration, biological purification Irrigation Groundwater replenishment
Biological purification Water supply –
Yellow water Sterilisation by means of storage and drying Fertilizer production –
Storage Raw material for the chemical industry –
Blackwater Anaerobic digestion Biogas production Production of humus and fertiliser
Kitchen and organic waste Composting Production of humus and fertiliser
3.191
81
Drinking water Waste water Rainwater service water from greywater reclamation
systems, it is nevertheless necessary to
Average rates
1.81 2.05 0.88 notify the local health authority and inform
in Germany (€/m3)
3.192
them about the installation and the start-
up of the system. In accordance with the
Drinking Water Ordinance, it is obligatory
Water Water Storage and Transport and to ensure strict separation between the
yield treatment pressure distribution
maintenance service water and the drinking water net-
Depreciation terms and
work.
return
Subsidisation and allowances Heat recovery from greywater

to cover building costs Due to its advantageous temperature pro-
Activation methods file, heat can be recovered from greywa-
concerning investments and
maintenance expenditures ter by using a heat pump. The heat thus
Current demand and gained can then be employed for heating
consumer structure purposes. If the greywater reclamation
Development of the demand system is installed within a heated build-
and consumer structure ing, the radiant heat of the warm greywa-
Urbanity ter can be used directly to heat the corre-
Population density sponding room without any extra costs
Size and structure of the and effort. It is possible to gain approxi-
supply area
mately one kilowatt hour of energy from
Development of the size, each cubic metre of greywater and each
structure and density within
the supply area kelvin of temperature difference. The heat
Water availability gained can also be used to preheat the
Origin and quality of the
drinking water. The treatment of greywa-
resource ter is usually carried out without adding
Conveyance conditions chemicals and is odourless when cor-
External procurement of water rectly performed.
Topography in the supply
area Profitability of greywater reclamation
Ground conditions systems
Natural geographical conditions Alongside the investment and operation
Population demography and density, consumer structure and size of the supply area costs of a greywater reclamation system,
Investment criteria and financing modalities for capital costs
important factors influencing the amorti-
3.193
sation period of such a plant include the
average amounts of greywater made
Calculation of the rainwater yield for rainwater use in buildings
available and the charges for water and
The following formula has proved adequate for an approximate estimation of the average annual rainwater sewerage (Fig. 3.192).
yield which can then be used to determine the storage tank capacity:
rainwater yield = roof area x annual rainfall x runoff coefficient x filter efficiency
If the charging system assumes that
waste water volumes are related to fresh
Roof area: The roof area is the projected area
of the roof including all overhangs water consumption, a single standard
in m2. charge is levied based upon the amount
Annual rainfall: Climate maps can be referred to of fresh water consumed.
to determine the average annual In contrast, the split sewerage charge has
rainfall in mm/year.
More specific information can be two elements. On the one hand, the sew-
provided by the appropriate erage, which is related to the amount of
meteorological office.
consumed fresh water and, on the other
Runoff coefficient: The runoff coefficient refers to the
percentage of precipitation in
hand, a rain water charge which is
relation to the total rainfall that can
Projected roof area
actually be regarded as runoff.
Runoff coefficients of different roof coverings according to DIN 1989, Part 1:

