Large Area Electronics Using Printing Methods
RADOSLAV PARASHKOV, EIKE BECKER, THOMAS RIEDL, HANS-HERMANN JOHANNES,
AND WOLFGANG KOWALSKY
Invited Paper
After the demonstration of the first organic FET in 1986, a new
era in the field of electronic began: the era of organic electronics.
Although the reported performance of organic transistors is still
considerably lower compared to that of silicon transistors, a new
market is open for organic devices, where the excellent performance
of silicon technology is not required. Several commercial applica-
tions for organic electronics have been suggested: organic RFID
tags, electronic papers, imagers, sensors, organic LED drivers, etc.
The main advantage of organic technologies over silicon technolo-
gies is the possibility of making low-cost, large area electronics. The
main processes which allow patterning with suitable resolution on a
large areas are printing methods. Here we will provide an overview
of methods that can be useful in the low-cost production of large
area electronics.
Keywords—Ink-jet printing, laser printing, microcontact
printing, offset printing, organic circuits, organic FETs, screen
printing, thermal imaging.
I. INTRODUCTION
After the demonstration of the first organic transistor by
Tsumura and Koezuka [1], the last decade has seen tremen-
dous progress in the field of organic electronics. All-organic
and all-polymer transistor circuits with a performance
suitable for certain applications have been demonstrated
[2]–[5], [13]. One of the advantages of organic electronics
compared to silicon technologies is the prospect of low-cost
devices. In general, there are two major ways to lower the
cost of electronics. The first one is to increase the packaging
efficiency of the ICs, which is defined by ratio of all devices
on system-level board compared to the area of the board.
Another very efficient way to increase cost effectiveness is to
Manuscript received August 4, 2004; revised February 11, 2005.
R. Parashkov was with the Institute for High-Frequency Engineering,
Technical University of Braunschweig, Braunschweig 38092, Germany.
He is now with the Laboratoire de Photonique Quantique et Moleculaire,
Ecole Normale Superieure de Cachan, Cachan Cedex, France (e-mail:
Radoslav.Parashkov@lpqm.ens-cachan.fr).
E. Becker, T. Riedl, H.-H. Johannes, and W. Kowalsky are with the
Institute for High-Frequency Engineering, Technical University of Braun-
schweig, Braunschweig 38092, Germany (e-mail: e.becker@tu-bs.de;
t.riedl@tu-bs.de; h-h.johannes@tu-bs.de; w.kowalsky@tu-bs.de).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JPROC.2005.850304
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work on larger but cheaper substrates. In the case of organic
electronics, that is the favorable way. The tool for achieving
large area patterning is by printing methods. Printing on in-
expensive substrates like glass, plastic, laminates, and metals
is possible. Using high-resolution printing methods (down
to 100 nm) like microcontact printing CP [6], and other
more conventional printing techniques like ink-jet, screen,
and offset printing, low-cost large area flexible electronics
can be produced. In this paper, we will review the existing
technologies for the production of electronics based on
printing methods. Examples for devices using microcontact,
ink-jet, screen, offset, and thermal line-patterning printing
are presented.
II. CP
Large areas with high-resolution chemical patterns can
be patterned by CP. The technique is easily applicable
to flexible or rigid substrates. The process is based on the
selective transfer of an organothiol or silane to a substrate
via a flexible polymer stamp, thus resulting in exposed
and covered regions of the substrate [7]. The resolution of
the method depends entirely on the previously patterned
master. Stamps are fabricated from poly (dimethyl) siloxane
(PDMS), polyimide, or phenol-formaldehyde polymer. The
stamps are produced by using a previously patterned master.
Masters can be lithographically patterned or commercially
available templates. The stamp is usually fabricated by
casting an elastomer solution on the master. After curing,
the elastomeric stamp is peeled from the master, giving
a negative replica of its surface topography. In a typical
experimental procedure, a photolitographically produced
master is placed in a Petri dish, and a 10 : 1 ratio (w : w
or v : v) mixture of SYLGARD silicone elastomer 184
and SYLGARD silicone elastomer 184 curing agent (Dow
Corning GmbH, Wiesbaden, Germany) is poured over it.
