TECHNIQUES of the CONTEMPORARY COMPOSER DAVID COPE2 B. CONTENTS Introduction xt BASICS 1 Approaches to Composition 1 Skills and Tools 4 The Profession 7 Rudiments of Orchestration and Form 8 ‘THE TONAL LEGACY 2 Basic Key Concepts. 12 Chromaticism 15 Expansions and Planing 17 Polytonality 19 NEW ROLES OF MELODY 26 Seales 26 Motives 28 Basic Melodic Concepts 29 Extended Melodic Lines 32 Accompaniments 34 HARMONY, COUNTERPOINT, AND HIERARCHY 38 ‘The Overtone Series 38 Texture 39 Consonance and Dissonance 39 Interval Strengths 40 Roots 41 Progression Strengths and Chromaticism 42. INTERVAL EXPLORATION 46 Basic Concepts. 46 Fifth and Fourth Chords Second and Seventh Chords. 50 Interval Combinations 5518, 19. 20. CONTENTS MEDIA FORMS: 206 Multimedia 206 Mixed Media 209 Intermedia 212 Vireual Reality 214 MINIMALISM 216 Silence as Minimalism 216 Concept Music 217 Brevity Works 218) Continuivies 218 Phase and Pattern Music 219 EXPERIMENTAL MUSIC 222 Situation and Circumstance Music 222 Soundscapes 223, Biomusic 224 Antimusic 22 DECATEGORIZATION 230 Fclecticism 231 Quotation 22 Sectionalization 233 Overlays 234 Integration 236 Bibliography 239 Indes 247 INTRODUCTION If there is one characteristic ofthe arts that remains constant, itis change. Although, ‘Western Classical music, co the inexperienced listener, may seem predictable and reli- ably consistent, i is not. Over the course of centuries, harmonic vocabularies that ‘originated in medieval organum with open parallel fourths and fifths have proceeded through triads and seventh and ninth chords to the dissonant, clusterlike chords of the twentieth century. Melodic vocabularies have likewise developed from stepwise 4istonic chants through triadic leaping to extreme chromaticism and pointlism Rhythm, timbre, and texture have followed similar paths from simple to complex, though less quickly. “Those who refuse to accept change, or who canonize common-practice music of the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries to the detriment of contemporary music, Jack the vision necessary to understand the inevitable nature of change. Though ‘many a masterpiece was produced during Western music's tonal centuries, biliance ‘of craft and musicianship are evident in thousands of works written before and afer those years. “Techniques ofthe Contemporary Composer covers many of the changes that have taken place recently and even suggests afew that may yet occur. Central to the book are three basic concepts 1, There is no right way to compose music, no righ style, only different ones. Each individual must decide on his or her own mode of expression. 2. There is no progress in art. While it may at frst seem plausible that, for ‘example, a late Romantic symphony is superior to a simple tenth-century 3, careful consideration may prove the contrary. A comparison of ogress in the arts to, for instance, progress inthe sciences is inappropriate. 3. However musi is defined (and it macters little in the final analysis), i pos sesses elements that make craftand consistency fundamental to its quality. ‘Techniques of the Contemporary Composer is designed to cover the techniques, esources, and technologies of composition of the twentieth and early ewenty-ftst ‘centuries while placing an emphasis on the music of more recent years. Most music ‘omposition books deal almost exclusively with traditional techniques, inclusive of Principal music of the early to middle ewentieth century. Those that do include ontraditional techniques usually cover only 2 few contemporary idioms. The pre book, however, includes as many areas of contemporary composition as possiblesii INTRODUCTION in an inclusive single volume and in as objective a manner as posible. Ie assumes that knowledge ofas many procedures as posible produces cue freedom of expression. By studying and carefully evaluating the ideas presented here, readers may lead them- selves to developing their own individual syle. Techniques of the Contemporary Composer encompasses twenty-one chapters, or8a- nized to coincide roughly with two semesters or three academic quarters of composi tion, with time left fr review. This can be expanded to a two~ oF three-year format, with one chapeer assigned every two or three weeks instead of one per week. The book also provides both teacher and student with examples, bibliographic references (keyed by parenthetical pointets in the text), and composing suggestions. The bibliography includes a beef list of relevant books and scores for further study and analysis, ‘The beginning chapters provide a transition from common-practice study and gently bridge the gap from learned bias to the exploration of new ideas. The order of the chapters themselves is logical but does not always reflect historical chronology Nor does the chapter order reflect any particular progression toward better, more complex, or more definivive techniques. While subsequent chapters do build to some extent on the techniques of previous chapters, this organication should not ead to assumptions that later chapters have more substantial worth. If any progression ‘occurs here, it one from tradition towad innovation, with the last chapter sum. ring up ts predecessors. Chapters ae aso grouped around sinilar ideas. Chapters 6 and 7, for example, have much in common. Chapters 11 and 12 have likewise sim lar subject matter, as do chapters 15, 16, 17, and 18. Each chapter presents only an ineroduction wo its subject sad should no be considered exhaustive The musical examples are primarily my own and were composed not a represen- tations of my personal style but as demonstrations of the points under discussion, ‘As a composition teacher using this book asa classroom tex, [ require all compos- ing assignments to be performed, atleast inthe classroom. This requirement extends 28 well co most of che examples in each chapter as well as to many of the works listed inthe bibliography: Many ofthe book's examples also exist in standard MIDI file for ‘mat and are available an downloadable from my Internet site: hep/ars.ues.ed faculeylcoperhome. Students are encouraged to work on larger projects that may ot ‘may not interact with the classroom assignments chus obtaining practical and usable techaiques, resources, and technologies from a variety of new styles in adltion c completing large works more demanding in form and content. 1 wish to thank my wifey Mary Jane, and the many students I have had over my thiry years of teaching music composition. In many says, these individuals have taught me as much as I them. Certainly, che order of chapters and the manner of pre sentation are due as much to their suggestions, direct and inditect, over the years as to my own ideas. I hope that some of these exchanges of influence have proved 38 tusefl co chem in their endeavors as composers zad educators as they have to me: | also wish to thank Jil Lectka for her insights, advice, and help and David Roen for copying most ofthe musical examples. Somerset Maugham once noted that there are three rules for writing @ novel, but tunforcunately, no one knows what they are. While this may be te for writing music —_ INTRODUCTION xiii ‘as well, itis important to point out that potential novelists and composers alike have fgecess to a great many resources that ean enable them to discover those rules for themselves. The present book isnot, therefore, about rules, but about resources. Ie is ‘with these concepts in mind that I hope to aid readers in discovering the techniques ‘of the contemporary composer. David CopeCHAPTER | BASICS THIS CHAPTER IDENTIFIES a few good composition habits lists ideas for preparing scores, and presents suggestions for developing performance and publi ‘cation opportunities. I also covers the basic rudiments of orchestration and musical form. While such practical matters are often neglected in books on music composi- ton, they represent important strategies for enduring as a composer and not just dab- ng in the craft (Rochberg 1984). to Composition I overviews are stressed throughout much of this book. Such usually consist of visual graphics, narratives, or outlines from which tech- and materials can be derived (Stravinsky 1947). Overviews help composers the problems often encountered in compositions rhat are nor prestmucrured: a of fdeas from various composing sessions spaced over days, weeks, and even Overviews, while malleable co the very last note of a resulting composition, frameworks for composing more consistent music in larger forms Figure 11 shows a series of overviews of a work for chamber orchestra titled om. Figure I.la demonstrates how the work might appear on a three-by-five- index cand. The horizontal lines here describe texture and dynamics and, along th the vertical and angled bars, define the three main sections of the form. Figure b presents a more detailed version of the work with a few rhythmic ideas sketched appropriate locations. This overview also shows more details about the types of ls in each section. Figure I.Ic gives more definition to the main ideas, with ‘ome of the more important musical ideas written out in traditional notation, ‘overviews on the wall above the primary composing workplace can help __t® Femind composers oftheir current context in a work. 7 Beginning a composition from an overview can be as effective as beginning a com- Petition from a melody, motive, or harmonic structure. Sketching a work (even in hic terms) in its complete form before @ note of chord has been written, expand- ‘ ourward through latger and larger sketches, often helps composers visualize hear works in larger forms. Some composers actualy begin with the double bar © end before composing their compositions (Stravinsky 1947). "This helps them e Intultion suggests—thus more naturally—and not just where the music's ‘currently happens to stop.