SIGNIFICANCE OF PARTICLE CRUSHING IN GRANULAR MATERIALS

By Poul V. Lade,t Member, ASCE, Jerry A. Yamamuro,z Member, ASCE,

and Paul A. Bopp3

ABSTRACT: Particle breakage occurs when the stresses imposed on soil particles exceed th~ir strength.. To
quantify the amount of breakage, many particle breakage factors have been proposed. Corr~lations of ~artic~e
breakage parameters with standard soil parameters such as effective mean normal stress at fallure a.nd VOid ratio
at failure do not provide a fully unified correlation with m~y diff~rent types of test.s. However, p~~le bre~age
factors appear to correlate very well with the total energy mput mto the t~st spec1m~n, thus prov1di~g a ~mgle
unifying parameter for all types of soil tests. Therefore, th~ amou~t of particle crus~mg may ~ ~red1c~ed.1f the
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stresses and strains in the soil can be estimated, such as m a firute-element analys1s. The pnnc1pal s1gnificant
use of these particle breakage factors may be related to permeability estimates when there are changes in
gradation due to particle breakage. A new particle breakage factor, BIO, is proposed that will allow easy per-
meability computations when related to the total input energy.

INTRODUCTION
The most important engineering properties of granular ma-
terials such as stress-strain and strength behavior, volume
change and pore-pressure developments, and variation in per-
meability depend on the integrity of the particles or the amount
of particle crushing that occurs due to changes in stress. There-
fore, it is important to be able to identify and quantify the
effects of particle crushing on these engineering properties. In
previous publications, the effects of particle crushing on the
stress-strain and strength behavior has been presented for
drained and undrained conditions in triaxial compression and
extension tests, as well as in one-dimensional compression
(Yamamuro and Lade 1996; Lade and Yamamuro 1996; Ya-
mamuro et al. 1996). Presented here is a study of the measures
employed in the quantification of the particle breakage itself
and their uniqueness and usefulness in expressing changes in
engineering properties, such as the permeability of the granular
material.
Tall earth dams subject underlying soils to significant stress
magnitudes, resulting in significant changes in the grain-size
curve of the original soil. This change is the result of particle
breakage and affects the permeability of the soil in the dam.
This in turn may have significant influence on the seepage
pattern and the pore-pressure distribution in the earth dam.
A method is presented to estimate the permeability of a soil
element by relating the change in its grain-size curve to the
amount of total energy applied to the soil element.
DEFINITIONS OF EXISTING PARTICLE BREAKAGE
FACTORS
Virtually all investigations involving soil testing above nor-
mal geotechnical pressures have resulted in considerable par-
ticle breakage [e.g., Terzaghi and Peck (1948), Roberts and de
Souza (1958), Hendron (1963), Vesic and Barksdale (1963),
Hirschfield and Poulos (1963), Hall and Gordon (1963), Leslie
(1963), Bishop et al. (1965), Bishop (1966), Marsal (1967),
'Prof., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., The Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, MD
21218.
2Asst. Prof., CEE, Box 5710, Clarkson Univ., Potsdam, NY 13699-
5710; formerly, Postdoctoral Fellow, Dept. of Civ. Engrg., The Johns
Hor,kins Univ., Baltimore, MD.
Proj. Engr., CH2M Hill, 2510 Red Hill Ave., Santa Ana, CA 92735-
0960.
Note. Discussion open until September I, 1996. To extend the closing
date one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager
of Journals. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and
possible publication on January 19, 1995. This paper is part of the Jour-
lUll of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 122, No.4, April, 1996. @ASCE,
ISSN 0733-9410/96/0004-0309-0316/$4.00 + $.50 per page. Paper No.
9927.
Lee and Farhoomand (1967), Lee and Seed (1967), Vesic and
Clough (1968), Barden et al. (1969), Marachi et al. (1969),
Tai (1970), Murphy (1970), Billam (1971), Murphy (1971),
Becker et al. (1972), Miura and Yamanouchi (1973), Lo and
Roy (1973), Miura and O-hara (1979), Hardin (1985), Murphy
(1987), Colliat-Dangus et al. (1988), Fukumoto (1990), Ya-
mamuro (1993), Hagerty et al. (1993), Bopp (1994)]. Particle
breakage may occur even at relatively low pressures. This de-
pends on the character of the individual soil grains. Several
different particle breakage factors have been proposed to at-
tempt to quantify the amount of particle breakage. These
breakage factors are empirical in nature, and are based on
changes in particle sizes as the key measurement. Some are
based on a single particle size, while others are based on ag-
gregate changes in the overall grain-size distribution. The most
widely used particle breakage indices are the ones developed
by Marsal (1967), Lee and Farhoomand (1967), and Hardin
(1985).
Marsal (1967) developed his measure of particle breakage
in connection with the design and construction of earth and
rockfill dams. While performing large-scale triaxial compres-
sion tests, he noticed significant amounts of particle breakage.
He subsequently developed a breakage index, B, to quantify
this breakage. His method involves the change in individual
particle sizes between the initial and final grain-size distribu-
tions. The difference in the percentage retained is computed
for each sieve size. This difference will be either positive or
negative. Marsal's breakage factor, B, is the sum of the dif-
ferences having the same sign. This is depicted in Fig. I. The
lower limit of Marsal's index is zero percent, and has a the-
oretical upper limit of 100%.
l
ffiz 80 I-+++-+-+-+
ii:
!z
~40
~ ~j·.'.;i ..i.. ·I....'..·.. i........j.
0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01
GRAIN SIZE - MIWMETERS
FIG. 1. Definitions of Particle Breakage Factors Proposed by
Marsal (1967), Lee and Farhoomand (1967), and Hardin (1985)

