Professional Documents
Culture Documents
net/publication/264368106
CITATIONS READS
7 14,094
2 authors:
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Sneha Sehwag on 31 July 2014.
www.stmjournals.com
Abstract
With advent in knowledge prevalence regarding health issues, natural antioxidants are
gaining popularity. These are compounds responsible for hindering autoxidation
reactions in food system and reducing oxidative stress in human body. This review aims
to crystallize the information on antioxidants with regards to its classification, role in
food processing and determination techniques. The review also locates some
commercially available antioxidants as applied in food processing.
RRJoFST (2013) 1-10 © STM Journals 2013. All Rights Reserved Page 1
Antioxidant Activity: An Overview Sehwag and Das
__________________________________________________________________________________________
INITIATOR
RH R• + H• ... (i)
R• + 3O2 ROO• ... (ii)
ROO• + RH ROOH + R• ... (iii)
ROOH RO• + OH• ... (iv)
RO• + RH ROH + R• ... (v)
Fig. 1: Reactions of Oxidation Process. “R” is an Alkyl Group of Unsaturated Fatty Acid, “H” is a α-
methylenic Hydrogen Atom which is Easily Detachable, ‘‘RO•’ is Alkoxy Radical and ‘ROO•’ is
Peroxy Radical.
RRJoFST (2013) 1-10 © STM Journals 2013. All Rights Reserved Page 2
Research & Reviews: Journal of Food Science & Technology
Volume 2, Issue 3, ISSN: 2278 – 2249
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Chain Breakers or Free Radical Interceptors radicals (ROO•) and transfer one hydrogen
Most of the primary antioxidants that act as atom to radical to form stable organic lipid
chain breakers or free radical interceptors are derivatives and antioxidant radicals (A•) that
mono or polyhydroxy phenols with various are more stable and less readily available to
ring substitutions. As primary antioxidants participate in propagation reactions. Primary
(AH), they work on hydrogen atom transfer antioxidants have higher affinities for peroxy
mechanism. In this, the antioxidant, reacts radicals than lipids and react predominantly
with highly reactive radical lipid and peroxy with peroxy radicals (Figure 3) [3].
R• + AH RH + A• ... (vi)
ROO• + AH ROOH + A• ... (vii)
ROO• + A• ROOA ... (viii)
RO• + AH ROH + AO• ... (ix)
RO• + A• ROH + R ... (x)
A• + A• AA ... (xi)
Single Electron Transfer Mechanism form energetically stable anion, while the
In single electron transfer mechanism (Figure antioxidant forms a cation radical which is
4), an electron is donated to free radical to also a less reactive species.
RRJoFST (2013) 1-10 © STM Journals 2013. All Rights Reserved Page 3
Antioxidant Activity: An Overview Sehwag and Das
__________________________________________________________________________________________
RRJoFST (2013) 1-10 © STM Journals 2013. All Rights Reserved Page 4
Research & Reviews: Journal of Food Science & Technology
Volume 2, Issue 3, ISSN: 2278 – 2249
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Fig. 6: Some Sources of Natural Antioxidants among the Naturally Occurring Antioxidants, only a
Few that are commercially Available.
RRJoFST (2013) 1-10 © STM Journals 2013. All Rights Reserved Page 5
Antioxidant Activity: An Overview Sehwag and Das
__________________________________________________________________________________________
the base food products. Labex™ has also been must be free of any toxicological or
found to protect the color of paprika oleoresin physiological effect, no impairment of any
during extended heating by preventing the strong odor or flavor to base food, and must
oxidation of carotenoid pigments. It is GRAS have considerable antioxidant potential even at
and can be used at any level for any food low concentration. To fulfill these pertaining
applications. An evaluation of the antioxidant aims, one has to extract and isolate these
activity for a number of herbal extracts from antioxidants reasonably from the natural
Labiatae plants reveals that they are fully sources. The aim of extraction and isolation is
effective at a level of 200 to 300 ppm and are to concentrate the antioxidant components of
at least as strong as synthetic antioxidants the raw material, apart from inert substances,
BHA + BHT (1:1) mixture. Rosemary so that the product of the extraction could be
Deodorized™ is also marketed by Cal-Pfizer. added to the food in smaller quantities.