The elastomer is allowed to sit for approximately 30 min
at ambient conditions to degas. Afterwards, it is cured for
1–2 h at 60 C [8].
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 Fig. 1. Schematic of CP patterning processes. (a) CP followed by etching: a1) PDMS stamp
with raised regions covered with SAM; a2) PDMS stamp is brought in contact with substrate surface
in order to transfer SAM; a3) patterned SAM layers; a4) formation of gold drain and source contacts
after etching of the regions not covered with thiol. (b) CP followed by electropolymerization: steps
from b1–b3 are identical with those from process (a); b4) formation of polymer drain and source
contacts after one-step electrodeposition (the electropolymerization occurs in the regions not covered
with SAM). (c) CP followed by electroless deposition: steps from c1–c3 are identical with those
from process (a); c4) electroless deposition occurs only on the hydrophilic regions not covered with
SAM. (d) CP followed by electroless deposition: steps from d1–d3 are identical with those from
process (a); d4) electroless deposition occurs only on the hydrophobic regions covered with SAM.

There are three major ways for patterning flexible elec-
tronics by means of CP: CP followed by etching; CP
followed by electroless plating; and CP followed by area-
selective electropolymerization.
Metal etching has been the first approach demonstrated for
patterning of organic electronics by CP [7]. The schematic
of the method is shown in Fig. 1(a). To define the contacts
of the thin-film transistor (TFT), a metal layer is deposited
by evaporation, then CP is used to deposit an organothiol
self-assembled monolayer as an etch resist. The patterns are
defined by metal etching. It is a very convenient technique
for generating patterned self-assembled monolayer (SAM)
of alkanethiolates on evaporated films of Au, Ag, and Cu
[8]–[10]. High resolution organic active matrix backplane
circuits for large mechanically flexible sheets of electronic
paper have been produced similarly by CP followed by in-
dium–tin–oxide (ITO) etching [12].
Several approaches for process automation have been re-
alized. A possibility for using a revolving elastomeric stamp
to generate patterned SAM with a feature size suitable for

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Fig. 2. Cross section of the wave printing prototype. 1:
Stamp-backplate assembly. 2: Substrate. 3: Working gap
 
( 100 m). 4: Vacuum supply. 5: Pressure supply ( 2 kPa). 6:
Valves switched to pressure supply, thereby creating the wave 7.
8: Grooves-plate. (Fig. 2 is from: Materials Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.,
vol. EXS-2, pp. M4.9.1-M4.9.3, 2004. Reproduced with permission
of Prof. M. Decre.)
a “reel-to-reel” production process have been investigated.
A PDMS stamp is fixed to a cylindrical rod by a thin layer
of solid adhesive on its surface, and then rolled across the
surface of a substrate to generate patterned SAM. Rolling
speeds of 2 cm/s have been reported [14]. Automated large
area patterning with CP can also be achieved using the
novel “wave printing” technique developed by Philips Re-
search. With the “wave printing” technology, commonly en-
countered problems, such as strong stamp substrate adhesion,
squeezing of the pattern, and low large area alignment accu-
racy have been solved [30], [31]. The first fully functional
prototype microcontact wave printer has multilayer align-
ment capabilities better than 2 m over 150-mm wafers. The
wave printing concept is shown in Fig. 2. The flexible PDMS
stamp is mounted on a glass backplate. The stamp–backplate
assembly (1) is maintained on a thick grooves-plate (8) by
vacuum in the grooves (4). The substrate (2) is brought into
constant working distance (3) of 100 10 m from the stamp.
Every groove is controlled by a valve that can switch between
vacuum (4) and mild pressure (5) of about 2 kPa. When a few
grooves (6) are fed with low-pressure air, the flexible back-
plate stretches slightly and brings the stamp into contact with
the substrate. Proper control of the valves generates a “wave”
along the stamp.
Electroless plating of both metals and conducting
polymers is a subject of continuing interest. Selective
electroless metal deposition for IC fabrication has been
studied in detail [15]. Electroless deposition of metals in
general is defined as the deposition and subsequent reduc-
tion of metallic ions from a solution onto a surface in the
absence of an external electric current source. This depo-
sition technique requires the immersion of a catalytically
activated surface in a plating bath containing complexed
metal ions and a reducing agent. The bath needs careful
control with respect to its chemistry, stirring, temperature,
and pH value for reliable and high-quality plating [16].
