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 FNEDERICK T. MORSE, M.E., E.E.
Prclessor of Mechanical Engineering
University of Yirginia

Power Plant
Engineering
THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF
STATIONARY ELECTRIC GENERATING PTANTS

Adapted to MKS Units

Oirrribul.d i^ th. PhiliPPin.s

@r (tDIN outlota clrY

i ncor Por at e d
 Reprinted by special arrangement
witr
Litton Educational Publafiing, lnc

Copyright @ 1932, 1942, 1953 by

LITTON EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHINC, INC.

No reproductiott in any form of this book, in whole

or itl part (except for btid quotation fu critical atticles or
reriews), may be nnde y,ithout wri cn authorizalio|
froru the publishers
 PR"E,F'.\CE

This book is the result of work that started &s an intended revision of the
author's Poraer Plant Engineer;nq and Derign. Out of the experiences of
twenty yearc ol teaching anrl consultivc engineering which have followed pub-
lication of the first edition have come many ideas for change-additions,
deletions, and modifications. These ideas have been inborporated into the
present book, and the result must be considered ss drore of I new book than
a revision.
The objective continues to be the presentetion of a thorough study of
stationary power and heating plants, including public service, industrial, and
institutional varieties. The needs of the engineering student, the consulting
engineer, and the plant operator were equally considered in the prcparation
of the present volude. Fundamentals ere emphasized, leaving details and
dimensions of equipment for more specialized books and manulacturers' litera-
ture. The power plsnt is qmphasized as an integrated assembly. Ecoromic
factors are pointed out, but specific costs and prices are avoided as being sub-
ject to rapid change. The treatment will give due consideration to recent
trende and theories in the field of power generation. Much greater emphasis
is placed on the gmall plant than in the former editions.
Those who are Jamiliar with Po?r€r Plant Engineering and Design, this
book's predecessor, rvill note the absence of forner sections dealing with hy-
draulic power and electrical equipment. On the other hand, steam plant equip-
ment is awarded expanded coverage. The inclusion o{ a short chapter on the
gas turbine is an indication of regard for its potentiality as a future factor
in the stationary power plant field. When used as a college. textbook, a full
two-semester course m&y be based on this book. A one-semester course on
rteam power plants would employ Ch&pters 1, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 only.
Power plant engineering is a subject of great detail. Throughout this book
the author has endeavored to summarize wherevcr possible, then proceed to
the separate explanations, iI any, in the belief that this method will be of
major benefit both to student and teacher. Sample examples explain nosi
of the principles of the equipment and its assembly. These are further ampli-
fied by a large selection of chapter-end problems provided for the reader's
practic€.
Although Pouer Plant Engineering,like its predecessor, presumee that the
reader has actively studied or otherwise become acquainted with the subject
of Elementary Heat Power or Applied Thermodynamics, it will be found that
more attention has been given to review and explanation of these lunda-
mentals. In this and other ways thg author acknowledges valuable construc-
tive criticism tendered by readers. Thanks are due the several friends who
have contributed comments, suggestions, snd revicws ol psrts of the new
manuscript.
Y
Vi REFAOE
r\Iany industrial firms, assooiations, and publishers have bcen askcd to
conti'iirutt' data and illustrations. It is a plcasulc aglin to [rt. ahle to givc
tc$t&lnerlt to thc splcndirl coopclrtiou thc author' lras lt.ccivcrl l'nrur all. -l'Lc
l)it,scl Drrginc tr{arrufacturers',A.ssociation, Hcal [.)xclrangc Institutr, Hy-
draulic Institutc, anrl otlrcr associatirrns ha,r'c frccll' rlonttcrl rnaterial frour
thcil Stanrlards. ,{n cspecial acknorvlcdgmcnt is dut, louel uragazinc, u'lrosc
editors have provided sclelal illustrations of goorl crlucrtionrl value.
Altiiouglr carcfully prcyrarcd and rcvie$c(1, this l'olk ruay contain crrors
of lypogt al-,h;*, uratlternatics, ol stattlncnt. Any repolt rrf thcsc crrors will bc
'tt"1"e11r-,rl lry thc author.
Tlre assistance of thc authr-rr's rriir:. (lcucvicvt'I'. \lot'sc, in the pt'epnration
of tho ruanrrscriyrt and ploolrcarling is rlost gratcfully acknorvlerlged.

I" T. \r
U niwrsity ol Virginia
C harlott esuille , Y a.
Morch 1 , 1953
 CONTENTS
CHAPTIB PAGE

I INtnopucrrox I
Energy and porver. Background oI porver study. Norking proc-
esses. The polvcr age. Power plant cnginccring and rlcsign. Drarv-
ings, specificatiorts, and correspondcncc. Electric power systems.
Problems.

2 Trp Y.rnnglr Loeo Pnoct-ex 36

Industrial pt'oduction an<[ powcr genr:ration cornpared. Idcal and

reslized load curvcs. Tcrns end factors. Effect of voriable load
on powcr lrlnnt dcsign. Iiflect of variablc load on power plam, op-
eration. trIcthotls of tnceting the load. Problcrns.
3 Pownn Plexr Ecoxorrlcs 63

Source ofincomc. Efrcct of plant tyPe on costs. Rates. Fixed ele-

ment. Encrgy olcmcnt. Customer clement. The investor's profit'
Dcpreeiation and rcplaccment. Theory of rates. Making up rade
structurcs. Pioblems,
4 THr Pon'rR Ple.-r Bttr.ntNc 86

Gcncrnl rlcsign. ]Iatcrials. Beference lines Architectural fca-

turcs. Chirnney. Ilasonry chimney stability. Foundations. Mis-
ccllaneous equipmcnt. Problems.
5 Furr.s',rxo Cor gr:srrol,r 116

Fuels. Gas. Oil. Intcrnal comhustion engine fucl Furnace fuel

oil. Coal. Fucl tcsts for hcating valuc. Proximatc analysis. Ash
and refusc analyscs. Combustion. Illustrative examples in com-
lxstion. Approxitnations and short-cuts. Smoke. Problems.
6 INrpnNA.L C,ougesrrox Excrsr Ponrn PL,tsr 149

Intcrnal combustion engincs. Statilnary Dicsel cngitrc porvcr. Com-

bustion. Enginc pcrformancc. Pltnt dcsign. Arrxiliary systems
Evaporati,'rr cooling. Testing plrrnt porfonrtant'c. Problems
7 G"rs Tungtrp I'otvpt Plltr lcl
Stationary gas tulbinc. Constant plessut'c cotubusti(,n cici(: 'rl)t'
simple gas turbine plant. Themal rcfinctlclri of tlrc gas trtrbine
cycle. Field for gas turbine pbwir. Prohlcrns
vll
vIl CONTENTS
CHAPTEB PAGE
t Yrron Cvcr,ps . ?08
Enerry from external combustion. Vapor cycles. Rankine cycle.
Regenerative cyclc. Design of rcgenerative cycles. Heat balance,
regenerative cycle. Reheating cycle. Superposed power units. In-
dustrial heat-power balance. Combination cycles. Variable load
operation. Problems.
9 ErBrcy Fr,ow rN rar Sreev Powrn Pr,lrvr . 256
The steam power plant. Functional relation of equipment. Pro-
duction of heat energy. Thermal level. Heat flow. Conduction.
Surface convection. Mean temperature difrerence. Convective
heat transfer from products of combustion. Convective heat trans-
fer between condensir,g steam and water. Eiamples of surface
c<invection calculalions. Rsdietion. Apportionment of heating
surface. Problems.
10 Sreeu Cpxrnerons 2W
Components. Design criteria. Boiler types. Representative fire-
tube boilers. Represenlative water-tube boilers. lVater walls.
Boiler installation. Furnace. Superheat. Boiler accessories and
trim. Combustion equipment. Spreader stoher. Conveyor stoker.
Underfeed stoker. Coal burners. Gas and oil burners. Operation
and performance. Heat balance of a steam generator. Problems.

11 SrE^M Pmve Motrss 359

Prime mover types. Steam engine applications. Steam engine
capacity Bnd performance. Unaflow engine. Steam turbines.
Thermal efficiency. Governing steam turbines. Part-load per-
formance. Mechanical-drive turbines. Turbine installation and
operation. Turbine tests. Yacuum. Contact condensers. Surlace
condensers. Air removal. Condenser auxiliaries. Coudenser op-
eration and testing. Problems.

12 Txr Ges Loop '. t{

Function of the gas loop. Coal storage. Cosl conveyors. Pulver-
ized coal systems. Oil and gas supply systems. Flue gas cleaning.
Ash handling. Air preheater. Draft. Gas conduits. Draft by
fans. Draft by chimneys. Control of gas loop flows. Combustion
controlequipment. Problems.
I3 Tnr Frsow,{rrn Loor 510
Function of the feedu,ater loop. Water contarnination-its effect.
OO}ITEN'IB ir
oanlltS PAGE
Tlrater tpct! and aoalyaec. Decoacentration. Water tr€stuo\t
FcadwSter heating. Contect heatem. Surface heaters. Evapore-
ton Wat€r pumps. Rcciproceting pumps. T\rrbine pumps.
C€utdfugdpumpc. Feedwst€rrcgulation. Problems.
1,l TE! Pnrxo Svsrrrr 571
Pipe eystam classification. Comrercial pipe. Pipi connectionr.
Pipe ffttingr. Common velvee. Special valvea. Boiler safety
vdvea Ttermal expansion. Heat insulation. Detrrmining pipe
rirc Pipe suppott. Drip6 and drsiu. Designing tle piping ey:-
tem. Pipe drcwinSs. Problemr"
l5 lxsrrurExrerroN 621
hrpo* of inrtrumentbg the power plant. Clarciffcation of instru-
Ecata, T€Epcnture and prcasure measur€m€Bt. Measur€m€nt of
iuid 0ow. Cmmeroial fluid flow meters. Gss analysis. Combi-
Datioo Detprt. Electrical nea8urcmeDt!. Remote readings. Seleq-
tio of instrumento. Records and their ure.
Blrr,roorernv 657
Arranpx 660
IxDr. 6?9

(
 SY)'4tltlOlt,S

4 Arca. Atomic rnass number-

o Accclcration. Unit area.
C A constant or cocfficicnt. Mol specific heat.
c I)nit spccific hcat. Velocity of light.
D Diamctcr. Draft.
d I)cnsity. Thickness (of wall, tube, etc.).
E Voltagc.
e Energy.
F Force.
/ Frequency. Power factor, Friction factor. Stress (structural).
G Mass flow.
g Accelcration of gravity.
H Height.
h Enthalpy. Surfacc coefficient of heat transfer.
1 Arnpcres. Moment o{ iner'tia.
J Mechanical equivalent of heat.
,li A constant or coefficient.
lc Coefficient of conductivity.
Z Distance, linear.
M Moment. Torque. Molecular weight.
ar Mass.
N Rotative speed, rcvolutions per unit timc.
n. Polytropic exponent. Number of units, i.e., cylinders, tubes, etc
P Porver.
p linit fluid pressure.
Q 'lransfcrred heat energy. Volume rate oI flow.
Q1 I{ighcr hcating value (Iuel).
Q1 Lower heating value (fuel).
q Heat flow rate.
.B Gas constant. Cut-off ratio. Resistance.
.81 Hydraulic radius.
r Radius.. Compression, or expansion, ratio.
S Stress (pipe).
s Unit entropy.
? Absolutetemperature.
t Temperature.
U Thelmal conductance.
z Unit internal energy. Tangential velocity.
TI
xii EYMEOII
7 Velocity.
u Specifc volume.
P rflork. Total veight.
ro Weight. Unit wort.
z Drynees factor.
0 (Beto) Diameter rotio.
y (Gamma) Adiabatic polytropic ef,poaent
A (Delta) An increment.
r (Epsilon) Emiseivity (Radisnt Energr).
I (Eta) E$ciencY.
C (Theta) Ternperaturt, special.
I (Lsmbda) Wave length.
p (Mu) Absolute viacoeitY.
v (Nu) Kinematic viacoeity.
p (Rho) Mass density.
I (Sigms) A summation operstor.
a (Sigma) Stephan constant (Radignt Enerry).
r (Tau) Time. -)
9 (Psi) NoJoad fector.
O (Omega) Radiant heat fraction.
. (Omega) Rotative apeed, radiana per unit time.

ABBREVTATIONS'
at ... Cubic nqtrcr Fr leond
.Fb i{"tnr! F niirru&.
ara! CatiDcttd pcr rccoDd'.
dra Mctrcr pcr @ud.
hu hr Kilowctt hour8.
lrt Nrturrt logarithm.
tDA trilonctrct P.r bour.
.rYPsfl Net poeitive euction head.
r.Id Kllognnr pct culic mctra
kDr Kilogtarot pc quare mcEc.
raro@l X ilograEr p.r-lqurrc GcotiECEq
TDII Totrl dynamic head.
?DS Total dissolved eolidt.
E Dcgrcc8 Kelvio.
Ir Mcgarattr.
J Jdttc.
fto Kilognm nctrc.
a Gntn-
.t Toi!nct.
Tbcre il rddition to obviorr rbbrcvirtioog arc[ rr o br ractrrr
 CHAPTER I

XNTRODUCTNON

l-l Energy and Powcr. Both the historical and the present-day civiliza-
tion of mankind are closely interwovcn with enerry, antl there is little rcason
to doubt but that in the luture our existencc will be cver more de1;endcnt upon
this thing called erlergy. Mere existencc rcquircs th*t cvcn an animal producc
and expend it. Until man lound ways to utilize energy from sourccs outsidc
and beyond his own physical efrorts, his status on carth s'as quite animal-like.
lVhat is this quantity that h8s bccn so essential to life and progress? Energy
probably was the original stufr of crcation. As we encounter it about us, energy
appears in many forms, but has one thing in common-energg is possessed ot,
the ability to produce a dynamic, uital efiect.
Enerry is associated with physical substance, but is not a substance itself.
It ehows itself by the excited, animatcd state assuned by material which
receives enerry. We see the manifestations everys hcrc around us, in bodily
phyeical activity produced by the consumption of enugy-containing food, or
in masees in motion, wind and wave, projectiles and vchicles; we see it in thc
form of heat received from the sun, also as heat generatcd from iuels and other
sources; we se€ it in the eudden galvanizing into action of an idle electric motor
which has been connected to a fsr distant source. The examples that can be
mentioned are almost endless in number. In this era ener5/ is being produced in
enornous quantities. As more and more of it is produccd per person, the com-
forts, .conveniences, and pleasures of life are ever enhanced.
All these manifestations are conveniently classified e:s (l) mechanbal
uork; (2) heat; (3\ electricity; and (4) radiation. Technical details ol these
various forms of enerry snd their computations are included in this chapter.
The average person knows, or thinks he knows, the meaning ol power, and.
he usee the term frequently in everyday language. But what is.the exact
technical meaning of thie word, and how is it best defined? If a person hss a
good and comprehensive idea of "enerry," it is quite simple for him to under-
stand the technical meaning of power, for power is the rate-at n'hich cnergy is
produced and consumed. Any physical unit of enerry when divided by aunit of
time automaticglly becomea a unit of power. However, it is in connection with
the mechsnical antl electrical forms ol energy thst the term "power" is generally
ue€d. The rate of production or consumption of heat energy and, to a certain
exteat, of radietion enerry is not ordinarily thought of as power. Power is
I
 2 LNTRODUCTION
prim&rily associated with mechanical work an<i electrical energy. Therefcre,
we will define power as the rate o! flow ol energA and statc that a powcr plani
is a unit built for the production and delivery of a flow of mcchanicai and
electrical energSr.
In common usage, a machine or asscrnblage of equiprnent that produces and
delivers a flow of mechanical or electrical enelgy is a pouer plait. Hcnce, an
internal combustion engine is a power plant, s, watcr l hccl.is a powcr plant,
etc.. However, what we generally mcan by the tcrm is rat asicmblagc oi
equipment, permanently locatcd on some choscn sitc, r-hich rcccivcs rarv
energy in the form of a substance capablc ol bcing operated. on in such a l,ay
as to produce electrical energy {or delivery from thc porvcr plant. It is ris kincl
of power plant to which this book is chiefly, btt not cxclusively, atldresscd. The
problems of tle mobile power plant arc similar in general icatures, but thc
need for mohility usually imposes requirements of sinplicity at the sacrifice of
some efrciency. For these and other reasons, the moliile porver plant has bc-
come rather specialized Along peths too rumerous to covlr in a hook of this
character.
. We here propose to.inquire into thc nature of the stationary power plant,
its economics, design, and performance. Considerable emphasis $-ill Ue placeti
upon the public utility type of stationary power plant, bu-t we do not intend to
concentrate on that type to the point of ncglccting the smaller industrial and
institutional units. Although possibly not piovidinE rllustrations of the maxi_
Erum technicsl progress made in this field, nevertheless the l&tter account for
a signiffcant portion of the remunerative engineering efforts in power plant
engineering and design.
. Furthermore, the many plants in which no rnechanical or electrical power
is produced, but from which energy is delivereil in the form of the hcat of
steamo are considered to be within the purvicrv of this book, for any porvcr plant
using fuel as the raw material is, first of all, a heat-prt,ducing piant. Ii the
heat- is-produced in some eonvenient carrying hb(lium, such as st-eam, then rat
urculd.te the end product of a plant which the ou,ner had erected as a ,,heating
plant." Thus, considerations of production of heat in steam which will be sub-
sequently developed in connection with the production of mcchanical power
are, for the most part, equally valid for heating plants. Although l.e set out to
encompass the engineering of power plants, incidentally we also shall havc
covered t[,e engineering of heating plants.
\Ve shall use the term "efficiency,, fairly frequenfly. Unless spccifically de_
fined-.otherwise, efficiency will be taken to mean thai fraction of the encrgy
supplied-toa unit or a system which is finally usefully convertcd to thc purposc
lor which the project was conceived. That is, efficiency is energu e1ficiin,ai.ln
its simplest form it is output divided by input. As power is thc ratc oI encrgy
flow, efficiency may be expressed equally well as output power dividcd by input
power.
Man looks to the following sources for cnergy to makc powcr:.
l. Ftpls.
2. Tloting, streams ol uater.
tNot itrcluding lood, rvhich bodv motabolism conl,crls to
musctrlnr lrorvcr.
 I,)NT.]ITGY AND PO\\:EIT 3
3. Ocean tides antl waues.
4. Wiruls,
5. Solar rays.
6. TerrestriaL heat.
7 . Atotttic rruclei

/tels. Currently, fucls proVirle llrot.c cnel.gy than any of the other sources
listed. l-ucls arc substenccs having sufficient carbon or hydrogen for the
cht,rlieal oxirlation to pro(luce, exothermically, rvorth-rvhile qu&ntities of heat.
?he principal fuels are coal, natural gas, and petroleurn, and their derivatives.

300
NOUSTEIAL
PLANTS

&
a
200 ?
F
Tololb, Public F
Utility Plcnl! ]o
JY
oz
roo f
a

rGAs:
t920 1930 t940 1950
F(r, 1-l Origip of electrieitl'rrsed in the U.S. 1920-1950.

It is not. cxlrcdient to enter into B detailed discussion of Iuels here, but at the
appropriate point the nature of fuels will be given further attention. Bituminous
coal, the principal steaming coal, is found in trventy-eight states of the United
States, ond anthracite and semi-bituminous in half a dozen others. Although it
is believed that the United States contains more than one-half of the known
coal resources of the world, it must be reslined that a great deal of this is un-
marketable under present conditions of production. The relative proportions of
coal, gas, and oil as luels are shown in Fig. 1-1. It will be seen that coal is the
principal fuel. of the stationary power plant. However, there are many factorr
which enter into the relative use of difrerent fuels. Labor conditions in the in-
dustry rhich prodrrces the fuel may generate differences in the'economics of that
4 INTRODUCTION
fuel's utiliration from one decade to another. Productive capecity of the com-
mercial fuel industry also has a bearing on pricea, but although these may in-
fluence the initial s€lection of, say, fuel oil in preference to coel, once the instal-
lotion ie msde as a one-fuel plant, it ie di6cult to ehift to cheaper fuel, even il
chonging economic conditions produce one. Although there has been a rising
trend to the use oI fuel oil, mucliof it has been the r€8ult of possible temporofy
surplusee of petroleum products, the convenience of uee of a liquid, ash-free
fuel, and the uncertain etatug of co6l produetion.
In a typical yesr, 1947, the production (in toancs) of bituminour coal ead
lignite in the United States was consigned aB follows:
Bailroads . 99,t5tr(D
Coke making 94,949,$0
Electric power pleuts ..... ?E,020,?(n
Steel mills 9,lt5,m
Industry (general) ....... t 12,907,{0
Domestic usen* 89,95E,9U'
Cemeut mills 7,141,400
Colliery, bunker, and export 56,030,6m
Total ........ t5r,r5Jm lomq
* Ia additioa, donestic conrumert u6e many toDs of strthracite coal.
Flou;ing Streatns ol Water.'fhe energt contained in flowing streams of water
is a form of mechanical energy. It may exist as the kinetic enerry of a moving
Etream or as the potential enerry of water at some elevation with respect to a
lower datum level, an example of which would be the water held behind a dam.
Hydraulic plants are slowly increasing in uumber, although the number of
new plants of this type built annually is quite small compared with those which
exploit heat energy. As a.usual thing, the most desirable hydroelectric sites are
the first to be utilized; consequently, as more hydroelectric plants are built, the
ownera must pay increasingly higber deielopment costs. From the standpoint
of capitalistic economics, it is often hard to justify the development oI hydro-
electric power in comparison with steam power, but from the standpolnt of the
conservation of e fixed natural resource, namely, its mrheral fuels, it is obvious
that every efrort should be made to hamess the water power of the country,
eince if unhernessed it goes to waste, whereas fuel, if unmined, remains intaot
and undiminished iu value in the ground.
Ocean Tides and Waues. That there is an enormoug gmount of enerry in
wsves snd in tides is apparent to anyone who witnesses these oceanic phenom-
ena. But here is a case where it is difrcult to harness and control enerry, even
though it is in a high-grade form and one which is readily vislble, and whose
magnitude is easily appreciated. The use of tides for tlle generation of electrical
enerry might be practical in a few favorably situated sites where the geography
of an inlet or bay favors the construction of a large-scale hydroelectric plant.
To hamess the tides, a dam would be built across the mouth of the bay. It
would have large gates in it, and there would be installed, in connection with
it, low.head hydraulic turbines. Capture of tidal power then could be sccom-
plished by opening the gates when the tide comes in, then closing them snd
letting the water eo trapped in the bay out through the turbines. After the
ENERGYAND POWER 6
tide hac receded there is s working hydraulic head between the bay water and
op€n ocean. Some plans hove been devised with the idea of turnirg the turbines
oo the inflow as will as on the outflow, On account oI the relatively low heads
developed (although there is certainly no dearth of wster quantity), the gize
of the hydraulic and mechanical installstione is so enormous that the sheer over-
all expense of such projecte h*s been a Btrong deterrent.
'Wave
power remains practically undeveloped, with the exception of a few
experimental plauts which hgve done little more chan to indicate that it is
possible to devise systems for converting the mechanical energy of water waves
into electrical energy. There is &n enornous amoufit of enerry present in ocean
waves, but it is so dietnbuted and variable that the development of it on a
large industrial scale presents complexities that have not yet been solved.
Winds. Power from the winds has served man for many centuries, but the
total amount of energy generated in this manner is small. The expense of instal-
lation and the variability of operatiou have tended to limit use of the wrndmill
to intermittent servicee where its variable output has no serious disadvantage.
The principal services of this nature are the pumping oi water into storage
tanks and the charging of storage battcries. Windmill power equipment might
be claseified under four heads, as follows:
1. The multibladed turbine wheel.
2. The high-speed propeller type.
3. The rotor.
4. The Dutch sail type.
The foremost type in use is the multi-bladed turbine wheel, called the American
type in order to distinguish it from the older Dutch type. The efficiency of the
multi-bladed turbine wheel is sbout 10/, of thc kinetic energy of the wind pass-
ing through it. It is seid to be abott 20/o for the Dutch type. The propeller and
tctor types are suitable for the generation of electrical energy, as both of them
p..rssess the abitity to start in very low winds. The propeller type is more likely
to be used in small units such as the driving of small battery-charging genera-
tors, whereas the rotor, whidh is rarely seen, is more practical for large installa-
tions, even of several hundred kilowatts' capacity.
Solar Rags.In a few instances the direct rays of the sun have been used to
generate power by absorbing energy first as heat and using the heat in some
type.of heat engine. A serious fault of this sourne of energy is, of course, that it
is efrective only during the day, so that if a continuous output is needed, some
large reservorr of energy, Buch as a storage battery or a heat accumulator tank,
must be drawn upon at night. Also, the output is handicappcd if there is cloudy
weather. Nevertheless, there are some locations in the world where strong solar
radistion is received very regularly, and where the sources of mrneral fuel are
either scanty or entirely lacking. Such locations ofrer more interest to the solar
power plant builder than the more favored regions ol earth.
Tenestrtal Heat. Natural steam escapes frour surface vents in many plaees
on the earth. Such natural steam wells suggest the pcssibility of tapping tr r-
restrial heat in this form and using it for the developmcnt of power. Unfortr.i-
nately, the locations where the steam-producing substrata seem to be fairiy
close to the surface are far removed from centers of ctvilization where the
power could be usefully employed.
6 IN'T'IIIiDUCTION
Ncvcrthelcss, thcre arc probably rnany places wherc, although no natural
stcarn vcnts or hot -springs atc slrowing, decp rlrillings might taP a source of
undergroun<l stcatu. 'Ihc cost of suclt cxplorations and the great likelihood of
&n unsucccssful conclusiou &rc not vcry conducive to exploitetion of this source
of encrgy. Thcrc has, howevcr, bcen some limited use of terrestrial heat in r
-.lcam poNcr plalrt.
Atonnc |iuc\eus. It
is comrnonly accepted that the physical universe ig
composed oI molecules which, in turn, are composed of some g2 basic types of
atoms, called the elements. Customarily these are arranged for display in the
well-known Atomic Table' where the aequential numbering is by the atomic
number Z. Each atom is thought to contain a nucleus and one or more electrone.
The nucleus is itself composed of sub-particles, but all these are compactly
assembled at the ccnter oI the atom. The atomic dimeusions are provided by the
electrons. In an imaginary supcr atom built Jike a sphere 6.1o in diameter, the
nucleus would be a tiny sphere of pinhead dimensions located at the center.
'I hc stal)lc nuclcar particlcs arc thc protons and neutrons, but other flecting
nuclcar particlcs, such os mcsons, ncutrinos, ctc., are postulated b5, the nuclear
ph1'sicists and hclicvcrl to havc cxistcnce. Thc atomic number assigned to an
atotn is thc nurnbcr of protons in its nuclcus. Its atomic mass number is the
sum of the ncutlons anrl protons. I'Iany clcmcnts havc atoms with variations in
the numbcr of ncutrons. Thcsc variants arc termcd isotopes. Although there are
only 92 natural elcmcnts,. morc than 250 isotopcs have becn found in naturc.
The isotopcs of an clcmcnt arc chcrnically identical, since thc chemical charac-
teristics of an atom are derived from its electronic structure and this is
determined by the protons, not thc ncutrons.
Within the atom nucleus thcre are trcmcndously large attractive and re-
pulsive lorces. A detailed desoiption of the importance of these, and their
place in atomic structurc, is beyond thc prescnt scope, but it is common
knowledge now that the magnitude of this kind of energy compared to the
mass of substance involved is incredibly higher than any other source men-
tioned.
Some of the properties of atomic particles are set lorth in Table l-1.
Table 1-1. PROPERTIES OF ATOMIC PARTICLES
Symbol. ReelMass\ WerShr (0.\ Chotgd
Electron e-r 0.000548 9.10 X l0-, -l0
Neutron ollr 1.00894 1.67 X l0-r{
Proton ,Hr 1.00758 1.67 X l0-r. +l
'Based on the mass of thc oxygetr atom ^0r' = 16.00000.
'One electroiic charge = 4.8m{ X lfiro electrostatic uDit6, or 1.60 X 1f" coulombs.
The naturc of a particle or nucleus is written with a subscript end s super-
script, thus 7N13 represents a nitrogen nucleus with a cherge of 7 and a compo-
sition of 7 protons and 6 neutrons. The proton is the nucleus of hydrogen,
charge 1, proton 1, neutron 0.
*See Appeodix. Io nddition to lhe D&tursl elements, some srtiGciol elemeutg have b€ea
ereated.
ENERGY AND POWER 7
The combinaiion of particles into atoms, or of atoms and particles into other
atoms, can result in end products of slightly smaller mass than the components.
Likewise the jarring of complex nuclei into fragments can end in products of
slightly decreased total mass. These fusion and flssion activities are, however,
capable of liberrting an enormous quantity of energy for they involve that
astronomically large number, the enerry equivalehce df mass.'
Thus if it were possible to assemble a helium nucleus 2H4 lrom 2 hydrogen
nuclei and 2 neutrons, the component masseg would be 2 x 1.00758 * 2 X
1.00894 = 4.03304. However, the csrefuily measured mass of the helium nucleus
iE only 400279, making a discrepancy of 0.03025 mass units, cr 0.0501 x
lo-24 g,
Each atom of helium thus formed would be accompanied by the liberation of
0.0501 X 10-24 x 2'497 x 10t tw hr, which is 0.00125 x l0-r kw hr pcr
atom. This is, of course, an insignificant energy quantity when viewed individu-