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 1 APRIL 1996/309

J. Geotech. Engrg., 1996, 122(4): 309-316

 Lee and Farhoomand (1967) developed their measure of
particle crushing while investigating earth dam filter materials.
Their concern was whether extensive particle crushing could
effectively plug dam filters. They performed a series of isotro-
pic and proportional loading tests on sands to study particle
breakage, and proposed a breakage factor expressing the
change in a single particle diameter, namely that corresponding
to 15% finer on the grain-size distribution curves before and
after testing (as shown in Fig. 1). These grain sizes were cho-
sen because gravel filter drainage requirements were com-
monly based on this particle size. Their measure of particle
breakage was expressed as the ratio D"(initiaI)ID 1S(fil1Jll)' The
lower limit of this ratio is unity and there is no upper limit.
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Hardin (1985) based his measure of particle breakage on
changes in the entire particle-size distribution. He defined two
different quantities: The breakage potential Bp , is defined as
the area between the original grain-size distribution curve of
the soil and the No. 200 sieve size, as shown in Fig. 1. The
breakage potential represents the total possible change in gra-
dation obtained if every grain is broken down from its original
size to particles smaller than the No. 200 sieve size. Hardin
limited the lower grain size to the No. 200 U.S. sieve size
because there is limited amount of crushing below this size.
It is also more difficult to obtain particle-size distributions be-
low this particle size using a standard sieve analysis. The total
breakage, B" is defined as the area between the original grain-
size distribution curve and the final grain-size distribution
curve, as shown in Fig. 1. Hardin then defined the relative
breakage, Bn as the ratio of total breakage divided by the
potential breakage (B,IBp ). The relative breakage has a lower
limit of zero and a theoretical upper limit of unity.
FACTORS AFFECTING PARTICLE BREAKAGE
There are several factors that affect the amount of particle
breakage in a soil (Lee and Farhoomand 1967; Hardin 1985;
Murphy 1970; Billam 1971; Lo and Roy 1973). The amount
of particle crushing is affected by the stress level (proximity
to failure), the stress magnitude, and the stress path. Larger
amounts of particle breakage are generated when stress levels
are higher and when large amounts of strains occur in regions
of high stress magnitudes. The quantity of particle breakage
is also a function of time. Even under constant stress states of
sufficient magnitude, particle breakage continues with time,
but at decreasing rates. This time effect shows up externally
as creep of the soil, as presented and discussed in detail by
Yamamuro and Lade (1993).
As the particle size increases, particle crushing also in-
creases. This is due to the fact that larger particles contain
more flaws or defects, and they have a higher probability of
the defect being present in the particles that will break. Smaller
particles are generally created from larger particles fracturing
along these defects. As the breakdown process continues, there
are fewer defects in the subdivided particles. Therefore, similar
particles are less likely to fracture as they become smaller.
Increasing the particle angularity increases particle break-
age. Angular particles break more easily because stresses can
concentrate along their narrow dimension, thus fracturing the
particle. Stresses can also concentrate at angular contact
points, causing the points to fracture.
Well-graded soils do not break down as easily as uniform
soils. As the relative density increases, the amount of particle
breakage decreases. Both these factors are based on the fact
that with more particles surrounding each particle, the average
contact stress tends to decrease.
Increasing the mineral hardness decreases the amount of
particle crushing. The harder or stronger particle materials
show smaller amounts of breakage for a given stress.
Introduction of water into a collection of susceptible parti-
310 I JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I APRIL 1996
J. Geotech. Engrg., 1996, 122(4): 309-316
cles, such as when raising the reservoir behind a rockfill dam
for the first time, also causes particle breakage; this results in
movement of the dam (Nobari and Duncan 1972).
REASONS TO QUANTIFY CRUSHING
Existing particle breakage factors satisfy the need for mea-
surements of particle breakage that are consistent and numer-
ically specific, such that the extent of crushing can be quan-
tified and reasonable comparisons can be made. However,
other than such comparisons, there does not appear to be sig-
nificant uses for particle crushing parameters. Since most mea-
sures of particle crushing are related to the grain-size distri-
bution before and after shearing, correlations with basic
properties such as shear strength do not produce meaningful,
unique relationships. Any soil of a specific gradation can exist
with a wide range of densities. Therefore, the particle breakage
parameters cannot form any consistent pattern with the shear
strength of a given soil.
However, the one area where crushing indices could have
significant application is in that of soil permeability. There are
a number of empirical correlations relating grain size with per-
meability (Duncan et al. 1972). One of the most widely used
of the correlations relating the grain size with permeability is
Hazen's (1911) formula [see also Taylor (1948)]
k = 100' (D IO)2 (1)
in which k = permeability coefficient (crn/s); and D IO = grain
diameter (cm) corresponding to 10% of the material being
smaller by weight, often referred to as the "effective" grain
size.
This relationship was developed by Hazen (1911) on the
basis of tests with filter sands used for water purification, for
which the D IO sizes were between 0.1 and 3 mm and the co-
efficient of uniformity was less than five. This engineering
formula produces a rough estimate of the permeability of the
sand. The known influence of void ratio and several other, but
minor effects, are not included in this formula. Nevertheless,
the change in the permeability of a sand may be estimated
with this relationship before and after crushing.
With permeability correlations in mind a new particle crush-
ing parameter is proposed, based on the D IO particle size
B 10 -1-~
- (2)
D lOi
in which BIO = particle breakage factor; D 1Qf = effective grain
size of the final gradation; and D IOI = effective grain size of
the initial gradation.
The formulation of this particle breakage factor is based on
the lower limit being zero when there is no particle breakage,
and the upper limit being unity at infinite particle breakage.
The usefulness of this formulation will be discussed later.
LOADING EFFECTS ON GRAIN-SIZE DISTRIBUTION
High-pressure triaxial tests on dense Cambria sand (confin-
ing pressures from 0.5 to nearly 70 MPa) have been performed
and the results have been presented (Yamamuro 1993; Ya-
mamuro and Lade 1996; Lade and Yamamuro 1996). They
include undrained and drained tests in both triaxial compres-
sion and extension. After testing, the specimens were recov-
ered and a sieve analysis was performed on the dried soil to
evaluate the grain-size distribution after shearing. The results
of some of these sieve analyses (from individual specimens)
are shown in Figs. 2(a), 2(b), 2(c), and 2(d) for drained triaxial
compression, undrained triaxial compression, drained triaxial
extension, and undrained triaxial extension, respectively. The
regular pattern of the curves indicates consistent behavior.
 100 r--".--,----r-----,-,-.,-,--,,--.,---,,----,--T'!T.,....,--T"'T-,.-----,-----,