= 28 |INC Sa ae FiGURE Ll. Three overviews of a wotk for chamber orchestra Using a temporary title often helps when creating overviews. Composers often neglect the significance of a title to an audience and to themselves. Indeed, Hector Berlie’s Symphonie fantastique would sound very differently were the title changed 0 Symphony No. 1. It is difficult even to speak about a work, much less conceptualize it, without its having a tte ‘Sketching provides composers wich a way co hone their skills and develop r=W materials for new works. Example 1.1 shows a series of sketches by Beethoven for his String Quartet in A Minor Op. 132. Nore how important new elements surface in each skerch as well as how apparently unsuccessful ideas disappear. Beethoven revised so heavily that often his initial ideas are unrecognizable in his final drats (although that is nor the case here). Revising materials ean be as important a part of the craft of musical composition as inspiration and should be regularly exercised. ‘One should avoid including new ideas just because these ideas seem good. Often such ideas can be completely foreign to a work and disrupt its continuity. Keeping sketchbook can be useful for such inspirations. Sketching new ideas, concepts, of CHAPTER — one Asics > ee BXOME LI. A series of setches by Beethoven for his Sting Quartet in A Minor Op. 132. reo ina separate pad an ‘iat low cbb,, Be pean “hee saving them for later works, especially when inspiration ideas from interrupting otherwise consistent music. = reautesthat a composer be ava ofall of works music com- rather than just the music visible on the current page. Using just one of staff paper helps ensure that finding important events previous to oF follow. {Current point of composition will be relatively easy. Likewise, using numbered rather chan bound manuscript allows composers to see a whole work just4 CHAPTER ONE as with overviews. All to often, using bound and double-sided music paper conflces with a composer's need to compare relationships between temporally distant but fr. mally similar materials ‘Compositions thar thoroughly explore afew ideas succeed more often than those that expound many different ideas but develop them less. While there are no hard and fast rules concerning the core number of materials a work can convineingly sus tain, one good way to restrict the number involves developing a single idea excl sively until che music absolutely requires new material. Treating the new material in like manner, while juguling repetitions and further variations of the initial ideas, helps to ensure that works are integeated and developmental as well as expository Mose successful composers work daly (Dorian 1947), Just as performers need to practice theit art and craft, so must composers. This practice may take the form of composing a work in progress, sketching, reworking @ passage, or even study another work for its solutions to certain problems. The hours of the day or nigh: spent composing will vary, depending on the composer. Many find a set hour or time period most effective, while others choose diferent times. The planned-ahead time for composing can prove disastrous, though this again varies from composer to com: poser. In general, an established workplace provides most composers with the secu- rity of knowing the location of each tool and avoids the complications of day-to-day unpredictability Pencils have two ends, and composers should “write softy and carry a big eraser.” Erasing music can be a creative act, and many composers of successful music have admitted ending a day of composing with fewer measures than when they began. ‘Composers often time in-progress compositions over and over again with a metronome (Stevens 1964). This process can suggest changes that may constitute the difference between mediocrity and success. Moreover, such timings can contribute 0 really hearing works rather than just imagining to hear them. Unfortunately, com posers often produce augenmusik—works that look good on the page but are not con vincing in performance. Evaluating music in terms of real versus perceived time is extremely important. Composers hearing a passage for the fiftieth time rarely retain the perspective of an audience hearing it for the first or second time. Composers often get so involved in the extraordinarily personal act of creation that they lose objectiv- ity, Understanding this problem can help composers step away from overworked pas sages fora time. Overfamiliarity may otherwise prompt one co discard good musi when a careful and objective reexamination might prove its worth Skills and Tools, ‘The ability to read and notate music quickly and correctly is an extremely importan® skill chat composers must acquire (Read 1969). Example 1.2 shows a musical example with a numberof notational mistakes. These mistakes contradice many basic principles For example, stem direction is determined by a note’s proximity to the staf’s centeF line: notes above have downward stems, noces below upward stems. "Uplers” (triplets quintuplets etc.) should have the same rhythmic value as the normal duration that the CS 1.2. Music notation example with numerous mistakes replaces (c.g,, measure 3 here should be quarter notes). Noteheads of chords seconds must be placed on the correct sides of the stem. Chords and rests be properly aligned vertically. The designations for octave dsplacements—Sva (tava), \Sma (quindicesina), and so on—should never be used in clefs where clef can place the music on or near the staff (e4, bass ele should graduate to fore using oxava notation). Principles such as these, as well as those regarding Rent usc of sharp and ats, multiple vies on single sa, proper beaming ‘meter in use, and soon, are extremely important for composers intent the ent ofmustal composition. ‘rogram offer composers opportunities to enter theit music via ASCIT rAampler keyboards, hear their music via MIDI (Musical Instrument6 CHAPTER ON - Digital Interface, see chap. 16) output, and print their music and parts with nea engraved quality: Figure 1.2 shows a typical MIDI setup, from input on a computer to output via speakers or printer. The sampler, inthis particular configuration, plays hack the music entered in the notation sequencer at the computer. The printer shown here outputs the score and parts in standard music notation The availability of computer programs should not, however, dissuade composers, from learning the art and craft of standatd music notation. Not only does such knowledge make composing possible when the computer is not available, it als ‘makes composers better editors of their music—something all composers must be at ‘one time or another. Choosing the appropriate computer software depends on a number of factors (Yavelow 1992). Fitting a program to your computer means not only making sure that the computer type and program match correctly, but that the amount of RAM, hard disk space, MIDI compatibility, printer type, and so on, all correlate properly. Iris also important to choose a computer notation program that prints parts, pro- duces collected bars of rest, and offers some control over paging and so on. While ‘computor OO TEBM synhestzersampior ampiinor {o_o} FIGURE 1.2. One eypical MIDI setup for composing asics 3s that allow for user control of such details often pose steep learn- oer allow composers to produce scores with the least number of they alo curves, se ual problems during rehearsals and performance. The Profession es (including those sel-produced using computer progeams) have sig- Ragnave larger works a all, but rather distribute composer-created copies. Composers Spo fonger have the luxury of scribbling their music and waiting for caligaphers to sevopyor engrave the results. Such methods are far too costly. “Getting your music published requires patience. Ten publishers can see a work and reject it, and the eleventh accept it with glowing compliments. Send publishers cas- sette tapes or recordings along with copies of scores. Many music publishers cannot ead music or hear it in their heads and generally refuse works by unknown or ‘unproved composers. Serious music rately requires unpublished copyright and, when published, is usu ally copyrighted by the publisher. Composers or publishers, however, may copyright works Complete information abt copyright is available from the US. Copyright Offic, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. Copyrighting costs money and requires ‘copies of the work to be deposited at the Library of Congress. International copyright Isbest left ro publishers, since its vagaries and complexities escape all bu the legally Knowledgeable and experienced. Note that plagiarists rarely steal entire works; they Just steal many of their general ideas, which fall only vaguely under copyright pro- tection. Such thefts are therefore dificule to litigate. (Commissions can be important even if they involve only a promised performance. ‘Commissions enable composers to compose within constrains as well as work with, Performers, from whom a great deal can be leaened. Composers car also learn from, the inspiration and friction such proximity creates. Conductor-compesers, for examn- Ble, can develop a real understanding about orchestration, literature, and composi- tion technique by performing their own music and new works by other composes. sions should be handled with great care, however, as misunderstandings and ‘esthetic differences can cause more trouble than the commission is worth. Morks that take advantage of the abilities of uniquely skilled performers entail Getain risks. If such an individual performs a great deal, your work may gain wide ‘SPosure, bur ifthe performer has few opportunities, your work may have limited ce potential. On the other hand, one should avoid simplifying works just ‘Bebra peormancs Indeed, unaliattechnigues canbe acquit by create Performers. Much can also be leamed by attempting to perform special techniques Yourselé Tos nab composers t0 confront the dificulties directly and ascertain if can learn such techniques easily rants and prizes are important for winners but unimportant for loses. [losing 4s palatable, then enter them and forget chem. Winning awards and grants8 CHAPTER ONE except a posible loss of sel-esteem. Salle Recordings are, for the unknown of young composer, mainly a matter of accep ‘il tance bya ecording company and subsidization forthe recording itself Most record- all {ng companies use grants to fund recording projects or expect the composer or pet- former to pay the costs directly Composers should send tapes to various companies wwithout being discouraged by rejections. Once a work is accepted, funding ean often be acquired from grants. Commissions can help as well, for many performers and groups will commission a work, lke it, and record it, removing the burden of fund- ing from the compose. ‘Composers should also review the various performance rights organizations, such as the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) and Broadcast Music, Incorporated (BMI). Such organizations play an extremely impor- tant role in most profesional composers lives by collecting and distributing royalties earned from performances as wel as keeping members aware ofthe various perfor- mmances of their works (Cope 1993). 4 ii eu sol ce beings, Lain val nd teas il | 3 j Rudiments of Orchestration and Form Listening to all types of music represents one of the most important ways to learn about orchestration and form. Not only does such listening help to educate in ways rno book can, but it also broadens the musical perspective of composers so that they are less apt subconsciously to plagiarize the etyles, ideas, or contexts of other cam posers’ music, Such plagiarism can be almost unavoidable when young composers know but a few pieces of music. $ “atin ge Listening with scores informs composers in ways no other study can. It improves score and sight reading skills, as well as illustrating how individual instruments sound in various registers and how various ensembles of instruments sound together. Example 1.3 lists many standard instruments in typical orchestral order with their usual clefs and transpositions (Adler 1982; Kennan and Grantham 1983). In gener al, scores of lesser numbers of these instruments follow this same basic order. Hence, any collection of woodwinds, brass, percussion, and strings (from high instruments 10 low instruments) should appear, top to bottom, in this configuration Listening to music with scores also can help composers hear and better under stand musical form and structure. Table 1.1 (p. 10) lists a number of standard classi cal music forms, which have many variations and subclassifications (Berry 1986) 2: horn (op PB trumpet (op Mp Peer cp beeps pF che PFO (es tale ther an“ ale ton ine hae tan eh trainj nt nsone rcs ok odanel Stephene ‘ap nfs kn in a rkneno BV4 ee OF). ‘eles elo tno writen p Pa) tarsta apni — econ torn ohne “Trngponton itn): Bb asi map 156 ‘Although numetous other forms are just as viable as these, composers can do worse than begin with simple, ried-and-true forms and then slowly develop their own vari- > ations and innov: “Table L.1 also shows the difference between forms that are homophonic (har- ; ip ronal ted) and those that are contrapuntal presesing wo of mre melodic 4 ifus ideas simultaneously). Contrapuntal forms typically require sty beyond standard i hhatmonic theory. As such, while beginning composes should be aware oftheir baste i dlfinivions, contrapuntal forms should initially rake a back seat tothe simpler single Exwirit 13. Standard ranges and order of orchestral instruments with their typical cles ‘and multimovernent homophonic forms. 