Currently, extraction is being carried out using
Commercial antioxidants from spice traditional methods including Soxhlet
oleoresins, e.g., Spicer Extract AR™ marketed extraction, solid-liquid and liquid-liquid
by Nestle, are normally in the form of fine extraction. These methods have been
powders. Depending on their content of active associated with high solvent consumption,
substances, it is recommended to use them at longer extraction times and an increased risk
levels between 200 to 1000 mg/kg of finished of thermal degradation of labile components.
product to be stabilized [2]. Soxhlet extraction has been the most regarded
amongst all the conventional extraction
ANTIOXIDANT IN HUMAN HEALTH methods even though it requires lengthy
Antioxidants in human health include: extraction times (up to 24 h or more) and high
• Nutrient-derived antioxidants like ascorbic energy consumption. Additionally, the
acid (vitamin C), tocopherols and extended extraction times severely decreases
tocotrienols (vitamin E), carotenoids, and efficiency, which is a tremendous liability in
other low molecular weight compounds terms of commercial applicability. Alternative
such as glutathione and lipoic acid. novel extraction procedures are now being
• Antioxidant enzymes, e.g., superoxide practiced and studied to reduce extraction time
dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and and solvent consumption, increase extraction
glutathione reductase, which catalyze free efficiency and improve antioxidant recovery.
radical quenching reactions. Some of these novel methods include
• Metal binding proteins, such as ferritin, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE),
lactoferrin, albumin, and ceruloplasmin accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) (ASE is a
that sequester free iron and copper ions new extraction technique that is similar in
that are capable of catalyzing oxidative principle to Soxhlet extraction, but the use of
reactions. elevated temperature and pressure with ASE
• Numerous other antioxidant allows the extraction to be completed within a
phytonutrients present in a wide variety of short time and with a small quantity of
plant foods. For instance, oligomeric solvent), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE)
proanthocyanidins present in grape seed and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE).
extracts evidenced by clinical trials Optimization and standardization of the
revealed fifty times more potential than extraction process is desperately needed to
vitamin C in regards with bioavailability combat the increasing trend of antioxidant
and tissue repair mechanism [13]. demand and usage.
RRJoFST (2013) 1-10 © STM Journals 2013. All Rights Reserved Page 6
Research & Reviews: Journal of Food Science & Technology
Volume 2, Issue 3, ISSN: 2278 – 2249
__________________________________________________________________________________________
In-Vitro Estimation of Antioxidant Activity atom or single electron transfer. On the basis
Depending on the mechanism, the in-vitro of this mechanism, antioxidant assays have
estimations of antioxidants are designed on been designed and utilized to assess
following principles: potentiality of compound as an antioxidant. In
• Estimation by free radical scavenging these assays free radicals are added/generated
capacity and the potency is calculated on the basis of
• Estimation by reduction of metal ions decrease in concentration of free radicals. The
• Estimation by inhibition of lipid scavenging activity is either conducted versus
peroxidation in plasma stable radical like 2,2-diphenyl-1-
• Estimation using cultured cell against picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) or done on comparison
oxidative stress basis with other standard antioxidants like
trolox, BHT, tocopheroal, gallic acid etc.
Estimation by Free Radical Scavenging Table 2 explains few of the assays with the
Capacity stated approach to evaluate antioxidant
The primary mode of action of an antioxidant potential.
is scavenging free radicals either by hydrogen
Table 2: Methods and Approaches to Measure Antioxidant Activity Based on Different Free Radicals.
Methods Principle of measurement Methodology References
DPPH scavenging Ability to scavenge DPPH The reaction is set up between DPPH [14]
assay radicals generated in a model radicals and test compound, incubated
system for 30 min in dark followed by
measuring absorbance at 517 nm.
Hydroxyl radical Ability to scavenge hydroxyl The test compound is mixed with [15]
scavenging assay radicals generated in a model reaction buffer and incubated for 1 h
system. H2O2 is the source for at 37°C. To the mixture,
hydroxyl radicals trichloroacetic acid and thiobarbituric
acid are mixed and kept in boiling
water bath for 10 min, followed by
cooling to room temperature and
measure the absorbance at 532 nm.
The reaction mixture prepared by
FeCl3, ascorbic acid, ethylenediamine
tetra acetate (EDTA) and deoxyribose
in phosphate buffer (pH 7.4), and
H2O2 in phosphate buffer. Each of
these solutions were mixed well and
used as reaction buffer for analysis.