INITW. GIlAllATION
(d) ~~U"D~SKlN
h--,--,'--,--+-+--+-------II········-··
I _....;.- ..+
++++-- .
. INITW.GIlAllATION

2.22MPa Iii i Ii lI 12.0MPa

~\J-++++-+--+----+---.--+------------+H.-HI l l-U..!.. 17.5MPa

'.OMPa 80 ,-----,,------- - -----
H--i++-t---I----+-----t-tl..-I
5.85 MPa jj j 1
28.0 MPa
ff]80f++-i-+--f-+_+_-+&--J-+++-H-+--ci--+--t++-H
8.0MPa Z 42.0 MPa
u:
18.9MPa ~ .-. R\' 52.0 MPa
W40I-++++-i--+--+--+-JllW+++-4-+-f-+--+W-~'FF=p=r="_i
28.0MPa () \ \' iii i INcREAsI ~_99NF1 .
8O.0MPa ~ .-.-. ~-;~~~ [l'T~~ ~~··H+H--I-··+-·-+- .. -·t
2OH-i-+-+-H--+--+-f',.-:+I~*+-f--+--++++++_+_+_+-__1

H--H-+--f--+---;---.----i-------\lJ~t~:f'l~=·~~t+- ,~::fmt~ --·--·-··-·-I+-H-+-+..;·---·;··---..t

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-_ .._.... _._.- _.._---- H--!'-t--I---t--+----;---...-t·-....

o LLLLLL...L.-'--'-_---l.:l..w....w...-'--L.-..L...:;;==:Li.-.L..i.____'___,_---l
" 1 i If'' :.:.~~;;~. ~
o'--'-'-~----'---'-----'----'-""'-'-'-'-"""'---'==""""-'-~~--'---'
10 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01 10 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01
GRAIN SIZE - MIWMETERS GRAIN SIZE - MIWMETERS

FIG. 2(a). Grain-Size Distribution Curves for High-Pressure FIG. 2(d). Graln-8lze Distribution Curves for High-Pressure
Drained Triaxial Compression Tests of Varying Confining Pres- Undrained Triaxial Extension Tests of Varying Initial Confining
sures on Dense Cambria Sand Pressures on Dense Cambria Sand

tests appear to produce more particle crushing than the un-

drained tests. This was also evident from visual examination
::: :
,\ .. , , 8.45MPa of the sheared specimens after the tests were completed. In
80
II'
!~\
" ,
l' l
terms of their appearance after testing, the higher-pressure
l H--;--;--i---I----i--+_-----t- "' .---------.... ++j-
18.9 MPa
drained test specimens were crushed and compressed so much
II: \\ !; 34_0MPa that they resembled solid rock, while the soil in the undrained
~80", .,~l 1:1 43.0MPa test specimens poured out of the membranes as individual
u: riT.'--+--,-.---+-------t--- t\--- ~ -~-i ..i-- grains. The latter specimens were not further compressed dur-