As an example, a hydrophobic silane SAM is patterned by
CP onto a hydrophilic substrate. Consequently, electroless
plating can occur only in the regions covered with the SAM
[17], [18] [Fig. 1(d)] or not covered with the SAM [19]
[Fig. 1(c)] depending on the chosen process parameters.
A manufacturing approach for the production of flexible
organic circuits with CP nickel gate electrodes on plastic
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substrates has been proposed [19]. Five-stage pentacene ring
oscillators with a signal propagation delay as low as 170 s
per stage have been demonstrated.
CP followed by area-selective electropolymerization is
based on area-selective electrodeposition performed on met-
alized substrates with a previously patterned SAM layer
which can be used as a template in the subsequent deposi-
tion of organic TFT drain and source contacts. The SAM
blocks the electron transfer during electropolymerization,
which occurs only in the exposed regions [Fig. 1(b)]. The
nature of the electrolyte and the applied potential during
electropolymerization plays a crucial role in this patterning
process [20]. One of the first examples of area-selective
electrodeposition defined by CP is polypyrrole patterning
on a gold electrode. After deposition, the patterns have
been transferred to an insulating flexible PDMS substrate
[21]. Structures with a resolution of 10–100 m and con-
ductivity of 1–5 S/cm have been reported. The advantage
of the design is that conducting polymers can be easily
electrochemically switched between a conducting and an
insulating or even semiconducting state [22]. The effect of
the SAM structure on the kinetics of the electrochemical
deposition process of polypyrrole and polyaniline has been
studied in detail [27].
Other “soft-lithographic” techniques based on CP could
be also applicable for organic electronics patterning. A
method based on CP for direct patterning of a metal layer
is described [32]. During the process, a metal layer coated
on the prepatterned PDMS stamp has been transferred to the
polymer film substrate. Under heating and slight pressure, a
contact can be formed between the metal layer coated onto
PDMS stamp and the surface of the polymer substrate. When
the stamp is removed, the metal on the raised regions of the
stamp adheres to the polymer substrate and a metal pattern is
formed. The method is called metal transfer printing (MTP)
[32]. A similar process is flexible letterpress stamping
(FLEPS). FLEPS has been used to fabricate amorphous
silicon TFTs with a bottom-gate structure [33]. The FLEPS
method has also been applied to pattern films of polystyrene
and other thermoplastic polymers with micrometer-scale
feature sizes. The procedure is highly suitable to transfer
patterns on rigid or flexible and flat or curved substrates.
So-called micromolding in capillaries (MIMIC) has been
used to pattern an aluminum film by forming polyurethane
lines high enough to divide an evaporated aluminum film
into electrically separated lines [34]. The process works
by putting a stamp in conformal contact with the substrate,
thereby forming microchannels. The capillaries are then
filled with a polyurethane which is subsequently curred.
Finally the elastomeric stamp is peeled off. Organic tran-
sistors have been produced using the MIMIC technique to
pattern polyaniline and carbon structures [35], [36]. The
conductivity of the PANI electrodes has been reported to be
5 S/cm. Transistors that use microfluidic source and drain
electrodes have been demonstrated [37]. The method for
fabrication can be associated with the MIMIC technique.
The CP concept has been extended to nanoscale di-
mensions in an additive process referred as nanotransfer
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 Table 1
Summary of Methods for Patterning of Organic Elecronics Based on CP Techniques

Fig. 4. Focused acoustic beam used to expel droplets from a

free-liquid surface (Fig. 4 is from J. Appl. Phys., pp. 3441–3447,
vol. 65, no. 9, 1989. Copyright 1989 AIP.)

Fig. 3. Diagram of the piezo drop-on-demand ink-jet printing
system. In the print head, a piezocrystal expands in response to an
electrical driving signal, deforming a membrane, causing a pressure
impulse within the ink chamber, expelling a single droplet from
the orifice. The chamber is refilled through the inlet by capillary
action at the orifice.
printing (nTP) [38], [39]. nTP involves the transfer of
metallic structures directly onto a substrate surface. By this
method, patterning with feature sizes approaching 100 nm
and an edge resolution of less than 15 nm is feasible.