2.5

F.c, Hs
Y
I
l'5 t-i

I o

0.5

t)
0
0 to roo t50 200 250
AIOUIC WEIGHI.A

Fr6. 1-2 Binding energy of atomic nuclei.

ally. But wheh assembled 88, say, from a kg of heliym formed in fusion, the
cnerry is startlingly gieat. The rcdutt is 0.00125 x l0-r! x 6060 x 10:3 I =
7.575 x l(P kw hr per kg mol, or 1.894 x lOs kw hr per kg. These energy
quqntitiee per unit of the raw ingredients are revolutionary compared to the
entirely difrerent realm of combustion energy xe now tap so freely and rvhich
is obtained solely by elcctron rearrangements, leaving the nuclei unchanged.
That this energy potentially eiists is no longer doubted; however, someone has
yet to devise a means for obtaining it in useful form. It is conceivable that this
problem can ultimatcly be solved.
..The energy that has just been calculated is the "binding energy," liheratod
when helium nuclei are formed. The corresponding energies of other atoms are
shown in Fig. i-2. I,Ian has been successful in liherating energy from elemonts
I See page l{.
l Thia ia lhe. Aootru.lto Numbcr ir thc Mgtric System. -4. ma-.s of cxpcrimental evidenee
placee the uumber of molecules iu gas Ei: 6.00 X ;ofl per gram mol.
8 INTRODUCTION
at the other end of the periodic table-but by fission rather thsn fusion. The
energy liberaied is vast (atomic bomb), but not as great as by fusion. In fact,
were it not for the peculiar shape of the curve, no surplus energr could come
from fission. But because it is convex the binding energy of the unstable high
mass elements is less than that of stable elements such as barium and krypton;
hence the ffssion into tlrese fragments can liberate enerry.
Ot course, it should be pointed out that this use ol nuclear energy whicb
may be impending is representative of something that hae always existed.
Nuclear enerry contributing to the welfare of man is not a new thing. From
time immemorial, the eadh hae been receiving nuclear enerpy radi&ted to it
Irom the €un. The origin of this energy at the sun is from nuclear reactions
which are now beginning to be understood fairly well. As an energy machine,
the sun depends on the fact that deep within it hydrogen is being converted into
helium for the productioa of enerry, which is immediately absorbed inside the
sun as heat generated at terrifyingly high temperatures. This encrgy, on its way
out from the body of the sun is, of course, degraded to the surface temperature,
which is about 5000" C. Scientists and engineers have only recently been .able
to produce energy in the same manner, that is, from within the atom, and then
only explosively as a weapon. Ilowever; research is going forward at a rapid
rate not only on problems of improying on this source of energy as a military
weapon, but also in developing ways to generate industrial energy.
Except for atomic enerry, and possibly terrestrial heat, all the sourcee of
energy may be traced back to the sun. The sun's heat causes evaporation of
surface water to form rain clouds which continually replenish the florv of water
in streams. Gravitational efrects account for tides. Warming and cooling of dif-
ferent parts of the earth's atmosphere cause winds, and thercby waves. Solar
rays nourished tropical vegetation through the prehistoric ages, and frorn this
vegetation we inherit the deposits of coal which loom so largely as a present
source of energy. Likewise, some theories of the origin of oil and gas, although
not so definitely formulated as for coal, do imply that, without incident energy
falling on the earth from the sun's nuclear furr';ace, such fuels would not have
been formed.
1-2 Background of Power Study. This study of power plant engineering
is not intended to be "from-the-ground-up." The author will presume that the
reader has acquired a working knowledge of energy and its transfers and trans-
formations by means of an adequate study of somc basic introductory work on
applied heat powcr. Titles of several books that have been published in the
introductory field are appended to this chapter. The underlying heat engineer-
ing here assembled is desigued for review or refresher use and carries no claim
of intelligibility for the.unprepared reader.
Properties are basic physical quantities describing the state of a fluid sub-
stance. They are:
1. Pressure, p.
2. V olume, u.
3. I'emperature, t.
4.. Enthalpa, h.
5. Entropll, s.
To these basic five quantitics othcrs may he added, such as:
BAOKGROIIND OF POWER STUDY 9
6. Specifc heat, c.
7 . Densitg, d,.

8. Internal energg, u.
Theae properties pertain both to gsseous and vaporous media. In addition, the
physical state of a vapor may require, for its definition, \he dryness factor, q
to be given. Thig is the fractional part, of s sample of a rffet vapor that is true
vapor. The liquid portion is. of course, equal to 1 - c. This lactor has generally
been called "quality." The change to dryness tactor, which is made in this
volume, is in recognition oi its increasing adoption by engineere. Quality may
be either dryness factor or superheat.
In general, the properties of gases may be derived from equations, such as
the General Gas Law, with the use of relatively few constants. However, vapors
do not obey simple equations unless very highly superheated; hence the need
for tabulations or charts of their physical proferties. The unabridged steam
tables of Keensn and others'are recommended as the reference for the proper-
ties of vapor and have been used in cffecting the numerical solution of prob-
lems in thie book.

,-
I
ll

sl a

Abrolut. Z.ro
Frc. l-j Reviery of pressure and tempcruture sc&les.

Fluid pressures are ordinarily given in kg per square cm, being abbrcviated
kg/cm! ab if an absolute pressure and kg/cm! ga if a gauge pressure. However,
a conversion of this fluid pressure unit into kg per square Eetre (kg/m!) is frc-
qucntly in order for dimensional homogeneity. l{anometric pressures are
commonly exprcssed in mm of mercury (mm llg) for which the multiplier to
obmin kg pcr square cm is 1.36 x l0-!.
Density is ordinarily used in kg per cubjc metre, abbreviated kg/mr, and
specific volume is its recifrocal. Temperature scales are denoted by letter
symbol, thus:
F-Fahrenheit.
R-Rankine (absolute Fahrenheit scale).
C-Centigrade.
K-.Kelvin (absolute centigradc scale).
.Tlvndyaoric Propcrrlet of Water lrcludiag Valnur, Lfuuid aa1! Solld Ptatct, K(r,tlp,l|.
lGtr!, Hiti rod Moorc, Joll! wiLy rod soor"
 10 INTRODUCTION
Enthalpg is a term expressing the combination of internal molecular energy,
expansion work, and flow work. By definition,

Enthalpy, h : -f J(,ot"s per gram (abbreviated J/g)(l-t)

" ?
Entropy measrtes the fraction of heat energy that is unavailable for ideal
conversion to mechanical work. Entropy has no absolute scale of values; it is
always the change ol entropy that is pertinent. Where it seems to hsve a zero
origin a study of the data will reveal that entropy entries are relatiye to some
"datum" that was arbitrarily assumed to be the zero value. Thus the steam
tables show entropy of liquid water at 38'C to be 0.5458, However, the same
tables give eirtropy a zero value at0.0l. C.The interpretation of 0.5458 is that
As from 0.0l"to38"Cis O.5458. Again, a subtraction of liquid entropy at 16'C
from that st 38" C obviously cancels the assumed data and yields:
A hr-n : 0,5458
- 0.2390 : 0.3068 Joulcs per $am K .

In a similar fashion, enthalpy subtractions cancel the datum.

Mechanical Work. "fhree common forms of mechanicsl work are:
1. The forcd overcoming a resistance linearly, or the toryue applied rota-
tively.
2. The kinetic mass, either in form of a fluid jet or a solid body.
3. The potential mechanical energy of mass poised above a datum elevation.
If the rate at which the work is produced or consumed per minutc is known,
thc power is rcadily obtained, for one metric horsepower is 735.5 watts (:735.5
$ules/scc). Examples of these cases of m€chaaical work will now b€ given.
Example 1: A force of 4l t3 pushing against a body moves the body at a uniform
speed horizontally a distance of 4 m. The force, however, is applied at an angle of 30.
to the ho zontal.
Nlechanical work is done by the force component which acts in the direction of
motion and equals the prodrrct of this efrective force and the distance moved. In this
ca8e,

Work : 45 cos 3(f x 3.5 : tJ5.9 kg m

were the bodl'to be moved at a spbed of2 m/mir. +.hc power *outd U" .ry
or o.0l?3 hp (mctric) a)x75

Examplc 2: A shaft rotating at 12m rpm receives an applied torque (via gears,
belt, etc.) of fl, tr-rL Whdt is the received horsepower?
Power : torque X rotative speed in radian units
Power : &) x 2t x' l,s,,l60 x 75 : 134 hp (nEtric)
Example 3: A rvater jet shich i-< 5 cm in diameter emerges lrorn a fozzle with a
velocity ol 230 m/s. The kinetic energv rcpresented by one pound of s'ater iu this jet is
1/2mV2, tthere n
= I/9,80/ hvlt. Hence the energy is % (l/9.807) X2-1d ktm pcr kg
rvater. To find power, Ilote that there are u t8 per mio issuiog from the iet, wbere 1, =
velocity X area* X density.
* Cross-secti,rnal area of flow.
BACKGROUND OF POWER STUDY 11

u:230x S ",ooo
2!q{0.6'*
Therefore,
,#r "
rooo

15
: 162,t0 hp (mctric) : 11.94 Mw
Example 4: A rotating
mass, say a turbogenerator lotor, has a total weight of
ll,G) kS, anda composite udius of gyration of 50 crn. The rotlrtive speed is 1800 rpm.
The kiuetic etergy is l2la2, in which / is the mass moltrent of inertia of the lotatitrg
systrem, and . is the angular velocity in radian rmits,

I = mrz(r - rad. of gyration)

, :J'H, o.5r : 2E0.5 kgm/scct

rne.gv =
|x zm.s , (# * z,,)'- rer:m rs'
Were this rotor to be slowed from 1800 to 1780 rpm in 10 sec, the average power
releaeed would be ,,l2nr)/10 k8m per sec
!/(ortro -

Power : 1*IG) 75
(1800, - 1780)/10
= 147 hp (nctric) - l0ttw
Eramplc 5: A l4{I)kg automobile having a speed of 72 tmph possesses a certain
store of kinetic energy due to this motioo. To determine this energy, one uses the com-
mon kinetic energy expression, /2m72.
For the data given,

Eoe,gy = f x #, (#)' = 28J60 rsm

This is theerergy, regardless o{ the direction of trgvel,
Example 6: The potential energy of a mass poised above a datum plane is illustrated
by the rise ol an elevator weighing ?00 tf from first floor at grade 0.00 rn to fifth floor
at grade 14.8 m. The energy expended in making the lift is the simplc productr of
weight and beight, or
EnergY :
x l4'E : lQ!()kgm
r00
This energy which was expeuded as a force overcoming a resistance then resides
potentially in the mass of the elevator while it remains at grade l4.E m.
Examplc 7 : The power represented by a river flow of smth.c at a, site $iere a rl0 m
head cau be developed between reseryoir and discharge water levels ie another example
of poteDtia,l work. Taking the discharge level as datum, each cubicmtrpof water in the
resetvoir catnes potential energy of 1000 x {0 : 40,000 k8m.
The poteDtia,l power is .0.@ x 5/75 : 265? hp (metric) : 196l kw.
Heat. "the commoD unit of this form of energy, as employed by most engi-
neers, is thc Joule, abbreviated J. This is the unit used in the stcam tablcs,
also to express such quantities as calorific value of fuels, heat transfcr
rrtca, and thc likc. Hcat cao cxist internally in a fluid as random mloec-
12 INTRODUMION
ulsr motion, and ertemally as a volume under presEur€. Also, quantitiee of
heat, energr are involved in proceeses a9companyhg I change of phyeical state
from liquid to vapor, or solid to liquid. Transferred heot enerry, desig-
-as
nated by Q, is definitely associated with temperature chcngee in gases, but may
occur at conetant temperature in vapors. The transferred heat may be :hown
to equal the change of enthalpy if the proceee occurt at coustant presEure.
The Alr of a gae is thercfore olways 6Af. Conetant prreeure changes e,re a
common occumence in Bt€am cycles; for example, the processes in boilere and
condensers ore of this nature. The heat transfere in these cases sr€ thercfore
readily eveluated ga the difierencee in enthalpy resd from tableE.
It is the function of a heat power plant to convert as much of the heat
energr produced in it into high-grade mechanical and electrical enerry ss-is
economicslly feasible. The rupply of heat energy is commonly produced from
combusttort, a chemical rcaction of exothermic nature. Of all of the reactions
which are exothermic, those of carbon and hydrogen with oxygen have been
most in the eervice of man. In fact, except for some quite recent experimentg
in exothermic reactione for rocket propulsion, the manulacrtured heat dupply
has been developed with these simple oxidation reactiona:

c*lo,=Co*lQsolrg c (r-2)
C + O, : COr * 33,t20 J/g C (1.3)

CO + lO, = CO' + lQltT J/g C0 (14)

H, + +O, - EO + l4tla2l2[lg E1 (r-5)

Substances containing these elements in either pure or compound form in

suffcient strength to remlt in a high temperature reaction are the luels of
commerce.
The highdr heating .taltue, or calorific value, Qr,, of a fuel is the heat given
out during combustion, with equal initial and final temperotures, usually at
constant pressure. It includes the latent heat of eny wster vapor present when-
ever the fuel contains H2, and which is necessarily condensed. If a deduction
is made for the aforesaid letent hest for the reason that it is not available in
an engineering process, then the net heat is termed lhe louer heating ualua,
Q1,. For some time it has been the common practice of engineers to use 0h ss
a standard in the external combustion field, and Q1 in the intemal combustion
field.
Electrical Energy. The common electrical forrn of enerry is a flow of
electrons forced alainst or urged alon( by an electrical potpntial (voltage).
The common unit of potential is the volt. A coulomb is a unit quantity of elec-
trons. A flow of one coulomb per second. is Lhe ampere of electrical measurer_nent.
The product of the flow and potential is the basic unit of energy, one volt-
coulomb being a joule. The corresponding unit of powcr is the joule per second,
called the tuott. As this is a small unit in terms of modern electric power utiliza-
tion, the standard electric power unit for the power plant field is the kilowatt,
i.e., 1000 wetts. In a simple d-c electric clrcuit, the watts of power are thc
prcduct of volts and arnperes. Where the current is altemating in chorocter,
BACKGROUND OF POWER STUDY 13
end the cilcuit hot necessarily single phase, po'wer calculations include consid-
erations of powcr factor and polyphase arrangement.
Radiant Energy.Radiant energr may consist of particles in motion through
spa€e, or it may exist as a propagated rvave. Radiant heat energy is wave-like
in charactcr, being defined by its frequcncy, /, iq cps, and its wavc length, I,
in cm. The product Il equals the speed of light.'High numerical values of f
are characteristic of energlr radiations; hence the frequent use of kilocycles end
megacycles to describe frcquency.
Radio, radar, heat, Iight, and other radiations are all of the same lamily.
They have principal characteristics in common and can be arranged in a con-
tinuous scries according to wave length or to frequency. In briel explanation
of the electromagnctic rvave, recourse is had to the concept of a "field." A field
is defined as a region in rvhich a particular kind ol lorce is exerted. An acceler-
ated elcctric charge produces a changing magnetic field, which, in turn, also
produces an clcctrio ficld. An electromagnetic .rvave is an oscillating electric
field and a similar magnetic field, each depending on the other for existence.
A wave "source" in some rvay accelerates electric charges. This produces a
magnetic field ir the vicinity, and an elcctromagnetic disturbance is propagated
outwards. Thd source which has been mentioned here may actually be:
1. Molecules undergoing combustion.
2. Electric dischargcs in gas.
3. Electromagnci ic oscillliors.
4. Molecules in an activc kinetic state-temperature radiation.
5. Nuclear disintegration-gamma radiation.
A significant fcature of all electrornagnetic rvaves is that their velocity
of propagation is uniformly 3 x 1010 cm per sec. Their frequencies, l, and their
wave lengths, tr, extend over an enouuous numerical range, but for all,

I/ : 3 x '1010 crn Per sec

The "radiant energy" of thermodynamics consists of electromagnetic waves

liaving frequcncies between 1 x 1011 and 7.5 x 10u cps. If these l'aves fall on
a,body or a substance, they may bc rcflccted, absorbed, or transmitted. A
"perfect blackbody" is cne rvhich would absorb all thc incidcnt encrgy, leaving
none of it reflected or transmitted, but perfect blackbodies are difficult to
achieve. A good "radiator" may be possibly 90/o blackbody.
The interchange of energy between trvo parallel planes is given by the
equation

Q - 20408.4 x l0-, 4(4 - {) f n"r mr per hr (1-6)

in which temperatures are Kelvin, and F" is a factor conneoted with the black-
body qualities of the surface. F" is designated the "emissivity factor." For non-
planar and nonparallel bodies, a shape factor also multiplies this equation.
: Actually, the prorluction and absorption of electromagnetic radiation ac-
count for heats of combustion, for the waves are produced by rearrangcments
of molecular electrons occurring during the chemical reactions we call com-
bustion.
Translormation ol Energg. Since work, heat, electricity, all are forms oI
14 IN'I'RODUC'TION
encrgy, thcy are mutuslly interchangeable e,t fixcd ratios, The kgrn is 9,807
Joules, and onc joule is 0.102 kgm.
Electrical energy can be converted to heat by passing the flow of electrons
through an electrical resistance, .B (measured irl ohnxsl,
Pover : I,fi rvatts (l-?)
From this the following elcctlicity-heat relation is developed:
q :
I'R/41E7 kiloc*lories pcr sec (1{)
A metric horsepower is 735.5 watts. A kilowatt hour is 860 k cal. Whcn
energy is changed from one form to .anothcr, it is donc at thcsc ratios,
When, subatomically, rnass goes into energy or vice v€rsa in accordance wilt
the Einstein theorem, thc equivaleoco is of the ordcr of
91.7 x l$r kgm per gram msss
1-3 Wor&ing Processes. To effect the transfonnation of high.grade
forms of energy such as $ork or electricity into heat is quite easy (friction,
resistance heating) , but to upgrade heat enerpry into the higher forms is difrcult.
This fact is described in the familiar Second Law of Thermodynamies. En-
ginecrs have, in general, uscd fluid processes to secure the action, although they
have learned to expect that lcss than one-half of the heat energy can be trans-
formed. The upgrading actions use an expansible fluid which is qaused to
undergo, if possible, a reversible adiabatic type of process, during which it
decreasee in pressure, temperature, and enthalpy, is theoretically unaltered in
entropy, and incrcases in volume. The ideal adiabstic process is one which cen
be carried out in thoroughly heat-insulated equipment. If an ideal, nonviscous
fluid is assumed, thc process may be complctely reversible, that is to say,
isentropic. On the other hand, if frictidn and turbulence are present to a large
degree, and no work i-s performed, the process is completely irreversible. Such
arc known as throttling processes. Between thcse two extremcs may be found
pnocesses of various degrees of irreversibility.
t.l Maximum transformation ol the heaf, initially
indicated by entropy as being potenti*lly avail-
able for work-making, is by the
secured
completely rcversible type of process, which,
thercfore, bccomes the goal of designers of
c engines and trrrbines. The extent to which the
Slote 2 irreversibilit."* of friction, turbulence, and heat
transfer due to cooling action are kept out of
tlte
is reflecttd in the thermal efficiency
proccs-s
!'nr; 1-4 .'fh,, polytropic g.s bv othct measurea of performance.
securcd anrl
explnsron proccss. On any chatt ltaving entropy as one axis,
ideal rvolli-prcrlucing processes will appear as
lines perpendicular to the entlopy axis, desilablc lral proccsses will be those
of minimrrrn cntlopy change, &nd inemcient processes will exhitrit large in-
crcases of entropy.
WOBKING PROCESSES 15
The working nonflow processes for ideal gases are known aa tbe polgtropir
ptocesses. The family equation is:
put =c (1-9)
The rsnge oI numerical values lor z is infinite; however, a's ol O,l, cr/c,,*
and infinity, are important, for they fix the processes as either isobaric, isother-
mal, isentropic, or isometric. A table of equations applicable to the polytropic
process {or an ideal gas is given in the appendix. Calculations for real gases
may also be made with thcse equations, provided the tempera,tures are not
extr€'me, say in the range from 0""260"C. Otherwise, special charts, tahles,
coeffieients, or empirical equations of specific heat must be employed.

