1.

Schools of Ethical Philosophy

Deontology, utilitarianism, egoism, and virtue ethics are four different ethical

theories that can be used to guide moral decision making.

1. Deontology is an ethical theory that holds that actions should be guided by

moral rules or duties, regardless of their outcomes. This theory was
developed by German philosopher Immanuel Kant, who argued that
certain actions, such as telling a lie or breaking a promise, are always
wrong, regardless of their consequences.
2. Utilitarianism, on the other hand, is an ethical theory that holds that the
best action is the one that maximizes overall happiness and reduces
overall suffering. This theory was developed by British philosophers
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill and holds that the moral worth of an
action is determined solely by its outcome or consequences.
3. Egoism is a moral theory that holds that individuals should act in their own
self-interest, regardless of the consequences for others. Egoism can be
seen as a type of consequentialist theory, as it focuses on the outcomes of
actions rather than their inherent moral value.
4. Virtue ethics is an ethical theory that focuses on the character and habits
of the moral actor, rather than rules or consequences, as the key element
of ethical thinking. Virtue ethics was first developed by ancient Greek
philosophers, such as Aristotle, who believed that a virtuous character is
one that possesses and acts according to virtues, such as honesty,
courage, and compassion.

Each of these ethical theories has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the

choice between them often depends on the individual and the specific

situation being considered.

2. Adam’s equity theory

Is a social psychological model that explains how people make judgments

about the fairness of their relationships

individuals are motivated by a desire for equity, or fairness, comparing their

own input-outcome ratios with those of others.

If they perceive that the ratio is equal or balanced, they are more likely to
feel satisfied with the relationship.

If they perceive that the ratio is unequal, they are more likely to experience
feelings of dissatisfaction and unfairness.

3. Social Exchange Theory

Iis a social psychological perspective that views social behavior as a series of

exchanges between individuals. The theory posits that social behavior is
motivated by a desire to maximize rewards and minimize costs in our
interactions with others.

According to social exchange theory, individuals engage in social behavior

because they expect to receive some sort of reward, such as emotional
support, approval, or tangible benefits, in return for their investment of
time, effort, or resources. At the same time, they seek to minimize costs,
such as effort, time, or emotional stress.

The theory suggests that people engage in social exchange based on the
principle of reciprocity, meaning that they are likely to reciprocate when
they receive benefits from others.

The theory also highlights the importance of fairness and reciprocity in social
exchange, which can be applied to the realm of business ethics. For
example, the theory suggests that employees are more likely to be
motivated and productive if they perceive that they are being treated fairly
and that the balance of rewards and costs in their employment relationship
 is equitable. This can help companies to foster a positive workplace culture
that supports ethical behavior.

4. Moral Disengagement

Moral disengagement is a psychological process that enables individuals to

justify or rationalize unethical or immoral behavior. It refers to the ways in
which people can disengage from their moral values and responsibilities
and act in ways that they would otherwise view as wrong or unacceptable.

Moral disengagement can take several forms, including:

1. Moral justification: People use rationalizations or excuses to justify their

behavior, such as claiming that the ends justify the means, or that the
situation is unique or exceptional.
2. Displacement of responsibility: People shift responsibility for their actions
onto others, such as blaming external circumstances or attributing the
behavior to orders from someone else.
3. Diffusion of responsibility: People reduce their sense of personal
responsibility by diffusing it among a larger group, such as suggesting that
everyone in the company is engaging in similar behavior.
4. Dehumanization: People dehumanize their victims or targets, viewing them
as less than human and deserving of mistreatment.
5. Euphemistic labeling: People use language that minimizes the negative
aspects of their behavior, such as using terms like "collateral damage" to
describe the harm caused by their actions.
6. Advantageous comparison: People compare their behavior to others who
engage in similar or worse behavior, thereby justifying their own actions as
acceptable.
7. Attribution of blame: People blame their victims or targets for their own
suffering, suggesting that they are responsible for the harm caused by their
behavior.
5. The Fraud Triangle

is a model developed by criminologist Donald Cressey to describe the three

elements that must be present for fraud to occur. The three elements of
the Fraud Triangle are:

