Cell Cycle, Mitosis and Meiosis

• A diploid cell is a regular human cell which contains a double set of chromosomes
(represented as 2n).
• The goal of the cell cycle in mitosis is to make a copy of a cell, that is, to make a diploid
cell. That diploid cell can re-enter into the cell cycle, and make more cells.
• The way that we make new cells or replace damaged cells is therefore through the
process of mitosis.
• In meiosis, a diploid cell is used to make a haploid cell. Meiosis just makes gametes or
sex cells.
• The stages of the cell cycle are as follows:

o Interphase – This is the non-dividing stage. Interphase is subdivided into three

stages:
▪ G1 – This is the first growth phase. Much protein synthesis occurs and
the cell ‘grows’. More organelles are produced and the volume of
cytoplasm increases. The cell carries out its usual functions. If the cell
is not going to divide again, it remains in this phase (G0 phase).
▪ S phase – This is the replication phase. The cell enters this phase only
if cell division is to follow. The DNA replicates.
▪ G2 – This is the second growth phase. This is a shorter growth phase
during which the proteins necessary for cell division are synthesised.
o Mitosis – This is the division of the nucleus. Mitosis is the process by which a
cell divides to produce two daughter nuclei, each with the same number of
chromosomes. The cells produced are genetically identical to the parent cell. It
is considered in 4 stages:
▪ At the end of interphase
i. DNA replicated but not coiled, so no chromosomes visible.
ii. Nuclear membrane present.
iii. Two centrioles present.
iv. Nucleolus present.

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 ▪ Prophase
i. DNA coils and condenses into compact shapes, so that each
chromosome becomes stainable and visible as two chromatids
attached to a centromere.
ii. Nuclear membrane present.
iii. Centrioles move apart towards opposite poles of the cell.
Microtubules assemble around each centriole.
iv. Nucleolus disappears.
▪ Metaphase
i. The nuclear membrane breaks down.
ii. Centrioles have reached opposite poles and microtubules extend
between them, forming the fibres of a nuclear spindle.
iii. Chromosomes move to the equator of the spindle and each one
becomes attached to a spindle fibre by its centromere.
▪ Anaphase
i. The centromeres divide and the movement and contraction of the
spindle fibres pull the sister chromatids apart towards opposite
poles of the cell.
▪ Telophase
i. Each chromatid has become a separate structure and is now
called a chromosome. A nuclear membrane forms around each
group of chromosomes.
ii. The chromosomes unwind into chromatin.
iii. Nucleoli form in each new nucleus.
iv. Spindle fibres disappear and the centrioles may divide into two.
o Cytokinesis – This is the division of the cytoplasm.

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• It can be noted that proteins known as cyclins control the cell cycle.
• CDK or cyclin dependent kinase (that is, a chemical that speeds up actions within a
cell) are key regulatory enzymes involved in cell proliferation through regulating cell-
cycle checkpoints and transcriptional events in response to extracellular and
intracellular signals. When cyclins accumulate, they fit into the CDKs and there is an
activated CDK cyclin complex. A specific type of CDK is called the mitosis promoting
factor or MPF. When it builds up enough, and does work on the cell (e.g. breaking
down the nucleus or work on the microtubules that build the spindle). These gobble
themselves up and disappear so that the cycle can begin again.
o Meiosis – This is the process by which a diploid nucleus divides to produce four
haploid daughter nuclei which are not genetically identical to each other or the
parent cell. It follows the G2 stage of interphase (as mitosis does) so the DNA
has replicated before the onset of meiosis. It is a continuous process consisting
of two distinct divisions: meiosis 1 followed by meiosis 2:
▪ Cell at the end of interphase

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 i. DNA already replicated, but not coiled, so no chromosomes
visible.
ii. Nuclear membrane present.
iii. Two centrioles present.
iv. Nucleolus present.
Meiosis 1
▪ Early prophase 1
i. DNA condenses, each chromosome becomes stainable and
visible as two chromatids attached to a centromere.
ii. Nuclear membrane present.
iii. Centrioles begin to move towards opposite poles of the cell.
Microtubules assemble around each centriole.
iv. Nucleolus disappears.
▪ Mid prophase 1
i. Homologous chromosomes pair up and lie alongside each other.
This is called synapsis. Each double structure is called a bivalent.
ii. The centrioles move further towards opposite poles.
▪ Late prophase 1
i. The chromatids in a bivalent tangle and pass over each other at
points called chiasmata. The chromatids may break at these
points and re-join with a different chromatid. If a portion of a
chromatid becomes attached to chromatid of the other
chromosome, then a new combination of genes is produced and
crossing over has occurred. The reformed chromosomes are
called recombinants.
▪ Metaphase 1
i. The nuclear membrane breaks down.
ii. The nuclear spindle forms.
iii. The bivalents move to the equator of the spindle and each
chromosome becomes attached to a spindle fibre by its
centromere.
▪ Anaphase 1
i. Movement and contraction of the spindle fibres causes whole
chromosomes to move apart towards opposite poles. So
homologous chromosomes separate.
▪ Telophase 1
i. A nuclear membrane forms around each group of chromosomes.
ii. Spindle fibres disappear and the centrioles divide into two.
▪ Cytokinesis follows and there may or may not be a short pause.
Meiosis 2
▪ Prophase 2
i. Centrioles move towards opposite poles.
▪ Metaphase 2

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 i. The nuclear membranes disappear and nuclear spindles form at
right angles to the plane of the first spindle.
ii. The chromosomes move to the equator and attach to spindle
fibres by their centromere.
▪ Anaphase 2
i. The centromeres divide and sister chromatids move towards
opposite poles (i.e. the sister chromatids separate).
▪ Telophase 2
i. Each chromatid is now called a chromosome. A nuclear
membrane forms around each group of chromosomes.
ii. Spindle fibres disappear and the centrioles may divide into two.
▪ Cytokinesis follows and the four haploid daughter cells are produced,
each of which is genetically different from the others.

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Sources:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2aVnN4RePyI
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7139603/#:~:text=CDKs%20are%20
key%20regulatory%20enzymes,to%20extracellular%20and%20intracellular%20signa
ls.