Examplc 1: Air at 82" C and 3.5 lg/cmr x$ pressure expands isentropically to

lO3lg/cmrab Wiih thi8 information, the volume of the initiat state, and thc other
propertier of the final stste, may bo coBputed, as rvcll lts the chaDges in other
Drop€rti€s created by thc proCess. The equations of rig. A-17 of the app€ndix wilt
be conoulted when necessary.
Herep' = 3.5 x 10. ?r = 640"R, pr: l.olxlo. t:1.4,R -293355K
r, = RTr/pr
: = 29.3 x 3551?.5 x l0{ : :
0.297 mr D.r tg
(4O.297)r{ 3.5/1.93:_ yhence r,, 0.?12 mr l|ar t8
! J.a
640/?, : -fi-; L = 24sI(
€.5/1.03) -A.9,
Since the proeeso is adiabatic, Q : 0
Au = wc,AT - -
0.71(355 Z9\ - 75.261 Fr I
Ah = ucpAT = -
l.@(355 219) - !(5 J Fr 8
wolk = (3.5xr0. x 0.81 - Ldt x 10. x.0.?l2r(1.4 - t):?5l,3 ksrDpor L8
fnvestigations of properties and processes of a vapor require the use oI a
table of the thcrmodynamic properties of the vapor. It is also convenient to
employ charts of the propertics, rvhich charts may be constructed from the
tabular data. The common properties of a vapor are pressure, volume, tempera-
ture, enthalpy, and. entropy. Temperature is dcpendent on pressure if the vapor
ia saturated; hence it is not an inddpendent variable property as it is for the
case of a, superheatcd vapor. In its place, one uses the other quality, dryness
factor. The r'eader is presumed to be familiar with the arrangement of these
properties in vapor tableq, at least for water vapor.
The enthalpy of liquid watcr is generally taken directly from the saturated
steem temperature tables, although the actual pressure may be above satura-
tion. For examplegt2Tfthe tables Sive Iur=1 13.25 Jpcrg at eaturation pressure,
0.0363 4kg/cIntab. Nevertheless, one customarily assuies thot the enthalpy of wa-
ter at 27"C at higher pressures, sgy atmosphcric, is I lX25 J perg . Actually, trhg
correct enthalpy at 27'C and 1.03 kg/cor ab is 113.25* the flow work, uAp.
0.t02
'lo illustrate tlris, r,r at 27" C is 0.001m35 m!/kg; hence an enthalpy iucrement of
0.0010035(l .03 v 10. 363.a)/0.t02XI9
- Jsbould be added to I r 3.25 ,
- 0.9978alrovc
toohtainth. rxncr (nthill'1' r,i rvltcr existing thc satulatrorr pressule
t Syrnbol 1 is assigned to this ratio
16 INTRODUCTION
corresponding to its temperature.* Unless pressures are very high, the correc-
tion is negligible in view of other tolerances in heat power rvork. Horvcver, the
trend of steam power has been to higher l)ressures, and this trend should
always be kept in mind, to be taken into account whenever neccssary.
The Mollier Diagram is a chart of all ihe common propertics cxcept volume.
Basically, it is an enthalpy-entropy graph, rvith contours of prcssure and
quality. The arangcmcnt is illustrated in Fig. 1-5. This chart is valuable in

MOLLIER DIAGRAM TEMP€RATURE.ENTROPY OIAGRAM

Useful for t.ocrng P.ocesses ond lkeful rn sludies of Cycles
deiermr^rn9 Slotes

900

60o

IO

6.5 ot2l

Frc. 1-5 Vapor charts: o. isothernlrl process; b. iscDtropic process;c.isoLraric process;

d. throttling process.

the solution of various vapor 'proccsscs, and the reader should endeavor to
lamiliarize himself with the form of tlrc proccsscs as they appcar on this chart.
Example 2: From steam tables, determine the follorving properties of steam:
(al Saturutibn temperature ultcn the presnne isl&€tgkrtV. Cttnsdt the sltutatcd
steam table, having pressure the independent variable. The tempcrature Iisted for this
pressure is l8l.16' C.
(b) Total temperature atlolltg/tw\zb onrl ll(f c superheat. Snturation tcn1pcrxtrrre
for (a) rvas lEl.16'C; then total tempemture is 181.16 + ll0 : 291.16 "C
(c\ The entholpy and uolume ol uet stcdm hauing 101o ttloisture at 10.5 kglem'ab.

h:htl xh|:768.46+ 0.90 x 2010.7 -2578.1 Jper I

*This correctioo that water is inconrpressible within the pressure rrngo em-
assumes
ployed. Where this is not permissible or for very high pressules, Table 4 of the Sterm
Tables may be used.
WOBKING PROCESSES I7
Alternately, h = lt, - (l - a)hn : /f19.2< - 0. !0 x 2010.7 : u7t.2 I pet a
o: or I aou: sr. t (\ - t)t1
Except at bigh pressure, z1 is quite small compared to u1" and the secoDd term cau
be dropped, making ?, = rus. Do not use this spproximation for very high pressures or
moisture contents.
u :
0.90 X !E9.22 170.3 cmlt -
(d\ The entropy ol steand. tof *g/.m'atard 1gl7 supallreol. Tho volume, enthalpy,
and entropy of superheated steam iill be found listed in superheated steau tables.
These will be found to be double-entry tables, since there are trvo indcpendent variables,
viz., prcssure aDd total tempenture. In this case, the teble mustb€ €trt€red otl{L{kg/oar
aband291.t6'C Thistempemture camot be expe.ted to be a standard tabular entry, so
an interpolation is in order. The result is an entropy of 7.Ut58 J pcr a pcr'K.
fn many cases, neither pressure nor teDpela,ture will coincide with tabulated entries;
then a double interpolation is requiled.
Erample 3: By use of a publisbed chafi of enthalpy vs entropy for steam, trace
the lollowing steam prccesses:
(a) Aa isobaric process lrom an i.niti.altg dry and saturated state at 19! C until
t5f C guperheat is obtained. Then find A,h. Locate the initial state by the intersection
of the 'isaiuration line" with the lgyc tot l tempereture line. Thrs landr on 2788 J/8 and
t88 Lg,loBr .kpres8ure,which, if followed along the pressure line tol6T"csuperhes,t, gives,
finally, 3170 ,/g eDthalpy. The change of enthalpy lor this process is:
Lh = llTO - n18 - t82 llE
$) An iwr'tropicetpansiat ot steominitialluat4c.tttgbmV ltt c,too''+Uc*ol'
Thedryness sDd enthelpy of tbe 8t€Bm atthe conclusion of the proceas may be found by
first locating the ioitial state with pressure and temperature lines, {hen tracing along
constant entropy to intersection with the final pressure, oJa tg/cml ab- The poiut
rcprcsetrti[g the finsl etate wilt be formd to occur at sn enthalpy of ll,l8 Jtg and a mor-
stur€ coDteDt of 18.9y'e. The dryness factor i6, tberefore, 0.811.
(c) A constant eitnalpu oi "throttling" process lrom c,nirritial atate ol1tfi/ca?a-L
drlJ anal saturuted to a final pressurc,l.e tnin'J, Alter traDinq the process, determ.
ine'Ar.The following procedure may be followed on the chart. Locate the initial etst
by the iDt€rsection of ? ka/co! pressure vith the setura,tion lipe The corresponding
eDtroDy i8 6.7t. The! trece aloug constalt enthalpy to iEteEectiou witb 5.8 Ls/cmr.
Eert regd 6.t1. Then Ar= O.t J/ s/"k.
Example 4: Determine the magnitude oi the error made in assuling the enthalpy
of subcooled liquid water to be that for saturated liquid at the tempe lture ol OfC.
Take the u?ter as being under a pressure of 34 t8/cms ob, (This stet might well be
thst of the lor a high-pressure boiler.)
feed wster
At 17?. i1 from tables = 2.69 fB,
c, This heat is the exact enthalpy of
water at l?lp C ;nd 9,538ksF n, eb'The preesuro difierence of 8,1 - 9.536implies a flow
wolk of 0Ap,/0.1O2.
The correct eDthalpy for the state mentiotred is therefore:
h -- 62.69 f x lop:870 89 J/8
o.ur1l25(84 x lo' - 95380)/0.102

1-4 The Power Age. The measuring stick of man's progress in this
rrorld has many facets. In the spiritual and artistic fields, man has progressed
as well, if not better, in ages where thc masses were living very rudely, but
where the classes had leisure and freedom from toil and the vexations and
18 INTRODUCTION
turrnoil of life in this rnore highly civilized era. The production of artistic
rnasterpieccs in all fields of Brt was fully as great in some of the past ages ss
at present, and we here have no inten+"ion of extolling lhe power age as tho
golden age of civilization. We do wish to enter the claim, however, that only
in modern times have the masses of people in any country been placed in
possession of leisure time, comfortable living, adequate food, antl a share of
entedainment and educational opportunity. This advantagc, rvc think, is one
not to bc taken lightly, and reflects enormous credit upon the porver age-
Historically, the progress of mankind in the production and application of
power might be di.vided into three phases. First csme a long era of toilsomc
labor, in which slowly man learned to build many and various tools-in the
beginning, just those which came immediately to his dircct uses, that is, the
hand tools with which the getting of food, clothing, and shelter were somewhat
s:implified. Then, in the second phase, ccrtain inventions such as thc wheel
and the subjugation of the labor of animals to man's use greatly extenaed his
bodily power. In the }atter psrt of this era, man's scientific talents began to

ra0
.Z
5
'z/ 1io

l2o

' -u.4 t0

./*ni a0
/ 30
.z:j' '/
ot 20 re30 rsto r!
-['Ic. l-6 Crowth of population and porver rrsr*U.S.

discover and to intcrpret certain of the laws of nature upon which could be
built that era in man's historical career thst we call the power age, and in which
we are now living. This power age marks the success ol man in acquiring a
mastery over the forces of nature and an ability,to create mechanical slaves
in the form of electrical or mechanical power-producing units. The last half
century, although not the entire scope of the pover sge, does cover that part
of it. in which the greetest progrcss has been registered. The liloxatt of
mechanically produced power pcr worker has increased several fold in this time.
This inuease, of course, usually produces an increase as well of the producti6n
per worker and a greater store of consumer goods for tLe average indivdual.
In 1900, the kilorvatt in basic industries per worker was about l.Skufin 1950
it is up to about5.8ks,It is this increasing availability ol the labor of norrhuman
"slaves," coupled, of course, with improvements in production machinery, that
spells the ever-widening variety of consumer products available to the average
man.
The introduction of mechanical power soon produced a centralization of
industry near the source of its power. This was because mechanical power is
 THE POWER AGE 19
not readily transmitted efficiently over long distanccs. The industrial revolu-
tion therefore led to poor living conditions duc to overcrowding and, had it
continued, would have produced far greater social problems than we have in
this day and time. But then camc electrical encrgy in the alternating-current
form. It ofrered flexible and economic transmission of energy from a central
gencrating station to distributed industries. Decentralization became possible
and has oecurred very extensively, thua markedly bettering tbe working condi-
tions of workers of thc power age over those that were predominani before
the long-distance transmission of energy was economical.
?his is one of tlre reasons why much oI the energy used in industry is being
generated centrally by corporations whose business is the production and sale
oI electrical enerry. Industries find it possible t<.r locate in small communities,
and evcn rurally, and enjoy the advantage of adequate power transmitted to
them electrically from gen-rating stations which may be located many miles
away. Smallcr factories ancl shops can produce competitively with larger firms.
Small-scale enterprises often crcate a greater sense of responsibility and a feel-
ing of individuality on the pert of the average workmin. The heart of an
individlal system such as this is the central electric station, with its radiating
network of transmission lines, instantly ready to deliver power at a low prici
--so -low, in fact, that oftentimes large indu-"tries find it unprofitable to gener-
ate their own power.
The application of power to the service of man has been the means o{
elevating h\e standard of tiaing. Where power has been universally and exten-
sively employed by the population, the standard of living is highest. Unfor-
tunstely, also, auch societies exhibit the greatest complexity of the social
system. The influence of mechanical po$er is felt today mainly in transporta-
lioz. Most oI the activation ol lhe "wheels ol industry', nowadrys is with the
electric motor. ln agricultrne, powered farm machinery has msde it possible
for a farmer to cultivate and harvest ten times or more the acreagu that llo
could havc handled without tractors and mechanical plsnting, cultivating, and
harvesting equipment- The domesticated draft animal is by no means an obso-
lete source of polyer even today, but most of the intensively cultivated areas
oI the United States do exhibit a defiuite trend from the draft animal to the
mechanical power unit. Then, of course, all large-scale methods o{ rapid trans-
po ation of passengers and freight, by land, sea, and sir, are, for the most
part, motivatcd by mechanical power units, although a certain amount of
surface transportatiorr is accomplished by electrical power.
In communication lines, the telephone, the teieglaph, also radio, radar, and
television, are certain to be included in any list of dcvelopments which have
added to thc safety, comfort, and enjoyment of living. Rapid and reliable
communicstion is essential to the conduct of morlem business. These are all
provided with elestrical power, but in relativcly small amounts as eompered
to its use for industrial power, lighting, and heating.
It was in the field ol lightino \hat the central station productiou oI power
made the first headway. The first commcrcial station began operation in Nerv
York about 1882. This rtras steam driven snd was soon followed by a hydro-
clectric station in Wisconsin. The incandesccnt lamp invcntcd in l8Z9 gave the
20 INTRODUCTION
impetus necesoary for the rrpid expansion of this infant industry. Seventy
years later the number of customers exceeds thirty million,* and the industry
that provides electrical energy to the general public customer is one of the
biggest and the most essential in these United States. Although the uses of
eleclricity are manifold and are increasing daily, Iighting in various forms has
contiuued to be the main source ol income of the public utility company. Be-
cause electric lights are so convenient and so superior to all other sources in
producing adequate illumination, snd because that forrn of lighting ofrers a
minimum hazard of fire, it has practically displaced all other lighting systems;
old fashioned, indeed, is the home, inslitution, or industry which is not today
illuminated electrically.
No rnore striking instance of the part played by electric power in elevating
the standard of living can be found than in the convenience of elo.ctric house-
hold appliances. Cooking utensils, fans, refrigerators, stoves, vacuum cleaners,
and various small motors all help to make modern life more comfortable and
free countless people from drudgery.
The knowledge of the production and utilization of power should hohC, we
think, more than usual interest lor the engineer and for the student of engineer-
ing. It is hard to imagine any other single factor which has had more infl,rence
in shaping the present social structure of the United States than has mechanical
and electrical power. The special interest of the engineer, in phrticular, is that
his is the responsibility for a state ol society that is requiring the services of
trained technical men to an ever-increasing extent. While the generation and
marketing of large blocks of power itself lurnishes direct employment to m&ny
engineers, a comprehensive view of modern engineering activity reveals that
oearly all of it is dependent upon an abundant supply of power.
1-5 Power Plant Engineering and Design. It is already evident that
the type of power plant to be treated in this book is the stationary plant which
produces electrical energy. With minor exceptions, the term "Power Plant"
may be taken to imply an Electrical Power Generating Station. As noted before,
this type has developed into the most important power.-producing unit. The
power plant must lunction as a unit, not as a collection of individual pieces of
equipment. This statement is significant, for it governs the method of treatment
of the subject in the following pages. Concentration on the external operating
characteristics ol each piece of apparatus and a study of its relation to the
rest of the plant will eliminate the apparently endless maze of details which
accornpanies a study of power plant equipment from the individaul design
standpoint. Powcr plant engineering, as construed here, would not include the
design of s steam trap, or of a motor or crane, but rather the selection of a
trap, motor, or crane manufacturer's product for the specific scrvice in mind.
Briefly, it is the art ol selecting and placing the necessary power-generating
equipment so that a rnasimum ol return will result lrom a minimum ol ex-
penditure ouer the working lile ol the plant; ai'td the operation ol the completed
plant in a tnarlner to proaiile cheap, reliable, and, contirntous seruice,
The scope thus set forth, it will be noted, implies the placing of professional
engineers in tlrree categories, viz., (1) Destgntng Engineers; (2\ Construction

* 26 milliol reaidential; 5 million commercial and industrial.

POWER PLANT ENGINEERING AND DT]SIGN
,}}
Engineers; and (3) Operating Engtneers. In some instances the same person
has successively served in all three categories on the ssme proiect, although it
is more common !o find a person acting in the capacities of only the last two
mentioned. Corporately, meny examples can be cited where the three phases
of work mentioned are performed by separate firms, but also other cases can
be lound showing partial or complete combination. For example, a certain
n€w power station might eventually be brought into production by being de-
signed by a firm ol consulting engineers, then erected by a constrrrction con-
tractor, and finally operated by a publii utility compary. Alternately, the
large utility company has been known to design in its own engineering offices,
supervise the construction and the work of various separate contractors, and,
of course, finally operate the station. Other possibilities are (1) the design and
construction by a firm of engineering contractors who ffnally turn over a work-
ing plant to the Public Service Company and (2) design and operation by
company engineers with erection by a construction contractor.
Except for the smallest industrial or institutional units a power plant design
is an exceedingly complex activity. A visit to a public service power station &nd
a view oI the maze of equipment there is sufficient to convince anyone oI the
need for complete and comprehensive initial planning. An adequate portrayal,
by drawings, schedules, reports, or letters, of the designer's conceptions will
insure that the design is equally intelligible to all the others whose labors are
essential to the building and operation of the plant. Also, clarity oI the written
record is highly desirable in consideration of the contractual agreement system
usually employed to get the work done. The design engineer's work will become
part and parcel of legal documents and he should keep this in mind constantly
while proceeding with the drawings and specifications.
The design drawings must always be preceded by a considerable amount
of engineering work. Preliminary estimates are made and bids prepared, for
most power plant construction is contracted for through the processes of
competitive bidding. The leading dimensions of the plant are usually well
established at the time of preparing the preliminary estimates I however, they
are subject to change during the progress of the design.
Assume that a bid has been submitted on a certain project and the contract
is awarded. The method of handling the subsequent design rests almost entirely
on the size of the job. The small plant can be completely desigled by a few men
working in the same office. Employer and employee often labor at adjacent draw-
ing tables, and the fine distinctions of engineer, assistant engineer, draftsman,
checker, or designer which play an important part in the large organization do
not exist. Each man is in continual touch with the work of the others, and
cross-reference or cross-checking becomes a simple matter. There is no ner,essity
for an elaborate design office organization and routine because of the rimited
number of men at rork on one project and the comparative simplicity of the
small job.
On the other hand, when o large station design is undertaken, failure tt,
set up a workable procedure for handling the routine features of the design
job is courting confusion and much waste of efrort in the drawing rooms. The
result is high drafting office overhead cist. Those who are unacquainted with
the magnitude of the design labor lequired for even a modest-sized centroJ
* INTRODUCTION
ststion (sey 15,000 kw) cannot be cxpected r.catlily to appreciate the difr-
culties that attend securing a thorough check on all thc huntlred or mor.e (lraw-
ings so that the final blueprints, as sent to the ficld. will bc a clcar set of in-
structions for the erection of the station. Nothing nrust be left to gucs,srvork
on the part of the erectors; and no conflicts or interfcrcnces, such as conduits
crossing a space where another.print shorvs a r.cntilating cluct, slrould appeal
during the construction period. Of course it is a rarc occurrcncc l.hcn somc
changes, additions, or corrections dr-r not have to be made on a sct of dra$,ings
for a large station after they reach thc field. Ordinarily, a small flekl rlrafting
office is maintained on the job location to take care of thesc field changcs. Thc
personnel of the design office should render a quality of work such that the
field ofrce is confined to field changes and does not have to supply omissions or
make corrections on the design proper.
As many as 50 or 75 men may be employed at one time on the dcsign of a
large power station. They will take from six months to a ycar to design a sta-
tion and complete the drawings. The attempt shotld alu-ays be made to
organizc the ofrce so that these men will be employed steadily and the design
will proceed logically from beginning to end. In addition to this. a procedure
must often be worked out to correl&te the office rvith thc field work, because
sometimes the construction s'ork starts as soon as the main drarvings (lavout,
foundation, etc.) arc completed and whih detail drawings, wiring plans. etc.,
are still in prcparation. The order in which the drawings are to be completed
must be established in advance so that they may pass from the office to the
fiekl as they are needed during the coursc of construction. Control of this
fcattre can bc securcd by interlocked drarving and construction Progress
Schcdules, backed up by insistence that thosc in immediate charge of rvork
prr.rgress meet thc schednle "or else." Obviouslv those entrusted with the drarv-
ing up of Progress Charts need to have had much aetual experience in this linc
of work.
Thc organization of a large firm engaged in enginecring, construction, and
supervisory work is shown in Fig. 1-7. The organization of departmcnts re-
sponsible for engineering and construction arc carried out in morc dctail than
others. This diagram picturcs thc entire organization and not that rvhich may
bc asscmbled for one particular job. It is about as extensive an organizational
plan as will be found and in practice one would find various modifications, all
tcnding to consolidate functions shown scparately in Fig. 1-Z and thus simpli-
fying thc organizational plan. Most of thc detail design vork is donc by design
and drafting groups consisting of designcrs, checkers, detailers, and tracers
working under a chief who is generally classified as an Assistant Engineer.
Lct us assumc that a firm of contracting cnginecrs has becn aq'ardcd a
contr&ct for thc constnrction of a large powcr station, to hc rcady for opcration
hy- a specified date. Thc first step after thc award of the contract is the assign-
rnent, by the Enginecring Manager, ol thc cnginecrs who arc to work on that
particular job. Onc. of these enginecrs will hc rcsponsihlc for the entirc joh,
nol, only for its cngineering design hut for its cost and succcss. He is thc Srrpcr-
vising Enginccr ond is usually a mcchanical cnginccr in the casc of a steurrr
Stotion dcsign. Thc first step in thc cnginecring dcpartment is thc preparatiol
of egtimatgi. which are qssential in order to keep each phase of thc plant within
 a
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a
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22
YS ii ;?
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,.:
s!,I ffi
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3
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ig
24 INTRODUCTION
a cedain allotted amount, so that the eDtire coBt will not exceed the anticipated
figures upon which the contract is based. Each engineer prepares an estimate
for his class of work and his estimate is reviewed by his chief engineer. The
separate estimates are then sent to the Chief Estimator who assembles them
and adds the proper amount for engineering and drafting. The total estimate
is then reviewed by the Engineering and Construction Managers.
The next step is the preparation ol schedules for construction, drafting,
and purchasing. These are tvorked up backwards; that is, the date on which
the plant is to be finished is the starting point and everything is scheduled

!n?,i:;''nrrnl-

7;;;i:i-;r;*-

Show in led oD light lile !.r@tsge of work complered.

Show date of ,epod by heaw vertical red line.
Show estimated time schedule iD blacl or upper light liDe.
Shry in red on lNq ligbr IiDe .ctual rime lpent ed estimsred rine r.quited to cmplete.
FrG. 1-8 Colstluction progress chaft covering the main subdivisions lor a 60,000-kw
power plant. The chart is revised periodically and the percentages of work completed
are indicated for each revieion.

backwards from that point so as to know when construction must start to meet
this date, when the drawings must be started in order to be completed in time
lor constiuction purposes, and when specifications must be started in order to
receive bids with the proper time allowance for the placing of the bid, drawing
up the contract, manufacturing the equipment, and delivering it to the plani
site so that it is on hand when the date of erection srrives.
The respective engineers are then put in possession of the main points of
design and.the dates upon which certain information must be ready for the
ffeld. They and their assistants elaborate on the mein details, until they can
pars on to the chiel draftsman a fairly complete outline of the chief features
of the etation. The chief draftsman iu conjunction with the various engineers
 DRAWINGS,SPECIFICATIONS,ANDCORRESPONDENCE 25
then makes up a list of drawings which, to the best oI their knowledge, will be
required for the complete dellneation of the stai,ic,ii design. In making this list
they must draw hcavily on experience and judgment at this early stage. A
Drawing Progress Chart, similar to the Construction Progress Chart shown
in Fig. 1-8, but, of course, with appropriate headings, is then, prepared. Suf-
ficient technical men are then assigned to the work to meet the progress
plan. The design groups may consist of designers only, to begin with, but as
the work gets going, eheckers, detailers, and other draftsmen are added as
needed. Meanwhile the engineers have made out a purchasing schedule in order
to deal with manufacturing contractors or subcontractors on a chronological
basis.
Designers are first qngaged it preliminarg studres and sketches which de-
termine the rough characteristics of the plant and, when approved by executive
engirieers, serve as an outline to guide preparation of final drawings. In the
cbu.rse of final design work there is necessarily a considerable amount of cross
checking to be done between diflerent individuals or groups so thst interfer-
enccs. will be eliminated and information can be mutually exchanged. This is
a formal routine on a job of the size we are now contemplating, but could be
quite informal and spontaneous in a small design office. Needless to say, the
various. engineers must keep closely in touch with the drafting room to watch
the progress oI the drawings and to direct the work. This is necessary in crdcr
that the. plant havc embodied in it the features they desire, and to insure not
only 9 plant of the caliber contemplated, but one which may be constructed
within:the amount ailotted in the estimatc.
The efrcicncy rvith rvhich drawings can be produced is greatly dependent
upon the close attention the engineer gives to the drafting. Otherwisc it is
likely tq incan that the engineer gets into the position of "pulling apart" drawings
instead;of directing them. Also, the prompt attainment of manufacturers' prints
by thO engineer is highly cssentia! to good drafting room efficiency.
116 Drawings, Specifications, and Correspondence. A design or eon-
; sglting engincer's plrn for the construction of a power plant is sct forl,h in his
dragrilgs Ind specificat'ions. Spccifications arc a rrittcn sct of rulcs. rcgula-
tlo(s,.oxplanations, standards of qualitl'. etc., rvhich accoml)an.!. a sct of draq-
ings. tr&rny itcms of information the euginecr wishes to conve-y are f:rr rnotc
chaapl-v'and convenicntly set forth in multigraphed t1'pervritten booklcts than
bluepdnterl.'from hand-lettered drawings. Conversel.v, there are othcr matters
tha! can be briefl-v and succinctly shorvn by drawing r,;hich rvould re-
qlirc unrcascinrhly cxtcnsive nordage to convey in rvriting. -A. combination ol
dgaltings rnd wlittt,n spccifications is more corrrpact and definite than citlrct
ciruld. ht! il relied on cntirely. The dra*'ings and specifications shorrl,l bc ade-
quately cross-referenced so that thc reader will be able to integratc ihc
information rhcy contrir u'ith minimum eflort.
In geneial, specifi::ations cany the following type of information and direc-

1 General ilrformation on what thc contractor c:tn expect xt thc site aDd thc condi
tions ofhis usp of the premises.
2. Basis oI legal relations between coDtrector &nd purchaser. Conditions of pawneni
insurance, guarantees, arbitratiou, etc.
26 INTRoDUCTION
3- General description of the plannetl pro;oct, cxl)cctcJ rrrode ol operatiou,
sequence of construction, Ptc.
4. Standard of uorknunship expected and Dretho of ilsuring tlut it is furnisbed.
5. Qualities of rnaterials, performance of tomponents, etc.
6. Schedules of equipment in multiple l'hich vorrld olerloarl thc dra*ings if at-
tempted to be placed therc.
?. Conditions of icceplanre tests.
Insofar as possible, the engineel shoukl restrict his instructions to a con-
tractor to "what-to-build," and not bc drarvn into spccification of "how-to-
build," {or he cannot ent3r into the latter activity and still expect the responsi-
bility for thc complcte job to rest on the shouldcrs of the contractor.
Sirnilarly the engineer in his dcalings s'ith cquipment manufacturers should
be careful not to write spccifications th&t in the cnd eould be legally interpreted
as relicving the contractor oI rcsponsibility for perlormance because the en-
gineer had not only specified results, but also the design itsclf.
Thc major items of equipmcnt in a porver station are generally purchased
through competitive bidding. Since thc basic principles of this form of buying
are well known to most persons, they necd not be dealt with here. Equipment
specifications should set forth, as trriefly and concisely as the individual case
permits, tjre requirements of the purchaser and the information which he desires
the manufacturer to submit in his bid. The spccification should be clesr on
mattcrs of capacity, performance, over-all dimensions, tnd quality, but should
not unduly restrict freedom oI design on the part of the manulacturer unless
addcd cost resulting from spccial dcsign can be accepted. Lack of space prevents
printing ol sarnple specifcations here; however, they are frequently available
in printed form.*
lYhen completed, power plant design drawings are put to three distinct uses:
(1) Purchases of material are made on the basis ol the items indicated on the
drawings; (2) drawings furnish the erector with the inlormation he needs to
build the plant in accordance with the designer's ideas; and (3) certain of the
drawings will be used &s a source of information for the guidance of the
operating staff. The drawings should furnish all the data iequired for these
services, but little more. The methods of orthographic projection are not neces-
sarily follon'cd cxcept for large-scale detail drawings.
Lcyout drawings generally consist of one or more plans and a number of
elevations. Thc scctions represented on the elevations are indicated on the
plan by section lircs. The sections do not have to be taken completely along one
planc, but may be ofrset if such serves the designer's purpose better.
Supplcmcnting the plans and clevations, detor'ls, drawn to a large scale, give
important constn:ction information that cannot be shown on the general draw-
ings. In addition, therc will be wiring diagrams, flow diagrams, etc. lVhen
cquipmcnt manufacturers havc supplied prints or drawings of their equipment,
such may be incorporated into the design as details by a note of reference to
t.hc noa,ulaatrrer's rlrautin.g by titlc and number.
In thc largc station dcsipltr scvcral drawings arc often made covering the
sarnc plan but each hringing orrt somc spccial phase of the cquipment. For
instanec, onc may hc ngde prirnarilv to shorv machine location, another to
* Ibr .xamplc, in pltbli,.ntions of I h,r old NELA aud latcr the Edison Electric Institute.
I)RAWINGS,SPECITICATIONS,ANDOORKESPONDENCE N
show main steam piping, another coiduits, another lighting, and Bo forth. It
is customary to bring out the primary information by drawing the lines showing
it much heavier than the remainder. Such information is then said to be in
lunction.
The character oI drawings required lor a steam power station design may be
classified as follows:
M eclmnical Electricsl Steel
\Iachine layout Conduit Floor plaas
Stearn piping Equipment Stairs
Water piping Wiring Trusses
Boiler settings Lighting Cranes
Coal and ash handling Substation
Dralt Control boards Concrete
Turbogenerator Details Floor plaas
Condenser and auxiliaries 'Wall
elevations
'Water Build,tng Seruice
conduits Foundations
Cranes and hoists Plumbing Details
Ileating
Ventilating
There are, at present, \o dratting standdrds that can be said to have been
widely adopted by firms doing power plant design rvork. Many of the individual
firms maintaining a large drafting organization have their own drafting staad-
srds which they follow on all jobs. Some standards should be adoptcd at ihe
beginning of any job il such are not already in existcnee. Most firrns take an
interest in completing a set oI drawings that is uniform in appearance and neat
in execution. Good lettering will contribute more towards the external ap-
pearance of a drawing than anlthing else. Without good lettering Bn excellent
design will, ofrhand, create an unlavorable reaction. To the nontechnical man
(city rnanagers, institutional superintendents, etc.) the appearance of the draw-
ing sometimes means more than the design itself. Most executive engineers,
formerly capable of first-class work themselves, react unfavorably to a poorly
executed drswing even though the technical substance of it is sound. By giving
due regard to the importance of lettering, and by following a standard drafting
procedure throughout the design, the designer can produce a set of drawings
which does not belie the technical skill and care that may have been empioyed
in its preparation.
Alother thing which may reflect credit or digcredit on a power station design
is the correspondence. Conesponilenc€ plays an important part in the engineer-
ing of any job. Cormtless letters must pass between the engineers and the field.
in order to keep the construction oI the character desired, to explain those parts
of the design that are not covered bjr drawings, and also to explain the di.awings.
Correspondence with the client deserves the engineer's careful att6ntion. Care
rnust be exercised to get the client'e approval on all major points of design
since the plant will be his to operate. Well-writt€n letters go a long way in
holding the good will of the client. Purchasing letters must be clear and deci-
sive, leaving no point unsettled. This is essential to svoid any dispute when, on
delivery, the equipment is not found to be as expected, and to avoid any mis-
understandings of price.
28 INTRODUCTION
The cngineer's duty is not only to dcsign and construct, but to lcave after
him t complctc record of his work, and this record is largely his drarvings and
his lettr-'rs. Ilcncc thc circumspcct engineer will attend carefully to the fonn
as rvcll as thc cnginccring of his drafting and correspondence.
l-7 Electric Power Systems. If power could be generated for the same
cost at any point in thc country there would be no dimculties arising from
power distribution. The condition that early prevailed would still exist--each
powcr user would opcratc his own plant. But, unless use may be madc of the
exhaust steam, the small privately owned plant is hardly able to compete with
the central station on an economic basis because of the inherently higher ef-
ficiency of large gcnerating units and the lorver overhead cost of quantity
production. Hence, elthough largc numbers of small plants are in operation at
present, thc major portion of installed power capacity is to be found in central
stations. Porver gcnerated by industries may or msy not be converted into the
sleetrical forn before usc, but that generated by central stations is invariably
clectrical to permit transmission to distant points.