4nd wanspostonsi. 10 CHAPTER ONE ! BASICS u ‘Multimovement forms ‘Composing music in various extant and older styles (e.g, a Classical-period sonata Naw Constaverion ——nstaunentamiow Nowes ae Moca o 2 Romi rr nis er Chopin) canbe vr steal ee eat [act SE for only does such imitation better acquaint composers with the emulated style, i also hones many skills composers need to develop (Stravins [erator secre opera [exehivocalins | no setvcostumes is bonee mr osersnsed 10 develop Stavisky 1947) [ean ‘raves cravocalins wsualy sacred Composing Suggestions | mass | eatboie mass choirkoloists sacred * Create a graphic overview ofa single movernent for available instruments. a ar dares fam | oxchonpaddence Compote short work tase on the esis, making sure to dian a tiaireneea [ee never te momar thei quality, I a eee er ‘+ Sketch music for at least ten minutes a day for one week. Vary your loca- 0 FSF } orchestra/solod tion and the availability of tools, such as computer, manuscript paper, pen- diverimento | fee Sal orchetca «ils, piano, and so on. Take note of the locations, times, and situations that —, fe as produce the most successful results. quarter Guin. 8) | ASHE Stings or winds ~ * Clee eles en musi, Sort them into vais groups tha tend | a : aoa 10 work especially well together. Create an overview of a work from one of | se se ett “icin the groups and evaluate whar links these ideas together, | ve — et + Find ac least ewenty mistakes in Example 1.2 and group ther according to | “ ; ‘general notation principles, Write outa correct sew version of this example. themefvariations | as name implies | any + Compose a short work in a style with which you ate familia. Ask an asso- Ciate to cecique your new work objectively from the vantage points of style | Single-movement forms and musical effectiveness | Nowe Covstmvenon _Instmunavranion _ Nores ovate Tene dev [cose for opaalevs_] tone poem fceievelopment | orchestr 2p song frm AB (aay {ng or Ind move. | | Spon form ABA any song or Sed move i sonata allegro | ABle/AB any Ist move | ABAXA...BA | any 4th move. L explepisodes/sttetto | keyboard ‘contrapuntal imitati voices/keyboard | contrapuntal fice Keyboand free keyboard 7 devclopmemal | any [ABA eyboaed elude a Teyboard TaBLe LL. A simple chare of standard classical musi lors.CHAPTER 2 THE TONAL LEGACY THE COMMON-PRACTICE period of music history (roughly 1600 to 1900) produced an enormously rich and complex musical language. Its basic force— tonality-—still pervades much of today's popular and commercial music. This chap- ter attempts to capsulize some ofthe important theory ofthe common-practice peri- cod and to provide a transition tothe techniques of the contemporary composer Basic Key Concepts While a full delineation of tonal vocabulary and techniques could take hundreds of pages, three basic concepts lead to their better understanding: 1. Key defines the vocabulary of tonality’s pitch material (Aldwell and Schach- ter 1978). Melodies, reduced to source material, can be expressed as scales of ordered intervals. Example 2.1 shows a musical passage and the scale that ‘can be projected from its pitches. Tonality defines these pitches a diatonic ‘andl those foreign to the scale as chromatic. 2. Consonance (relaxation) and dissonance (tension) permeate tonal relation- ships (Schoenberg 1969). The lower pitches ofthe overtone seies (a nat Ural acoustic phenomenon discussed in more detail in chapter 4) provide a rationale for vertical consonance. This infinite series (its fist eight pitches are shown in Ex. 2.2) gives prominence in its lower, more audible, spectrum to three primary intervals: octaves, fifths, and thirds. These create triads— three-note chords builtin thirds. Pitches outside of chords built in thicds and their inversions are called nonharmonic and typically resolve to chord members. 3. Hierarchical relationships pervade most tonal music (Berry 1976; Schenker 1933). Two primary scale degrees or chords provide folcrum and weight. “The tonic scale degree or chord is the home base of a key. It acts as a cen tet around which the other notes revolve. The dominant scale degree oF chord acts asa satellite 10 the tonic. It requires resolution to the tonic note for chord for completeness. Example 23 shows the primary chords of tonic fd dominant, with examples of second, les significant chords Example 24 shows a fragment of a work with the three tonal principles at work key, consonance, and hierarchy. The interplay of these and other, less important tonal principles have provided a common language for composers and listeners fot hundreds of years. TONAL LEGACY 21, The opening of W. A. Mozar’s Piano Sonata, K. 279, movement 1, and the ofits scale. E12, The overtone series through eight partials and a member triad. voo# www ow SECONDARY 23, The primary tonic and dominant chords, with other, secondary chords Fame came ao shows another important characteris of common- voice leading, Tonal part-writing rules, based on a paradigm of four: Slade the aveidance of (0) pl ihe ad octaves between any — ea iden fifths and octaves beeen the outer vies. Pitches ive chords (common tones) generally remain in the ice Dosis At eascevo vier should move in cntary oe common motion between chords. Spacing should be kept to 4 maximum of a sixth ‘adjacent upper voices, whereas the bass may move freely. Part writing also (D doubling the root if possible, except in diminished chords, where dou- ‘third is preferable; (2) doubling one ofthe primary notes of the key (tonic, ‘or dominant) ifnot the root; and (3) doubling the fifth of the chord if Appropriate solution presents itself. Nonharmonic tones (passing tones, fones, suspensions, appoggiaturas, etc.) each have patticular contextual functions also. follow various progression protocols in4 CHAPTER TWO Classical musi, some of which are shown in table 2.1. Some of these protocols rep- resent classical traditions, and some indicate a particular composers style ‘Example 2.4, an excerpt for voices, demonstrates the kind of smooth motion just scribed. Instrumental music, however, does not requie chese same constrains, At the same time, tonal voice leading usually forms the backbone of instrumental faccompaniments, hidden though it may be, Example 2.5 shows an instrumental ‘xcerp with the backdrop of voce leading presented to show the prevalent motion. Nate that the basic concepts expressed here represent generalizations rather than hard and fast rules. Ic would be dificult, for example, to find a Bach chorale—often ned as modes for such behavior—that adheres exactly to each of the rules expressed inthis chapter (Bach 1941). The exceptions often prove the rule, howeves, and more often than not, good musical reasons, rather than negligence, explain the deviations Peer ee Exaupie 24. ‘The beginning of}-S. Bach, choral, "An Wasserflassen Babylon,” showing the three tonal principles at work. Allegro Sfp — = emus? Voce kadng nan eacere fam WA. Most, Pao Sana in CM 545, ExaMne 25 = THE TONAL LEGACY 15 Cuon Fouowen sy 1 any a a) ‘a aw V wi ¥ ai ai) vie ay ‘Tawue 2.1. Tonal harmonic progression protocols in classical musk ‘Chromaticism ‘Chromaticism in diatonic music usually takes one of three forms: 1. Tonal music often modulates, or changes key, sinee the use of single key den becomes monotonous. Modulation usualy kes place witha chord Eure 3.11. ensemble ‘A melody consisting of notes passed between various instuments in the Accompaniments Even when melodic lines do not follow traditional tonal or functional vocabulaies. ‘oF processes, they can stil imply certain harmonic notes, chords, progressions, and types of accompaniments (Dallin 1974). While a complete exploration of the vaiout possthlres of sch implied harmonies falls heyond the scape ofthis book, careful ‘observing how composers play with a listener's expectations of implied harmony can be very useful. Ar its simplest, @ melody can imply harmonies by outlining (Pe giating) harmonie funetions and accenting the notes of various chon. In is more ‘complex forms, a melody can suggest the amount of chromaticism, types of chords and even the voice leading of the implied accompaniment. Harmonie or contrapuntal accompaniment, whether it fllows or contadies & relody's implied harmonies, should be added to melodic lines carefull. Thoush strong melodic lines ean carry weak or contrary harmonies, even thebestof melodies can be weakened by a poor accompaniment. Contemporary harmonic progressions can add further momentum to melodic lines of any length. Decractions usualy oot when the harmonic vocabulary or progression becomes more inceresting than th aelodic line. At the same time, harmonic progressions should not be dll and hls ‘only serving melodie dteetion. Indeed, harmonies not only can contribuce but even take center stage at imes—especially at cadences and points of arival— PA vide the basic thrust of musical direction. Harmonic eadences usually occur a8 20 ofa strong progression leading (at leas ultimately) to resolution or a suggestion OF olution, Thus staggered melodie and harmonic eadences tend to weaken eash oft Nevertheless, such staggering can be useful ro composers who wish ro ove monic and melodic phrasings for purposes of hiding internal cadences (asin Ex: 3° Example 3.12 shows tw brief melodies with accompaniments. In both ins the harmony provides a compatible, supportive accompaniment ro the m4 direction, point of arrival, cadence, and balance. In the fist example the 5s OF MELODY 38 _ Two melodies with accompanying harmony: ive from the melods, while in the second example the harmony dou: the melodic notes. these excerpts is right or wrong; they simply exemplify two of the pproaches:()) that melodies should necessarily contradict harmonic or textures, ot (2) that melodies should somehow derive from ateendant Point of fact, harmony and melody will interact regardless of attempts interactions. Moreover, cunterpoint—evident to some extent in even ‘usie—can help to bridge melodic gaps created by long held 13 shows a melodic line with an accompaniment that complements its Point of arrival, cadence, and balance, yet achieves a definitive char- gum. ln fact, this accompaniment breathes new Ife into the melodic fepetitions, demonstrating the effects that supportive accompani- and articulation, to significant attributes of muse, also play imporcanc (Composition of melodies. Yet defining their specific roles in the creation lines is