Table 1 summarizes the results obtained after patterning
various materials with different “soft-lithographic” tech-
niques. It is seen from Table 1 that CP is a strong candidate
for industrial patterning of organic electronics. Suitable
resolution for patterning of organic TFTs in the range of

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Table 2
Summary of Methods for Patterning of Organic Elecronics Based on Ink-Jet Printing Techniques
1–10 m is easily achievable with all kinds of soft-litho-
graphic techniques. Functional transistors and inverters
have been produced using selective electropolymerization,
diffusion electropolymerization, and various methods based
on CP. All described methods can be useful alternatives to
vacuum deposition and photolithographic patterning of the
various functional layers and are also suitable for reel-to-reel
or sheet-to-sheet production schemes [14], [31].
III. INK-JET PRINTING
Ink-jet printing technologies provide opportunities both
for significant cost reduction in existing organic devices and
for new device configurations [40]. Ink-jet methods based
on printing with two types of ink-jet heads: namely, the
piezoelectric and acoustic types are most commonly used
for fabrication of organic electronics. Thermal-type ink-jet
printheads also exist. The structure of the thermal-type
head is much simpler than that of the piezoelectric device.
Thermal-type heads use a small electrical heater to heat the
ink in a cavity above its boiling point. A bubble is created
that pushes ink out from the nozzle. This type of ink-jet head
is not used in the case of organic electronics because heat
damage of the functional organic material is possible. With
the use of ink-jet printing techniques, the deposition of all
parts of the transistor device, contact electrodes, semicon-
ducting layers, and insulating materials is possible.
In order to reduce the number of process steps in metallic
contact fabrication, direct printing methods for patterning of
metallic transistor contacts have been explored. Low-tem-
perature copper-rich deposits have been successfully pat-
terned on glass substrates by using a so-called piezoelectric
drop-on-demand ink-jet print head [41]. In this process an
organometallic liquid is used, which after thermal curing
converts into solid copper. The piezo drop-on-demand ink-jet
printing system is used to build three-dimensional (3-D)
micromechanical systems (MEMS) and electrical circuitry
from nanopartical metal colloids [42]. An ink-jet printer
patterns material by expelling tiny droplets of liquid ink
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Fig. 5. Principle of the screen-printing process.
from an orifice one at a time as it is moved in two dimensions
approximately 1 mm above a substrate. Each droplet takes a
ballistic trajectory to the substrate on command by a pressure
impulse, often by a deformable piezocrystal from within a
small chamber attached to the orifice (Fig. 3). The pattern of
droplets left behind on the substrate constitutes the printed
output. TFTs with top-gate configuration have been realized
by ink-jet printing of the source and drain electrodes from a
solution of the conductive polymer PEDOT. High-resolution
patterning of an all-polymer TFT with ink-jet printing has
been achieved by using polyimide stripes as channel sepa-
rators formed previously by photolithography and oxygen
plasma etching. In such a way, ink-jet printed circuits have
also been reported. Enhancement-load and resistor-load type
inverters have been demonstrated. For the enhancement-load
inverter, a via-hole in the insulator has been created by
deposition of solvent drops onto the isolator using an ink-jet
head. The authors suggest that after optimization ICs with
printed TFTs are expected to operate at a frequency higher
than 1 kHz [44], [45].
A step toward all-ink-jet printed electronics is the develop-
ment of methods for semiconducting layer printing. An ex-
ample of the possibility to print not just the contact electrodes
in the electronic devices but also the semiconducting layer
is already demonstrated [46]–[48]. The ink-jet printing tech-
nology used for deposition of the polymeric organic semi-
conductors is acoustic ink-jet printing [47], [48]. In Fig. 4,
the technology concept is shown. A high-frequency trans-
ducer attached to the back of an acoustic lens launches an
acoustic wave through the lens. The lens focuses the acoustic
energy, forming a pressure wave that overcomes the surface
tension of the liquid just above the lens and expels a drop
1325
 Table 3
Summary of Methods for Patterning of Organic Elecronics Based on Screen Printing and
Other Techniques
from the surface. The nozzleless design minimizes the clog-
ging of the ejector, a common problem with thermal or piezo
ink-jet printers. The ink-jet printing technologies allow also
deposition of the dielectric materials. A process for the fabri-
cation of high-quality ink-jet printed conducting and dielec-
tric films has been reported [51].