Superoxide radical Ability to scavenge superoxide The reaction was started by adding [16]
scavenging assay radicals generated in a model Phenazine methosulphate (PMS) to
(SOSA) system. Phenazine methosulphate the mixture of nitro blue tetrazolium
is the source of superoxide (NBT), reduced Nicotinamide
radicals generated in a model Adenine Dinucleotide (NADH) and
system. sample. Then the reaction mixture is
incubated at 25°C for 5 min and
absorbance of reaction was measured
at 560 nm against blank. The decrease
in absorbance indicates increase in
SOSA.
Oxygen radical Ability to scavenge oxygen In ORAC, fluorescent probe (like [17]
absorption capacity radical (peroxy radicals). Oxygen Fluorescein) and test sample are
(ORAC) radicals are generated using 2,2’- incubated in fluorescent tubes for 30
azobis(2-amidino-propane) min at 37°C. Followed by addition of
dihydrochloride. 2,2’-azobis(2-amidino-propane)
dihydrochloride and reading
fluorescence at excitation485nm and
Emission520nm.
Total radical trapping Measure length of time that TRAP measurement is carried out on [18, 19]
antioxidant parameter oxygen uptake needed for organic substrate may be lipid or
(TRAP) oxidation induced by thermal plasma. In this, the control (without
decomposition of 2,2’-Azobis(2- test sample), experiment and standard
RRJoFST (2013) 1-10 © STM Journals 2013. All Rights Reserved Page 7
Antioxidant Activity: An Overview Sehwag and Das
__________________________________________________________________________________________
RRJoFST (2013) 1-10 © STM Journals 2013. All Rights Reserved Page 8
Research & Reviews: Journal of Food Science & Technology
Volume 2, Issue 3, ISSN: 2278 – 2249
__________________________________________________________________________________________
RRJoFST (2013) 1-10 © STM Journals 2013. All Rights Reserved Page 9
Antioxidant Activity: An Overview Sehwag and Das
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Moreover, when targeted for food processing, dihydrolipoic acid, a metabolic product of
thermal stability of antioxidant as well as lipoic acid, can also function as a pro-oxidant
synergistic action, in presence of more than [28]. Caffeic acid, a widely used antioxidant,
one, should also be evaluated. may also act as a pro-oxidant under thermal
treatment. In fact, highly reactive cations were
TOXICOLOGICAL ASPECTS generated during the early phases of caffeic
In limelight, antioxidants are popular for acid degradation, affecting both the oxidative
suppressing oxidative stress and its related status and the reaction pathway of the system
diseases, however, abusive and careless [36].
application may result in toxicological effects.
Researchers have marked the delusive safety The fact list of repercussions related to abusive
of natural antioxidants with risk of toxicity and use of antioxidants relay the need of detailed
array of side effects [28]. Conceptually, every toxicological studies, and specific standards to
antioxidant acts as pro-oxidant after certain rule out toxicological effects. It is necessary to
concentration. To assure the function of enlighten the general public regarding
antioxidant, it is necessary to study the effect toxicological as well as beneficial effects of
of the antioxidant with respect to dosage, pro- antioxidant in a balanced manner.
oxidant action, side effects, bioavailability,
and interaction with other nutrients. CONCLUSION
Because of various mechanisms between lipid
Different studies have depicted pros and cons and antioxidant interactions, complex
of antioxidants. Jakeman and Maxwell [29] heterogeneous biological and food-related
found that vitamin C supplementation prior to systems, and inconsistency among the
the exercise resulted in a faster recovery of analytical results pertaining to antioxidant
muscle strength, however, Urso and Clarkson potency, it is important to use a variety of
[30] reported that antioxidant supplements methods for assessment of antioxidant
could have a negative effect on recovery from capacity. Additionally, antioxidants have been
muscle damaging exercise. The pro-oxidant shown to possess toxicity and pro-oxidant
effects of vitamins C and E have also been action which calls for more research for better
reported [28]. As pro-oxidants these vitamins understanding and development of regulatory
creates transition metal ions. norms.