dificult. Both of these parameters rely almost entirely on ‘with a complementary harmonic accompaniment.36 CHAPTER THnge oF MELODY 37 melody in Example 3.15 and compose a short piece of similar iano, accompanying the melody with any appropriate style of for counterpoint: their context for definition. Each can contribute to or contradict the evolug melodic lines as powerfully as can harmony, counterpoint, or silence. Rests can also contribute to the potency of melodic direction and heighten the importance of points of arrival or cadences. Example 3.14 shows 180 uses of ete the context ofa single phrase. The first rest occurs just before the point of arval ang ‘effectively sets it apart from the remainder of the phrase. The power of silence at rng point in a phrase can enhance even weak points of arrival, The second zest appean, jst before the cadential nore. This use of silence announces the finality of the lg rote end emphasizes its agogic importance, Study and practice in the composition of melodic lines with or without accompae nnying harmonic or contrapuntal textures is crucial to the craft of music compostion, No book, no source of materials can possibly replace such study and practice or pros vide a fraction ofits importance to musical invention. Penetrating analysis of melod- ‘cline, especially early in the composition process, indicates when and why cobesion coxcurs oF fails to occur Certainly any melodic line can be convincing in the proper context. Nonetheless, understanding how to achieve a desired resule provides a pow «erful compositional tool for knowing how and why melodie lines work convincingly. im of {for analysis and imitation. two melodies in Example 3.4 forthe versions of the motive used. third, contasting melody from vatiations of the same motive. 2x2 tu ite P one tf * b — ge =e oy in. mp EXAMPLe 3.14, Tho uses of rests in a single phrase Composing Suggestions + Compose ten melodic lines for available instruments, each of which exem ale plifies one or more of the techniques presented in this chapter. At teach line for flow, point of arrival, cadence, direction, and balance. of che + Compose a long melodic line (forty t0 sixty measures), marking all of he ‘cadences and points of arsval as outlined inthis chaper (cfes back 02 B® 519). The melody should be as lyrical as possible. Be sure to include dyna ies and articulation, “+ Sketch a motive. Derive a diatonic melodic line of over thirty bars #f Tergth fom it Avoid conspicuous se of the motive. Analyze pots arrival and cadences.“COUNTERPOINT AND HEIRARCHY 39 CHAPTER 4 HARMONY, COUNTERPOINT, AND HIERARCHY WHILE HARMONY CAN evolve intuitively, most composers benefit from struck pitch (B in che clef) activates ovexones of held, but not struck, understanding at least a few of its basic principles. Evaluating interval stengths snd roots, for example, provides a useful base from which to create consistent harmonies and logical templates for harmonic progression. The Overtone Series integral aspect of harmony. When texture imitates the overtone intervals at the bottom and smaller intervals at the top, sonorous formations result. When texture follows an inverted form of the clustered low sonorities, with widely spaced upper notes almost from harmonic implications—the chords sound entirely differ- notes, aside from octave transposition, may be the same. spacing obviously promotes clarity, the latter spacing may be situations. Chapter 9 returns to the subject of texture; for now, Point out that the almost limitless varieties and subeletes between Play critical roles in the development of chords and harmonic ‘A number of acoustical properties of sound help to define harmonic function. The ‘overtone series, for example, possesses relationships that can provide abasic logic and terminology for analysis (Hindemith 1937). With the exception of electronically pro duced sine waves, most sounds that have a recognizable pitch (unlike, s3, # soa drum rol) have overtones that display, more or less, the relationships shown Example 4.1. This series thus has a certain familiarity. Though the overtones them selves sound so sofly as to be heard only subliminally, they contribute (along withthe envelope —see chapter 16) tothe timbral characteristics ofthe fundamental ‘Asa demonstration ofthe existence of overtones, silently hold dovin furor five low keys on the piano keyboard without depressing the damper (right) pedal. Lou ste ‘and quickly elease a note within the overtone series of atleast one of the ey notes (this involves calculating the series ofeach bass note sing Ex. 4.1 950621 JTRS ch thar conanes to und ule fom symp ans of the ‘and Dissonance sponding overtone of one ot more of the depressed Keys (see Example 4.2), Not fand dissonance (tension between notes or within chords) are subject to che strings ofthe tuck pitch, once the key release are topped bya fle me faterpretations. Subjectivity and context prevent forming perfect def. “The overtone series can serve as a model for several aspects of harmon ro be A tereth cho br eon eas hae en meet de ceussed further in this chapter: texture, consonance and dissonance, In BE vi cs cram car have many dierne meaning strengths, ros, and progression strengts. For each of these, the overtone Bn cette ne Ex 43) the abs does not establish what i right and wrong, but rather offers suggestions that Bresette diwonance an be ual posers can choose wo use selectively or ignore. Consequently, the information a lowest partials ofthe overtone series, the so-called open or pe- sidered below constitutes a st not of rules but rather of eore concept, (0 ¢, the consonant perfect fifth represents the backbone of triadic by composers to help make compositions more convincing note ofthe perfect fourth Is its ront (as explained laser ina CHAPTER FOUR Exaurte 49. Roots (black notcheads) of various chords informs most listeners that this chord has the finality of a stable tonic chord. ‘Analyzing this chord from the perspective of interval roots supports this case. Here, the lowest note of the fifth identifies the bass note as root; hence the chord finalizes tronic cadence. In short, root/interval analysis often agrees with aural identification, ‘more readily than traditional analysis. Tm genera, this root/interval approach can be applied more rigorously actoss dif ferent types of music than can methods devoted ro particular types of music, Note that in chords that contain more than one of the same strongest interval, the lowest of these intervals produces the root Progression Strengths and Chromaticism Progression strengths can be defined as a combination of interval strengths—in terms of both vertical (within the chord) and horizontal (from chord to chord) rela- tionships—and dissonance. Using the labels D (dissonant), N (neutral), and C (eon: sonant), any progression can be analyzed no matter what its content or complesity ‘Composers can also create new progressions from these concepts Example 4.10 shows a consonant chord with « weak root (ie., not in the bass) moving gradually coward a dissonant chord with a strong root (ie. in the bass). The movement {fom root to root progresses from weak intervals to strong intervals. Example 4.11 displays a consistent environment of harsh dissonant chords compris ing widening intervals and weakening root strength as well as increasing horizontal root strengths, Example 4.12 includes a variety of textures as well as contrasting ec c NON Exanpte 4.10. Directional progression. ExaMPts 4.11. Distonane progression of growing strength, ExaMPte 4.12. Progression of increased variety and contrast HARMONY, COUNTERPOINT AND HEIRARCHY B ‘chord tensions. Note here that root movement and interval strengths are often over shadowed by sudden increases in the number of dissonant intervals. ‘The use of root position chords contributes significantly to progression strength, although their continuous use can become monotonous. A variety of root place: ‘ments is important. Example 4.13 present» two chord progressions based on the pro- gression strengths outlined earlier. Nore how varying the placement of the root adds another element of interest and direction. ‘Chromaticism adds variety to otherwise completely diatonic progressions (Persichetti 4961). Beyond the traditional leading-tone connotations of secondary dominant, diminished sevenths, and so on, chromaticism provides variations as well as further direction and motion. The diatonic chorale in Example 4.14a displays a directionless, nearly random selection of dissonances, root strengths, and progression. The same gen eral material appeats in Example 4.14b, but here the slow addition of ehromaticism cre- ates variety, direction, and motion that the first chorale does not possess. Like dissonance, chromaticism works in a variety of ways. In a diatonic context, chromatic notes increase tension and direction, as in Example 4.14b. When the con- text is highly chromatic, however, tension and direction must be achieved by other means, such as ordered dissonance or progression strength. Example 4.15 demon- strates how knowing and using the techniques of subtracting and adding tension can produce effective results. Use of both approaches must be clearly controllable and ‘convincing. Bitters Sah s pt b, pple pee ee Exwris4.14._ Diatonic chon tacking direction (a; chorale using chroma direction, and motion (b). * Snschronascea vanes44 CHAPTER FOUR ExAMPte 4.15. Chromatic passage becoming less and ess so. “The overtone series can also be useful even when applied melodically and con trapuntally, 2s shown in Example 4.16. Note the slowly evolving chromaticism that the series provides here. This should not suggese that some natura rule exists regard ing he use of the overtone series. Still, recognition of natural aural phenomena, even in the abstract, can be a valuable tool for composers whether they wish co apply it avoid it, or usefully employ the myriad number of possibilities that lie between these ‘As mentioned in chapter I, the overview, the structural form of musical ideas is what makes the craft of compositional specifics significant. Beginning a composition from an overview can often be as effective as beginning it ftom a melody, motive, or harmonic structure. Overviews can help composers work where intuition suggests (thus more naturally) and not ust where the music currently happens to stop on the page. Example 4.17 shows a simple overview using some of the ideas presented in this chapter, EXaMrtz 4.16, Meloy based on the overtone series (a); (wo-voice counterpoint based on. the overtone scres () HARMONY, COUNTERPOINT AND HEIRARCHY 48 Hb c N NS c = Beaure.17. Ove oa work nes ofhamony and progression, Composing Suggestions + Compose a slow, sustained passage for piano in which dissonance, root strength, harmonic progression, and chromaticism move independently, finally coinciding in a strong consonant and diatonic ending. * Slowly introduce chromaticism to a diatonic melodic line while strength- ening the melodic intervals as much as possible. At the highest level of chromaticism, slowly reverse the procedure until the line retums full cycle. ‘+ Compose a passage for three available single-line instruments in which dis- sonance, root strengths, and chromaticism consistently vary. Apply a con- tinuously strengthening progression of