I- i\Jfff~~" ;11=-=-
2Of++-i-+--H--i--t--t---'-H'+.+-b'I--'''''-'''''':'''lk---H+-i+-t-+-+--t-----l
ing shearing because their void ratios must remain constant
during the undrained shearing in which the volume is constant.
High-pressure undrained tests did not appear to exhibit as
much crushing in the shearing phase as drained tests with the
H-.;.+--;--+-+--+------t------~I-*f·::t~l~~*!+-+-+---+--
.... +----.------j same initial isotropic compression pressure. This is because
the average mean normal effective stress is lower in the un-
OLLL"-'--J----'---'--'----'-""'-'-'-'--'--'_J..-_""-"'--'------'----'-----'-_-' drained tests due to development of large positive pore pres-
10 1 0.5 0.2 0_1 0.05 0_02 0.01
GRAIN SIZE - MIWMETERS sures. Another observation from the gradation curves indicates
FIG. 2(b). Grain-Size Distribution Curves for High-Pressure
that extension tests do not exhibit as much particle crushing
Undrained Triaxial Compression Tests of Varying Initial Confin- as compression tests.
Ing Pressures on Dense Cambria Sand
CORRELATIONS WITH STANDARD SOIL
PARAMETERS
The four particle breakage factors discussed thus far, the
8OH-i-i-+--f-+_+_--tll----ti_+++-+-+_+-+_-+++-H
0_50MPa Marsal B, the Lee and Farhoomand Dis/DIS/, the Hardin rel-
8.0MPa ative breakage B" and the proposed B IO have been calculated
l 10.0MPa
for many of the compression and extension tests performed.
ff]80H-i-i+-f-+_+_-+-ti\---ti_+++-+-+_+-+_-+++-H Linear interpolations were used between sieve sizes in the cal-
z 17.5MPa
culation of the particle breakage factors. Linear extrapolation
u:
~ H--f--f--I---f---j· 1\
+-------I---I\\:~H++--;-+---i---+.---+----.-.---I-i--i ..HI 35.0MPa was required to find the DIS! and DIll! sizes in a few of the
~40m-i-+-f-+-+--t--t\--'.lI:-+++++-+-+--+++-H 42.0MPa highest confining-pressure-drained compression tests, because
!!! IlicR~t l'sC(ONR I~(l! !
II:
~ H+-H---I--+-+_-
.\
+,-lj~~-- I~'~~f~~-' .__u.~_ Tir1 52.0MPa
the specimens contained large quantities of soil particles
smaller than the No. 200 sieve size. Figs. 3 and 4 show the
h-W-k-+-.. ~~~~~.;;.:IblE.~.~~+---l-t----:--+~-4-,. H+=;=+=~
particle breakage factor by Marsal and by Lee and Farhoom-
20 . __
g.
and plotted against the effective mean normal stress at failure
OLLLLLL...L.-'---'-_---l.:l~:l:;:J,o""""=.-_ ~.L..i.____'__--L_---l
for the different types of tests on dense Cambria sand. The
10 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01 diagrams indicate that particle crushing increases with an in-
GRAIN SIZE - MIWMETERS creasing mean normal stress at failure in each type of test.
FIG. 2(c). Graln-8lze Distribution Curves for High-Pressure Particle breakage also appears to be greater in compression
Drained Triaxial Extension Tests of Varying Confining Pressures than in extension tests for tests ending up at the same mean
on Dense Cambria Sand normal stress at failure. This may be because the stresses and
strains are much smaller in extension than in compression (Ya-
Since the curves do not cross one another, it indicates a rela- marnuro and Lade 1996; Lade and Yamamuro 1996). Figs. 3
tively low level of scatter in the data. The diagrams show and 4 clearly show that the amount of particle crushing re-
percent finer by weight plotted against the grain size. The di- duces in drained compression and extension tests at high ef-
agrams also show the initial gradation for Cambria sand. It fective mean normal stresses at failure, Le., the particle break-
may be concluded from Fig. 2 that particle crushing increases age factors become constant at high pressures. However,
with an increasing initial confining pressure. The gradations different levels of crushing occur in the various tests. Thus,
all shift toward a more well-graded condition after shearing. for each type of test the grain-size distribution curve appears
For similar initial effective confining pressures the drained to be approaching what could be considered a practical max-
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING / APRIL 1996/311

J. Geotech. Engrg., 1996, 122(4): 309-316

 imum density curve for the Cambria sand. As the amount of
particle crushing approaches these limits, the void spaces are ;f
greatly decreased, and the individual particles are packed so ~4O J---f------If-----I--f--+--+---+--J
tightly and supported by enough contact points that particle w
breakage essentially ceases at higher confining pressures. ~
w
~
When compared on the basis of the effective mean normal
stress at failure, it appears that particle crushing is greater in
undrained tests than in drained tests, whether in compression
oen201-----+~=+-::=±==:-:±:_:_:_=.,+-~+------+---I
en
or extension. This is because typical effective stress paths of w
undrained tests at high pressures are shaped as shown in Fig. ~
5. A specimen with a specific effective mean normal stress at II
0"
failure in an undrained test initially undergoes a much greater
amount of isotropic compression than the specimen in a
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~ 40 ~ 00
drained test with the same mean normal stress at failure. Once p' = EFFECTIVE MEAN NORMAL STRESS (MPa)
shearing begins in the undrained test, the pore pressures rise
rapidly and the effective mean normal stress reduces to a much FIG. 5. Effects of Effective Stress Path on Particle Breakage
lower magnitude at the effective stress failure. The effective between Drained and Undrained Tests
stress path of the corresponding drained test, shown in Fig. 5,
reaches its maximum effective mean normal stress at failure,

r ........, lJNllRAfED
nv.xw.. caFREB8KlN lRoUIALCXM"AESIIION
and never reaches into higher stress regimes. Since the effec-
tive mean normal stress at failure does not accurately reflect m~
•
TRIAXIAL. EX1ENBtON
0
'T'fVIXW. EXTENSION