,'

&
!tq I M ME

Frc. 1-9 Elcments of a, po$er s)'steru.

As figs. 1-9 and 1-11 shos,, the ccrrtral st.rtion is but one link of a chain,
joining thc soulcc oI encrgy and its ultimate, user. Thc system of distributio{
cxtending fronr the porvcr plant to the consurncr is of varyirrg complexiiy,
dcpcnrling on tlrc rrumbcr of consuntcrs and thcir location relative to the plant.
Iirorrr thc stanrlpoint of tconomf iu potvcr transnrissirrn it is Cpsirablc to locrtc
tlrc plant near thc gcographictl ccntcr of thc load, but tht'rc arc othcr factors
to lx'taltcn into rccount. Somc plant sites are more suitable than othcrs from
thc stanrllroirrt of gcncrrtion. cvcn though many miles may separatc thc plant
anrl its custonrcrs. Ncrrncss to natural rvaterfalls and soulces of fuel, land cost,
srrpply of contlursing rvatcr-thc-sc arrr promincut influenccs in the locati,on
of a cr':rlrll poqt,r lrlant.
The tlistiilxrtiorr s]'srcnr nray be scparated into trvo parts, the primary and
scc<,nrlary systerns. Thc prinnryl distribution s11stent, gcneralll' consists of a
transmission linc calrfing thc threc-phasc current from the switchyard of the
plant to a substotion located nclrr thc load servcd. The purposc of the substation
is to transform thc high voltagt: necessitrv for cconomical long distance trans-
nrission to voltagcs suitablc for liry:s in residcntial districts and for thc pri-
meries of thc light pole-top distribution transformcrs. Thc secondary ili^stribu-
ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS 2S
tion Bystem extends from the substation to the customer,s meter through the
transformers, strategically located with respect to a small group of customers
which each one supplies. Small companies will transmit at such voltages that
the substation may sometimes be omitted. Large systems may require two or
more step-down transformations of voltsge.
Power supply systems are owaed and controlled by municipalities, institu-
tions, government agencies, and public utility companies. Public-service power

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several subsidiary companies.

and light plants, st one time mostly municipally owned, have come mor,e and
more into the hands of public utility companies. A, utility conxpanA may own
one
-or
more generatirrg stations and a network of transmission lines serving its
territory. The company should be so organized as to weld generating, distribut-
ing, and public relatibns departments into a smooth working unit. The small
company operating one station and servicing one community easily accom-
plishes this, but the large company requires a complex organization. One com-
pany divides its operating reeponsibility into five departments as follows:
30 INTRODUCTION
1. The systerz operating departm.ent which directs the opcration of the
electrical system and has the care anrl operation of the electrical system, the
Ioad clispatching, the provision of safcty about high tension equipment, and
the keeping of electrical records as its responsibility.
2. The steam. department rvhich has charge of mechanical equipmcnt and is
expected to have rnechanical porvcl rcady for the gcnerators at all times.
3. The substation department rvhich maintains and operates all substations.
4. The iest department, rvhich nrns all tcsts, obtains and analyzes experi-
mental data, checks statiou instrumcnts, and is responsible for keeping the
operation of the station at the highest possible e{ficicncy.
5. "fbe ofice d,epartm.en.t which handles cLcrical details, records, and
statisticS.
Sales and rnergels of public utility companies have resulted in holding or
management courpanics, rvhich n.ray be state-q'ide or even national in their
scope. The holding companu, as a device for controlling more than one corpora-
tion, is of compalatively recent origin. Tirc decade prior to the economic de-
pression of tht' 1930's sarv a widcsplcad expansion of financial control of public
utilities occur through thc usc of the hokling cornpany. Organized as a corpora-
tion, it sccured control over its suhsidiaries b1' purchase o1 e nnntrolling block
of siock. Although, theorotically, 51 per cent of outstanding stock rnight bc re-
quired, usually {ar lcss than this is sufficient for cffective control. In vierv of
the rvidcspread distribution of public utility securitics, it is probable that
orvrership of 10 per cent of the voting securities is tantamount to control.
Iiwllrermore, through cxchenge of stock certificatcs, thc holding company
c(nrld bc crcated and eontrolled by promotcrs having relatively small personal
invostment in it.
'fhe management company structure lcnt itself to promotional pyramiding,
and the public in gencral derived little or no benefit froul that situatiou. Abuses
of holding companies in taking aclvantagc of corporate structure for law evasion
and obstruction of regulation, as l'cll as a necdlcss pyramiding and centraliza-
tion of control of a largc and essential national servicc, finally brought about
a public rcaction to this folm of business. 81' thc Public lltility Holding Com-
pany Act of 1935 the lTnitcd -(iates Congrcss oppo-sed thc abuses of holding
companies without adrninistering the "death penalty." The Securities Exchange
Commission by that act rvas assignecl duties l'hich includcd the climina.tion
of uneconomic company stluctures, and the,qultervision of security tr&nsactions
and acquisition of securitics by holding companies. A uniform system of ac-
counts rvas also prc-<cribed. The opcrations of a holding company are nolv
limited to a single, integrated (gcogr.aphically) public r.rtility system. The
present philosophy of govcrnmental regulation of this type of corporate stnrc-
ture is that the function of the hokling company is the economic and efficient
administration of an integrated systcm, and not that of an invcstment company
which minimizes thc risks of its investments throrrgh divereification of its port-
folio of securities.
Thc cost of a central pou,'cr station is high. Onlv a lalgc olganization can
finance the nery construetion. Problems of de-.ign and construction rvhich are
involved in porver plant engineering requirc the overcominq of difficult tech-
nical problems and the exercise of a hieh degree of intelligence. The engineer
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32 INTRODUCTION
is liable to feel that these problems constitute his major bwd,en- lt happens,
howeuer, that the fnancing ol power plant construction, as in any other fi,ekl
ol building, is at first the pa1'amount consideration. Utility stock, sold to the
public, and particularly to the customer public, is a common means of financ-
ing new work or reconstruction. The investor requires of power plont engineer-
ing that it show him how the nery construction will give a reasonable rate of
return, as well as overcome successfully the purely technical difficulties. In
other words, the power plant engineer should have breadth of outlook and the
ability to present to the public facts showing that the proposed construction
will return profits upon the money invested as well as showing that it is tech-
nically possible.
Interconnections and mergers are slowly uniting public electric Bupply sys-
tems into a network of distribution. The justification Lortnterconnection car,
be presented on a financial basis, but the ability to render intersystem as-
sistance during local trouble ald in that way to prevent interruption ol service
to the customer should be the basic reason Ior interconnection, even though
no definite financial expression may be attached to it. Of more tangible value
is the use of the more efficient plants as base load stations. Off-peak power
may be exchangcd on some prearr&nged basis when the load peaks on one 8ys-
tem do not occur simultaneously with those on another. This has the efrect of
delaying, for a time, the purchnse of new equipment to caie for increasing
peaks. Also, it renders economical the installation of additional capacity be-
yond that justified by the gain in the individual system; that is, a new station
or unit causes temporary surplus capacity and consequent annual charges for
idle equipment which may be reduced by adjacent systems installing their
new equipment alternately. A decrease in thetotal of emergency standby capac-
ity is possible when two or more systems operate interconnected.
Interconnectioa provides some reliel from the necessity oi splitting up the
plant capacity indo a number of small units for the sake oI uninterrupted serv-
ice. No very difrcult operating problems have been encountered in intercon-
nectcd Bystems, provided the length of the in+,erconn'ecting lines was kept to a
reasonable figure. To compensate for line drop in voltage under the condition
of a possible power flow in either direction,.tap changing transformers have
been installed. Complete metering stations at the points of intercorrnection
provide records upon which rates and charges for exchange energy are made.
A. superpower sgstem is a vast interconnected system, which has for its
basis the maximum exploitahle water power of the country, relying oh excess
flows at one point to counteract low water at another, and havi g dteam plants
suitably located to care for deficiencies in water power.

A mglins r4rot ,.;ff;t"I; by

-.^1.tg, lgj"
srade 447r kw..rrain rcsistarce,
&710 What is the speed,tmph?
_ .2. A pump is lifting water throughS,$I to frlt a j?0mr tank. The over-all energy
efrcienc1, is 80/2. Calculate the )ength ol trme that 7.5 kw applied to the pump rvill ri-
quire to complete the job.
3. A body is being dragged uniformly along a horizontol surface by a forcc of 4,
kg acting at an angle of 20" to the horizontcl. Find the ryork done in moving ttre boay
a
km.
 PROBLEMS 3:t
4. The difference in tensior betwe€D the sides of a belt runningover&?6.mdia et€r
pulley is 25 kg.I'uliey speed 500 rpm. What powcr in kw is transmitted? I8 the direction
of the belt leaving the pulley c factor?
5. A truck "free-wheeling" at 30 kmph is stopped in 90 m by the application of s
unifolm retardiog force. Weight, l600kg, What is the magnitude of the force?
6. l{hat is the porfur of a steam iet lrmm in dia.meter moving at 750 m/s€c? Steam
condition, 1.4 Lglcm3 sb dry and osturated.
7. tr'orty perceut of the electrical input to a motor-d veD putDp is converted into
& hydraulic jet,ttooiudiameter, for the purpose of washing do*'n ashes. Find the jet
velocityia m/soo Jhe motor has a 3-phase, 22Uv, 7.'-anp rating. Power factor, 85Vo,
8. Horv much kinetic eaergy is releosed rvhcn a flyrvheel, as here described, i9
slowed from 250 rpm to 235 rpm? Nlass of flywheel is @ hyts ; radius of gymtion,S3cm'
9. A chain weighing 15 kg/m supports a tqsd qf l50O kg at its lower end. The
upper end of the chain passes around a powered drum60cm iodiameter. The weight is
120 mbelorv the drum. I{ow much mechanical energy must be applied to the drum to
raise the weightTs m?
10. A turbogenerator rotating mass has a mornent of inertia of 555 hylsimr, It is
delivering.25O0 kw at 1800 rpm. The load then suddenly increases to 2550 kw, the
developed steam power remaining unchanged. lvhat is the resulting speed in rpm after
10 sec ?
11. Prove that I kw : 14.33 kcal/min o. 8fl) kcal/hr.
12. A hoi6t is to raise a I135 kg mine cage st therateof4.5 m/s€c Mechanical efrciency
of the hoist is 92%. What is thepower in kw required to drrve at this speed?
13, IIow rnuch power is thcre in the kinetic energy of the atmosphere (demity
1.217 kg/ml) at 56 kmph wind velocity ? Consider that section that passes through a 3 .tt
diarneter circular area normal to the velocity.
14. The florv of a dveris{"25 m/s€osta site where a23 mhydrostatic head can be
created by the erection of a dem. 1\rhllt is the potential oapacity of a hydroelectric
power plant if instailed at this site? Consider that the hydraulic efficiency of energy
conversion can be 80/6, and that the electric eficiency car. be 90Vo.
15. A locomotivc js tested with a dynamometcr car coupled between the tender and
the train. Traveling over a Ievel trrck at a specd of l3O lmptlthe dynamometer Iegiste$
t0615 kg. lYhat horsepowcr is thc locomotive .tt1en delivering? On an extended run the
dyuamometer integrator gives 2945 kw hr, and over the same stretch 5215 k8 of 27920
J/g coal Nere consumed. Calculate the thcrmal.emciency of the locomotive.
16. An electric heater is to heat ll kg of oil per min from 4.5" C to 65,5" C-Specific
heat oI theoil is 2.1 J/eper'C. IIow maDy watls should this heater consum-'?
17. N{echar,ical rvork in the form of a torque of 3,16 kg qt is applied to an elcctric
generator at a speed of 1800 rpm. The machne loses some of this energy in the form
of a heat loss of 26,10 k ' per min. The rcmaindcr of the energy is traosformed to the
electrical form. Find the kilowatts of electrical poruer produced.
18. An electric motor cotrverted'70O w of electrical input into work at 58 kgm per
sec. The speed \vas 1750 rpm. Find the kgm of drivrn torque and the motor elficiency.
19. In a certain industrial process Eikg of a liquid (spec. heat: 3.56 J/8 per
'C ) are required to be hcated through 35' C in a 42-mrn period. If an immersed elec-
tric coil is used to accompiish tlris, horv many $atts will it drarv while in operation, and
what must be its rvorking resr-qtanco in ohms? (110-v circuit).
20. In a change-over from steam to elect c heating, , unit whjch had been con-
denslng 4.5t8dry and sdturated steam at 2,1 kg/cmr.each 15 min is'to lie electrically
heated lrom a 220-v circurt. How manv 12-ohn! resistorc in parallel wbuld be needed to
supplv tlre same heat ?
21, W'hat prower ia ** is represented by a flow of water from& ,cm diameter nozzle
at a velocity of 135 m/scc ?
.kJ:kilo .ioul6.
U INTRODUCTION
n. A motor receiyes 12 kw of electrical power and delivers mechani-
cefi,o,it! electtic
cal energy at the rate of lmo kgm pe! sec. What is its efficiency ?
e3. W&ter drops perpendicularly 365 m in a certain wate ail. Assuming all available
energy absorbed as heat after st king the lower pool, find rise iu temperature of the
water paSsing the falls.
24. IIow many kg-m of torque are given to a turbine shaft transmitting 30,000 kw at
1800 rpm? At 3600 rpm?
25. lYhat water horsepower(!trct.ic) is required tomis€ 1900 Uminthrough a beightof3&n?
26. A power plant serves a lactory having two 22 kw motors and teD 3.7kwmotors.
Assume the efficiency of motors 80/6, of transmrssion tre 95/e, of genorator 92%. (a)
What should the rated capacity of the generator be if it is assumed that all motors
might be delivering their rated power simultanc,ously ? (b) What should the rated
capaeity of the engine be?
27.|t 2685N kI. per hr are given to an elLgine which can convert 12Eo of t};Le
heat iuto work, what is thepowelin kwdeveloped by the enginc ?
28. The over-all eficiency of an electric system, coal pile to lights, is 111. What
fraction of a powrd of coal containing 302i0 Jig must be consumed to light I 100-w
lamp 45 min?, min?
29. A plant containing one 60Gkw and one 200-kw generating unit is being opera,ted
at rated capacity. The coal consumption at the same time is t@kg per hr. Heating
yalue of the coal is 22106 J/g. What fraction of the heat in tbe coal is coaverted itrto
useful etrelgy ?
30. Compare the heat content of 270 ml natuml gas at a, temperatule of 16'C and
a pressure of 3.O g above atmosphere with lslt I of fuel oil of 4,16691/g Gas bas
3121 J/cm! at stardard conditions oI t6"C and 1.03 kg/c6r pressure. Oil weighe ree lg7
ml.
31. A power dam creates a head of 25 m in a streamwhoa€ nomal flow is ,4200 cfs.
Hydraulic turbines that can convert g2Vo ot lhe water powcr into shaft power are in-
stalled. They are con[ected to geneBtors whose efficiency is 97.5l. What is the kilowatt
capacity of the platrt?
32. A farmer has a small stream on his property rvhich he thinks might supply
enough porver to light his buildings. The stream is gauged and found to be flowing 0.03
mr,frco, The available fall.is 2.t m. A cnall hvdraulic turbine and geoeBtor will heve
scon)ined efrcieDcy of 70lp. Lakrng the transmission line efrciency as 80y'e, hov mauy
5Gtf, lsmps can be coDnected to the Senerator simultaneously?
33. Find, by use of steam tables, the temperature of Eteam at the following gtateg:
(a)195'c superheat at 86 Lg/cm, ab(b) 85/o dry at26gl,,-m}Ig 8b(s) Dry.Ddsaturated at
7 kg/crnr ga .
34. tr'ind, by use of sceam tables, the temperatuie of steam at the {ollowing states:
(a)3.rkglcmr ab havingl4o" C superheat. (b)?39mm Hg vacuum, 95% dty. Barometer
7stmmHg. (c) Piessure of 3.2 kgrornt sb entropy oI 6.7838 J/g/k.
35, Calculate the enthalpy chauge when watrer at t5'C is converted to wet steam of
90/3 dryr,ess factor at 18 kg/cmr ab.
36, Water at t8'C andt 03 kg/6mr sb is plessurized andheated to the Bt&te ofr!ks/
cmr ob 149.C .(a)Bymeans of the usu;l approimation, find the increase of enthalpy. (b)
Allorv for subcooling of liquid, and fild the exact iDcrease of enthalpy.
37. Calcr ate, for the follorving cases, the per ceDt error in as.guming wate! to contain
the he&t of saturated liquid. (a) 42 Lg/cm? ab r2t'c (b) 84ks/cm! sbo" F. (c) 200 psis,
{3'C .
38. Calculate the entbalpy and volume of steam at6.SkglcrE!ab &rdgS7odryness factor.
39. At $hat dryness factor does s1e3mat8.8 kglcmr gah&v€ aueBtropy of 6.4488 J/8/ls
,O. A pipe line carries a flow of 5e mr/min of steam at 2stg/cmi gsrand llloc super-
t Vmin : litrci per minutc-
.lJ - kilo joulc. : l00o joulcs.
PROBLEMS 35
heat. Find the flow in k8 per min. Diagrrrrn thc interpohtion mcthod emploJ.c(l on the
steam tablcs.
41. A drum of O.tslf volunre corrtlino ster r al tu.6 kg/omt ga,gs% dry. What is
the rveight of wet stexm{i[ the drum?
42. lnteppolate for the enthahry oI steam atgt Eg/cEr sb and 412. C-Diagranl the svs-
tem of interpolation used.
43, Steam is expandeU isentroprcrlly from 10.6 ka/cmrab 95% dry, to l.Og kg/cmla,b.
Sketch the process on i-s plale. Label with properties found for the 6nal stst€.
,14, Rcpeat Prob.43 except for isothermal process.
45. Repeat Prob. 43 except for complctely throttling process.
46. Steam is cooled at coDstant pressure frcm 22fC, 2908 J/gr, until its moisture is
5.5/6. Whal aie the final entbalpr. and entropy ? Chirt solution, illustrated by labeled
sketch.
47.. Wet steam at 7 l<g/col ab is irreversibly expahded, without work, to l.O3 ka/a&i
sb, where its temperature is llSt What is the initial quolity? Chart solutron, ill'ust-
rated bY a hbeled sketch.
,fti. What is thc highcst l)ressure steam can have at ,182.C not to have a moisture
content in excess of 15lp alter a reversible adiabatic expansion to 3gmm ltrg. Chart 6olu-
tiou, illustrated by labeled sketch.
49, In a certain throttiing type st3am calorimcter, the c.lodmeter pre*ure is l.cg
kA/oEl sb; temp€ruturc, lOfC. The line steam being sampled is at ? kg/cm2 96, Wbst
ie its dryness factor? Chart solution, illustrated by a labeled sketch.
50. Steam flo{ing rdcally through a nozzlc undergocs a constant entropy expanslon.
Initial state: o.gkg/cmr 6b, 193"C Final state, 2.8 kglcar ab, Determine by chatt the
ahange ol €Dthalpy. Illustrate with sketch showrng how the chart was employed.

REFERENCE TNXTS
Heat Engines, Allen and Rursley, X,IcGran-Hill.
Stearn awl Gas E411ineering, Butterfield, Luce, and Jennings, D. Van NostEnd.
Steam, I'oucr and Intcmql Cornbush.on Engines, Cratg and Anderson, McGraw-Hill.
Applied T hermotlynarnics, I aites, I{acmillan.
Hed Pouer Fundamentals, Leonard nnd ffalcev, Pitman.
Elernents oJ Applied Energy,Morse,D. Van Nostrand.
Heat Pouer, Norris and Therkelson, flcGraw-Hiii.
Elements ol Steam and, Gas Engtneering, Potter and Caldervood, McGraw-Hill.
Elementory Heat Power. Solberg, Crorner, and Spaldrng, Wiley and Sons.
 CHAPTER 2

T"HE VARNABN-E, LOAD

]PROBN-EM

2-1 Industrial Production and Power Generation Compared. Most

of the perplexitres and complextties of modern power plant operation arise from
the inhercnt, variability ol the load demanded [.ry the users as they cach and
scvcrally rqquirc thcir s.rnall cr large bkrcks of energy in accordance with the
dcurant.ts of thcir activitics. It was pointed out in Chapter 1 that the power
plant should bc thouglrt oI as a factory for the manufacture of useful energy
froru fucls or hydraulic enclgy as the raw nraterial. Modern industrial execu-
tives havc comc to the rcalization that their porvcr plant is an imltortant branch
of tlx'ir manufacturing proccss and arc thinking of thcir power plant, not as a
lcccssaly cvil, but as anothcr productit)n department. But onc cssential and
irnpoltont diffcrcnce exists lrctween other production departrnents and the
lrorvcr plant. 'l'he pou,erpl,ant prodltct ts not completed until the instant it is
neerled, and then only in quantities eractly equal to the tnstantaneous demand.
f'hcrc is no siuplc way to warchouse an extra supply of kilowatt hours against
somc future pcriod of cxtraordinary demand, yet it is certain that such a period
will occur, for it is rarc, indeed, that a power demand is uniform. While there are
somc industries using clectrochcmical decomposition or electroplating, both
charactcrizcrl by rather steady loads, such instances are exceptions to the
gcncral rule of variablc rlemand. Consequently the accepted ideas of commodity
rnanufaoturc rnust be considerably modified in the case of kilowatt-hour pro-
dirction.
Many advantages arc to bc gained from the ability to warehouse products in
such a manncr as to prcmote a uniform rate of manufacture, Labor may be
ruost gainfully employcrl, cfficicnt routines set up, and fair rate scales de-
tcrmincrl. lrllr: invcstment capital is reduced to the minimum and plant ar.d
crluipmcnt can bc uscd to the most prcfitable advantage. Intdrdepsrtmental
exclr:ugcs may bc placcd upon a rational basis. Of course, the warehoused
:nttcrial rcprcscnts capital, tcmporarily frozen, but the interest costs on it are
slight comparerl to costs which variablc rate of manufacture presents to the
por,,'cr industry.
2-2 Ideal and Realized Load Curves. The ideal load, from the standpoint
of crlrripnrcnt nccdcrl and opcrating routine, would be one of constant magnitude
$
 IDEAI, AND IIIi,\I,IZRD I,OAD CURVIXJ 37
and stea(ly duration. Sueh an idcal load is shown in Fig. 2-1a. The cost to pro-
rlucc an clcmcntrrly arcr of tlris load crtrve (i.e., oue kilowatt hour) could be
lrom 1/2 1o r[ of th.rt to l)ro(h]cc thc sams unit undcr thc more frequently
roalizcd condition illustratcd in Fig. 2-1b. Hence the problcm of variable krad
is a vital onc, Ior, from tlrc industrial viewpoint, the cost of manufactured
articles includcs an energy chargc as an clement of no inconsiderable proportion,

-rr|ltl
TIII trI
ITIIt II Ittl
ro
I
6 III
rlr ,
8
6
LN
F I
I t
!r trI \
I
3 I

rm
I

I1224 6A lot2 24 6rlr \

i; I I I

o
8 t0t2 12246AtO12246 8ro12
No.n Noon
6) Id.ot Lood (b) Rrotiz.d Lood
Frc. 2-1 Ideal und realizcd load curvc. cornparcd. Note: Each represents the stme
qu.ntity of energy.
utilc from thc utility vicrvpoint, thc chicf concern is to put each kilowatt hour
on the transmissir-rn linc at as lotv a production cost as possible. The reason for
this diflelcnce in unit output cost is to be found lot only in the improved oper-
ating conditions, such as turbincs and generators operating at their bcst
cfficiency, or uniform rate of driving the boilers, but may be even more the
result of lower first cost of equipment, brought about by simplificd control and
the elimination of various auxiliaries and
regulating dcviccs. 2.O
I