intervals between roots Analyze Example 4.18 for roots, dissonance, chromaticism, progression strength, and texture, then compose as completely different an example as possible yet with the same characteristics as analyzed. ba: — Exons 4.18. Pasage for anahzing root strength, disonance,chromaticsm, progression ‘Strength, and texture. * " ° pee * Compose 2 short three-voice work for three available instruments that moves dow om th lowest tember ofthe overtone sees toward the tarch overtone, Use song rots and progressions a the oust that po: sesively weaken asthe work continu, "CHAPTER 5 INTERVAL EXPLORATION THE EXPLORATION OF INTERVALS other than thieds for harmonic source material can provide many useful opportunities for composers ro develop skills with nontraditional vocabularies (Cowell 1930; Dallin 1974; Diemer 1974; Zwilich 1989). The principles presented in chapters 3 and 4 can assist in the analysis and use of such nontriadie sonorities. Basic Concepts Music based on intervals other than thirds need not avoid tertian harmonies (chords constructed in thirds) but can rather extend triadic conventions of harmony and relody. Before discussing individual interval possiblities, however, a number of pre- liminary concepts should be examined. Most successful works do not consist completely of a single iterval. Even the least complicated triadic chorale contains mos, if not all, simple intervals (ic. those within the octave). When the intervals in the chorale shown in Example 5.1 are condensed within the octave, most types of simple intervals appear, even though the chorale is based on thirds. This should be kept in muind, since a great many first compositions based on intervals other than the third often avoid sufficient interval variety. Core intervals should predominate but not overbalance other interval, Interval exploration may occur vertically or horizontally or both. Vertical concepts, include stacking, or the placing of like intervals one upon the other: octave dis- placement; and inversion, as in triadic harmony. This latter concept is most impor. tant as it not only provides an alternative to root position but also creates varie! intervals. Example 5.2 shows a stacked chord of fourths and the resulting inversions, The root position chord contains sevenths, tenths, and thrteenths as wel as fourths With the frst inversion alone, however, the simple intervals ofthe sixth, fifth, fourth, third, and second occur, in addition to the fourths and sevenths already present in the otiginal chord, Thus, with just one inversion, at Jeast one representative of each, interval ype (major, minos or perfect) appears Any farmonic vocabulary, once established, can achieve the same sense of nor- rmality that we attribute to teiadic harmony (Hindemith 1939). In effect, the new environment becomes sable, and notes external ro the environment, whether con sonant or disonnt, become unstable of nonbarmonic. Example 5.3 shows how an INTERVAL EXPLORATION 47 EXAMPLE 5.1. Simple fourpaet chorale to show interval isebution, be o EXAM 5.2. Stacked fourth chords and inversion posi. Seconds chords with seventh chord as nonharmonic xtreme instance ofthis principle can invert traditional concepts of harmonicity. The Ahsonance of chords aed on seconds bectmes amor in sch the manera hor (hid measure, third beat sounds nonkarmoni romaticism may be achieved by planing, or it can develop from many of the atered-chord concepts of taditional harmony (ee chapter 2). Example shows three applications of traditional chromatic concepts co nontertian harmonies. Example 5.4a includes a secondary dominant and its resolution in quartal (fourth: Based) harmony. Example 5.4b, a progression of chords based on seconds, mostulates fom C to Bh by way of a traditional pivot chord. (Modulation ean also occur from Reenter type foanethe as long as not only the keys bt aio the interval env ents ate fully established.) Example 5.4c shows a quartal Neapolitan chord an One one elution, nn fe OWS atl Neapolitan chord and Example 5.5 shows three says of deriving chromaticism from @ combination of ‘various processes in the context af noncriadic harmony. The alteration in measures 442 fram major seconds to minor seconds and back again provides the fist source Op titcm, The second measure explores planing (parle moton i all ok hird measure contains chromaticism derived from the contrapuntal lean Ing ofthe mele lines e use of intervals other than the thied in melodic lines is so commonplace that only a few suggestions need tobe given here. ist avoid crerconstenon cecil ‘exploration of a single interval usually leads only 10 boredom, Second, leaps in nom tertian melodies, a in their triadic counterparts, often outline background harmonies8 CHAPTER FIVE ¥ INTERVAL EXPLORATION 49 ee pies pase aS Exams 54. Chromatics applied to nontetian harmonies with qraitional approsches: {2) secondary dominant; (b) modulation; (c) Neapolitan sixth, dase f EXAMPLE 5.5. Chromatiism in nontetian harmony and rely on opposite- direction seconds for contrast and consequent. The quartal leaps in Example 5.6 hint at the harmonic vocabulary without dissolving the line into con- tinually successive fourths. ‘Because thitds and sixths form the primary intervals of already well-explored ert- ian harmonies, the ensuing discussion focuses on chords based on fifths, fourths, sec- ‘onds, and sevenths. Dee ee eS mp EXawfLe 56, Melodic leaps in a predominately quatal harmonic context Fifth and Fourth Chords Composing with perfect fifths both vertically and horizontally (called quintal har- mony) can prove tobe a great deal more difficult chan may intially appeat. Example 5.7 shows a fve-nore chord consisting of four perfec its. Again, with the creation ofeach interval beyond the initial fith, new intervals occur The outer notes in the bass staff, for instance, form a ninth, which transposes by octave to a second. The next note up forms a thirteenth with the bass—a sixth when transposed within the cctave—while the top note forms a seventeenth (a third when transposed) with the bass, The root is the ower note ofthe lowest fth. Example 5.8 shows the inversions ‘of this chord and the resultant interval ramifications. EXAMILE 5.7. Five-note quintal chor. FEXAWLE 5.8, The inversions of five-note quital chord Dissonances in quintal harmony do not typically resolve traditionally, since the overall structure then reverts toward triad, as inthe first measure of Example 5.9. In the second measure, the first chord moves to another quintal chord. Even though this second chord can be construed as an inversion of a quintal chord buile on Fits root is C—the lowest note of the lowest fifth. Example 5.10 presents a complete phrase with fifths as the basic uni of structure. Note the use of inversions for chromaticism and variety. The lyrical melody outlines leaps of fifths bur otherwise maintains stability, with poinc of arrival, and so on, based ‘on the examples of chapter 3. Exact: 59, “Tio moons of a lth chor: () ax esluion in terian barmomy, and () as Ath chord inervl exploration ‘er Beau: 5.10. Complete phrase with fie atthe basic unico structure50 CHAPTER FIVE ‘Works using fourths (called quartal harmony) follow much the same principles as works composed in fifths. Because fourths tradivionally seek resolution to thirds, pas- sages in quartal harmony, such asthe contrapuntal phrase in Example 5.11, typical- Iy use significant numbers of fourths to establish the interval asthe compositional norm and deter the expectation of triadic resolution. ‘The augmented fourth (diminished filth), since it divides the octave equally, can- not be stacked to create diferent interval. It ean, however, exist separately, not asa result of stacking: The chord in measure 1 of Example 5.12 consists of two aug- ‘mented fourths. The subsequent excerpt is quite complex, asthe interval itself cre- aes chromaticism, weak root structure, and lack of significant harmonic direction. ase = ¥ rf eww 5.11, Short contaputal phe bl und he ital of uth => Dw o a Exawrue 5.12. Augmented fourth chord and shore excerpt using interval exploration of augmented fourths. Second and Seventh Chords sing seconds and sevenths as basic harmonic intervals (called secundal harmony) floes such the same procen a thee of furan ths excep thar the former are harsher in disonance. Because seconds and seventis also tend to resolve to tert ian harmonies (Persichetti 1961), compositions using these intervals often employ signiicane numbers of unresolved seconds and sevenths before admitting other {nonharmonie) intervals. Example 5.13 shows @ chord builtin seconds and one in sevenths, the resultant inversions, and a shest excerpt using both simultaneously. Stacked seconds create dense confguracions of sound called clusters. Such groups ‘of seconds ae istnet from compilations of other intervals in cha they create knots of sound with ar few as two intervals, Successive addition of seconds establishes ', INTERVAL EXPLORATION SI EXAMPLE 5.13. Chords in seconds and seventh blocks of sound that act and react in very diflerene ways from the chords discussed to this point fives 1921). Such clusters form a unique vertical structure in that many ‘of the inner pitches cease to be individually important. The larger the cluster, the less Jimportance each internal noce has. In Example 5.14 the clusters encompass more than an octave. The notation ofa large natural and sharp sign signifies the presence of both natural and shatp versions of the notes shown (Cowell 1930). In the first case, this creates a completely chromatic elus- fer inclusive of all notes from D to E (for more on this notation see chapter 13). Two other versions of this cluster appear to its right. One note (different in each case) has ‘been removed from each chord to help make the point that pitch individuality ceases to bbe important with large cluster chords. Though there is a slight difference aurally, i is ‘not a significant one. Its even dificult to locate the missing notes visually. 