the effect of stress path on particle crushing, it cannot be con-

sidered a useful parameter for the effective comparison of par- I······(···········~· '=:;:::::=DRAIIED=·'t===::;===..........,TO=::::=.t........ ,...... 1
ticle crushing encountered in different types of tests. lD 0.6 r--;---t--+--+---+--+--+---+---+.----1
The particle breakage factor of Hardin Brt and the pro-
posed factor B 10, obtained from the tests on dense Cambria
sand are plotted against the void ratio at failure in Figs. 6 and ~
w 0.' 1----+--+---+--+--~.--1----,--I--'----I
7. These diagrams clearly indicate direct relationships between ~ -'-~b h i + , j
~
0
, -..JIJ:-B-,.IU
eo_'
0
I""--:
lD '00 .-------,----.-------r----.------,---,---,------, 02
~ -b- ~--JI! [tl-~
a:: 1········;···········+·········;·············+········..;..... ·····j············:',·'·-t~F .... +Jr.··".,··..,;.••.•.•.••.• ~

~~I-----i----+-------+--+-----i----+---+--~
; .. ha ""h-.
....<1-""p_--_~-.-~.
o L----'_--l._--'-_.-L._--'-_...L.._.l..'_.-L.--=
o 0.' 0.2 0.3 0.' 0.5

~ ~rr
VOID RATIO AT FAILURE
J'J • •
i1i1lO1----=+-:;#--+--~L,a_--+-----i--_+_--+--_I FIG. 6. Hardin's (1985) Particle Breakage Factor, B" Related to
a:: 0./ ./. Void Ratio at Failure for Drained and Undrained Triaxial Com-

~ f--...-....-....- t.~'-!.i_.~.-..~•. .,L>-....:.==::=====:==== =====~~~=.=~==~.~:

pression and Extension Tests on Dense CambrIa Sand
40

~.~-~~-~
'1lY
~ ~ _~ ~ H----+---j

~ .7~···II!...-·---.l--J.':::==DRAIIED=.~=:::r:=-=lJNllRAfED~~==;il~~.-.. ~.~.;~..~.~. . ~.
0

o ~ 40 IlO ~

p' = MEAN NORMAL STRESS AT FAILURE (MPa)

FIG. 3. Marsal's (1967) Particle Breakage Factor, B, Related to
pi for Drained and Undrained Triaxial Compression and Exten-
sion Testa on Dense Cambria Sand

o oL-_i..-_.L-_.L-_-.L.._..l..-_....L_-'-_--l.._~_.....J

~ 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.' 0.5 0.6

\ ! VOID RAllO AT FAILURE
6 20 f---------L---+----'---+------+------+---+--1
en FIG. 7. Proposed Particle Breakage Factor, B10, Related to
b
Void Ratio at Failure for Drained and Undrained Triaxial Com-

!'Jf j.
pression and Extension Tests on Dense Cambria Sand

!..--J1j:- *"~
particle crushing and void ratio at failure. The obvious reason
is that particle breakage is the major component in the total
= ...",=, ··j···············-t················j··········_·····j volume change of the material at high pressures. Therefore,
the void ratios are directly linked to the amount of particle
crushing. Figs. 6 and 7 also show that particle breakage is
o~
o 20 40 eo ~ greater in compression than in extension, and these compari-
p' = MEAN NORMAL STRESS AT FAILURE (MPa) sons appear to show similar amounts of breakage in the
drained and undrained tests. Therefore, the effect of the stress
FIG. 4. Lee and Farhoomand's (1967) Particle Breakage Fac-
tor, 0,6, Ratio Related to p; for Drained and Undrained Triaxial path is apparently included in the void ratio at failure. How-
Compression and Extension Tests on Dense Cambria Sand ever, the void ratio at failure cannot be considered an effective