As any porvcr plant opcrator is rvell

aware, the shapc of thc actual load curve
departs far frorn this irleal. I{c also knows I
l
that its mountainous outline is of trc- 0
mendous importance to him as a guicle I
T lr -t
J
and index to his larious duries con-
I
nected with the gencration and dclivery I I r
of elcctrical encrgy to the users. \\rhat, I I
then, is thc fundarnental condition which 2 46 8 ror2 ? 46 8 rO 12
produces the variablc, rathcr. than the Tima
stcady, load? Ftc. 2-2 Individual customers' load
The generaL conclusion is that indus, curyes.
liol prorcsses onrl ,lonLeslic uses impose
highly uariable rlem.ands upon the capacity ol the plant. The exceptions do uot
disprovc this as a basic opcrating condition of rnost equipurcnt. Even though
the charactaristics of thc demafld made by any onc uscr will hardly bc under-
stood until his conditions of use are fully investigated, we might suppose, for
purposes of illustration, that this has been accomplished. Then Fig. 2-2 n.right
rcpresent thc domcstic donands of trvo adjacent residences. There is, appar-
cntly, no great sir,rilarity hctwccn them, nor would one expect a sirnilarity unless
he kncw the lamily lifc of thc two scts of occupants to be similar. Furthermore,
38 THE VARIABLE LOAD PROBLEM
the next reeidence might have a still diffcrcnt fonn of loacl culve, and so on for
still other regidences. This is all the lesultrof thc natural flct of the indivitlual
difrerences of persons. Hou'ever, as the numbel of conneetcd customers increases,
the efrect of individual difrercnces is submerged to the general use conditions of
the community, and the resulting load curvc is not rrnlike that of the average
in any other community where similar living conditions obtain. This fact is
illustrated in Fig. 2-3.
This similarrty will be apparent only where the number of connected users
is large enough to smooth out the individual factor, and it also requires that no
one individual load be large enough to be considerable in comparison with the
sum of the others. Consequently, gener&tors serving one industry, or iust & few
large industries, will meet a demand which can be predicted only after s careful
survey of the industrial processes, this survey including not only demand, but
also diversity factors. The demand upon generators serving a community of

|!ITTII t- r-II
----rr
r-I-r-
IIIIII -- I IIIIT'
r IIIIII
--raIr-r
.T\III
IT\\TI
IIIIIT IIIT..l' 30 ITITIII"II\\tI
--r---r2--,rrr t - -IlIIrIIrrl\!I
II!IiIIII"TI\I'
-r-r-r--M
--irl-rr-
IITF,TTZII!]II,I
ll-r!t,
-!-
rrr-rrrrt
IIIII'II'IIT'T
/-tlr
2 J_-----4t-=,!tr-lr
z-l--!6aa-lW.----ll 200 iIrIttI-Irrratlrt -
l rII'lI'IIIITI! I :, --t-'-Irrt
r= t-. 4/ r r Ir\!
I -l/'I-a
-ra.F.-.
Y -rlil!'--rrrr-rr
:.r7lrIIrt--rt Y rail:arr---rrtra
-.t;=a:i--Y/-IIIll
II''III-I
roo -----t----r-
TITIIITIIITT II
..TIIIITIITT
IITIIITITIIlt
EU-rrtE-r-
ITII IIIIIII'
I-
IIIIIII'ITII .I'I IIIII'-I
r----rrrtlr-
t z46 a ro r2M 2 46 8 rO t2 122164 ior2Mz468lore
July O.c.mb.r
Frc.2-3 A comparison of the actual average load curves of trvo torvns A and B of
about 4000 popuiation each, situated 45 miles apart, and having simila! community
life. Both are served by municipally owned and operated Diesel plants.

residences, or a business district, etc.;-could be predicted with a Isir degree of

approximation by an examination of load curves for similar service.
Unusual conditions of service are clearly reflected in the corresponding load
curves. Sudden thundershoryers which darken the skies about the time of maxi-
mum power demand superimpose a heayy lighting demand on it, producing, in
som€ metropolitan areas, an extraordinary peak. Holiday crowds may tax the
electrically motivated transportation equipment and rcflect their presence in an
unusually large railway load. Daylight saving creates a queer ofrset of one hour
in the time at which the peak oicurs. In many cases daylight saving diminished
the magnitude of ]"he peak by creating a diversity between the times of maxi-
mum power and maximum lighting demands. Some companies maintain what
is, in effect, a three-dimensional graph ol kw vs hr per day vs days per year by
plotting the daily load curves upon cardboard, cutting away the cardboard so
as to leave the load outline, and stacking these in chronological order. The
resuit is a highly interesting topography of mountains and valleys representing
the load conditions for the year. Fig.2-4 is a photograph of a public display
model consturcfotl !for--" th" profile exhibited by the year's aecumulation of
 TERMS AND FACTORS 39
cards, Btacked in their filing case. It will be noted that, with the exception of a
few uaueugl days, probably caused by cloudy weather as just explained, there
are no sbrupt changes; that is, the ellect of individual differerrces snd of varia-
tion of daily aetivities has been completely Bubmerged to the efrect of mass
action.
2-3 Tcrms and Factors. The variable load problem has injected into thc
language of power plant men a number of terms which need definition. The
basie informatiou is, of cour"oe, Che operating data of demanded load plotted
against time sequence. This is commonly referred to as a load czrue and usually

^rr,.
2.{ A mounrain ranse *rr*"Jrl'IJ#rl;.
appesrs with
.kilowatts- as.the power unit and hours as the time unit, the se-
quence beirg the 24 hr beginning with midnight. The most important variations
ot thrs curve are the monthly and annual load curves, each of which is the
average of the daily load. curves orler the period named. The monthllj. load
curve is eometimes used in establishing rates; the annual lo:d curve for
smusl load fs,ctor. The load duration .rir", ,.ufrl h n"anciai stuaies, is oU_
tai.ned from the same data as the daily load curves for one year (g760 hr).
The ordinates of this curve may extend lrom O to maTdmum demand in kw or
Irom O to maximum demand. The abscissa reaches from 0 hr (the length
-1O0/o
of_-tlr9 eeak demand) to 8260 hr. The number of hours during which
9{^tjTe
1000 kw,2000 kw,.39U
I*,etc., is demanded is recorded from.the rtally loatl
crrrves, then,totaledfor the year and plotted as the loori duration auua.
iletce,
the rnterpretation of point ,4 (see Fig. 2-S), is that 12,000 kw were demarded
for 5256 hr of the year, or that, throrrgh OO2 ot ttre yL., not more than
40/o
40 THE VARIABLE LOAD PROBLEM
of the maximum demand was rcquircd. If a ccrtain standby unit of the station
had been called upon to carry all loads above 18,000 kw, the load factor for
that unit could bc found by dividing thc arca obc expressed in kw hr by that
unit's maximum demand (12,000 kw) times its hours of operation; that is, the
length bc mcasuted in hours (2190).

P.r C.nt of th. Y.or

o ro 20 30 40 5060 70 80 90

r ititTTT.I
30 roo
90
24 \ 80
,
: I ^b _IT l I

t-
I
70
60

2
i+il
llll
t 50 3>
40 I
30
TTI 20
:
6
-t l IfT
_T_l t
T] IIII to
o
o o
o
Hours df th! Yaor
Frc. 2-5 Load dnration crlrve.

As was mentioned in conncction with Fig.2-1, two load curves may represent
thc samc kw hr production, yet the unit cost of production for onc be more than
for the other. Some information othcr th6n thc magnitudc of kw hr energy pro-
duccd is necded to describe an operating condition. Evidently the relation of
the pr-,ak load to the average in some
rneasure satis6es this requirement.
This relationship is cxpressed in the
loatl lactor. The daily, monthly, or
' 24nt annual load factor is the average
load ovcr the time specified divided
by thc maximum peak. This peak is
l sehlorrr llknn as the maximum in-
T[ITT stantancous valuc but rather as
thc maximum 15-min, half-hour, or
fTt ft
I

hour-long peak.
r'D' Load lactor must not be con-
fic. 2-0 fuscd with "power factor," with
Ixrrrrl frrr:tor fronr m.rsrrrcments
ort thc lojrd ctrve. rvirich it hns littlc in common. Power
fac(or is cmployed to describc cer-
ttin tcchlical aspects of a-c circuits iinrl hrs no mcaning in variable load
trolrcnclatutc.
'llrc cffcct of the submergcncu of indivirlual difrerence anrl the effect Of
lgoup or comrnuniiy difrerencc arc also carcrl for bv variablc loa,i nomcnclature.
TERMS AND FACTORS 4I
The manner in which the energy output of a single power plant is subdivided
8nd sent to thousands of individual customers is diagrammed in Fig. 2-7. First,
the enerry is sent to s'nbstations which are located at the ends of the primary
distribution syslem. Feeders, which lead out from the substations, may each
supply several distribution transtormers, only one of which (per feeder) is
actually included in the diagram. Each transformer is connected by short, low-
voltage lines to the systems of one or more customers.
Now each customer has a "connected load" that is the sum of the continuous
ratings of all the equipment and outlets on the customcr's circuits. For example,
the connected load for the distribution trarrsfomrer shown on Feeder No. 1 is
the sum of the connected loads oI customers, a, b, and c. A cu*,omer's demand
lactor is his actual maximum demand divided by his connected load. As in the

P O WER PLAI'IT

S U BS TATIONS

F EO E R S 6

o T RI B T! O N ANSFO ER S

cusT0MERs- 0oMEsrtc, tNDUSTRTaL, BusrtiEss, ETc

Frc. 2-7 Elements oI an electric power sysrem.

case of peak load, the time interval for maximum demand measurement can
be a quarter, half, or full hour. In consideration of the variabie, even random
manner gl use of electric energy by the hundreds of thousands of customers
located at the ends of the distribution $ystem one would judge that normal
diversificatiou o{ use would mitigate against simultaneous existence of peak
loads on the components of a system led from a common source. Thus the peak
load on the distribution translormer would be expected to be less than the sum
of the peak loads of customers o, b, and c, for o's peak might occur at 11:00 e.v.,
6's at 1l:50 e.rr., and c's at 1:30 p.M.
The diversity factor between customers gives numerical expression to the
ratio of the sum of the individual peaks to their joint peak load. Diuertity
lactor is the sum of the individual maximum demands of the subdivisions ol a
system taken as they may occur during the daily cycle, divided by the maxinum
simultaneous demand of the systern. The "system" may be a group cf custoners
served by r certain transformer, I group of transformers serwed by a feeder
42 TEE VARIABLE LOAD PBOBLTM
Toble L1. TI?ICAL DEMAND trACtORS
Type of Consumer FoAar
t kw........ 1.00
Residence Lighting *kw........ 0.m
{ Over 1 kw... 0.50

Rest&ur&lrts. .. ... 0.70

Stores and oftcee. . 0.70
ThesterE 0.60
Coomercial Lighting
Small induetry. . . 0.60
Schoola, churches. 0.55
Ilotels. . . . 0.50

7.5 tw ... 0.75

General Power Service
7.5-15 kw . . 0.65
15 k*-75 kw 0.55
Over 75 kw 0.50

Tzble 2-2. TYPICAL DMRSITY I'ACTORS

Resid,encc Cotumocia,l Gen tol
Liahting Lightinq Pat:et Sovbe
Between con8umer6 34 1.5 1.5
Between transformers 1.3 1.3 1.3
Between feeders 1-2 t.2 1.2
Between substationB 1.1 1.1 1.1

etc. Since individual variations have diminishing effect as one goes farther
from the ultimate consumer in making measurements, one should expect de-
creasing numerical values of diversity factor as the power plant end of the
system is approached. Typical diversity lactors between the different elements
of the system shown in Fig. 2-7 are sct forth in Table 2-2.
Load and demand factors are always less than unity; diversity factors,
more than unity. High load and diversity factors are desirable qualities.
By way ol explanation of the use of these statistical factors in predicting
load, the maximunr individual demands'of customers o, b, and c are the products
of the connected load of each and an approprlate demand lactor. The maximum
demand on the transformer is the sum of o, b, and c's peak loads divided by
the diversity factor berweeu consumers. Similarly, the maximum demand on
Feeder No. I is the sum of the peak loads on the translormers connected to it
divided by the diversity factor between transformers. Likewise diversification
between feeders is recognized when obtaining substation peaks; and substation
diversification when predicting maximum load on the power plant.
Another term which is useful in variable load studies is the "plant capacity
factor." Since the lodd and diversity factors are not involved with the reserve
capacity of the plant or system, a factor is needed which will measure the re-
serve, likewise the degree of utilization of the installed equipment. This need is
met by the plant capqcitu tactor, which is defined as the actual energy produe-
tion divided by the maximum possible energy that might have been produced
during the same period. Thus the annual eapacity factor would be the annual
kilowatt hours produced divided by the kilowatts of plant capacity times hours
 .IERMS AND FACTORS €
of the ye&r. The difrerence between load and capacity factors.is an indication
of reserve capacity. A modification of capa,city lactor is obtained by using only
the actual number ol hours the plant was in operation. This is the ,,plant use
factor," defined as follows. Plant Use Factor is the annual kilowatt hours pro-
duction divided by the kilowatts of capacity times number of hours plant was,
in operation.
Example 1: A daily load curve which exhibited & 15-min peak oi 6520 kw is
draw'n to scales of I cE : 2 hr rod 1 cm - 500 kr+The area under the curve is measured
by platrimeter ald found to be 48.12 qnr. The Ioad factor based on the 15-min peak
will be found.
Each square cm represeDts 5(D X2 : lfiD kw hr.
Average loa.d - 4.72 x l0m/24 : 2030 kw.
Load factor - 2030/6520 : 0.312.

- Example 2: At the end of a power distributior system a certain feeder supplies

{our distribution transformerc, each one supplying a group of customers whosj con-
nected loads are listed as follows:
T8ANSToRMER I Tn,rNsFonut:n 2 TR.{NSFoBMEE 3 Tnalsr.on'rur:n 4
General Power
Service and
Commercial Residence Store Lighting Residence
Iighting Liglrting and Power Lighting
o;7.5 kv, 5 kw e: 5kw j; 10 kw, 3.7 k* m. 15 kw
b. 5.5 kw, 4 kli N 4kw ,tr 8 kw, 18.5 kf,, ,r. 5 kiv
c. ll k* 9. 8kw l. ,l kw o. 2 krv
d.r3.7kw, 2 kw h: 15 kw pr c riw
ir 20 krv
Using data from Tablcs 2-l and. 2-2, the maximum demand on the fecder rvill be pre-
dicted. The individual meximum demands of the group of customem connecteti to
transformer l are obtained.rvith factors from Table 2-1, as follows:
a: (75 /O.72*\ X0.65+5x0.m : 9.77 krv
b: (5.1 /o.72) x0.75+4X0.d) : 8.27 kl'
c: (.rrl0.72) x 0.t5 : 9.93 kw
d: (3.7 /o.72') xo.7E+ 2 x 0.60 - 5,05 krv
Total 33.02 kw
The diversity factor between conrumers for this type of service is (from Table 2-2)
.t.5, Hcnce peel load for transiurmer I is 33.02l1.5 = 22.02 k$.
In 4 similar manner the other trlnsformer loads are determined to be:
Tolttl Sinultaneout
Transformer 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 krv
Transformer 3....... .. . . . .. 33.3E kw 22.35 kw
Transformer 4.... .. . .. .
.. . 13.50 kw 3.86 krv
The diversity fsctor hetweeri transformers is 1.3.

f,laxinrum feeder lona - 22.02 + 1.4t-_! 22,X5 + 3'86 kv

-12-E

* Motor efrcieacy assumed uniformly 727, for simplitication,

44 THE VARIABLE LOAD T'ROBLFJM
Example 3: The load shos'n by the duration curve of Fig.2-5 is to be carricd b1'a
bascJoad station haviDg r cup.rcity of 18,000 krv, and a studby station having o
capacity of 20,000 kw. The annull lord factors, use fxctors) and.crprcity factors of
trhese tNo power stations Nill bc cl'uhuted.
The shaded &rea of the figure represeuts the annual output of the sttndby station.
TLe remaining arca under the duration cun'c is the base-iord strtion output. Thcsc
areas have to be measrrred and iltcrpretcd in terms of krv hr, This being done, it is
Iould that
Annual standby station output - 7,350,000 krv hr
Annual b:rse-load station output = 101,350,0fi) kw hr'
Peak load on the standby station is.shown to l,c 12,000 kw. Hours thrt the stardby
station was in use during the year are measured frorn the figure and found to be 2lg0
hr.
Standby station factors:

Lortl factor :,1.31'P,,

l2,uuu x 2r9{J
: o.rrs

7 50 000
Ilse factor :
20,000 x 21-:0.167
9U

: 7,350,000
Capacity factor :0.043
20,000 x 8760
Base-losd si&tion factors :

rocd rocror : t91150

I8,{r00 x
999,
870r)
: o.un,

Sioce this base-load etation has no rcserves above peak load, and is i[ continuous use,
it"s Use and Capacity Factors are also 0.642.

2-4 Effect of Variable Load on Power Plant Design. The necessity of

Iraving to cope with a vadable load in large measurc influcnces ihc character-
istics and mcthod of usc of power plant equipmr.n1.. I3y l,ay oi illu,.tration,
cousider a steam central . station. The essential elements inr.olved in vrriable
pou.cr adjustmcnts are diagramrncd in Fig. 2-8.
Air, fucl, ancl water are thc ralv mate als for -stcarn porver. To protluce
powcr variably it follows that the supply of these matcrials rvill be rcquired to
be corrcsponrlingiy varied. Thc scqucncc of control mcy bc followecl by refer-
cncc to thc diagram. Assunc that the power required at thc customer's motoi
has just bccn increascd. Obviously tlic incrcascd torque at thc motor pulley
rnust bc soon follorvcd by an incrcased {lou'of fircl. lir, and rvatcr to thc steam
gcnerator. llorvc.rer, thc rcsponsc is not instrDtalcous; tinlc lags are introduced
bt thcrmal storagc in th€ steanr lnd rrate. containcd in tlrt boilcr and in the
r<xrl bcd and hot walls of tlrc furnacc. Although thc govcrning response is
nron'rpt from load to turbine. stcam gcncrltor rcsponscs are considerably
slorvcr.
'Ihc first cvcnt lrlrich occurs aftcr gn incrcassl drivcn torque is put on the
nrotor pulJcy is a slorving dorvn of thc rrrtor.'l'his skrwing down is thc mcans
by rvhich thc common inrluclion rnotcr is loarlcrl. Thc efrcct is to incrcase the
frcrpcncy of thc rctor circuit an(l inducc thcrcin morc current. \{ore current is
EFFECT OF VARIABLE LOAD ON POIVER PI,ANT DESIGN 45
then drawn from the supply line by the stator winding. Hence, dhe slight decel-
eration of thc motor totor under increased load has been the means of trans-
ferring thst increased load to the supply mains, and tirence through transmission
linc, substation, stal,ion buscs, and generator leads to lhe gencrator itself.
This increased current flow in the gencrator stator winding is immediately
felt as s greater electromagnetic drag on the generator rotor. The added torque
or braking action on the revolving portion of the turbogenerator in turn reduces
its speed momentarily.
The lower rotational speed is insufficient to hold the weights of the spring-
loaded, centrifugally operated governor in the position they had before the load
increase, and so, under the influence of the spring, thcy move to a new position.
Their movement is mechanically or otherwise converted into a steam valve
movement, admitting morc steam and increasing the turbine speed to its normal

I
-'l

s
Frc. 2-8 Diagrarn of elements responsive to variable load.

value. This governing action may bc direct, but is oiten accomplished through
the intermediary of a pilot valve and motor in the case of a unit where con-
sidera,hle force is needed to.move the governor valvc, but where a lightweight,
sensitive governor is desired.
The governing response through to this point has follow'ed rapidly the
original change of load. Beyond this point changes are not so rapid, for the
steam generator must operate rvith unbalance between heat transfer and steam
demand long enough to sufi'er a siight but definite decrease of steam pressure.
This is because steam pressure variation is the primary signal used by most
automatic combustion control systems. The controller, be it automatic or
human, must then increase fuel, air, and water flow in the proper amount, thus
affecting the operation of practicalll- er.ery piece of auxiliary equipment in the
plant.
46 TIIT] \'AITIAI]LU LOAD PITOBI,IIf,I
In the modcrn power plant thcrc is rnuch cquiprncnt dcvotcd cntircty to
adjusting tlrc rates of supply air, Iucl, antl rvat{.,r to thc boilcls in accrilrlirrcc
t.rf
with thc r.leruands ruadc upon thcm for steatn. lifficicrrt combustion is rcarlily
obtaincd under stcatly stctming conditions. \\'ith fluctuating steam demanrl, it
becomcs vcry difficult to sccure gootl combustion and stcady steam prcssut.c,
because efrcicnt combustion requircs the coordination of so many various
services. Although it is not expcctcd that thc stcam prcssure will ahvays bc kcpt
to within as close rcgulation limits as, for example, turbine spced, yct a scvcr;
pressurc fluctuation results in lorrcrcd efficiency of both boiler and turbinc. The
coordination just mentioncd is not as simple as thc supplying of morc air and
fuel rvhen more stearn is rcquircd, thc rcason being that thcre is a ccrtain time
lag element present in cornbustion that is not prcscnt in electrical gcnerators.
Although this picture of control for variable load is necessarily elemcntary,
enough has been statcd to indicatc thc irnportant effect of load variation on
plant dcsign.

.. 40 A-oi.3.l€.gina roo 6
I I I
8-Cdi.n.ing S.|,..or Turbin.- E,
E(J C.Frohcir Tvo. Hvd.oulic I

30
T,,.h,^. '' | 't t -E 90
6t
u6 20 /, B
1 80
P
.:
!r c,
Op.rotiag Ronlr t
F ro l, 10 E
o 7ZZ Full 4
Lood
tr'rc. 2-9 Characte stic effciency.Joad curves.

The operating characteristics built into equipment are modified by variable

load requirements. The turbogenerator might be cited as an example. Un-
doubtedly, turbogenerators could be coustructed to operate at greater emciencies
than they do if it could be certain that they would actually operate at the
designed load points. But, as we knorv, the ordinary load is anything but
steady; hence a flat-topped eficiency curve is more desirable than a peeked one,
even though it be obtained at the sacrifice of some of the economy poseible
under ideal conditi,ers. Turbogenerator efrciency curves usually take the form
of a curue, convcx upwards, rather flat lrom /2 to 5/a ruted lozd. Fig. 2-9 shows
typical thermal efrciency curves for difrerent types of power-generating units.
The range of load through which the units operate will depend, in a large
tneasure, upon the number and the capacity of the units installed. If the num-
ber and size of units have been selected to fit a known or correctly predicted
load curve, it may be possible to operate them at or near the point of maximum
emciency. But a close fit of the operating curve can usually be secured only by
subdividing the total plant capacity into several power units of diflerent sizes.
This is partially illustrated in Fig.2-10. The block outline shorrirrg the capacity
bcing used would more nearly coincide with the load curve if more units of
EFFECT Otr'VARIABLE LOAD ON POWER PLANT DESIGN 47
smallcr size had been selectcd and the smaller units could be loaded somewhere
near thcir most efficient operating point. However, it must be remembered that
thc inyestment cost per kilo\yatt of capacity increases as the size of the unit
decreases. Probably duplicate units will not meet the load requirements as well
as units of dissimilar capacities, but.there is to be considered the saving in firrt
cost brought about by duplication of sizes and dimensions of pipes, foundations,
wires, insulators, etc., when identical units are instelled. These facts must neces-
sarily modify the selection of number and size of units of turbogenerator or
boiler capacity. What has been said of the steam plant applies in like manner
to the Diesel and hydrBulic plants, although the application of these principles
to the latter needs to be done in conjunction with a study of stream flow and
reservoir area.

@
t@o
lr
rl
800
PLAf{T PLANT 8 rl
lir
A

600 IL I
o
rt@ IIITT
rtlt\
l + rIII
I
200
o
ITII
t2za 2 a6€ ro
I
122468lor
IIT! z
lio.
12
ti n. =
Frc. 2-10 Selection of number and size of units to 6t the load curve.

Example: To illustrate sorne of the pritrciples underlying selection of number and

size of units, assume that the load rvhose variation is shorvn in Fig.2-10 is to be 6up-
plied from E Diescl porver plant, the equipment of which is to be selected lrom a certaiD
line of ergines rvhich the manufacture! has available iu 625-kw, 500-kw, 275-kw, and
150-kw sizes.
Of several possible selections rvhich could carry the load those illustrated in Fig.
2-10 are typical. Call these alteruates Plaut A and Plant B. One 625-kw unit sDd two
275-kw uuits are selected to compose Plant A, rvheleas t$'o 500-kv units and otre ls0-kw
unit are selected for Plant B. The operating schedules assumed cal be read from tbe
curves and are as follows:

Pr,axr A Pr-,t{r B
12:00 Mrq.,.... ... . . .No. 3 is operotiug 12:00 MrD..... . ..No,2 is operating
7:15 A.M............Start No. 2 1:00 -r.x.. . . . . . . Start No. 3; stop No. 2
12:00 . .... . ..Stop No.2 4:00 r.u..... . ..Sta No.2;stop No. 3
1:15 ".M....
P.Ir.... .. .. . .. .Strd No. 2 4:00 P.lr.... . . . . Stert No. 1
5i0O ... . . . .Sta* No. I
.. 8:00 P.u........Start No. 3
10:30 ".u...
P.M.. . . ... . . . . .Stop No. 1 9:15 P.M........Stop No. 3
Il:30 P. ............Stop. No. 2 10:40 P.M........Stop No. I
Sincc coJrocity /ocror measures the percentage of maximum plant output that the
loarl crrrvo nilons thc units to prodrrce, it $ill be calcrrlatcd for comparative purpo..es.
L/tclaclor rvill also be calculated, for it slrorvs to vhat extent the uuits approach their
48 THE VARIABLE LOAD PROBLEM
full capacity du ng the time they are it service. The area under the load curve repre-
sents 10,620 krv hr. The average load is, therclorc,'10,62-0/24 = 4A kw. Peak load of
ls.lxiD duration is 1050 kw.
The load lactor = 442/lO5O = 42i1o
Oo account of the use of several units, the use factor wilt be higher tban the load
factor, but because the number is limited, the capacity factor will be lower.
The kw hr rcpresenteC by tbe rectangular outliDe6 arc Ee&suredt and found to be
14,970 kw hr for Plant A; 14,400 kw hr for Plant B.