Roof covering Runoff coefficient
• Inclined hard-covered roof 0.8 3.192 Water and sewage rates in Germany
• Flat roof with/without gravel 0.6/0.8 3.193 Basic structural conditions and their impact on
• Planted roof intensive/extensive 0.3/0.5 the profitability of the domestic water supply
3.194 Calculation of the rainwater yield for the use of
Filter efficiency: Value according to manufacturer rainwater in buildings
3.195 Schematic diagram of a rainwater reclamation
Example calculation: Calculation of the rainwater yield
system
• Single family home with a 100 m2-roof area and a tiled roof covering
3.196 Water storage tank made of plastic (2×10 m3)
• Mean annual rainfall = 750 mm/year
for the rainwater reclamation plant of a multi-
• Runoff coefficient = 0.8; filter efficiency = 0.98
family dwelling
Rainwater yield = 100 m2 ≈ 750 mm/year ≈ 0.8 ≈ 0.98 ≈ 10-3 = 59 m3/year
3.197 Waterless urinal
3.194
82
Water supply
dependent on the size of the sealed area annual amount of precipitation as well as combine a rainwater harvesting system
on the corresponding premises. The split the estimated water demand (Fig. 3.194). with a planted roof or with a rainwater
method is usually applied in communities The storage tanks for rainwater harvesting infiltration system on the property. Corro-
with more than 100 000 inhabitants. systems in Germany should be dimension-resistant plastic or stainless steel
From today’s perspective, greywater rec- sioned in a way that the capacity is equi- pipework should be applied.
lamation systems are feasible without valent to approximately the amount of
subsidies only if the number of users con- service water needed per month (in NoMix systems and waterless urinals
nected to the plant exceeds approxi- smaller residential buildings). This means In contrast to NoMix systems, waterless
mately 50 residents. In Germany, applica- that it should be possible to store approx- urinals have been used for a long time
tion of this innovative technology is not imately 1/12 or 8.5 % of the mean annual (Fig. 3.197). By draining the urine through
yet profitable for smaller units. However, amount of rainfall/annual demand for a sealant liquid, the build up of odour is
in regions where water is scarce, during service water, at one time. DIN 1989-1 prevented. Waterless urinals do not
periods of supply shortfall or in the case recommends a minimum size of six per require any water for flushing. NoMix sys-
of high water charges, greywater recla- cent of the annual yield/annual require- tems are also based on a separation of
mation systems may quickly prove to be ment. The smaller value of these two urine, fecal matter and water. The first of
economically viable. operands should be selected as the refer- these toilets was developed and installed
The possibility of installing a separate ence value to dimension the tank. in the 90s in Sweden. In the meantime,
greywater network in new buildings The pump can either be installed in the there are many different models on the
should at least be examined in future. If plant room (water supply station) or in a market. All of them are based on the
installed as a precautionary measure, the cistern outside the building, in this case, same system of separating urine and the
subsequent fitting of a greywater recla- using a submersible pump. In dry peri- remaining waste water, however, using a
mation system would be greatly simplified ods, the water supply is guaranteed by different type of water drainage system.
should one be needed. installing an automatic fresh water feed. There is a realistic market potential for
The fresh water has to be fed into the these systems in the fast growing cities of
Rainwater harvesting systems storage tank via an open outlet. Similar to the emerging and developing countries,
Approximately 50 % of our daily con- a greywater reclamation system, there which suffer from problems caused by
sumption of drinking water can be has to be a strict separation between the water pollution. Arid regions (e.g. Aus-
replaced by rainwater. Rainwater harvest- drinking water and the rainwater pipes tralia) could also be a potential market for
ing systems collect rainwater which can within the building. It also makes sense to these waterless systems.
be used not only for cleaning purposes,
but also for watering the garden, flushing 1 Roof gutter
the toilet or washing clothes (Fig. 3.195). 2 Filter
1 3 Rainwater storage tank
Since rainwater from streets and paved 4 Inlet
areas can be polluted, only roof surfaces 5 Overflow with odour trap
6 Suction pipe
should be connected to the rainwater har- 12
7 Infiltration or public sewer connection
vesting system. Figure 3.194 contains 8 Compact system for rainwater supply
11
9 Rainwater distribution
details of how to calculate the rainwater 10 Tap
harvesting potential. If rain is harvested 13
11 Toilet
12 Washing machine
from bituminous or planted roofs, the col- 8
13 Fresh water supply
lected water could be discoloured. For 9
10
this reason, it is not necessarily suitable 2
for use in washing machines. 6 7
The rainwater is channelled off the roof 5
and through a filter where coarse debris
3 4 3.195
is removed before it reaches the cistern
or rainwater tank. It is important to make
sure that the filters used do not accumu-
late dirt and are easily accessible for
cleaning.
Rainwater tanks (Fig. 3.196) are available
as either plastic or concrete storage sys-
tems. They should be positioned in a
shady and cool place to prevent the

growth of algae and bacteria in the tank.
For this reason, it is preferable for cisterns
to be installed outside the building in the
ground below frost penetration depth. To
determine the storage capacity, it is nec-
essary to consider the roof area and its
surface properties, the approximate
3.196 3.197
83

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Building services systems

Heat source Heat pump Suitable Heat stor- Combination Other

required forward-flow age required with heat important

(QV = ventilation heat loss, QT = transmission

storage room since long conveyor sys- counter-clockwise direction (Fig. 3.8).

5 kWh / kg at a density of approximately • The optimal ratio between the cooling

Biogas 6.0 kWh/m3 166 m3/MWh

εw = Q/P = (Q0 + P)/P

εw = Coefficient of performance Subsoil Specific extraction output

The annual performance factor (APF) 3.10

Definition Meaning perature of the heat source and the tem-

where the refrigerant passes over an

mary energy medium directly. Assuming 80 kWh Power

Thermal capacitiy (%)

• Over-dimensioned auxiliary drive sys- Block-type thermal power stations (BTTP)

costs, the market share of these systems

Heat is produced in the reaction of hydro-

tional combustion engines. The collector which converts the solar

Vacuum tube collector

Type Open absorber Air collector Flat-plate collector Evacuated

plate collectors are the most commonly

3.34 Parabolic trough collector large proportions of direct radiation (close

the facade, they can take on the function

Solar collector array Heat recovery Pump

Solar thermal concepts for buildings

Typical collector areas for a single-family

vided by a heat generator immediately

ing conditions, and is not subject to a

Solar plant Solar plant

heating engineering, standardised steel

designed to distribute the water flow to

lowest level possible. In the main pipe-

draw the heating medium directly into

Heating system Design temperatures Heat emission

The heat output of radiators is not only

approximately 50 – 80 % of their heat Wall heating is installed primarily on the

Cooling hours and approximately 2 W/m2 outside

35 Outside air temperature ta

Calculation satisfied Structural not Modification

peri- External loads

Artificial Cooling load no Cooling load no Cooling load

Days with yes Cross ventilation

no Ventilation no Close to lake

Air quality no yes Demand for

Direct adiabatic Floor cooling 20 – 30 16 –20 low radiation ++ risk of discomfort

yes Groundwater flow no

Heat extraction Recharging

Cold extraction: Cold extraction:

Planning and operation System performance

the depth. so that approximately 10 – 20 % less heat

The extraction well should reach down to 12 °C.

Total release of water (g/h)

peratures of approximately 22 °C in aver- heating up too much, it must be recooled

Gross solar energy heat dissipation via radiation, the mini-

Planning and operation

Museum HT Heating tion as soon as the outside temperature

Surface ished during the next rainfall. There is no

100 Whether the integration of a sorption cool- Sorption-assisted air-conditioning

resulting from changing meteorological

Is a central ventilation plant no Moderate

yes Standard DEC system

Supply and exhaust air system; thermally driven cooling machine;

Cool supply air with

COP = 0.6 COP = 0.7 3.88 Dimensions of a solar 15 kW absorption cooling