312/ JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING / APRIL 1996

J. Geotech. Engrg., 1996, 122(4): 309-316

 correlation factor, because the extension and compression tests
still produce separate lines.
ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT PARTICLE BREAKAGE
FACTORS
The aforementioned crushing parameters indicate different
amounts of scatter in Figs. 3-7, even though they are com-
puted from the same grain-size distribution data. The reason
for the variation in scatter is to be found in the formulation of
the individual particle crushing parameters.
The Marsal (1967) breakage factor, B, is calculated from
the changes in the amounts of material retained on each sieve
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size. All sieve sizes are theoretically included in the compu-
tation of this breakage factor. However, when particle crushing
is extensive, the gradation curve shifts substantially from the
larger to the smaller sieve sizes and there tends to be very
little material left for comparison on the original, larger sieves.
The originally uniform Cambria sand changed gradations to
such an extent that the initial and final gradations overlapped
only over a narrow range of grain sizes, resulting in only one
or two sieve sizes to be used in the computation of the break-
age factor. This tended to create additional scatter in the mag-
nitude of B for tests in which the soil was extensively crushed.
The particle breakage factor of Lee and Farhoomand (1967),
Dls/D IS/, originally developed to evaluate plugging in gravel
filters in earth dams, exhibits larger scatter for the same ex-
perimental data because the ratio is based on a single grain
size. A breakage factor should not be formulated to magnify
the inherent scatter in the results of a sieve analysis, which is
not a particularly well-controlled test. This magnification of
scatter occurs because the ratio of the DIS grain sizes contains
the final grain size in the denominator. When significant par-
ticle crushing occurs, the DIS grain size after shearing may be
very small. Any inaccuracies or errors in the determination of
this grain size is amplified by division of the smaller number
into the larger number, thus causing undue sensitivity of the
breakage factor to small variations in measured values of D ls/.
Hardin's (1985) relative breakage factor, B" is based on the
area between the original and final grain-size curves, normal-
ized by the area between the original grain-size curve and the
No. 200 sieve size. Since all sieve sizes are involved in this
area calculation, any small errors or inaccuracies in the deter-
mination of individual grain sizes are attenuated in the cal-
culation of this breakage factor. Hardin's measure of particle
breakage is therefore stable and robust, and not unduly sen-
sitive to small variations in individual measurements.
The proposed particle breakage factor, B IO [given in (2)], is
based only on one grain size, but the ratio of the diameters is
inverse to that formulated by Lee and Farhoomand (1967).
This tends to reduce the effect of the crushing parameter on
small errors in the determination of D IOf• Since the crushing
parameter has a lower limit of zero and an upper limit of unity,
the scatter in results is limited because the calculated values
of B IO for heavily crushed specimens are all relatively close to
unity. Consequently, this breakage factor is stable, and effects
of scatter are reduced. However, it may be necessary to obtain
D IOf by extrapolation for cases in which more than 10% of the
crushed soil passes the No. 200 sieve. This was required for
a few of the very high-pressure drained triaxial compression
tests on dense Cambria sand. This procedure was also required
for the determination of the Lee and Farhoomand particle
breakage factor.
PARTICLE BREAKAGE FACTORS CORRELATED
WITH ENERGY
It has been pointed out that correlations between particle
crushing and effective mean normal stress at failure as well as
J. Geotech. Engrg., 1996, 122(4): 309-316
void ratio at failure were not fully satisfactory. Most soil me-
chanics parameters derived from the analysis of test data will
not effectively correlate with the amount of particle breakage
observed in various types of tests. However, it has been dem-
onstrated that increases in confining pressure as well as shear-
ing of the soil to larger stress and strain levels increase the
amount of particle breakage. With this in mind, the magnitude
of total energy input per unit volume of specimen during the
tests would seem to be a more appropriate parameter to use
for correlation with particle breakage. The reason for this is
based on the fact that computations of energy incorporate the
magnitudes of both stresses and strains, both of which greatly
affect the amount of particle crushing. A form of this type of
correlation was proposed earlier (Miura and O-hara 1979).
However, they proposed using plastic work instead of total
input energy. They extracted the elastic energy from the total
energy to obtain the plastic work. The amount of elastic energy
present in specimens in which particle crushing is significant
is very small when compared to the magnitude of plastic work.
Consequently, there is little difference between the total work
and plastic work, and the use of total energy input simplifies
the computational procedure considerably. The total amount of
energy input per unit volume of specimen during a triaxial test
is the sum of energy input during the isotropic compression
and the shearing phases
(3)
in which E T = total energy input per unit volume of specimen;
Ec = energy input during isotropic compression; and Es = en-
ergy input during shearing.
During isotropic compression the amount of input energy is
created by the increase in confining pressure, resulting in vol-
umetric strains. During drained shearing the input energy is
generated by two components: (1) The confining pressure with
resulting volumetric strains; and (2) the stress difference with
resulting axial strains as shown in the following:
(4)
in which (J'c = final confining pressure; O'c = average confining
pressure over increment; £v = volumetric strain increment; «(J' I
- (J'3 = average stress difference over increment; £a = axial
strain increment; SOT = start of test; EOS = end of shearing;
and BOS = beginning of shearing.
Undrained tests do not experience volumetric strains, so
there is no contribution to the total energy from that compo-
~
w
. .
0.8 ~-'------'-----r-----'---'---r--..,-----,------,
llr-3Ollo llr-lIO%
...
llr-1lO%
C)
~ 0.4 f-----+-+----i--------!--..4--!---+---+---4---I
l5 .~.~...~I--~I-__1----... _ _+-_:l
~ ;:~~...~.j....:-.. .
w
~021l
rtZ. •
~ fi~- .J._--.
o
o 10 20 30
TOTAL ENERGYNOLUME (MPa)
FIG. 8. Hardin's (1985) Particle Breakage Factor, B" Related to
Total Input Energy for Drained and Undrained Triaxial Compres-
sion and Extension Tests on Three Different Densities of Cam-
bria Sand
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING / APRIL 1996/313
 l.. .. ...••...;,
....~.. ..............r..~ _ i·············17
0.8 ., i ~ CUR\'E~
·+ ..· . ·+..·
0.8
"l'''r
f.--j---j----f---j----f----1----f----1----1----I
·~
o •
1XI ........ ~
0.4 ~-i-~l-~i----Il---ii-~I---i;__---II__---;----1
0.2 .......... r.. . .·. . . . ;
l ....[
0.-._ 0.-.-
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by IME - Instituto Militar De Engenharia on 10/26/21. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
..........., , ,1 o.-.'JJ1%
o I
o ro ~ 00
TOTAL ENERGYNOLUME (MPa)
FIG. 9. Proposed Particle Breakage Factor, B,o, Related to To-
tal Input Energy for Drained and Undrained Triaxial Compres-
sion and Extension Tests on Three Different Denaltles of Cam-
bria Sand (Best Fit and Hyperbolic Curve Fit are Shown)
nent. The correlation with particle crushing necessitates that
computations be performed and energy be accumulated from
the beginning to the point where the test is terminated. The
input energies were calculated for all tests in which particle
breakage factors were calculated.
The particle breakage factors by Hardin (1985) and the pro-
posed factor B IO are plotted against the total input energy and
shown in Figs. 8 and 9. The total energy and the breakage
factors were calculated for tests on Cambria sand for three
different initial densities (Yamamuro 1993; Yamamuro and
Lade 1996; Lade and Yamamuro 1996; Bopp 1994). The cor-
relation of crushing parameters with the total input energy is
excellent, and it appears to relate all types of tests in one
unique curve. Due to the formulation of the proposed B IO par-
ticle breakage factor, the scatter is substantially reduced when
compared with Hardin's B,. Much of the observed scatter can
be attributed to the inherent inaccuracies in sieve analyses. The
proposed B IO appears to offer minimum scatter combined with
a unique correlation with the total input energy.
MECHANISMS OF PARTICLE DEFORMATION AND
FRACTURE
Thus far the analysis of particle breakage has taken the form
of relating the empirical particle breakage factors, derived
from the change in particle sizes, with soil parameters obtained
at a macrolevel, such as the effective mean normal stress at
failure, void ratio, and total input energy. The qualitative
mechanisms on a microstructural level need to be ascertained
to observe whether the foregoing correlations may be gener-
ally applicable to all soils. Thin-section slides were made from
the original sand and from sand that was tested at high pres-
sures. Thin sections of Cambria and quartz sands were ex-
amined under a light-polarizing microscope, in which the min-
eralogy and structure can be evaluated (Yamamuro et al.
1996).
Cambria sand is composed of many mineral constituents of
varying hardnesses (Yamamuro 1993). Thin sections of Cam-
bria sand shown by Yamamuro et a1. (1996) indicate that com-
pression and densification involve a combination of particle
breakage and deformation and the squeezing of mineralogi-
cally softer grains into the void spaces between harder grains.
The thin sections of quartz sand indicate that particle fractur-
ing and rearranging are the predominant forms of densification
for this sand. The plastic deformations seen in the Cambria
sand thin sections is not apparent in the quartz sand. This
stems from the fact that all the quartz grains have the same
relatively high mineral hardness.
314/ JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING / APRIL 1996
~ ..>_•••••• Even though there are apparent differences between the two
sands in the mechanisms of volumetric compression at the
grain level, it appears that either can be treated with the mac-
rolevel correlations presented here. Energy computations are
·
·:! ·..· ,I · ·; ·..1 global in nature, and are independent of how the actual strains
are achieved.
DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY FROM ENERGY
CORRELATIONS
+ ; , ; 1
As discussed, particle breakage factors may, if appropriately
formulated, be used to determine the permeability of granular
+ + materials as their gradation changes due to crushing. The cor-
Ii· 1
I relation of particle breakage factors with the total energy input
~ ~ can be used as the basis for the evaluation of permeability of
soils in earth and rocldill dams or other earth structures in
which the effect of particle breakage on permeability is im-
portant for seepage analyses. In a finite-element analysis of
any earth structure, the stresses and strains in each element
are computed throughout loading. Thus, the total energy input
per unit volume can easily be computed for each element. With
particle breakage being directly related to energy, the particle
breakage factor can be estimated from the calculated total in-
put energy to each soil element. This was the principal reason
for proposing the new crushing parameter, B 10, to be based on
D IO , the "effective" particle size, since it appears directly in
Hazen's (1911) permeability equation expressed in (1). Fig. 9
shows that the value of BlOis zero at zero energy input, and
approaches unity as the energy input goes to infinity. This type
of data distribution may be fitted well by a hyperbolic curve
of the following form:
(5)
B IO = a + b'ET
in which B IO = particle breakage factor based on the D IO par-
ticle size; ET = total energy input per unit volume of specimen;
and a, b = hyperbolic curve-fit parameters.
The hyperbolic curve-fit parameters a and b need to be de-
termined. Parameter b is always unity because the asymptotic
limit of B IO is unity. Testing data is required to determine pa-
rameter a. For Cambria sand parameter a was determined to
be 0.747. After parameters a and b in (5) are obtained, the
total input energy per unit volume is used to produce the par-
ticle breakage factor.
Fig. 9 shows both the best-fit B IO particle breakage curve
and the hyperbolic curve fit. Points were selected for the hy-
perbolic fit to provide a close fit in the initial 10 MPa of input
energy, where most geotechnical engineering applications
would occur. At higher input energy levels the hyperbolic
curve fit does not appear to follow the measured B IO values
accurately. However, the test specimens corresponding to the
upper portion of the correlation have been essentially com-
pressed into sandstone by the high stresses. The sieve analyses
are difficult in this situation because the delineation between
individual particles is not distinct. The sheared specimens must
be broken down into individual particles, but the smaller par-
ticles tend to stay in groups, which may be reflected by the
particle breakage factors remaining at a relatively constant
level at high-energy levels.
Once the particle breakage factor is determined, the D 1Qf
grain size may be obtained according to (2). The D lOf particle
size then directly yields the permeability from (1). To dem-
onstrate the proposed method of obtaining permeability from
the input energy to a soil element just outlined, the predicted
changes in permeability [from (1)] of Cambria sand during a
typical high-pressure, drained triaxial compression test are
shown in Figs. 10 and 11. This test was performed with an
effective confining pressure of 26.0 MPa. This confining pres-
J. Geotech. Engrg., 1996, 122(4): 309-316
 the squared D IO grain size. Note the vertical line segment at
the end of the isotropic compression. This predicted decrease
in permeability is due to soil creep, occurring during the stage
between compression and shearing. The creep reflects energy
input and the consequent crushing and reduction in perme-
ability. Fig. 11 shows that the permeability further decreases
during the shearing phase (applied at an axial strain rate of
0.OO24%/min), and near the end of the test the permeability
reaches values similar to those found in fine and silty sands.
Near the end of the test the rate of reduction in permeability
slows down rapidly because the rate of particle crushing de-
creases even though the input energy continues to increase. Of
course, Hazen's approximation formula for permeability is
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considered applicable to uniform sands only. Near the end of