1. Opportunity: The first element of the Fraud Triangle is opportunity. This

refers to the availability of resources or access to information that can be
misused for fraudulent purposes. For example, an employee with access
to sensitive financial information may have the opportunity to commit fraud
if they are not properly supervised or monitored.
2. Rationalization: The second element of the Fraud Triangle is
rationalization. This refers to the process by which individuals justify their
fraudulent behavior to themselves. People who engage in fraud may
convince themselves that their actions are justified because of some
perceived wrongdoing on the part of their employer or because they feel
entitled to compensation for perceived wrongs or losses.
3. Pressure: The third element of the Fraud Triangle is pressure. This refers
to the presence of some external factor that creates an incentive or
motivates individuals to commit fraud. Examples of such factors may
include financial difficulties, personal debt, or a desire for a higher standard
of living.

The Fraud Triangle provides a useful framework for understanding the

conditions that can contribute to fraudulent behavior, and it highlights the
importance of preventing and detecting fraud by addressing the elements
of opportunity, rationalization, and pressure.

6. Moral Licensing

Moral licensing theory is a social psychological phenomenon that refers to the

idea that people use their past good deeds to justify their present
misdeeds. According to this theory, people feel that their prior virtuous acts
grant them a kind of moral "credit" or "licensing" that they can use to
balance out any subsequent unethical behavior.

For example, someone who has volunteered at a soup kitchen may feel that
they have earned a "licence" to be less generous or more selfish in other
 areas of their life, because they feel they have already fulfilled their moral
obligations.

Moral Awareness

Moral awareness refers to a person's understanding and recognition of moral

considerations, values, and principles in a given situation. It involves the
ability to identify and reflect on the ethical dimensions of an issue, to weigh
competing moral claims, and to make informed decisions based on a clear
sense of what is right or wrong.

Moral awareness can be developed and strengthened through various means,

including education, personal reflection, and exposure to diverse
perspectives and ethical traditions.

7. Typology Of deviant workplace behavior

This suggests that deviant workplace behaviors vary along 2 dimensions.

Minor vs serious and interpersonal vs organisational. On the basis of these
2 dimensions, employee deviance falls into 4 distinct categories.:-

• Production Deviance: This type of deviance includes sabotage, tardiness,

and absenteeism, all of which have a negative impact on an organization's
production.

• Political Deviance: This refers to activities motivated by self-interest and

the desire for personal gain, such as backstabbing, manipulation, and
brown-nosing.

• Personal Aggressiveness: This type of deviance involves actions of

aggression, harassment, and bullying directed at others.

• Property Deviance: This type of deviance includes behaviors involving the

unauthorized use or theft of corporate resources, such as tools or supplies
8. The PERMA model

is a framework developed by positive psychologist Martin Seligman to

describe the five essential elements of well-being and happiness. The five

elements of the PERMA model are:

1. Positive emotion: This refers to the experience of positive feelings and

emotions, such as joy, pleasure, and contentment.
2. Engagement: This refers to the experience of being fully absorbed and
involved in activities that are challenging and enjoyable.
3. Relationships: This refers to having positive and supportive relationships
with others, including friends, family, and coworkers.
4. Meaning: This refers to having a sense of purpose and connection to
something larger than oneself, such as a cause, community, or spirituality.
5. Accomplishment: This refers to achieving goals and a sense of
accomplishment, whether in work, hobbies, or other areas of life.

According to the PERMA model, these five elements interact with each other

to contribute to an individual's overall well-being and happiness. By

focusing on these elements, individuals can increase their sense of

fulfillment and satisfaction with life. The PERMA model is used in positive

psychology as a tool for understanding and promoting well-being, as well

as for guiding interventions to improve psychological health.