2S Exaurt 5.14. ‘Three chromatic clusters 90 of whi hhave missing notes A few exceptions to these points should be considered. First, the outer notes are by far the most important, and in most cases, deletion of these notes can easily be derected (Cowell 1912). Oucer notes should therefore be carefully composed. Second, the introduction of a chromatic note to a diatonic cluster can be conspicu ‘ous. Third, timbre plays an important role. Though clusters are often scored for Piano or other instrument capable of counterpoint, they can also be produced by ‘combinations of instruments of contrasting timbres. When this occurs, a subtracted ote may become quite noticeable, depending on the sharpness and clarity of the timbre of the missing note. Finally, in clusters wich missing notes, some pitches may Contribute to harmonic significance, and displacement or suberaction may alter the texture and pitch vocabulary Progression analysis of clusters ean prove dificult. Obviously, the roots of each chord in Example 5.14 can be found according to the principles presented in chap. ter 4. The relevance and strength of these roots is less clea, however. In mast cases the lowest note is the root and contributes to or detracts from the resultant pro- sression of roots.52 CHAPTER FIVE sive left Example 5.15 shows one possible application of clusters: thick, percuss forearm ape on dhelawer potion of the piano keyboard These short clusters, while rot harmonizing the violin line per se, provide contrast and highlight the melody’s lyricism. The brevity of each cluster and the lack of significant movement from one cluster to another does not support hearing a root progression in the usual sense—if an audible root progression occurs at all. While clusters often need temporal separa tion before a progression can be perceived, the staccato articulation punctuates rather than emphasizes the roots cf each cluster. The notation (see chapter 13) indi- cates only the outer notes, with the inner notes outlined by the vertical lines. The Ks smatic cluster, in this case large natural and sharp signs again indicate a complete chror white and black keys on the keyboard, The notational stortand is quickly under- stood and, even in sight-reading, makes performance relatively easy. Example 5.16 shows another use of clusters. In this example the keyboard palm clusters are softly scattered and sustained (with the damper pedal down) so that each EXAMPLE 5.15, Application of cluster chor. FXAMILE5.16, Another notation and we of cluster chords i INTERVAL EXPLORATION 53 contributes to a larger cluster. The short bursts add continuity to a violin line simi- lar to that of example 5.15, The clusters here, though not producing a strong root progression or contributing toward a point of arrival except in rhythmic stretto, per- vvade the music with a consistent harmonic language. This example shows another notation for clusters (see chapter 13) In Example 5.17 the clusters have been written out to specify their precise note content. Many of the intermal notes regain some of their importance and indepen- dence owing to the missing notes. Moreover, many ofthe clusters consist of several subelusters. These subelusters then contrast the harmonics in the violin, seting the rood for the entire passage. This approach to clusters creates audible roots and forms a recognizable progression. Clusters separated by vertical distance (polyelusters) can be extremely effective and usefl for composition (Bart6k 1934; Becker 1930). When such clusters are sim- Alar in content (e.g, keyboard white-key palm clusters), they can resemble more tra- ditional harmonies. When the clusters are diferent (e.g, one cluster consisting of major seconds and the other of minor seconds), they can form contrapuntal lines. ‘Spacing thus becomes an important consideration in cluster formation, Example 5.18 shows a type of cluster similar to that shown in Example 5.17 yer displaced over a wide range of (in this case) two keyboards. Some of the subclusters here are secundal, but the overall structure resembles the overtone series, with ower notes spread apart and top notes closely spaced, The térm cluster here is loose- Jy applied, as the chord has important internal notes and a predominant and ana- Iyzable root. At the same time, all welve notes are present, with many occurring more than once, If these notes were octave-reduced to emphasize the overall twelve-note panchromatic sound, the change would be noticeable (Kagel 1959). This example would be even more potent in terms of individual note importance if performed by a string orchestra instead of two pianos. Since the decay of piano notes is relatively fast the differences quickly disappear. Sustaining string instru- ‘ments, however, could bring out inner lines and hence expose the altered or miss {ing notes (Mahler 1910; Pendetecki 1960). Performance on sustaining instruments of distinctly differing timbres would further enhance note importance (Ponderecki 1965; Ricager 1949). LL Vion ery i= Isp Base 5.17. Pino Fe [Notated clusters where missing notes become important.sa CHAPTER FIVE Plano - ExaMeLE 5.18, Clusters with overtone influence. ‘The first cluster in Example 5.19, a white-key piano cluster, is quite consonant in comparison with the second, a chromatic cluster. The third cluster consists exclu- sively of major seconds (whole-tone scale) and, like the second cluster, consists ‘entirely of one type of interval. This third cluster also resembles the first cluster, how: ‘ever in that i is quite consonant, although the prevalence of augmented fourths and Tack of a strong root make progsessions of such clusters directionless and without ‘marked definition. ea ExAMPLE 5.19. Diatoni, chromatic, and whole-tone clusters ‘Clusters can be extremely useful for a variety of effects in works where clusters do not predominate (Copland 1930; Rudhyar 1929; Ruggles 1932). Points of arrival, for ‘example, can be effectively enhanced with cluster accompaniments (Xenakis 1956) Example 5.20 presupposes that the clarinet has performed with a nonclustered piano texture as accompaniment for some time prior to the excerp illustrated. The brief hiatus in the piano adds drama to the following outburst of thunderous double fore arm clusters. ‘Cluster ostinati can also be effective even without the use of melody: ‘The impor- tance of accents and thythms in Example 5.21 make pitch a passive contributor. Even in nonostinato passages, clusters can be effective rhythm and accents main tain the musical direction. This example need not continue in ike manne® Example 5.22 presents intervalic overviews of two possible movements. The first “showsa slow accumulation of vertical intervals until a cluster (point of arrival) occurs, INTERVAL EXPLORATION 55 Exanree 5.21 Banner 521, Pecunive chistes with accents and mete as predominating compostonal f - wr of : Xavi 5.22. Tao movement overviews showing two diferent clucer ses, This accumulation leads toa slow retrograde that returns t the opening, produc an arhlie form. The second overview presents a movement in which clusters plot nly a small pat adding drama and serving more percussiely than harmonically ‘As has been seen, cluster chords ean serve many purposes and can be analyzed in ‘numerous ways. Many of the individual notes lose importance, however, and can ‘often be overlooked by the ea or even of content bythe ren omited by performers with no significant loss Interval Combinations Composers may also employ more eh more than one interval as the basis fr explora Tecan harm after al requires lth aswel ats Since malile eecine one-interval chords produce many other interval, iis natural to conser this os starting point for employing two-inerval vocabularies .56 CHAPTER FIVE INTERVAL EXPLORATION 57 Interval exploration can also combine with other compositional techniques. * Compose an extended work for a solo instrument explot Example 5.23 shows an exceept with the seventh (and octave displacements) as the ffs but avoning constant leaps, Achieve chronatcten by gle ae basis forts melodic and harmonic elements, This example utilizes highly chromat- tional altered chords and modulations. Analyze the results in tere of ic pitch vocabulary and pointillism (discussed in chapter 6). Note the added consis- chapter 4 techniques. tency that the predominance of sevenths offers the otherwise disconnected line * Create a new scale (ee chapter 3). With this scale as 2 Applications of interval exploration to other techniques can provide a further source passage eran talabe instrament and pana Uae wma ofa ee eo nvcuuine ate harmonic and melodic interval structures, mee Polytonality offers another interesting palette for interval exploration, For + Compose a work for four oF mo mpose a work fr four oF more available instruments (not piano) that instance, the contrast between tonal centers can be stengthened by emphasizing if- begins with a nonclustered texture and slow 2 predomi ferent intervals in each centet tantly cater environment. ns And HOM modules to 8 predomi * Accompany the melodic ie in Example 5.25 with clusters twice. The first time yf contrast the line and ge i mow ina time, try to blend with the line. * we indvaliy The second va sieges Vain i dw aD - ‘cate S a —s— a pp me aT Exquris 525. Passage for citer accompaniment Exawrte 5.23, An excerpt with the interval of the seventh as harmonic and melodic bass, Composing Suggestions a ‘+ Compose a work for piano that uses a five-note texture of quartal chords and & inversions. Develop chromatic variation through a single traditional modu- 3 lation to a key removed by ewo sharps or flats or more from the original. k + Ina brief piece for an available instrument and piano, explore seconds i (qajor and minor) and subsequent octave displacements (ninths, ete). Ectablish the secundal harmony strongly enough so that # minor triad, which should appear in the composition, becomes obviously nonharmonic. + Analyze Example 5.24 for both the interval explored and harmonic- ‘melodic strengths. Compose a short piece attempting to achieve the same strengths but using a different interval as source materialCHAPTER 6 SERIALISM SERIALISM IS THE SYSTEMATIC formalization of one or more musical parameters during composition (Boretz and Cone 1972; Morgan 1992; Salzman 1983; Simms 1986; Stuckenschmide 1969). Most seralsm involves pitch, and most pitch serialsm, in tura, employs twelve-tne techniques: the use of all rwelve equal- tempered tones equally, without preference for any particular pitch or pitches. Such equality suggests thae pitches not repeat unt most, if not all, of the other eleven pitches have sounded. Initially, ie would seem that this pantonal (inclusive ofall tonal centers, with each pitch as its own center), of atonal (exclusive of any tonal centers), process must be carefully maintained throughout a given composition for it to have any consistency, Such constant chromaticism, however, produces musi as diection- less as constant diatonicism. Therefore, repeated notes and pattems can occur as Jong as the general ewelve-tone exposition continues to unfold fairy predictably Twelve-tone procedures often provide comporers with a fairly unrestricted chro- matic consistency that then allows for explorations into other areas such as timbre, rhythm, melodic development, and so on (Berg 1921, 1935; Schoenberg 1928). The use of ewelve-tone procedures typically avoids traditional hatraonies. Regardless of the strictness implied by the proces othe nuances of personal style, twelve-tone pro- cedures remain important conceptually for all composers to grasp and an extremely useful technique even for those who do not apply it expliccy in thei works. Though note counting, as will be seen, can assume an overwhelming role in learning serial technique, ies not the central feature ofthe sytem. As with all other procedures, seralism simply represents a resource to which musical intuition and inspiration should be applied. While serilism offers a highly structured approach to organizing the raw materials of musi, it no more guarantees a composition’ success than does any other technique or proces. The Row “The first step in creating twelve-tone music involves establishing a twelve-tone row (Smith Brindle 1966; Spinner 1960). Building a good row is essential because the syle and musicality of the resuleanc work rests in large part on the row’s logic, inner con- sistency, and inventiveness. Example 6.1's row avoids tonality with nearly every pitch choice. Note here the lack of strong intervals—fifths, fourths, and even thirds— between notes or between sets of three or even four notes of the