Pr,,rxr A Pr,,rxr B

Capscity factor 10,620 _ 10 620

:
24(625 + 275 + 275) - ^,,,
"''' ' 24(500+500+1m)
0.385

Use f&cto!
10,620
: 0.735
ffi-o.zo, 14,470

2-5 Efrect of Variable Load on Power Plant Operation. As was pointed

out, in the preceding section, the variable load condition imposes certain desigir
lequirements. When the power plant has been built and connected to a distribu-
tion system, the variable load condition impoees operating problems. Beginning
rvith the assignment of genera,ting units to service, all the operation activities
on dorvn to the final financial cnntact with the customer, rvbich is the .,rate"
used to compute his bill, variability of the load is influential in shaping operat-
ing procedure.
1'he reliability of modem prime movers and other power plant equipment is
incredibly good. "Availability for scrvice" of central station units is usually
over 95/o, meaning that thcy rvere unavailable for use less than 5/o of the
time. This desirable quality is helped along by appropriate inspection and main-
tenance at such times as the plant load allows the equipment to be idle.
Public utility systems commonly remain on the "readiness-to-serve,, basis.
This plays a much more important part in the operation of an isolated plant
than in one which is part of a power system network. The industrial plant is
usually an isolated one, but absolute dependability of service is not always
regarded so highly. Furthermore, management can arrange for such plants to
receive notification frour production departments before some large motor,
furnace, or other load is connected. Operators of public service plants cannot
expcct this consideration: instead, they must keep certain of their reserve
capacity in readiness-to-servc. This is called the "spinning reserve', and
reprdsents equipment standing by a.t, normal operating conditions of speed,
pressurc, ctc. Normalll, thc spinning rcscrvc should be at least equal to the
largest unit actively carrying load. \Yhile "floating" on the line this reserve
causes standby expense from steam, oil, and water consumption, wear, supcr-
vision, etc. The burden of these expenses falls on the customer public, of course,
*By planimeter or by the sum of individual rectangles.
EFFECT OF VARIABLE LOAD ON POWER PLANT OPERATION 49
becsuee that is the kind of aewice it wants-electrical response without prior
notification.
The veriable load placed upon the electric generstors oI a power plant, is
mirrored in the steam demand on the boilers and on various other components.
Because the operating characteristics of such equipmOnt are not exa,ctly linear
with load the reflection is somewhat distorted. The following example will point
out in a graphical way how the characteristic plant curve of steam required at
various caa be used to produce s, boiler load curve.
)qads
I

I
;
,
'/'/'/zJaal
^u ^ ,b
I
>- z 8oil.r lood
lorlo . sl.om i€ight I
,.ffi,
I
E
'"m.ru%%
,
%
ataltt
+

I
II
II
I

t n ru,DL
I
.t-- :Y rITI II
J
I
)l
%D
Pldnf lood
lo.!o ' €leclric oh.rgy )

Sl6om- lg. per hr. Time-hrs.

Fro. 2-11 Graphical solution of a derivatiye of the plant load curve. In this example
a, boiler load curve is comtructed by use of the steam flow versus load characteristic of
the plant.

Exampte: A plant load curve is given, togethe! with a plant characteristic curve
showing rate of steam consuxrption ys plart output. These are plotted ilx fig.2-11 side
by side with a common ordin&te-kilovatt6. Points are eelected on the plant load curve.
Then each is projected vertically aud horizontally, the latter defining a Bte&m consump-
tiou which is graphically brought up and erecled over the former, so fixiag a point on
the boiler load curve. The area under the plant load curve represents the daily produc-
tion of electdcal energy, whereas that under the boiler load curve is the daily steau
consumptioa. I'or annual studies a load duration curve replaces the daily load cuwe,
Ag electrical power supply systems grew and stations were interconnected,
the individual plant superintendents ceased to have sufficient cognizance of the
6ntire generation and load characteristics of the system to make the best use
of the equipment under their control. Both for safety and for achieving the
utmosl economy in the whole system, a'certain amount of operating super-
60 THE VARTAtsL!] LOAD PROBLEM
vision rlas concentrated in a "load dispatclrcr." Ihc load dispatchcr q.as at first
prirnarily a load forecastcr llho arlvised tLo supclintentlcnts of thc porvcr stntirurs
of rvlrtt to expect. Suhscquontly, as systcur! becaurc rnorc complcx, thc rlis-
Jrttcher's duties and importancc incrcrsctl, 'l'hc loacl dispatcher klorr.s intr-
rurately the thcrma,l and clcctrical clraractcristics of thc stations rnrl irtcrcon-
necting trahsmission liues. Hc-lras also, befote hin, cotnpletc mctcr infonlatior\
rega,rding the load on thc systern. \\'hcn thc systcm is cornpriscd of onc basc
load station ancl one or tnorc pcak load stttious, thc ioarl. disprtching is rlricfll.
rtistributing the load in cxccss of base load pllDt crprcity to thc best pc:rk loarl
plontl; but rvhen there aro a number of nlants in tiro svstc,n ull of rvhich efe
ncarly ctluully cffrcicrrt, thc best disttilrution of lortrl lccirrircs rrirrclr s1uri.r, and
full knowlctlqo ol systen geoglaphy anrl tcclrnolrrSr'.

f'.

e
II I ril;
t: K-rI6
e s, &

Vnrini@ El.cttic L. Poott Co

Frc ll A lorut disfntrhing center.

To assist the dispatcher in a quicli visual cxaminatitn of the condition of

the electric system, dispatch boards came into use. At first these rvere large-
scale, single-line drarvings of the whole electrical system rvith colored pins or
plugs to indicate location and condition of srvitching points. From this bcgin-
ning, more elaborate panels with inset strips representing lines, colored lamps
reprcsenting the switches, and the likc were set up to assist the dispatcher. Such
boarde were found to sufrer from inflexibility in lollowing system changes, &rd
receni trends to simpler more flexible arangements are noted.
To keep the dispatcher fully informed as to load conditiqns on the system,
telemetering instruments. which record loads on generating stations and tie
lines are mounted in plain view of the dispatcher, and be is furnished with a
private telephone system with which to communicate with operators in generat-
ing plants and substations. 1'his syslem, rvhich makes use ol the power trans-
mission lines and a high-frequency c6rricr current, is sometimes called the
"high-line phone."
METHODS OF MEETING TitE LOAD I,
2-6 Methods of Meeting the Load. The specif.c tnethods o! meethtg the
uar*rble load probLem are irreoocably inuolved uith the f.nanci,al or econonic
aspect of energy protluction, lor the peaks adcl but little to the gross incone ol
the pLant antl m,ag actualLy detract lrom, the net- "fhe ttclltotls which har.c bccn
cither succcssfully tried or proposed, or are under experirncntation at present,
are listcd Lcre without any special significonce being attachcd to thcir orrhr.
Some of tlrcm apply to carrying pcak loads only, and others tend to cqualiza
all variations as tvcll as can'y pcaks. Thcy arc:
1 Complctc hydro dcvclopmcnt of a strcaur.
2. Stcam aml hydro plants in parallcl opcration.
3. ()peration of plants with'thcrmal cfficicncics infcrior to thc more rurxlcnr
plants and thc usc of ,,bsolcte equipmcni.'
4. Purchasc of encrgy from ncighboring systcrns.
5. Installation of pcak load Diesel cngincs or gas tullrirt:s.
6. Use of storagc battcrics (electrical accunlrlirto's r.
7. ['sc of slcarr cccuulrlators.
8. Developtncnt of irighJreatl hydraulic uccrrrurrlrtor sitcs.
Thc ideas incorporatctl in cach of thcsc rnethotls rvi'll lrc discussecl, using thc
sarnc topic numbcrs as alrovc.
1. Tlrc possiblc hydroelectric deuelopntent sitcs along thc flory-of a strciun
are of tl-o types, namcly, those suitablc for run-of-the-river plants and thosc
offcring natural impoundment basins for stora,gc plants. In gencral, thc run-of-
thc-r'ivcr plant is cheaper than thc storagc plant of equal capacity, but it
suffcrs seasonal vari&tion of output rnole or less proportional to the variation
of stream flow.
If all the run-of-the-rivcr plants were locatcd upstream from the storagc
plants, they would be operated continuously on a base load plan, because, were
they idle, their small reseivoirs rvould quickly ovcrflorv and watcr I'ould bc
wasted over the crest gates. If, howcvcr, thcy are located bcts'een storagc
plants,,the run of the rivcr, as far as they are concerned, is just vhct thc
storage plants are passing on to thcm. Hencc, locatcd downstream from a stor-
age plant, a run-of-thc-rivcr phnt will prorlucc an incrcase in output whcn thc
storage plant incrcases its output. With a dcvelopment approxlmating full
stream control, variablc dcmand can bc mct by holding back this or that
storage plant, letting othcrs take morc of thc load in accordrncc s'ith theit
rcspective locations rclativc to thc nrn-of-the-river plants, and also in nccord-
ance with the state of deplctign of the storagc rcservoirs, the whole being so
coordinated by centralizcd data and control that a minimum of water is
wasted over spillways or crests.
2. This is only a brief introduction to thc theory of parallel opelation of
steonT and, hydro plants. Considerable publishcd rnatcrial is ar-ailahle on this
topic. The conditions undcr rhich the hydro plants rre clccted rre highly indi-
vidual and the manncr in whrch thcy are opcrated in parallel with steam
plants to meet the daily and scasonal load variltions rvill be, in each case. the
logical outgrowth of thosc system conditions which havc sLaped thenselves iut<r
being with the growth of load. These facts prcscnt a cornbination of circurn-
stances ryhich have developcd difrerent principlcs of paralleling the two typg5
52 THE VARIABLE LOAD PROBI,II\T
of plants in almost evcly systcrl. Thcre are, lrorvcvcr, a fcrv principlcs tliat rnay
be gcnerally applied.
In many hydro sites, land damagc nntl the cost, oI darn and hcadlolks
constituto much of the cost of dcvc'loprucnt so that a peak load plant, in rvhich
the capacity ol the plant is much gleatcr thau that apl)arcntly justified by the
strearu flov, presents the bcst, cconomic utilization of thc sitc. To illustrare this,
s'e shall supposc a system supplicd by a 100,000-kw station to bc rcquiring
urore iustalled capacity antl thc prcdictcd pcak load for tLc ncxt scason is 120,-
000 krv. r\llorving 10,000 kw fol lcserve, a 30,000-krv addition is in ordcr. The
chaDces are that if a hyrlro sitc is availablc, the cost of lanrl, dam, and head-
rvorks for a 30,000-kv dcvclopment rvould rcndcr thc Lydro plant morc cxpen-
sive than a stearn statiou, If, hol'cver, tlrc cxpelsite hyrho fcatures just
ruentioned were constructcd lor a, 10,000-kr- plant, rvith thc installetl turbo-
gcnerator capacity rcruaining 30,000 krv. a lryrh'o tler.clolxllcnt, instead of steam,
uright bc financially justified. I'et the lr-vdro plant, by'ranidh. rlrarving dr.xvn its

o0
@ xytro E 1OO
E 80 @ stcom e8o
t60
- 40 uw,%,
2 120
t? 4 I t2 4 8 12 t2 481248 12
T i'n' Tins
Lon Flow doy High Flo* doy

Frc. 2-13 Typicll dilision of lo.rd on o lrydro-stexm svstem

rclatively small reservoir, could produce the rcquired peak capacity and then
refill its depleted reservoir during ofr-peak hours. 'Iherc are many hydro sites
which are not above thc lcvcl of economrc competition with steam plants rvhen
designcd for base load but s'hich, nhen dcveloped as peak load plants, would
serve to carry the system peaks lnth the minimum of cxpenditure.
If hydro and stcam arc on about the same economic levcl, when l,ater is
plentiful, as in spring and summer, thc hydro part of the system is givcn the
basc load to carry, with stcam p;lants taking thc peaks. When water is lorv, as
in fall and winter, thc stcarn plants are grven the base load rrith the maximum
hydrauhc capacity realizcd by impounding during all but peak hours. Hydro
units arc more reliablc than stcam units and usually give somc arlvance indica-
tion of loss of powcr; hcnce thcre nccd be lcss spinning reserve. Large hydro-
clcctric units arc not ablc to respond to suddcn swings of load, and it is desira-
blc to havc somc of the morc scnsrtivc stcam turbinc equipment operating in
parallcl for the purposc of stabilizrng clcctrical frcqucncy.
3. Thc lowcr thc capacrty factor of a statron, the less is thc utilization of
the irrvestmcnt. This rlrminishcd utrlization rcprcscnts lcss loss whcn applied
to l plant that has bccn rn scwrce somc ycars, and consequcntly is of less
capital valuc bccausc of depreciation, than if it afiected a modern plant. The
METHODS OF MEETING THE 53

older, less efi,cient plants, or the older, less efficient units in one plant, kecp
investment loss due to low use factor at a minimum. This fact is well known by
power men, and their use of it is reflected in curves showing the life history of
the output of difrerent plants or of diflerent units in the same plant. Operation
under this condition implies that the older units are still considered as normal
operating units. The capacity factor of peak load units is very nearly zero, and
the economic aspect of the use of this equipment resides not in the lact that it
is of a certain efEciency, or that its capacity factor is so and so, but that it is
forestalling the purchase of new equipment upon which low capacity factor
would stand as a distinct financial loss. This gives a direct key to the use of
obsolete equipment. If there is a sharp peak of short duration, it matters little
what the efficiency of the equipment carrying the peak is, as Iong as it can
elimirate an expenditure oI capital for new equipment on which the earnings
would be quite inadequate. In so far as obsolete equipment may have sufficient
capacity to carry short peaks, it is eicellent since its first cost will already have
been largely written ofr in depreciation.
4. One of the advantages ol blectrical interconnection is the ability to
exchange ofl-peak power. Extending the idea to the interconnection of two
systems, intersystem exchange would be efrective only if the peaks did not
occur simultaneously. As a matter of fact, they will occur simultaneously unless
the geographical extent o{ the systems is sufrcieni to cover two sections remote
enough to ofrer difierent types ol loads. The author believes there is a tendency
to place hea'la demand charges on intersystem exchange between independent
companies, but even if this is untrue, it seems best to keep purehased power oB
& reserre in case of inadequacy of other methods of carrying peaks.
5. Internul Combustion Pouer Plants have been advocated as peak load
units on account of the rapid starts possible, i.e., no long warm-up, as with
steam turbines. However, the size and cost of the Diesel engine are strong ad-
verse factors anC, consequently, not many have been used for this purpose.
There are bright prospects, nevertheless, for the gas turbine plant in thb peak
load fleld, for teasons as followg: (1) ability to take a quick start lrom cold,
thus eliminating long warm-up luei cost; (2) moderate first cost coupled with
compactness and minimum foundation requirementsl and (3) high rotational
speed, which results in low generator cost.
The simple, compact gos turbine unit has quite low thermal efrciency, but
this is not a eerioue obiection for load carryrng at extremely low capacity fac-
tors, as in peak load service. Also, the large quantities of hot exhaust gas that
are a by-product of low efficiency can sometimes be put to use in raising the
capacity of an ad,jacent steam plant. A public utility which installed a 3500-kw
gas turbine was able to inmease its load peak by about 7000 kw. Preheating the
steam plant feedwater with heat transferred from the exhaust gases accounted
ior the other 3500 kw gained in capacity. In this unusual case the steam plant's
generators were not fully loaded when the stcam boiler, unassisted by feed
preheating, was operating at maximum output. However, many aqd varied
conditions exist throughout the industry, and many cases probably invite
consideration of the gas turbine.
6. The principal use ol storage battertcs lor peak load is iu connection with
traction systems which, for speed control reaBona, use direct current. These
54 THE VARIABLII LOAD PROBLI}M
traction peaks can bc cxtrcmcly sharp, and thcre may be many iif then: during
the day, but thc krv lrr tLcy lcprcsent are not nlarry. Storage bettery rcsen'c is
not oltcn practical in atr &-c system, Ior rotary conversion rvorrld bc lcquircil
both during cbarging and discharging periods. Battery rescrve incurs hear,1.
first cost and meintcnlrncc pcr krv hr of storage. Horvever, they arc often used
in the d-c ficld, sor:rctirnes in Iargc capacity.
7. Untlcr ccltain far.orahlc contlitions a hcat cnergy "flyrvhcel" rnay be
interposcd bct\r"cen a steaur gcncratol and a varial)lc use of stcaur. A severely
fluctuating stcam rlernanrl rcnclers it difficuli to firc a stcrm boiler witli uni-
formly good efficiency. Hcat accun.rulator systcms have been devised to smooth
out the fluctuations, the most used being the Ruths system of live steam accu-
mulation.

o
Borler
Hrgh Press
Steom Lrne
ffi
mlnnn
Steom Lrne B

E
Slcom Demond
Borler Oulpui
o-
A - Accumulotor Reguldtor

+-&6@
E
o
B - Red"cing Volve
C - ChecK Volve
t b ----Conlrol Linc
tz 12 M 17

Frc. 2-14 Thc Il.uths 6teim r4curnulntor.

Energy storage in the .Eut[s accunuLlqtor ia actually in thc form of very hot
water, but it is charged with livc steam, and.releases live steam during the
discharge period; hence it can bc culle<l a steam accumulator. One essential to
its opcration is a prcssurc differcnce bctu'cen hoilcr and steam mains. Thc
greatcr this difference, the larger the quantity of encrgy storagc in a givcn sizc
of vessel. The most attractive prospccts for accumulators are those sith sharp
but short-lived steam peaks, i.c., a load curvc similar to tha[ shown in Fig. 2-14.
There are numerous cascs likc this in the industrial ficld, but the accumulator'
is not u'cll adapted for scrvice vith a cential station. However, in tcxtilcq, sugat
refining, dyeworks, and mcny othcr industrics, stcarn accumulation can lenrlcr
triple service, viz.: (I) rcduce rcquired boilcr capacity; (2) permit steadit r
more efficient combustioD; and (3) mairrtain more constant steam pressurc in
METHODS OF I\{EETING THE LOAD 55
an industrial process. There is & small but ste&dy sale of these units to industry.
Some detailed trcatmcnt of thc accumulator is given here, as it rvill not be sub-
sequently considered.
The principle of storage is illustrated in Fig.2-14. But first, to explain why
thc cncrgy is transferred to hot rvater, consider the energy storage possibilities
in a volume ol one cubic metre. ff ooe fills it with dry saturated stcam at 10.5 kg/cn. ab
prcssue (0.189 !F/kg, lEl.2"C),it will coDtaln an cnthalpy of 14.7 x 10. J 8bovo 0 :C. How-
evcr, a ;ubic m€tre of water at 181.2'C aod 10.5 kg/cm. ab (886 k8/mt) hold6'da1xl0.J
ESove 0'C.

Basicilll', a stcarr accurnulator is an un6r'cd plcssurc vcssel containing

rvatcr to ryhich exccss stcam from thc boilcr is scnt during a charging cvclc.
Thc cntcring stcam condcnses in thc watcr, raising thc tcmpcraturc. \\'hcn thc
rvatcr bcing cltarged rcaches saturation tcmpcraturc at lroiJcr stcam prcssurc,
the accumulator is fully charged. Steam drarv-ofi during a discharge period
lorvcrs thc tank pressure, causing a spontaneous evaporation ol part of the hot
water contcnt in the cnrleavor to maintain thenlal cquilibrium in the face of
d iminislrin g prcssurc.
The action of the accumulator system in smoothing out the boiler load is as
lollorvs:
Thc n'ater in the accumulator rvill absorb or give up stcam, dcpcnding upon
thc prcssurc in thc steam linc lcading to it and its saturation temperaiure. If
thc prcssurc in thc steam line rises above that in the accumulator, tlc accumu-
lator rvill absorb stcam until thc heat added raises the saturation tcmperaturc,
and thcrcfore the pressure, to that of thc steam linc. Normally the water in thc
accum'-rlator is at the saturation temperature. If thc pressurc in thc steam linc
rlecrcascs below that in the accumulator, thc accumulator pressure is also
lowercd, its watei is able to hold less heat of the liquid, and consequently heat
is liberated, forming the steam supplied by the accumulator. The water in the
accumulator has assumed a lower thermodynamic level.
Thc reducing valve I rcgulates the amount of steam passed into the low-
pressure main in accordance with the low-pressurc steam demands by maintain-
ing constant pressure on the low-pressure side. The regulating valve.4 will poss
steam into the accumulator if the boiler pressure tries to rise above standard
because of the closing of valvc B. It will also act as a reducing valve, passing
low-pressure steam in the evcnt that the accumulator is unable to supply all
the steam dcmanded during a peak period snd the pressure between .r{ and r?
sinks to a predetermincd lcvel.
' The action of the accumulator in smoothing out the pesks is illustrated at
b. the irregular 6t€am demand is assumed to be that of an industrial process
using considerable qu&ntities of low-pre88ure steam, while the desired boiler
output is shown as the straight line. If the irregular demand is to be supplied,
and yct have the boilcrs operating at uniform rate of combustion, the accumula-
tor.must absorb steam dxring the valleys which occur below the steady boiler
output line and supply eteam during the peaks. In the diagram shotvn it is ss-
sumed that the accumulator is large enough to absorb completely the variations.
The direction of steam flow when charging the accumulator is shown at D, while
at E is the flow diagram for Bccumul&tor discharging.
66 TIIE VARIABLE LOAD PROBLEM
Example: As$rEiDg thet the maximum loop area above or below the average line
of tr'ig.2-14 (bl represents 99m ka of steam, the requiryd size of the accurnulator tank8
will be predicted. Boiler-pressure,1g5 tglcet ab; proc€ss steam prcssure, 3.2 tg/cme ab.
Let tr = weight of wa,tgr in the tanks when they are fully cha,rgedtolo.o Lg/omt
cb Then 7= 99&) + w€ight rernaining rvhen fully discharged at3.2 Lg/cm.sb. Assume
dry and srtutsted st€am'
Atro.t kg/carab, rl -TD.3 !lg; st 3., kg/om!.4 i=
X127.4 tls. The average ig
2753.4 s.
Enthalpy discharge per cycle 2753.4 x 99tox ld
- n.4d x l@ t :
Now this is provided by the flashing of seturated water. fnitially the water had an
enthalpy of ,6E.51 J/g; fin8ly 568.15 J/g. EeDce,
7fi.51 x 10, x tr - 568.|5 x 108(rf - 9980) - Tl.4E x lf
7 : 108850 ks
A battery of four tanks, each2.5 min diameter and 7.2 nr long, would contain tbis
mass of 'water with sufficient space left above the water line to provide enough disen-
gagement area for the generation of reasouably dry and saturated steam. Although
this may seem to be an excessively large Btorage volume to have to provide, 9980 k8
of steam might represent approxim&tely 13@ k8 per hr maximum rate of steam florr
for a peak demand over the rmifomr boiler output of about an hour's duration, or be
even greater for peaks of shorte! dura,tion. In efiect, the tauks would be a substi',ute
for 1@0 or more boiler mctric bors4owct.
8. Another interesting proposal is one \iehich, although not absolutely un-
tried, is, as yet, Beldom employed in the United States. "fhe Hydranltc Accumu-
lator Sgstem pumps water into a reservoir vith ofr-peak power in older later
to produce on-peak power. Quoted costs from similar European installations
Beem to Bhow that in favorable locations the efficiency ol conversion aud
storage need not be greater fhtin 50/o to justify the project. As shown in Fig.
2-15, the centrifugal pump, hydr&ulic turbine, and motor-generator sre
mounted on the same shaft. Sometimes horizontel ehsft units are connected by
clutches so that one or the other msy be disconnected from the motor-generator
when not in use. Another v&riation of the idea is to have two separate units,
and this, of course, applies to the use of hydraulic accumulatcrs to carry steam
station peaks. One unit is a eteam-turbine-driven centrilugal pump, the other
Bn ordinary hydraulic turbogenerator. Certain topographical features are essen-
tial to the accumulator site. The hydraulic storage of power is necessarily a
high-head development, low-head equipment 8nd hydraulic losses being too
expensive. Hence a storage site should ofrer e head better than 23 m with suffi-
cient reservoir etorage capacity to carry the peaks. The nature of the storage
basin also is important. There should be no run-ofr through the soil. An exten-
sivg shallow basin will cause the over-sll efficiency to be lower than for a smaller
deeper basin of equivalent capacity because of both percolation and surlace
evaporation. These losses are the same as enerry evaporated, for energr had
been expended iu placing the water in storage against the hydraulic head. Then,
too, the reservoir must be near enough to the station to minimize line cost and
keep pipe friction losses low. Pumped storage of energy can bring to a steam
plant some of the advantages previously cited lor the steam accumulator. It
will furnish a load for the boilers during periods of minimum demand and
promote a more uniform rate of combustion.
METHODS OF MEETING THE LCAD 57
Having exarnined the causes underlying varinble Cemand, we perceive them
so dceply rooted in our daily occupations Lhat creating a uniform use of electri-
cal power is a well-nigh impossible task. Theu, turning from the consumer to
the producer, it is int"eresting to note the various means which power plant
men have taken to cope with and partially ofrset the evil eflects of load varia-

Elev.of
Upper Pool

2
9

I Generqtor -
Motor
ltl

T
Turbine

Elev. of

hP

&c. 2-15 Hydraulic accumulator

bility;methods which are evcn more interesting when rve remember that every
onc of them must stand the acid test of an economic study befoie it can be
&dopted.

PROBLEMS
1. A central station is suppiying energy to a community through two substations.
One srrbstation Ieeds four dist buting circuits; the other, six. The maximum daily
recorded dcmands arc:
58 TI.IE \:ARIABLE LOAD PROBI,EM
Pou'un S'ra'los. . . . ........ r 2,000 k\
Substation -.1 ...... ... 6000 krv -srrbstation Z....... 9000 kw
Feeder 1.. .,. -,, -,, 1700 Feeder 1......... 620
2.. '.,, ,,.,.. 1300 1500
3.. .......... 2800 3......... 1000
{.. 600 4......... 2900
5.... .... 22$)
{;.. . . 3000

CalcLrhle the divcrsitlr' frctor het\\'ccrt (r) srrbst:rtions, (h) feerlers on Sub-"titioD,4, (c)
feerlerr on Sub.t,rtion B.
2. The rLri11'lorrl cun'e ol rr powel sJstcru is gilen lrl'the Iollorvirrg data.