RRJoFST (2013) 1-10 © STM Journals 2013. All Rights Reserved Page 10
Research & Reviews: Journal of Food Science & Technology
Volume 2, Issue 3, ISSN: 2278 – 2249
__________________________________________________________________________________________
9. I.P. Freeman, F.H. Padley, W.L. Sheppard. 25. M. Dizdaroglu, P. Jaruga, M. Birincioglu,
J. Am Oil Chem Soc. 1973; 50: 101p. et al. Free Radical Bio Med. 2002; 32:
10. J. Pokorny, J. Korczak. Preparation of 1102–1115p.
Natural Antioxidant. In: Antioxidants in 26. C.K. Cao, R.L. Prior. Clin Chem. 1998;
Food: Practical Applications, ed. 44: 1309–1315p.
Pokorny, J, Yanishlieva, N, and Gordon, 27. E.M. Becker, L.R. Nissen, L.H. Skibsted.
M. England: Woodhead Publishing Ltd. Food Res Tech. 2004; 219: 561–571p.
Abington. 2001. 28. Bast, G.R.M.M. Haenen. Toxicol Pharma.
11. P. Schuler. Natural Antioxidants Exploited 2002; 11: 251–258p
Commercially, In: Food Antioxidants, ed. 29. P. Jakeman, S. Maxwell. Eur J. Appl
Hudson, B. J. F. England: Elsevier Physiol. 1993; 67: 426–430p.
Applied Science. 1990. 30. M.L. Urso, P.M. Clarkson. Toxicol. 2003;
12. U. Nguyen, D.A. Evans, G. Frakman. 189: 41–54p.
Natural Antioxidants Produced by 31. B. Halliwell. Lancet. 2000; 355: 1179p.
Supercritical Extraction. In: Supercritical 32. R.I.M. Van-Haaften, C.T.A. Evelo,
Fluid Processing of Food and G.R.M.M. Haenen, A. Bast. Biochem
Biomaterials, ed. Rizvi, S. H. H. Blackie Bioph Res Co. 2001; 28: 631p.
Academic & Professional, An Imprint of 33. H. Kappus, A.T. Diplock. Free Radical
Chapman & Hall. 1994. Bio Med. 1992; 13: 55p.
13. Antioxidant-Free Radical Scavenger 34. W.J. Wechter, D. Kantoci, E.D. Murray, et
[updated on 2013 march 1; cited on 2013 al. Proceedings of National Academy of
march 20]. Available on Sciences USA. 1996; 93: 6002p.
http://www.optimalhealthsystems.com/pdf 35. Bast, G.R.M.M. Haenen, R. Van den Berg,
/OHSAntioxidants.pdf. et al. Int J. Vit. Nutr. Res. 1998. 68. 399p.
14. R. Sompong, S. Siebenhandl-Ehn, G. 36. S. Andueza, L. Manzocco, M. Paz de
Linsberger-Martin, E. Berghofer. Food Peña, et al. Food Res Int. 2009; 42:
Chem. 2011; 124: 132–144p. 51–55p.
15. B. Halliwell, J.M.C. Gutteridge, O.I.
Aruoma. Anal Biochem. 1987; 165:
215–219p.
16. S. Mandal, G.P. Rajani, R.K. Sharma, et
al. Indian J. Pharmacol. 2012; 42(2):
277–278p.
17. R.L. Prior, H. Hoang, L. Gu, X. Wu, et al.
J. Agr Food Chem. 2003; 51: 3273–3279p.
18. D.D.M. Wayner, G.W. Burton, K.U.
Ingold, et al. FEBS. 1985; 187: 33–37p.
19. A.V. Badarinath, M.K. Rao, C.M.S.
Chetty, et al. Int J. Pharmatechnological
Res. 2010; 2(2): 1276–1285p.
20. F Regoli. Aquat Toxicol. 2000; 50:
351–361p.
21. I.F. Benzie, J.J. Strain. Anal Biochem.
1999; 23(9): 70–76p.
22. Niki E. Assessment of Antioxidant
Capacity in-vitro and in-vivo. Free
Radical Bio Med. 2010; 49: 503–515p.
23. C. Chatgilialoglu, C. Ferreri, I.N. Lykakis,
et al. Bioorg Med Chem. 2006; 14:
6144–6148p.
24. C.L. Hawkins, P.E. Morgan, M.J. Davies.
Free Radical Bio Med. 2009; 46:
965–988p.
RRJoFST (2013) 1-10 © STM Journals 2013. All Rights Reserved Page 11