the test the grain-size curve of the heavily crushed Cambria
sand has achieved a coefficient of uniformity greater than five
(Le., beyond that for which Hazen's formula may be valid).
However, the predictions shown in Figs. 10 and 11 are only
intended to demonstrate the proposed permeability computa-
tion process. Other formulations of permeability calculated
from grain-size curves may be used. Unfortunately, it was not
possible to verify the actual permeability of the soil due to the
physical limitations of the high-pressure experimental setup.
The particle breakage factor B10 proposed here was adopted
because of its usefulness in the determination of D IO , whose
5 10 15 20 25 30 subsequent use in Hazen's (1911) formula was necessary for
CELL PRESSURE (MPa) the calculation of permeability in sand.
There are many other correlations relating permeability with
FIG. 10. Predicted Change In Permeability during Isotropic
Compression of High-Pressure Drained Triaxial Compression grain size (Duncan et al. 1972). Some use the D,o grain size
Test on Dense Cambria Sand and others use a grain size dependent on other factors. Such
other sizes can easily be accommodated by redefining the par-
ticle breakage factor in terms of different grain sizes and cor-
Q.
~
Cal i i i , , i ,
.. 80,-:-:----,-----,---,----,------,,-----,---,--,--.,.-----,
,
i.......•. , relating it with the total input energy.
~ 60
aJ
1---+'--I---i'--+--::;...:'~::::j:==+=:::j...~+_'
-t-- ······7~+········ -t-- +. -...j
CONCLUSIONS