Time t2 3 0 8 l0 lr 12 I 3 I 5 6 7 0 l2
Load, krv X 10-x.... 9; (i0 r;0 150 lt; t8{) l7i 150 200 250 310 t;0 110 160 105

PIot the load curve to scales oi :m : 2 hr,1 cm : 50,000 kn.Determirc the loid factor.
lVhat is the daill' load lactor ol the st,in,1l,v eqlitmenl rhst trkes cil perk loacl over
200,N0 kw?
3. A daill'Iourl crrrlc is definerl:r-. follorv--:

Tlme 1,2 2.r 6 El0 12 2 -l 0 8r0t2

Loa.d, krv . . . . . .l-10 150 160 180 1;0 170 170 160 2.10 3(i5 320 220 160

Plot the load curve to scalcs of lcm - 2 hr, lcm - 50 LrrDetemine the load factor and
energl' Ixodrrced
4. An ix\ estigation of tlre tay of transiorming daily load curves into annuai load
duration curves rnal lte nr:rrle j[ one of the daiiy loacl cun'cs dcscribed in these prohlexrs
is consiclerccl to tre rluplicaterl every othcr (la)' of the year. This untnie tnrt simplifying
essumptio!! rvill eliminate need for a mass of load dota and the leader rvill learn the
principle.
5. The daily lond curve of i por1,r phnt is giyen by these coordinltes.

Time 12 2 4 6 810 t2 2,1 6 8 tC t2

Iood, lirv X 1O-3.....2 2.5 3 4 0 6.5 6.5 5 6 8 I 5 3

(a) Find the daily load factor. (b) All loads in exccss ol 40OO kw are carricd by Unit
No. 2, rated at 6000 kw. Find its use factor.
6. The annual peak load on a 15,000-krv po*-er plnnt is 10,500 kw. T{'o snbstatioos
are supplied by this plnnt. Annrurl encrgy dispatched through Substation .4 is 27,500,-
000 kw hr with a peak at 8900 kw, while 16,500,000 are sent through B rvith a peak at
6650 ku'. Neglect line losscs. Find (a) divcrsity factor bctrveen substations and (b)
(apecit)'factor of the power plnnt.
7. A pol'cr plent Ioad is relresented |1'an average diilv lox(i givcn lrt'lhe fol-
lorving coordinntes.
PROBLEMS 19
IIour Kw IIour Iiw IIour Kw Il our Ku
1AM 220 7 300 1 Pnr 500 7 m0
2 200 8 410 620 8 870
3 r90 .9 560 3 670 I 8t{
4 180 10 590 4 7tio 10 720
5 180 11 6r0 5 r 000 l1 60q
6 200 12M 605 930 t2 380

This is carried by one 1200-kw Bteam turbogcnerating unit Nhich has l sto:rm dern:rnrl
represented by the equation

kg stcam per hr = 907.2 + 4.99 ksr

Find (a) the load factor, (b) capacity factor, and (c) t8 steam ustd pcr day.
8, A dist buting transforoer supplies a group of general polr'er customers having
a connected load. of 186 kw. Demand factor = 0.75. If thc lo.1rl frctor for the group rvill
Lwettge 45/6 and energy sells rt 3y2 cents per kw hr, rvhat rvill be the monthly (30-
day) income from energy delivered through this transformer? Assume average moti:rr
elficiency 751.
9. An electrical feeder line serves four distribution transformerc rvhich have the
lollos,ing connected loads.

No- 2 No. 3 No. 4

Residence l0 krv Residence 20 kw Comnrercial 15 llv Porver 32 krv
Residence 20 krv Residence 25 kw Commerciai 5 krv Residence 24 kw
Residence 25 krv Residenee 28 kw Pover 4 kw Residence 35 kw
Commercial 35 kw Comnercial 15 kw Residence 18 kw
Comrnercial 25 kw

Usilg tabulated factors, find peak load on the

feeder.
10. A certain dist buting transforr\er bas connected load a9 {ollows: Residence
No. 1, 3/a kw; No. 2,2y2 krv; No. 3, 500 w; No. 4, 3 kw. Restaurant, 5 kw lightirg -
ll
and rw motorc. Store, 15 kw lighting aod3.7 Lwmoto$. Efrciency of motors,70/6.
Calculate the maximum expected demand on the transformer.
11. A power plant is said to have had a use factor ol 48.5/a ad a capacity factor
ol 4:2.4Va. Ijov many hr did it operate during the year?
12. A central station has anrual factors as {ollorvs: Load 5a.5/6, capacity 40570,
use 45.2/o. Th€ rcserv0 carried over and above the peak load is 8900 krv. Find (a )
installed capacity, (b) annual energy productio[, (c) hr per year not in seryice,
13. The daily load curve of a certain region is given by the following data.

A.M..-1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 1l:00 12:00 12:30

kw ...220 200 190 180 180 200 300 4I0 560 590 610 605 490

!.Ir...1:00 1:30 2:00 3O0 4:00 5:00 5:30 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00
kw...500 5m 620 670 760 1000 960 930 900 370 850 72O 600 380

It is proposed to carry tbis load with a new Diesel engine power st&tion. A certein
Iine oi engines is ofrered in the following sizes, depending on the number of c).liDders:
@ THE VARIAP,I,E LOAD PROBLEM
360 kw, 480 kw, 600 kw, 720 kw, 960 kw. Plot the load curve and fit it with selectioDs
from the engine line mentioned so that there will be a good balance between capacity
factor and number of units installed. (a) Determine the capacity factor of the plant.
(b) Tabulate an "opcrating schedule." (c) Determine the use factor oI each unit.
ld Tbe_ load shosn in Fig. 2-11 goes to & peak of 24p00 kw. It is to be carried by
oue 10,000-kw uuit end two 7500-kw units. Work out a use scheme similar to tr'ig.2-1b
rvltich till be best lrom the standpoint of number of paralleling operations and plant
use factor. lvhat is the rcsulting daily load facto! for each unit?
15. A 50,000-kw steam plant delivers aD annual output of 238,000p00 |w hr with a
peak.load of 42860 kw. (a) What is the aDnual load factor? (b) What is the capacity
Iactor?
16. The load shown by the data of Piob. 13 is carded by one steam turbogenerato!
having the lollowing steam charactcristic: Total steam : f)?.2 * 4.99 kw kg per hr,
t'here P : kw/ Generator efficiency = 96%. Steam costs 671 per 500 kg to produce.
What is the cost of the steam supplied to this unit per day of 24 hr? What is the cost
ol steam used pcr ktv hr?
17. Giveu load lactor 0.48, installed capacity 35,000 kw, reserve over peak 3OO0
kw, houls out o{ scrvice per ycar 410. Find the clpacitv and use factorc.
18. II the lo&(l on a system such as that sho$'n in Frg. 2-7 were composed entirely
of residence lighting, $hat quantity of customer's connected load could be cared for
by each lrv ol gencmting capacity installed in the power station?
19. The load mentioned in Prob. 2-3 is carried by two 150-kw and one 100-kw
cngine-generolors. Shorv horv these rvould be operoted to carry the load and compute
the il,sulting plant use factor.
20. 'I'hc load duration cuNe oI lr system is given by the following data:

Pcr rent of the year. . . . 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Ine.l, krv X 10-3....36.0 33.O 32.2 29.8 29.6 29.2 28.5 28.0 22.0 12.0 8.0

This loacl is supplied by a steam pl&Dt rvhose fuel consumption is tabuhherl as follows:

Irad, kv X 10 3 0 510 15 20 25 30 35 {0
Coal, lb per hr X l0 3 2.0 10.0 17.5 23.5 27.i:, :12.0 35.0 39.0 42.O

Assure thst you are the prctrasirg agent and you wallt to contract in adl?llce for
the yeals supply of coal to be detvered in equal semimontNy ileliveries. How many
totrtres woulil you speciff per delil"ery?
21. The system shown in Fig. 2-7 coDsists in part ofa tra.nsformer serving customers e,j[
ard g. Estimate the peakload on the transformer.
e. Store buildiag with 5 kw lighting, 25-kw small motor power.
I Store buildi4 with l8 kw lighting, 35-kw smail motor power.
& Office buildiry wiht 55 kw lighting, 80-kw large motor power.
22. Assume ttrat the maximum feeder loails ofttre system showu in Fig. z-7 are (r) 18 kw,
(2) 2S5 kw, G) 1$ kw, (4) 95 kw, (5) 37 kw, (6) 45 kw. Predict the peak load for the power
pla.ut.
PROBLEMS 61
23. A city is supplied by a 15,000-krv plant whose load duration curve is defrned
by the followiug data:

......
Duration, hr. 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8760
Load, kw X 10 2... 114.5 91.6 81.0 74-5 69.4 62.0 52.O 40.8 29.8

The plant has one 15,000-kw unit supplied with steam by one boiler, Auxiliaries are
electrically driven. Drav ihe coal consumption duration curve from the load dulatioD
curve with intermediate graphical modification from three plant characteristics, tiz.
1. Auxiliary power. No load,250 kw; full load,600 kw.
2. Steam to turbine. No load, 9070 kg perhr; full load, m700 k8 per hr.
3. Coal to stoker. No load, 907 tg per hr; Iull load, 9o7o kg pcr hr.'
Assume straightJitre variation between no-load and full-load conditions. Determine
annual coal consumption, tons.
24. The load mentioned in Prob. 23 is distributed through two substations, r{ aod
B. d supplies the business and industrial dist ct. Its annual peak load is 3050 kw; its
annual load lactor 4O7o. The diversity factor between d and B is 1.177. Neglect losses
in tranffrission liues. Find (a) peak load on 8; (b) k\y hr seut through B.
25. Steam flow meters on an industrial process line recorded maximum flow.rates
ol 2626o kg, per hr for cycles of 15 sec duration. To keep this fluctuation ofi the boilers
snd allow them to steam evenly at an a,verage !{rte of 3400 kg per hr, a Rutbs steaD
a,ceumulator was instelled, working tletveetr 3,2and 2.5 kglcmt gs.A Euter surface &re&,
of Bumcient size to limit rate of steam disengagement to 0,305 ml p€r sec per mt, $a,6
cousidered Deccssary to insure dry steam production. Find suitable dimensions for
the accumulator tank (i.e., dia. x length). Note: As actually installed the tank was
1.83 mX 7.32 m looE.
26. A horizontaf steam accumulator tank isl62cm diameter by6.I mlong,Whetr fully
charged the water levefisll4 ce above the bottom, aDd the pressur; i;?kglcmr g*During
a test for maximum discharge it was found that the pressule could bo droppedtoo.33
kg/cmr gai11 10 sec without throwing watet into the discharging steam. Calculate the
aversge r&te of steam discharge from the accumulator in kg per hr.
27. The maximum demand upon & steam. accumulator (i.e., oue of the sectional
areas in I'ig.2-14) is 29500 kg steam.Maximumchargilgpressuleist6Lg/o-o! .b dry and
saturated steam. The delivcry pressure, beyond vnlveB,is, Lg/ciit ob Assuming that the
accumulator i0 fully charged just previous to the period of maximum demand, calculate
the kg water the accumulator must contain if this maximum demard is Lo be only 75/a
of the &ccumulator's steam capacity.
28. A hydraulic storage plant has a unit similar to that shown in Fig.2-15. The
efficiency of the geDeiator-moto\ is 96%, of the tulbiDe ?,OEo, ol lhe prmp 75/e.
Avelage elevation betweel upper and lorver pools =30 m. Assume a 2/,, Ioss of heari in
pipe friction. This unit was iistalled to carry a daily peak load of 1400 krv hr. There is
a daily elaporation loss of stored water amouuting to 90? t. Calculate the over-all e6-
cieocy of conversion.
29. tr'iud the hydraulic impoundment volume neceosary to meet a peak of 15,000
kw hr with pumped storage. Turbogenerator emciency :82Vo, head = 70 m. Neglect
friction snd eYaporation losses.
30. The boiler load curve shown in Fig. 2-11 is to be smoothed out by operating
an hydrautic accumulator unit in parallel. The accumulator plant will have an average
h€sd of76 m. Neglect pipe friciiou aad evaporation losses. Assuse the stealo turbitre
62 THI] VAIIIABLE LoAD PR0tsI,E},I
driving the accumulator pump opcmtcs as part of the plant characteristic shown
rrnd that the over-ail efficiency of hydraulic storage from steam turbine shaft back to
hydro rurbogenerator oulpul is 65%.
(a) lvhat steam plant base load capacity is needed?
(b) 'tVhat boiler capacity is needed?
(c) \fhat is the capacity ol the accurnrhtol turbine?
(d) Horv much more sternr is genertrted per 2.1 hr thnn sould hlvc been used rvith-
out the accumulator?
 CHAPTER 3

]PO\ME,R, PI-ANT ECONOMNCS

3-1 The Source of Power Plant Income. The revenues which pay for
the cost of producing clectrical enerry ale derived, in the case of the industrial
power plant, in a different manner than that cxisting in a public utility. The in-
dustrial plant is producing but onc of thc itcms which cntcr into thc final cost
of thc finished articlc, whcreas tlie public servicc plant produccs thc clcctrical
energy itsclf as the finished product, ready for sale. The rcvcnue of the indus-
trial plant is that portion ol the manufacturing rcturns which cost accounting
indicates as thc portion of production costs assignable to the powcr used. There
are many lactories whcre there is no attempt madc to separate thc cost of power
frorh the cost of thc othcr itcms entering into production. It is in these plants
that high energy costs arc oftcn found to exist, not so much bccausc thc im-
portance of keeping thcm lorv is neglected, but because the identity of their
magnitude is lost in the unsegregated general costs. Many industrial plants,
however, do have metering equipment and a cost-accounting rorrtine which
have been planned and sclccted for thc specific purpose of evaluating the pro-
portion ol manulacturing cost that is due to the energy used.
Thc revenues of the. public service plant are derived directly from the cus-
tomers it serves.'Unlike the industrial plant whcrein the revenues may be
shown on paper only, there is an actual transler of money from the user to the
producer of the energy. The electrical energy is the article of manufacture, and
the determination of its selling price is made upon a more complicated basis
than in the majority of industrial plants. Income from public electric service is
derived chiefly from domestic and powei customers. Because of the more
favorable load characteristics of the latter, the per kw hr costs of serving tlrem
are lower than for domcstic service. The common method of collecting the
revenues is by monthly installments, on the basis of bills which are rendered to
the customer, usually at the end of each month. A discount is allowed for
prompt payment and, as nearly all customers will take advantage of it, the
discount is added to the actual cost of supplying the customer and becomes, in
reality, a sort o{ penalty for delinquent payment.
3-2 Effect of Pla t Type on Costs. Included in the customer's trill must
be an element of charge which will pay for the plant and system investment,
*Sales of electricity to ultimate colu,umers are divided as follows: industrial, 482lo ;
residential, .2qo; commercis,l, 17 sllb; oLhers a%. (1950 data.)
U POWER PLANT ECONOMICS
one which will pay for the Iabor and raw materials used, and one which will
reimburse the investors with the profit which applied capital is expected to
produce. From a business viewpoint, the supply of electric enerry is public
service, and the industry is possessed of those characteristics which .mark the
so-called "public utility." These utilities in general must mske their pgrticular
product or eeryice available st all times and in accordance with the'needs of
the publio served. They are characterized by elaborate and expensive distribu-
tion systems, and by a comparatively large ratio of capital outlay to labor cost.
Readiness to serve at fair and equitable rates is demanded of these industries.
Many utilities are publicly owned and operated, but the majority are private
businesses. The specific characteristics mentioned would act to increase un-
reasonably the cost of service to the customer were normal competition allowed

l5 r50o
l1 t4oo
r3 llo0
t2 r20o
7
II t rro0 G
rooo S
t I o0
7 700
6 ! 600 t
500

3 300

r00
o

,YESAGE ANN'AL COI{SUMPTION PEN DOUESTIC

--- CUSTOMER
AVERAGE RATE PtR KTLOWATT HOUn

-
Frc. 3-1 Cost and use of domestic electric s€rvice

to exist. Parallel and competing distribution systems to the same group of cus-
tomers would be the chief cause of this. Therefore, in these fields the
public, acting through its governing organization, has found it expedient to
create an artificial monopoly to bar needless competitive investment. This is
accomplished by the award of an exclusive right to provide the specific product
or 6ervice in a stated region. This is commonly ca.lled. a lranchi.se, and its privi-
leges are enforceable at law. In the presence of such a monopoly the customer
must be protected by regulation from monopolistic abuse. The electric service
industry operates under monopoly conditions by -reason of the long-term
franchises granted to the individusl companies. In near$ all the Btat€8 govern-
ment authority, acting through public service (or corporation) commissions,
has assumed a degree of control over privately owned public service corpora-
tions in the public interest, so that excessive profits will not be made by com-
panies which are free from the restraint of normal competitive business coqdi-
 B,ATES 65
tiong.t These commissions do not have final authority snd sometimes hsve to
atgue their decisions before higher courts.
The municipally owned and operated plant comes under no such restrictions,
-
it _being public property, and the rates of such will not aecessarily include a
profit on the investment other than a nominal rqte of interest. However, the
rates may, and often do, contain a large charge which goes to defraying the
operating costs of the municipal govemment in part or in whole. Thc bujk of the
electrical plant customers will also be taxpayers and since the costs of muaicipal
government would have to be bome by taxes if plant revenue vere insufteient,
it is seen where the justification of tax collection in the form oI electric service
bills hae had its origin. The best thst can be said of it is that it is the cheapest
and most
-e6cient
way of tax collection as the delinquent customer may be
threatened wrth severance of electric service. The argument used in connection
with the collection of highway construction and mgintenance funds by gasoline
tax is equally applicsble to the inclusion of a tax element in the charge made
for municin"l plant electric service. It is that, ol all methoils ol taaat{on, that
methoil which uill receiue least public oppositian i* the one uhereby the pay-
ments are rpreail out in small installments and, attacheil to the purchase price o!
some'tnerpenshte, ustdely used, commoditg.
_ A large power user will be granted, under this plan, a lower rate, not only
becauee of his more favorable load conditions, but becauee the tax function of
the rate must be modified to meet the case of a single large user of electrical
service.
From the foregoing it is seen that an economic comparison of the costg of
electric service is unintelligent unless the taxational leatures are equivalent.
Equally unintelligent is the comparisbn ol portions, only, of the over-ell costs.
For example, one may sce Diesel and steam power plants compared on the basis
of fuel consumption only; or the operating costs of hydro and steam power
systems compared without any reference to fixed costs. The publication of
psrtisl comparative data on difierent types of plants is a device sometimes uEed
to pmduce an advantageous reaction towards the equipment or system which
is favored by the data. An inexperienced reader may be placed in a dilemma by
contradictions ol sets of cost data and by discrepancies between prinied infoi-
mation and actual facts. Only by considering alI the elements entering into the
cost of power will a fair, economic comparison be made. The nature of these
elements ol cost and their incorporation into electric rstes will now be explored.
3-3 Rates. That an industry will install its own power plant if the utility
tatee are unfavorsble is a competitive aspect always present in the supply of
p!!er by a utility company to an industry. That ever-present threat coupled
with the guardianship of public interests exercised by the regulating commis-
sions makes it highly important that the rates in efrect be a fair apportionment
of coets to one and all. The variable load problems, presented in Chapter 2,
ha're served to show that the cost of producing I kw hr is not the same for sll
users but increases with increasing departure of the customer'e load conditions
from the ideal. These facts make the establishment of suitsble rates a task of
some magnitude.
. State Commirsiol Juri8diction and Regrd&tion of Electric atrd Gds Utilities. Federsl
Power Commissioa.
66 POWER PLANT ECONOMICS
In general, it may be stated that the rate ol charge for electrical energy
should satisfy the following conditions:
Faimess. The rates should distribute the costs where they rightfully belong,
taking full account of the variable conditions of the customer's demand.
Si;rnpltcity. The rates should not be so complicated ss to c&lse an opposition
or antegonism from a public which1s frequently distrustful of "new fangled"
ideas.
Cost. The financial outlay in meters and cost-accounting systems by the
electric companf should not be so heavy as to increase costs to more than can
be saved by their installation.
The follou'ing elements enter into the cost ol electrical energy to the con-
Eumer:
l. Fired element.
2. Energy ek:nent.
3. Customer eLement,
4. Inuestors' profit.
The first of these is governed by the extent ol plant investment and the
current financial rates. It remains a fixed sum regardless of the amount of
energy sold. The second is directly proportional to the plant output. The cus-
tomcr element will be proportional to the number of customers and nearly inde-
pendent of both the plant inyestment and its kw hr production. The profit is
that which sound normal business is expected to make.
3-4 The Fixed Element. The factors which must be taken iuto account
in arriving at the value of the fixed element of cost are:
1. Capital cost of the power plant.
J. Real estate.
b. Building ahd equipment.
c. Cost of installation.
d. Enginecring fees.
2. Capital cost of primary distribrrtion system.
a. Cost of right of way.
b. Cost of line.
c. Cost of substations.
3. Interest, taxation, and insurance rates.
4. The rate at which capital cost is writtcn off to depreciation and ob-
solescence. Salvage values.
5. Management cost.
6, The amount of general maintenance rvhich would bc required rvhether ol
not the plant were operated.
Principal itcmso comprising the capital cost of the power plant will include
priliminary costs, real cstate, buildings and equipmcnt, cnginccring fees, and
cost of installation which, in addition to labor cost, will involve transportation
(lrcight and express), storcs and storekeeping, interest during construction, and
(verhead.
Thc investment cost in a powcr plant varics rvidely, even for similar types
' also the morc cxtcnsive ll"ting of items to bc considered iu fixed cost: "Definition
+ See
. a IIDit of Fixcd Capi1,al," N.8.L.,1. I\l>licalinn Aro, 18, January 1931, and Table XCI
Ilyd,rocleclic llandhook, Crnrrscl rnd Jrrsiin, John lViley lnrl Sons, Inc.
TIIE FIXED ELEMENT 67
of pl&nts. A Diescl cnginc typc may cost from $130 to t250 per kw of capacity.
'l'he sirrryrle, noncondensing steam engine plant may cost as little ss $70 per
kwy but can bc much more expensive if the more efficient unaflow type engine
is uscd. A stcam-clcctric power station of modcrn design will not likely be
obtainalrlc for lcss than Sl20 per kw and may be much higher, say up to $150.
Hydroclcctric dcvelopments 6how stiU greater variation, for land costs vqry
widely. Thc uppcr limit may be $300 and more per kw of capacity. The author
hesitrtcs to quote costs, realizing that these cau be altered rapidly when there
arc inflationary trcnds in thc nation's currency. Cost data tend to obsolesce
lar rnorc lapidly than technical information. In recognition of this, costs are
cousidcrctl in only a comparative way in this book.
Thc usc of published cost information is not safe practice unless full condi-
tions appcrtaining to the project are given. Usually some conditions arc radi-
cally rliffcrcnt from those of thc estimator's own problem. Building space
provklctl for future units, foundation cotrstruction difficulties, and thc extcnt
to which drrlrlicate auxiliary equipment is provided are typical of thc indi-

SMALL STEAM LAN6E STEAM

ENCINE PLANT TURSINE PLANT HYDRAULIC PLANT OIESEL PLANT

Fro. 3-2 Typical subdivisions of investment costs in vclious types of plattts. Com-
psr&tive unit costs are represented by $e areas.