Table 2 shows the results achieved after patterning of
different inorganic and organic materials by ink-jet printing
techniques. Ink-jet printing is a promising technique for
printing large area electronics due to its flexibility. Printing
of contacts, semiconductors, and dielectrics on large sub-
strates is easily possible by ink-jet printing. The only
drawback of the technique is the relatively low achievable
lateral resolution in the range from 50 to several hundred
micrometers. However, high-resolution patterning (5 m)
by ink-jet printing has been reported, but with the help
of previously prepared polyimide stripes [43]–[45]. This
additional process could affect negatively the costs of the
devices. A promising technique seems to be acoustic ink-jet
printing; drops with diameter of only 5 m are reported [48].
IV. SCREEN PRINTING
Screen printing is a conventional low-cost printing tech-
nique (Fig. 5). With screen printing, patterning of both in-
organic and organic layers is possible. The screen-printing
process for deposition of inorganic composites is well in-
vestigated [52]–[54]. The achievable resolution using this
method is too low for printing drain-source contacts (approx-
imately 100 m), although several groups have reported the
fabrication of organic TFTs [55]–[58].
A compatibility study of various organic gate dielectrics
with screen-printed electrodes for pentacene-based TFTs
has been performed. Transistors with top source–drain
configuration have been prepared on a flexible substrate
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[55]. Thermally evaporated parylene and pentacene have
been used as gate dielectric and semiconductor, respectively.
Garnier et al. reported on fabrication process for organic
transistors that includes two screen-printing steps [56]. Gate,
drain, and source electrodes have been screen printed with
graphite-based polymer ink separately on each side of a
sheet of 1.5- m-thick polyester film which acts at the same
time as the dielectric layer and substrate.
There are some other methods suitable for the production
of flexible electronics, which cannot be classified among the
methods described above. Among them are thermal imaging,
line patterning, and offset printing.
Table 3 shows the results achieved after patterning of
different inorganic and organic materials by methods men-
tioned above. Due to its low resolution, screen printing could
be used for deposition of dielectric materials. Alternative
printing methods suitable for patterning of large areas can be
definitely thermal imaging and the different kinds of offset
printing techniques.
V. CONCLUSION
There are a lot of printing methods which are suitable
for large area patterning of low-cost electronics. CP can
be identified as the printing method most promising for pat-
terning of source and drain electrodes with high resolution.
The resolution of the method depends entirely on the resolu-
tion of the previously patterned master (and subsequently on
the method used for the preparation of this master). Resolu-
tions in the range of 100 nm are achievable. A wave printer
has been demonstrated, which makes CP usable in auto-
mated sheet-to-sheet process. Several suggestions for reel-to-
reel processes have also been made. However, a problem in
the automation of CP could be the elastic modulus of the
PDMS stamp and, as a result, the limited applicable pressure
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 93, NO. 7, JULY 2005
on the stamp. This problem can be easily overcome, for ex-
ample, by reinforcing the stamps [65].
Although the achievable resolution (in the range of 50 m)
with processes like ink-jet, screen, and offset printing is not
sufficient for high-performance electronics, these methods
are still applicable to print gates for TFTs, dielectrics, and
semiconductors. Report is also given for the creation of
vias by ink-jet printing. At present, the perfect low-cost
high-performance fabrication process for flexible or rigid
large area electronics would be a mixture of the methods
described above. For example, in a production process of
top-gate FETs, CP can be used as a high-resolution pat-
terning method, the semiconductor can be ink-jet printed,
the dielectric doctor bladed, and the gate screen printed. The
future of the production of large area electronics lies in the
integration of different printing methods.
Of course we should not forget that in the near future, the
resolution of printing methods like screen and ink-jet printing
may be considerably improved. For example, when vertical
structures are used, there is no need for a high-resolution
printing technique for the fabrication of TFT channels. The
channel length will not be dependent on the printing method,
but on the thickness of the drain-source barrier. Two con-
cepts for fabrication of vertical channel organic transistors
have been presented [66], [67]. The definition of the vertical
channel can by achieved by microcutting or low-resolution
lithography.