row in some cases 59 EXAMPLE 6.1. An atonal (pantonal) rom In contrast, Example 6.2's row, while it maintains a consistent chromatic vocebu. Tay, also contains triadic outlines, implied harmony and progressions, and s0 on, which suggest tonality In general, thirds, sixths, fourths, and fifths tend to support, tonal implications in rows, while seconds and sevenths tend to weaken tonality. The tritone, even with an intervening note, has unpredictable consequences: in atonal rows, an augmented fourth may strongly hint at a tonal dominant seventh chord Perle 1977). On the other hand, in the tiadie row of Example 6.2, the augmented fourth may be the most atonal aspect (C major triad to the F-sharp major triad: notes 7-9 tonotes 10-12). Between these wo extremes isa nearly limitless number of rows with varying degrees of builtin conal suggestions. EXAMILE6.2. A triadic and nearly tonal cow. Aside from its tonal aspects, Example 6.2 exemplifies a procedure of rwelve-tone ‘music involving subsets. Each of the row’s four three-note groups (teichords) forms ‘triad. Foreknowledge that the row willbe used vertically as well as horizontally fanticipates the use of triadic combinations for harmony. Rows may also be con- structed around hexachords (six note groupings), tetrachords (four-note groupings), and unbalanced collections (two and ten, for example). Example 6.3 shows two types of row divisions and extrapolats the relationships between each of the subsets ‘The fascination with creating rows containing subset relations can become obses- sive, but it can also create significant and useful compesitional ramifications (Babbiet, 1961b; Tiemblay 1974). Such rows can form melodically balanced lines that include Sequences, inversions, and so on, as well as help to establish a consistent harmonic language. i EXAMPLE 63. Rows with hexachord and tetrachord groupings.60 CHAPTER SIX The original version of the row, designated herein as P for prime, may be trans posed eleven times, with the number 0 used to denote the original pitch level and the numbers I-11 to denote the transpositions. Other variants include inversion (I), retrograde (R), and inversion retrograde (IR). A matrix isa visual tool that makes such variations readily accessible. Figure 6.1 shows a matrix derived from the row in Example 6-4 The original row appears across the top of the matrix. The inversion of the row reads down the left-hand side of the matrix. This inversion should be a mirror, chat 4s, each incerval of the original inverts exactly—a major third up in the original ‘equals a major thied down inthe inversion, and so on. With a correctly created inver- sion, the left-hand column down will contain all twelve pitches. To check this, begin ‘with the note C and find all chromatic notes up to and including B. The matrix is completed by filling in successive horizontal rows, keeping the interval between the current row and the row immediately above constant. Another method inwolves cre- ating transposed versions one-half step up from previously completed versions in their proper rows. When finished, a matrix contains all four versions of the row beginning on all twelve available notes (forey-cight in all). The original and all of ts transpositions I +r 4 Be fe febfonjo [e |r [ala [abla | IR Fioune 6.1. Marrx displaying all foems of row in Example 64 Exams 6.4 form of row in Figure 6.1 % SERIALISM 61 appear from left ro right. The inversion and its transpositions read from top to bot tom. The retrograde and its transpositions occur from right co let, and che inverted retrograde and its transpositions appear from bottom to top. The numbers outside the matrix here indicate the level of transposition, ‘Although completing an entire matrix may initially scem time consuming, the matrix aids significantly inthe analysis and composition of ewelve-tone music. Its use avoids the otherwise necessary figuring and refiguring ofthe various forms and trans- positions. Once a row is composed and checked for possible erors (e.. the presence of les than twelve tones, or unwanted intervals), and its matrix is completed and likewise checked, then the pitch materials are ready for composition, Category Analysis and Composition Compositions in which only one version of the row occurs at time belong toa group known as category I. Both the harmonic and melodie materials of a category I work are generated from a row before another version of that row begins. Example 65 shows a row and a short excerpt with attendant note numbers. Here the first, fourth, and ninth notes of the row are used melodically while the remainder create hat- ‘monies. This changes 2s the excerpt continues. Even though this excerpe uses only the untransposed prime form of the row, the results ate significancly varied. In a longer composition, transposition adds variety and sequence, and inversion, though often not immediately recognizable, provides other variations. Retrogrades are more difficult co recognize unless obvious care has Been taken with subset organization. Inversion retogrades, though they provide the Jeast recognized form of the row, have further potential as variation. Recognition hhere means not so much note counting or even identifying the row form (BI, R, IR) as merely acknowledging a consistent sonic vocabulary Category 2 compostcions employ more than one version of the row simultaneously ‘Schoenberg 1911; Webern 1929, 1934), Care must be taken when using this method, as the potential for accidental octaves, open fifths, of triads in an otherwise dissonant ‘environment can be quite high, Such inconsistencies can be controlled with care,62 CHAPTER SIX however. Indeed, to some composers, category 2 composition offers the strictest ‘opportunity for creative work, resembling somewhat the fugal practices of the eigh- teenth century. Obviously, the more simultaneous versions ofthe row used, the more ‘spportunities for inconsistent harmonic and melodic language. Example 6.6 shows first a row, then an ill-considered application of three versions of that row simultane- ously, resulting ina haphazard and undirected harmonic progression. Example 6.7, on the other hand, uses the same row and versions of this row, but compositional care and the use of rhythmic variation avoids the accidents of the pre- ceding example, with results that are obviously much more consistent and musical It-can be argued, of cours, that any music requires such care. The point here, how- ever, is that categories I and 2 pose different challenges in the use of twelve-tone procedures. Tk should be evident that any work using twelve-tone processes will be as musical as the composer who creates it. In no way should the use of this technique serve as ‘crutch. Both category 1 and category 2 present special problems and solutions. Category 1 seems initially easiest, but rarely allows subsets to be melodically recog- niable, since melodic notes often must be picked nonconsecutively from the row: Category 2 almost defeats the intent of twelve-tone processes in that it forces many rotes to repeat before the other eleven have sounded and allows harmonies not found in the row itself to occur (unexpected triads with @ nontriadic row, for exam. — te te = ee Exar 617. Controlled excerpe using che row fom Example 66, SERIALISM 63 ple). Yet category 2 offers significant varity if handled with cate. It also provides ‘opporcunities to practice the craft of composing within a strict contrapuntal form Example 6.8 shows both categories in separate excerpts, with each demonstrating ‘musicality and, especially, the vertical and horizontal use of the various row subsets. ‘The two excerpts difr in sound and inthe exposition of the row itself Counting ro members can produce useful analytical results. Note, for instance, how some notes fn Example 6.8 count for more than one row version and how the lower tw lines 103s occasionally. “The varieties of row manipulation are as numerous as the works using them (Perle 1962). Note and chord repetitions, by creating out-of-order rows, can lead to many new techniques. In Example 6.9b, the D pedal in he left hand occurs ng before its place in the ow. Also, the last note ofthe row in the melody becores the first note ‘of the next version—a common technique—and the harmonic material from the ‘orignal statement of the ow repeats with the second version, All cis amounts to a very free use of twelve-tone procedures, bending the rules whenever it suits the com posers needs, Lost notes, o skeletonized rows, especialy when occurring after many literal repetitions, can produce successful results. Adding notes for musical reasons ean aso work effectively, Although these experiments, singly or in combination, can lead to confused procedures at times, they can help generate new ideas when row use ‘atherwise becomes monotonous. “The use of subsets offers further potential for more control of row variants (Webern 1936). Example 6.20 shows a hexachordal row in which the second hexa- Exawrie 68, Categories 1 and 2 in excerpts froma given towoF CHAPTER SIX Exavelt 69. Row and excerpt using previews and repetitions — ——— SSS TExAMPLE 6.10, Hexachord and wichord row with inversion (mirtor) subse. chord has the same intervals asthe fist, withthe pitches transposed up a triton. This type of hexachordal organization offers the possibility of overlapping rows in sroups of six so that the last sx notes of one version of the row become the first six notes of another version. Moreover, the second and fourth trichords act as inversions of the first and third trichords respectively. This ype of imitation can lead to cate gory I and category 2 combinations wich interchanging subsets (subset four with sub- set two; subser three with subset one), and overlapping as many notes as desired Sach combinations can produce, in effect, rows of more than twelve notes Hexachordal relationships can be easily formed by using the trtone asa template. Ifall the notes of the first hexachord remain inclusively within the interval of a tri tone, any version (inversion, retrograde, inversion retrograde, or transposition) of the prime can be created in the second hexachord. Obviously, this isnot the only way co create logical subsets, as many nontitonal hexachordal relationships can be formed. It is, however, a good starting point. Rows with extraordinary interval consistency offer composers significant opportu nities for exploring the potential of note relationships. Be sure, however, to avoid let- ting the note machinations dominate musical direction and motion. A preoccupa- tion with note counting should not eclipse true musical intuition and inspiration Combinatoriality Rows with strong subset interrelations typically suggest other opportunities for twelve-tone composers (Griffiths 1978; Kostka 1990; Rahn 1980). Often such rows, when broadcast through 2 matrix, produce out-of-order equivalent pitch sets. That is, the notes ofa subset of one version ofthe row may appear elsewhere in the matrix 1 SERCALISM 65 but nor in the same note order (Babbitr 1947). Example 6.11 and Figute 6.2 show just such a row. The notes ofthe second hexachord of the nontransposed prime (°) appear in a new order in the first hexachord of a transposed inversion retrograde GR), which is also the second hexachord of a transposed inversion of the row (P) ‘Combining mutually exclusive hexachords creates new but related rows, shown here below the matrix. The first row shown (hexachord 1 of P° with hexachord £ of IR’) maintains the minor second interval between hexachordal subsets, while the second row (hexachord 1 of P* with hexachond 2 of F) introduces a tritone between sub- sets—inherited from che interval between the last notes ofthe two hexachords of the ‘original row, Moreover, both this and the previous row’s new hexachords are retto- spades of one another. Because the fist hexachord of the transposed inversion retrograde (IR’) has the same notes as the second hexachord of the nontransposed prime (P2), the second — SS Se EXawfle 6.11. Row with combinatorial potential ©) AC BbBDbD EbGhEFG Ab b) AC BLB DED AS GFEGH Eb Flours 6. Matrix for row in Example 6.11,oF CHAPTER SIX ’ SERIALISM 65 fur nor in the same note order (Babbitt 1947). Example 6.11 and Figute 6.2 show jutt such a row, The notes ofthe second hexachord of the nontransposed prime (P*) appear in a new order in the first hexachord of a transposed invetsion retrograde AR}, which is aso the second hexachord of a transposed inversion of the row (?) Combining mucualy exclusive hexachords creates new but related rows, shown here below the matrix. The first row shown (hexachord 1 of P' with hexachord 1 of IR’) rmaincains the minor second interval between hexachordal subsets, while che second ow (hexachord | of P? with hexachord 2 of [') introduces a tritone between sub- ‘¢28—inherted from the incerval erwven the last notes ofthe to hexachords ofthe ‘original row. Moreover, both this and the previous row's new hexachords are retto- grades of one another. Because the first hexachord of the transposed inversion retrograde (IR°) has the same notes as the second hexachord of the nontransposed prime (P), the second . el EXAMPLE 6.10. Hexachord and trichord row with inversion (misror) subsets Burts 6.11, Row with combinatorial poten rd has the Is asthe Bist, with the pitch al i chord has the same intervals asthe frst, with the pitches transposed up a triton. This type of hexachordal organization offers the possibility of overlapping rows in i <—* groups of six so that che last sic notes of one version of the row become the ist six « [fe Table [obo Jeb le [ob lo |r [ae notes of another version. Moreover, the second and fourth trichords acta faversions » {ofa [ableb|e lc [obleble lo |r of the frst and chird tichords respectively. This cype of imitation can lead to cate- »[ailete fesfe [orl Tetlr lore Io gory I and category 2 combinations with interchanging subsets (subset four wich sub- set twoy subset three with subset one), and overlapping as many notes as desired Such combinations can produce, in effect, rows of more than twelve notes. ; Hexachordal relationships can be easily formed by using che titone as a template. Ifall the notes of the first hexachord remain inclusively within the interval of a ti- tone, any version (inversion, retrograde, inversion retrograde, or transposition) of the prime can be created in the second hexachord. Obviously, this is nor the only way to create logical subsets, as many nontritonal hexachordal relationships can be formed. It is, however, a good starting point. Rows with extraordinary interval consistency offer composers significant opportu nities for exploring the potential of note relationships, Be sure, however, to avoid let- ting the note machinations dominate musical direction and motion. A preoccupa- i tion with note counting should not eclipse true musical intuition and inspiration. w[eToofabla fe (c fobjo le |r feb job F[ab[oolc [a fable lc lo Jeb able ehloble |r [6 [abla [eb |e jobs fo cfebfobfo [er |oblc | job lapis Combinatoriality ©) AC BbB DbDEbGEFG Ab Rows with strong subset interrelations typically sugest other opportunities for twelve-tone composers (Guts 1978; Koka 1990; Rahn 1980). Often such rows, b AChba pho abceeche Js, the notes of subset of one version of the row may appear elsewhere i che matrix Matix foe row in Example 6.11 when broadcast through a matrix, produce out-of-order equivalent pitch sets. That Jhen broadcast throwig P - i os66 CHAPTER SIX hexachord of this same inversion retrograde has the seme notes as the first hexa- chord of P° in a different order. Similarly, in the mateix in Figure 6.2, IR", has the same notes as Pin the same order Combinatorial rows may also be constructed of tettachords and trichords in addi- tion to hexachords, Further, unbalanced bur contiguous groups of notes can form yet different rows. For example, the second throu seventh notes of the P version have equivalent pitches tothe second hexachord of P”, Such manipulations, while they may seem highly intellectualized, nonetheless form recognizable variants ofthe orginal and thus make musica sense in the same way that using traditional melodic motives does. Combinatorial versions of rows can be used, for example, as material for contrast- ing sections of musi, thereby providing truccural variations. Combinatorial versions can also offer potentials for modulations and other quasi-tonal procedures. Example 6.12 shows a passage from a larger work that begins with category 1 composition, based on the original version of the row presented in Figure 6.2. In measure 2, the row source changes to the combinatorial version presented in Figure 6.2a, also using category . The new row contrasts with the original version yet does not deviate from the original’s basic hexachordal note content EXAMILE 6.12. Modulation using one of the new combinatorial rows Composing using combinatorial possiblities can become excessive. For example, all-combinatorial rows exist in which every hexachord, retrachord, and trichord in @ ‘matrix can be exchanged with at least one other version (sce Fig. 6.2). Such mathe- matical exercises should not overbalance musical considerations, however. Aside from a row’sinhe guarantee the ereation of a convincing composition, snt musical properties, combinatorial possibilities in no way further Nonpitch Serialism For centuries composers have used organizational principles for musical elements other than pitch: ehythmic motives, isorhythm, terraced dynamics, and other such devices. Serialism often goes one step further by not only combining some of these concepts but also in bringing them to a high level of consistency: Such seriaism usu- ses the formalization of pitch and at least one other musical parameter. In general, serial composers use a multitude of methods and systems, many of which allow for intuitive as well as intellectual control (Babbite 1947). Thus music can be labeled serial with as few as one or two formalized parameters (Boules 1954). What ally encos ‘becomes significant here is not the number of organized elements per se but the fact that pitch is no longer singled out. The twelve durations in Example 6.13 are grouped in theee-note units, or tri chords. The first duration, a dotted quartes is complemented by an eighth and a quarter, creating a 3:1:2 ratio. The next three durations keep the same proportions, now in diminution (the durations are halved). This durational hexachord establish- ¢s the basic structure for the second hexachord, which uses repetition and augmen. tation (doubled durations) instead of diminution, Prime tdbldb asd idtil d EXAMrLe 6.13. A duration ow. Example 6.14 shows frst the retrograde, then the inversion and the inversion ret rograde of this duration row: The inversion here results from exchanging trichords 1 and 2 and trichords 3 and 4 in the original. The retrograde and the inversion retto- agrade are then simple retrogrades of che original and the inversion respectively ibd dadenton grrsdiils Ld) sol Lid dl bed Exwurie 6.14. Retrograde, inversion, and inverted retrograde versions of duration rom Example 6.15 demonstrates chythm and pitch organization, using this durational tow with the pitch row in Example 6.11. The two rows, which complement each ther by moving at the same pace, can also be layered with each beginning and end- {ng in different locations. Many compositions employ composite forms of comple- ‘menting and layering to provide a sense of unity and variety. Spats fe ee wee Te Braurie 6.15. Pitch and duration tows used simultaneously,68 CHAPTER SIX Duration rows often employ metric changes for rhythmic varity: Rests of equal uration may also substitute for notes. Augmentation and diminution can apply © entire duration rows. Example 6.16 shows a triplet version of the original row: “Though these transfigured rows often involve some bairsplitting, they present recog nizable hythmie variations. JN] su Dynamic rows can be created in muich the same manner as duration rows. Figure 6.3a shows ewelve dynamics rangi from php co ff. The mezzo versions of pp, pbb. fh and fff are new dynamics created to extend the total available to ewelve, The row in Figure 6.3 arranges these dynamics into richords, each of which contains similar dynamics to avoid abrupt changes except between the subsets, and follows a simple sofi-torloud-to-soft arch form. ee eee pepe mene att oS ST wiih mee me FicURE 6.3. Set of welve dynamics and a dynamic row Each trichord of this row contains the most extreme loud or sot first, the least extreme second, and the middle of the thre last. For example, ppp represents the soft~ tat ofthe fst grouring pp the least soft of the chree, and mppp the middle of the group. Figure 6.4 shows the inversion, retrograde, and inversion retrograde ofthis ow: Bp mp mer TS Ff oh moe oP BP a a owns 64, Reopened ven eo of dank 0 'As with che preceding duration row, the inversion results from interchanging the firctand third tichords with the second and fourth richosds respectively. While pitch and duration rows logically correlate note by note, dynamics rarely lo. The actual change from dynamic to dynamic may occur over measures, phrases, or often complete tovements (see Ex. 6.18 forthe use of dynamics in this mannes). When dynamic rows faccur note by note the effect is poineilistic (ee definition later inthis chapter) SERIALISM 6 Figure 6.5 presents an articulation row. Though a row of twelve articulations can easily be created, only six have been chosen here to underscore that twelve isnot a divine number. Again, interchanging the two trichords produces the inversion, as shown in Figure 6.6. Reversing both the original and the inversion creates the retro- grade and inversion retrograde versions respectively. ">- AtA FicuRe65. Articulation row: RA+A-—>.- TAsA. > mR-~>-A A FrcURE 6.6. Retrograde, inversion and inversion retrograde versions of articulation row Example 6.17 illustrates pitch, shythm, dynamics, and articulation serialism. Note that the dynamic row has barely begun by the end of this example. The articulation row begins with the IR form, unlike the prime forms used for pitches, durations, and dynamics, Note also the repetition of articulations. ‘Tempo and form rarely change measure by measure. Thus, the temposform row shown in Figure 6.7 provides the structure for an entire movement. Here, the six parts resemble the articulation row of Figure 6.5, with short being equal to fascand Jong being equal to slow. While forms other than the original can exist, rhey have meaning only in multimovement works Exar 617. Pitch, duration, dynamic, and articulation rows used simultancously.