Iffi NED'~M'P 'Essi~N'TE

Grain-size distributions determined from sieve analyses
40
20
········t7 <··+·ORA
1/' ; : ;
ST···+·······
;
were evaluated for several high-pressure drained and un-
drained triaxial compression and extension test specimens after
a: v····f········ '·"'·"1'26:0 .wa-cPNFJIIING-r+ESSI RE···f········ shearing. Different particle breakage factors proposed by Mar-
Iii 0 L.---'.'_--'-_....:.._--'-_--'.'------'-_--'-._ - ' - - _ " ' - ._ . . J
sal (1967), Lee and Farhoomand (1967), Hardin (1985), and
10 20 30 40 50
AXIAL STRAIN (%)
a newly proposed particle breakage factor, BIO, were computed
from these grain-size distribution curves. Correlations with
t: standard soil mechanics parameters, such as effective mean

I,: M§iJmmlmtlm-1
normal stress at failure and void ratio at failure, were exam-
ined without finding a single unifying variable. However, it
was determined from these correlations that triaxial compres-
sion tests exhibited higher amounts of particle crushing than
triaxial extension tests. Particle crushing was seen to increase
§? 0 10 20 30 40 50 the most at moderate pressure levels (p' = approximately 5-
AXIAL STRAIN (%) 30 MPa for dense Cambria sand), whereas the amounts oc-
curring at high stress magnitudes appeared to become constant.

1°: m~t:~t:~t~[=1~tl:1
~ 10 20 30
AXIAL STRAIN (%)
FIG. 11. Predicted Change In Permeability during Shearing of
High-Pressure Drained Triaxial Compression Test on Dense
Cambria Sand
sure was applied at a rate of 0.75 MPalmin. As can be seen
from Fig. 10, a large decrease in permeability from 1.75 to
0.24 cm/s occurred during the isotropic compression phase.
This is due to crushing and severe reduction in the effective
grain size and to the sensitivity of Hazen's (1911) equation to
Total input energy was examined and found to produce a
unique correlation with all particle breakage factors that en-
compass all types of testing. The uniqueness is based on the
fact that computations of the total input energy are based on
both the stresses and the strains produced in a test, and this
quantity includes the effects of stress path and type of test.
40 50 Different mechanisms of volumetric compression on the
grain level were observed. The Cambria sand has its weaker
components being squeezed into void spaces (between
stronger components) in addition to particle fracturing. Volu-
metric compression in quartz sand, being of uniform hardness,
was dominated by fracturing.
The proposed particle breakage factor, B10, was devised to
correlate with Hazen's (1911) permeability equation [(I)], and
to provide a simple correlation with the total energy input,
which could be fitted with a hyperbolic curve. B IO combined
with the correlation with the total input energy produces a
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING / APRIL 1996/315

J. Geotech. Engrg., 1996, 122(4): 309-316

 simple procedure from which to estimate the permeability of
sand as it is being crushed. This could be significant for ap-
plications where particle breakage could affect pore-pressure
distributions and seepage quantities, such as in the design of
earth and rocklill dams.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Re-
search under Grant No. 910117 and 9310168. Grateful appreciation is
expressed for this support. The experimental results were obtained while
the writers were associated with the University of California, Los
Angeles.
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