In conclusion, we can say that methods for printing on
large substrates are well developed. Most of them are ap-
plicable for the production of organic electronics on large
areas. Several applications and market opportunities for or-
ganic electronics have already been suggested, and the future
of it is inseparably connected with printing methods.
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Radoslav Parashkov received the Diploma
degree in chemical engineering from the Univer-
sity for Chemical Technologies and Metallurgy,
Sofia, Bulgaria, in 1997 and the Dr.Ing. (Ph.D.)
degree in electrical engineering for his work
on novel methods for fabrication of organic
transistors from the Technical University of
Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany, in
2005.
Since April 2005, he has been a Senior Re-
searcher at the Laboratory for Quantum and
Molecular Physics, Ecole Normale Superieure de Cachan, Cachan, France.
His current research interests are focused on organic semiconductor devices
production and characterization.
Eike Becker received the Diploma degree in
electrical engineering from the Technical Univer-
sity of Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany,
in 1999. He is currently working toward the
Dr.Ing. (Ph.D.) degree in electrical engineering
at the Technical University of Braunschweig.
Since 1999, he has been a Research Associate
at the Technical University of Braunschweig.
His research interests include organic electronic
devices, in particular their integration with addi-
tional functionalities like displays and sensors.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 93, NO. 7, JULY 2005
 Thomas Riedl was born in Augsburg, Ger-
many, in 1970. He received the Diploma degree
in physics from the University of Stuttgart,
Stuttgart, Germany, in 1997 and the Dr.rer.Nat.
(Ph.D.) degree in physics for his work on
InP/GaInP self-assembled quantum dot lasers
from the Technical University of Braunschweig,
Braunschweig, Germany, in 2002.
He is now a Senior Researcher and Head of the
Organic Laser Group at the Institute for High-
Frequency Engineering, Technical University of
Braunschweig. His current research interests include organic (opto-)elec-
tronic devices and inorganic wide-bandgap semiconductors.
Dr. Riedl is a Member of the German Physical Society (DPG).
Hans-Hermann Johannes received the Diploma
degree in organic chemistry and the Dr.rer.Nat.
(Ph.D.) degree in organic chemistry for his
work on direct functionalization, oligomeriza-
tion, linear, and nonlinear optical properties
of cyanines from the Technical University of
Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany, in 1993
and 2000, respectively.
From 1993 to 1995, he was a Researcher at
the Technical University of Braunschweig. He is
currently a Senior Researcher and Head of the
OLED and Sensors Group at the Laboratory for Electrooptics, Institute for
High-Frequency Engineering, Technical University of Braunschweig. His
current research is focused on the synthesis and integration of new organic
materials for electrooptical and sensor devices.
Dr. Johannes is a Member of the German Chemical Society (GDCH) and
the Chamber for Engineering of Lower Saxony, Germany.
PARASHKOV et al.: LARGE AREA ELECTRONICS USING PRINTING METHODS
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Wolfgang Kowalsky received the Diploma and
Dr.Ing. (Ph.D.) degrees in electrical engineering
from the Technical University of Braunschweig,
Braunschweig, Germany, in 1982 and 1985,
respectively. His Ph.D. dissertation investigated
electron transfer effect in the InGaAsP systems.
From 1984 to 1986, he was a Research
Scientist in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institut f̈r
Nachrichtentechnik GmbH, Berlin, Germany.
From 1986 to 1990, he was a Research Associate
at the Institute for High-Frequency Engineering,
Technical University of Braunschweig. From 1990 to 1993, he was a
Professor for Optoelectronic in the Faculty for Engineering Sciences in
University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany. Since 1994, he has been a Professor
and Head of the Institute for High-Frequency Engineering, Technical
University of Braunschweig. His current research interests are in the fields
of organic LEDs, organic FETs, organic displays, ZnO devices, sensors,
photodetectors, etc.
Prof. Kowalsky received the Leibnitz Award of the German Research
Foundation in 2000 for his work in the field of organic LEDs. He is a
Member of the Scientific Society of Braunschweig.
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