vidual conditions which will vary costs aud which might not be mentioned in
published figures. Estimates arc oI Iittle value unless based on the estimator's
first-hand knowledgc. lYhen cost, estimate are to be prepared, unless the
project is of minor importance and slight cost, the competent engineer will not
estimate the cost of a detail on which he has hsd no cost exPerience without
first consulting one whose experience has included the proposed item. Even after
careful estimating an addition of fuom l0/o to 20/o ol the total cost should be
made to care for contingencies which rnay arisc from unforeseen complications,
from thc sum ol many small items, each of which may hsve been considered
negligiblc by itself, or from possible errors in estimating.
When the power plant is not situated in proximity to the load served, the
cost of a primary distribution system will be a part of the initial investment.
The primary distribution system ehould be laid out, to meet the expected
capacitj' of the plant; therefore its first cost will be proportional to plant cost
sud not to the number of connected customers.
During thc period in which a sinking fund may be accumulated to retire
the investment in a plant, the investment is treated &B & loan upon which in-
68 PO1VER PLANT ECONOMICS
terest will have to be paid at the current rates. 'Ihe severity of this rate is of
importance to the fixed elcment. In the casc of a plant where a long working
life is expected and wherc a high ratc of intcrcst is being paid, the interest
ccmponent may be moro than a quarter of the total fixed charges. Taxes will
also have to be paid at the local rate but will not be a seriously large charge
except for stations located on land of high value, as in metropolitan districts.
Of sbout the same magnitude as taxcs will be the insurance upon boilers,
buildings, turbines, which, Iike the taxes, is proporticnal to the capacity of
the plant. Taxes and insurance are lrequently lumped together in cost estimates
and are put at lrom 2o/o lo 5,1o ol the cost of building and equipment per
8llnum.
A certain amount of power plant maintenance is required whether any
salable energy is produced or not. As such, it is proportional to the size of the
building and the amount of equipment in it.
3-5 The Energy Element. The enerry element, sometimes called operat-
ing cost to distinguish it from the fixed costs of the investment element, ie bssed
on the energy output as measuted in kw hr. The magnitude of energy cost will
be in direct proportion to the number of kw hr used by the customer; hence
the charge is made as a unit charge per kw hr upon the consumption as re-
corded on the'customer's watthour meter. \Yhen all of those expenses which are
incurred in the actual production of enerry are summed and divided by the
kw hr used, the quotient is the energy element of unit cost. When using the
plant output in kw hr as the denominator, it should be multiplied by the efr-
ciency of the primary distribution system in order that each customer pay hio
part of transmission line losses. The steam and Diesel plants have energy
costs as a large part of the total; however, radically difrerent conditions prevail
in the hydraulic plant where investment cost overshadows the relatively small
cnergy cost.
The components of the energy cost are:
1. Cost of iuel.
2. Cost of labor.
3. Cost of water for
a. Boiler feed.
b. Condeneers.
c. Cooling snd houee service.
4. Oil, waste, and supplies.
5. Maintenance.
Labor is a small part of the cost of a kw hr. This being so, the incrcased
labor charge per kw hr is not pronounced when well-paid, skilled labor is sub-
stituted for poorly paid, unskilled labor. As a matter of fact, the ekill in at-
tendrince, ss for instance in the firing of boilers, may reduce fuel costs to a
point where the sum of fuel and labor costs is a minimum when the labor.coet
i,r a maximum, tr'or that reason it is urged, on an economic basis purely, that
a lnrge proportion of skilled labor be used in power plant attendsnce, and that
it be paid well enough to put forth the beet efrort that its skill sponsors.
At present the latror requirement of the average steim central station larger
than f0,000 kw is about one employee lor each 1000 kw installed cspacity. A
THE CUSTOMER ELEMENT 69
larger ratio of employees to installcd captcity is mct in thc smaller stations.
Labor costs arc truly operating costs, that is, they rvould ccase, in thc rnajor
lxllt, \'r-crc thc plant shut down for morc than just a temporary pcriod I ncver-
thclcss, with the plant in stcady opcration and cnjoying an averagc use factor,
thc labor cost is more proportional to kw ol plant capacity than to krv hr of
energy output.
Scparated from the energSr element in thc causes underlying its cxistence,
but still usually classed with it in ratc rnaking, is a vadable load elcment.
Factors which govern it are:
1. Extent of reserve capacity carricd.
2. The operating status ol the plant considered as a rncrnbcr of a powcr
systcm.
3. Being in "readiness to serve."
4. Amount of starting, stopping, and banking of powcr units that is neces-
SBry.
The reserve capacity carried is largely depentlent upon the interconnections
of the system and upon the policies of ma.nagcmcnt of thosc rcsponsiblc for the
system operation. To be "ready to serve" is a statc requucd oi the public serv-
ice plant and ol some industrial plants. To remain in this statc mcans to create
certain losses which will add to thc variablc Ioad clcrncnt of chargc. Lastly,
the cost of starting, stopping, and banking of po\\ cr units, cspccially the large
ones, being a fuel, labor, and maintenancc cxpense, is indepcndcnt bf the energy
output of the plant. These factors have been mentioncd in dctail to show that
they are not true energy costs. Their magnitudc is usually srnall in compari\on
with the energy element. They are difficult to separatc from cnergy costs, and
since there is no suitable rate vchicle upon which to loacl them, es the energy
element is loaded on kw hr, they are includcd in the energy charge.
3-6 The Customer Element. The third gencral elcment of cost is pro-
portional to the number of customers. Its components are:
l. Cost ol the secondary distribution system.
a. Depreciation, interest, taxes, and insurancc, upon thc capital cost of
the aecondary distribution system.
b. Line and transformer maintenance and inspection
2. Labor cost of collecting revenue. )1
a. Meter reading.
b. Office (clerical).
(1) Records.
(2) Billing, collecting, and accounting.
3. Cost of franchise (nominal value), amortized over its
4. Publicity.
a. Public relations.
b. Advertising, etc.
The extent and, therefore, the cost of the secondary distribution Bystem sre
proportional to the number of eustomers it serves. It has been found that the
best method of charging for the secondary distribution system is to divide its
cost equally between the diffgrent customers unless, of course, one customer
greatly dwarfs the others in the eize of the secondary system necessary to serve
70 POWER PI,ANT ECONOI\,IICS
him. The expense of distributing through the secondary system is the deprr:cia-
tion, interest, taxes, and insurance upon the investment and opersting costs
such as line maintenance, transformcr maintenance, and inspection.
Franchise cost depends more on the time and circumstances surrounding
thc granting of the franchise than on the actual value of the franchise itself.
Sornctimes a comp&ny will have receivcd a franchise for less than its actual
rvorth to them; occasionally they will have paid dearly for it. On account of
the close control exercised over the utility business by the regulating commis-
sions, the franchise of today is stripped of the financial importance formerly
attached to it, and it is the practicc to allorv for it in rate schedulee only to the
extent to which,the utility has actually paid for franchise rights. Under modern
regulatory conditions, public utility franchiscs havc no value since there is no
special incentive lor capital to seek the public utility field because of excep-
tional profits.
trndcr the head of cost of publicity could be included public educational
campaigns to bring the public to a greater use of electricity and paid advertis-
ing designed to create and maintain public good will. As a public utility, it
behooves any company to look well to the nature and character of its advertis-
ing, for public bodies, both protective and otherwise, have demonstrated their
interest in guarding the public against big business propaganda. One o{ the
most important executives of the public utility is that officer who has charge
of thc advertising, publicity, and public rclations activities.
Tirc sum of thesc customer costs tlividetl by the number of customers is the
customer element. It frequently appc&rs as a fixed, r"onthly service charge.
3-7 The Investors' Profit. The Iaot element rvhieh was mentioncd as
being a part of the cost of clcctrical energy to the consumer was the investors'
profii. As would be expectcd, this clcment is also variable owing to variable
businebs conditions prevailing in diflcrent localities at different times. After
interest has been paid and all contingencies, present or expected, cared for,
the surplus may be declared as a dividend. The industrial plant is rarely expected
to,shou'a profit except as its prolit on energy used in the manufacturing process
is includcd in the general manufact'rring profit. But the public service plant is
expected by those who have invested funds in its development to produce a
profit. The private industrialist is entitled to all the profit he can make in the
face of business competition. This business competition has been nearly re-
rnoved in the case of the public utility by the nature of the lranchise it holds;
hence an artificial control, such as regulation by a specially created public
commission, is substitutcd for the competiticn of private industry. Forty-one
states have established public service commissions to regulate profits.
Whereas the profits of private competitive industry range upward to 25/o,
depending on the financial hazard of the enterprise, the relatively safe invest-
ments in public utility companics arc restricted \o 8/o or less by state regula-
tion. An examination of stiate commission regulation practices discloses that
the approximate ratn of return prescribed in most cases is bctrveen 5/o and
6lz%.
3-8 Depreciation and Replacement. The largest component of the fixed
charge is the amount to be collected and set aside in a fund which, through the
useltl life of the plant, will accumulate a sum equivalent to the money borrowed
DEPBECIATION AND REPLACEITTENT 71
for invegtment. This cost ie brought about through the reduction in value of
the property, through depreciation, from ite initial cogt to ite salvage va[ue at
the end of its economic usefulnecs. This depreciation is caused by age of service,
wear and tesr on the machinery, by corrosion; or it may be due to obsolescence
of equipment or inedequacy of the equippent, necessitating its replacement
with larger, better adapted units. The depreciation charge, that is, the amount
which must be eet aside from the iqcome each year and placed in the deprecia-
tion reserve, may be baeed on either the streight line or sinking fund theory.
The former is the mor€ widely used in power plsnt cost eccounting and is
simpler, in application, than the latter. The straight line method assumes a
constant depreciation each year while the sinking fund is based on a variable
depreciation. The straight ltne methoil is baeed on the assumption that de-
preciation occure according to a straight line law euch as is expressed at o in
Eig.3-3. The amount of thie charge dependa only on the total depreciation ahd
the expected life and is independent of the rate of interest it may draw during

f
l
Ei it ,!!
!;

Lit.
AGE AGE
IoI OEPSECIATION BY STRAGHT I bl 0EPREC|ATTOT{ 8Y 9rNKrNO
LII{E MEIHOD FI'T{O METHOO

Frc. 3-3 Methods of computing depreciation.

accumulation. Such interest moneys, if earned, are to be treated as income. In

the dnking lund. methotl a fixed, predetermined sum is set aside each year and
interest compounded on it periodically. The fixed sum must be such that the
total of annual installments plus the interest accumulations will equal the
total depreciation.
Straight line annual depreciation reserve = (3-1)
?
where P = The principal sum.
S = The final salvage value.
z = The term in years.
Average rate of interest paid over a period of n years, when r rate of interest
is charged on the unpaid balance is io,.

,"":;("i) (B-2)

The smount whicli, when annually placed at r rste of compound interest,

will amount to (P - St in n. ycars, is
Sinking fund payment = tr
' - sl /=--{ - .1)
\(l *t)"-1/ 1S-al
72 POWER PLANT ECONOMICS
The parenthetical term in Eq 3-3 is frequently referred to Bs the "sinking
fund factor." It and uselul variations are olten entered in Interest Tatles
having a and r as independent variables. However, for the few examples in this
book one may prefer to use the formula, as is done in the following example:
Examplc l: A 7500-kw steam plant is erected at a cost of S125 per kw. Assume
that bonds in the amou[t of the totel cost were sold, They are to msture in 15 years,
which is also the estimated life of the plant. Salvage value is estimated at 5% of first
cost. Interest on bonds is 4%; on sinking fund deposit \t/z%. The amount of anlual
payment on the investment, also the sinking fund accumulation after 5 years, will be
computed.
sinking fund fr.to" : : o.ob2
6;ffi
Sinking fund payment : 0.052(125 X 7ffi : $46,312.50
X 95Vd
Annual interest payment : 0.O4(125 : $37,500.00
X 7500)
Tohal - $83,812.50

Five-year occumulation factor : ,, : o.rso

(r.035)6 - ,r
"99L5
Accumulated amoun, : "o:i?J : s248,ee1.es

Although the function of depreciation is apparently simple in theory, in

reality there are many troublesome angles to it, bearing on its meaning and on
its evaluation. The accumulation of a fund suffiaient to retire s given investment
may be the purpose of depreciation reserve; hovrever, the history of power
plants does not show thst the investors were returned their money and that the
plant was scrapped at the end of its working life. What actually happens, in
the majority of cases, is the replacement oI the deprecisted srticl€ by a new
one. In that sense, then, depreciation becomes the sum set aside to replace the
worn article. This introduces into the depreciation calculations the changing
vslue of money, I iactor which will become more pronounced, the longer the
useful life of the article. Also, the history of power plant economics has been
that the estimated working life was a possibility, but not a probability, because
the rapid development of more efficient, more flexible, more reliable, or more
compact equipment by the manufacturers has accentuated the inadequacy of
existing equipment and caused its replacement long before the end of its work-
ing life. Furthermore, this working life itself may be no more than a conjecture,
as is the case where the units in service have been developed recently enough so
that ncne of them has reached the point of replacement. It should be remem-
bered that, in depreciation accounting, the accounti.ng lor deprec;ati.on is rarelu
a representation ol the actual depreciation itsell.
Replacemmt. Questions conceming the advisability of replacing component
parts of a power plant, may be expected to arise from time to time. As new and
improved forms of equipment become &vailable, owners may question the econ-
omy of retaining some item of existing equipment long before the conclusion
of its useful life. In such cases application of the principles of engineering
economy dictates that those costs which are unafrected by the decision to re-
place (or not) should be discovered and eliminated from consideration. Thus,
DEPRECIATION AND REPLACEMENT 73
8 depreciation allowance or a sinking fund payment on cxisting cquipment
ought not to be considered, since it is an expense already incurrcd and not
cancellable by any decision to replace. Conscquently, thc "book value,, of
equipmelt, as cstg,blished by a depreciation accounting systcm, is not con-
siderecl since its magnitude depcnds on assumed lifc span antl salvagc values,
and not at all on current replaccment economy.

Table &.1. LEGALLY APPROVED DEPRECIATION RATIIS AND TIIti

USDFUI, LI}'E THEY REPRESI'NT
(From Stanfutd Handbuk for Electri.al Eqintcts, trIcGraw-Hill Book Co., Publishers)

l)epreciation
Property (Straight-line) Life, Years
Per Cent

Air cornptessors............. 4to5 20 to 25

Boilers, fire tube. . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 fi.r l0 l0 to 15
Boilers, water tube....... .. . 5 20
Breechings. . 3.5 t,o 10 l0 to 28.5
Buildings. 50
Coal aud ash mechinery..... 5to10 10 to 20
Condenserg. 5 20
Conduits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Steam engines - 3 Lo 7.5 13.3 to 33.3
Gas engines . 6.7 t5
Foundations, machinery. .... same as its same as its
machine machine
Fuel oil handling machinery. .. 4 25
Generators....-,.... 3to5 20 to 33.3
Steam turbogenerators-. -.. .. . 5to10 i0 to 20
Feed water heaters, closed - . . . 33
Feed water heatcls, open. . . .. 3.5 28.5
Electric met€rs . 5to8 12.5 tn 20
Piping and coveriDg.......... 4 Ia 6.67 15 to 25
Pumps . . . 5 to 6.7 15 to 20
Stacks........ 3to10 10 to 33.3
Stokers, fixed parts. .5
Stokers, moving perts. ....... N 5
Storage batteries. . . 5 20
Switchboard and wiring....... 3to8 12.5 to 33.3
Transformers, station service. .- c to b./ 15 to 20
Turbines, stea,m . 5 to 6.7 15 to 20
Turbines, hydraulic 30
Wire, weatherproof . 6-25 to 7.5 13.3 to 16
Motors . . . 5 20

A simple method of. &nslysis of these problems is to colnpare costs which

are incurred by a decision to replace with those which are prevented by the
Bsme decision. Grantr specifically warns aga,inst the lollowing l&ulty practiq€r
in rep)acement studies.
rE. L. Grant, Principles ol Engineeri;n4 Ecoaony, Rooald Prees.
7I PO1VER PLANT ECONOMICS
l. Considering the exoess of preeent book value over the net realizable valuo
of the old asset &s sn addition to the investment in the-new asset.
2. Calculating depreciation and interest on the old asset on original cost
rather than present net realizable vs,lue.
3. Assuming that a reduction of direct coets will efrect a couesponding
saving in indirect costs.
4. Comparing calculated unit costs realizable only with full capacity opera-
tion, where actual operation fs,ils to reech this capacity.
Examplc 2: An engine costiDg $7200 is 5 1'ears old. Ite workhg life and salvago
yalue have been assumed to be 15 years aud 8500, teslectively. The avetage operating
cost per year thub far has been $42ffi. A new engine having a cost of $12,000, an es-
tirnated life of 15 years, and a salvage value of $800 is estimated to h&ve au aDnual
opemtiltg expense of $3600. The new engine is considered as a replacement of the
old. It will be determined whether the replacemeut is advisable if all that cau be ob.
taiDed by sale of the old engine is $4500. Use straight line depreciation and 3/o i\terext
rste. In this cas€ the depreciation oD the 34500 sate value is prevented if the old
engine is sold. The (7200 - 5fi')/15: $,146.66 depreciation item for the old engine
continues whether or not a replacement is made. It is seen that the costs actually
prevetrted or incurred are;

Pru)ertad, by rcpl@rmenl buuted fu repla.cemznt

Dep. 4$;fl= rnm ET;4:

l\ ',0,
Av. int. A9(9-t-1) xlooo = 110 0.05/r5 + X = 299
11,200
2 \ lE ,/
Int. on Bslvage 05X500= 25 05 x800: 40
Operation 4200 : 3600
Totsl ,/,35 t4686
The difrerence in fayor of replacement is Bo Blight that it is doubtlul that 8 change
should be made.
3-9 Theory of Rates. It has been stated that the electric utility derives
its revenues directly from the customers it serves on the basis of monthly bill-
ings. The customer's meter readings ore put into the rste structure 8nd the
amount due {rom that customer determined. The apparent simplicity of the
process is misleading, for the establishment of the ra,te structure that will fulfill

Table &2. STATE COMMISSION REGULATION PR"A.C'TICES

Rrte Baso Determinstion

Depreciation
Stste Method Treatment of Method
Applied Depreciation

Alabama........ hudlnt i.nv€s:nent Deducted 8t. line

Arizona......... Prudent investment St. line generally
Arkaruas..... Prudetrt lDvesknent Yarious
Cslilomis. . . . Resgotable hist. cost Not dtiiucted Sint ing funj
Colorado..... All elemento considered Deducted St. line or ret.
Couecticut. . Noue
THEORY OF RATES 75

Table &2 (Continued)

Rgte Base Det€rmination

Method Treatment of depreciation

Stote Applied Depreciation Method

Delaware......... . .

Dist ict of Columbie. Original cost Deducted St. line

tr'lorida.............
Georgis . . All elements considered
Idaho. ............ . Original cost Deductrcd St. line
Illinois. . . . . . . . . . . . .
...........
Indiano. Deducted
Ioq'a...............
Kangae..... .. . ... . . lair value iiJ""t"a
Kentucky. . .. ......
I-ouiaiana. Prudent irvesktrent Not deducted Judg. aud hist.
record
Moine.. . .. Retirement
Maryland . Fair value '23 plus ret Inc. over '23
odd. d€d.
M&ss&chueett€. . ...... Prudent inveetment Deducted St line generally
Michigan.... .. .... .. . Original coet Deduct€d St liae
Mioregots... .. . .. . .. .
Mississippi .
Missouri . . OrigiDal cost Not deducted si. it""
Montona. . . Fair value Deducted St. liuo
Nebraska..... .. .. .. ..
Nevade. - . Prudeat iavegtmeat Deducted St. line getrsrlly
NewHompshire....... All elsments congidered Deducted St. liue
New Jersey..... ... .. . All elementa conridercd Deducted St. line genetally
NewMexico,......... Origiral cost adust€d Deductrcd 3t. line geuerally
New York...... ...... Originsl cost Deducted St. Iine
North Caroliaa...... .. All elemeats oolEidetpd Deductrcd St. line
North Dokota. . ...... Prudent investDent Deducted
Ohio....... Roproduction coot Deducted Observed
Oklahoma. Origi+sl coot Deducted
Oregon... . .. . ...... .. Origiral cost Deducted St. line generally
Pennsylvania tr'air value
Rhode Ielsnd
BouthCarolina..... tr'air rialue
SouthDakota......
Tenneeeee. ........ Prudent investmetrt Deducted St. line
Texae. . . . ..... ....
U18h.............. Prudelt investmeDt Deducted
Vermont..........
Yirginia....... ... . Fair valuo Deductcd Comp. iater*t
Washiagton..... . Originol cost Deducted St. line generally
Wost Virgidu.. .... All elements cooeidered Deducted Insp. & co. exper.
WiscoDsin. ,....... tr'air vglue Deduoted St. line generally
Wyomiug..... . ....
76 POWER PLANT ECONOMICS
the rcquilemcnts of a successlrrl working rate is a matter of considerable difr-
culty. Flom thc public's standpoint the rates should meet the following condi-
tions:
7. Rate sched.ules should be ai.rruple, The problem of setting up a schedule
thai will fairly distribute the costs is aggravated by the necessity of its being
comprehcnsible to the public as well as to the rate expert.
2. Rate schedules ehould be unitorm ooer large terrttorial areos. There is
nuch yet to be accomplished here. Pelsons in one community frequently are
paying on onc basis, and those ir, the ncighboring community oa another which
is so difrerent as to be uuintclligible to thc first.
3. Direct seruice trom producer to consutner. This requires the eliminatioa
of the encrgy jobber, subcontractor, or tniddleman.

'1
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Sdisono Elechic Co.

frc. 3-4 Domestic watthour meter-

4. Distibution of costs in such a way that persons creating a d.estrable and

relatiuely inerpensiue t11pe ol load may enjoy the tull use and. benefit ol electri-
cal oppliances.
. Scientific electric rate-making might be said to have originated with Dr.
.Iohn Hopkinson, an Englishman rvho lived in the last half of the nineteeuth
century. His great contribution to rate-making was embodied in an address
dchvcrcd in 1892 bcforc thc Junior Enginccring Socicty of London. This ad-
dress containcd a clcar analysis of the various elements entering into a fair
clectric rate. The Hopkinson rate theory was based on two charges, one a fixed
annual charge per kw of maximum.demand, the other a small unit charge
against each kw hr of energy used. Other early leaders in rate making theory
rvere lY.,I. Green and Arthur Wright in 1896, and H. L. Doherty in 1900.
THEORY OF RATES 77
During the first half century of public electric service many rate forms
were tried, of which the following received some considerable application.
Struight Line Metq Rate. The term "straight line" indicates that the price charged
per unit is constelt, tha,t is, does not vary oD account of an increase or decrease in
the Dumber of units. This is the simplest of all rates.
Tbis rate id based on a fla,t rate per kw hr, and under uo circumstances could it be
considered as encouraging the use of electricity, uuleos the r&te were so low that it ig
out of line with the usual charges in such rutes.
Bloclc Meter.Eoie, The term "block" indicates that a certain specifled price per
udt is charged for all or any part of a block of such units, and reduced priceJ per unit
are charged lor all or any part of succeeding blocks of uuits, each such reduced price
per unit applying only to a particular block, or portion thereof. This is now the form
for the majodty of rcsidential and small commercial customers. Its principal defect is
that it lacks a measure of the customer's demand.
Eaamplc: First 50 kw hr per moirth or less at 4d per kw hr; next 50 kw hr at
3d per kw hr; and all remaining use at 1.5C per kw hr.
Flat Demand Rate. The term "flat demand" applies to a charge for electric s€rvice
based upon the customer's installation.of energy consuming devices. This is usually so
much per vatt or per kw per month or per year. Sometimes this type of rate is
lominally so rnuch per customer per year or per month, for each of the various classes
of customers. It has had sgme adoption for large customers of hydroelectric plants,
f<rrin such cases the frxed element overshadows all others.
Bloch Hopkiruon Dernand, Rate, A demand cbarge based on a maximum kw per
rnontl, plus a follow-on energy block rate.
Etart.ple: $2.40 per month per kw for the first 50 kw of the maimum demand in
the rnonth, $2.00 per month per kw for the excess of the maximum demand over 5i)
krv, plus an energy charge of 5d per kw hr for the first 1000 kw hr used per month, and
34 for the next 4000 kw hr used per month and further block steps where dcsired.
With this rate any size of customer can leceive an equitable charge compared to other
similar customers. As a demand meter is required, it is not well suited to the small
residential customer,
Three Charge or " Doherty" Rate. Auy of the JoregoiDg types of rates mdy be
modified by the addition of a, customer chalge. When such a charge is introduced in
the }lopkinson Dernand mte, it becomes a Three Charge rate or "Doherty" rate, rvhich
consists of a customer, or meter, charge, plus a demand chorge, plus an energy charge.
Nlany people consider that, thcoreticall5,, this is an ideal type of rate.
The principal objections to it are that the charges are in three classes-customer
charge, demand charge, and energy charge. As it requires two meters, it is better suited
for industrial than lor residential customers.
Eaample: $1.50 per krv ol maximum demand per month plus 75d per month.cris-
tomer setvice charge plus Id per kw hr energl.charge.
Room Rate Charge. Rlank krv hr per active room Jor the top ra,t€ per kw hr.
Blank krv hr per room for thc next block rate per kir hr and foilowing blocks where
it seems desirable.
10d per kw hr per month for the first 3 krv hr per counted room; plus
Etample:
7C per krvhr per month for the next three Lrv hr per counted room; plus -1d per kw hr
per month for the excess over 6 kw hr per counted room.
This rat€ is an attempt.to introduce a demand charge witbout the cost of aD ex-
pensive demand meter. The asflmption is that, a custorner's maximum ddmand will be
proportional to the number of dwelling rcoms he occupies. Although the individual
case may belie this assumptiou, it is dolbtleso epproximaiely comect ilr the statisticg
of an assemblage.
78 POWER PLANT ECONOTIIICS
Special Features. Since rate }imitations are prescribed by commissions and
since investors in electric companies -are to have a "fair" retum, rates often
contain clauses automatically revising the rate in the event operating costs
vary. There are also special provisions for Eteady loads, seasonal efrects, etc.
Some of these are listed.
1. Higher demand charges in winter.
2. Fuel price adjustment to provide a rate change wheru luel prices deviate
from a standard.
3. Special energy rates for electric water heating for controlled off-peak
service.
4. Penaltiee or bonuses for power factur deviation from an 80/" standard.
3-10 Making-up Rate Structur€s. A rate should be sufficient to obtain
from the customers sufrcient income to meet the costs detailed in this chapter
and provide the allowable retum on the capital basis, whatever that may be
(see Table 3-2) . From the simnle case of a straight meter rate where the cost

I
I
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.{

Sonsamo Electtic Co

tr'rc. 3-5 Combination watthour aDd wattmeter with maxmum demand feature.

per kw hr is simply the sum of the four elements mentioned divided bf the
kw hr estimated to be registered on customers' meters the job of rate-making
rdvances in complexity as attempts are made to place the costs equitably on
the customers, r"hat is to say, to charge in occordance with the real costs
imposed on the company by the specific nature of the customers'load. Then
the correct rate may be psychologically bad for use on the average domestic
customer. For example, the customer element, represented in a "service charge,"
m&y come out to be large compared to the energy charge, and the customer
public may leel thereby that it is being gouged for overhead. No company leels
MAKING-UP RATE STRUCTURES 19
tlrrlt it wants to make a separate charge for profit, though any sane-minderl
custorncr urust understand that it is alu'ays present. Profit could with reason be
sssigned to the clements that involle capital outlay, i.e., fi:ced and customer,1\
proportion to the investment in each. Again, this is not ahvays done for reasons
of "appearance" or "balance" of the form of rate. The following exan.rples are
rate problems much skeletonized and simplified in order to show how the rate
is deviscd to return the necessary income. An actual problem ol this type re-
quires a mas6 of detailed information and data to be available.
Example 1: The coats of a certain electric systrem will be surnmarized by clelnentr
and translated rnto a strorgt t neter rate.
A cit-v of 150,000 customers (commercial customen bting reduced to eqtivxlcnt
domestic customers on the basis oi about 50 kw hr per month per customer) is served
by a 30,000-krv plant thrcugh the medium of a 26 Ero tran,iirrission line. Co'"t of thc
piant is $145 per kw; salvage value at the end of an 18-year u''cftrl life, 10/, of its
hrst cost. Cosi of the primary dist bution s]'stem is $ lzooper km; salvage value at
thc end of a 25-year useful lile, 30/6. The secondary di-qt bution system hxs . caPitrl
cost of $3,250,000 aud an estimated salvage velue ot 20.4e al the end ol 15 years. Itr-
terest rete, 612/p; taxes plus insurance, 51,.l'abor costs for the porver plant and
p mary distribution system:
30 men at $150 month
16 men rt $200 month
8 men at $350 month
llanagement cost js $68,000 anmrally; maintenance and repaits, $50,000 annually,
oil, rvaste, and supplies, $25,000 annuslly. Cost of franchise and publicity, estimated

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COAI - THOUSAND k9/h HOUi5 OF IIIE YEAF

FIc. 3-6 A graphical solution for annual coal consumption from load duratiou and
plaut charactelistic cuN€s.
80 POWER PLANT ECONOMICS
$1 per customer. Colleeting revetrue, $725,000 annually; operating secondary distribu-
tiotr system, $110,500 aunually; cost of coal, delivered to the plant, $4.80 per tonne.
The load duration curve and plant fuel characteristic arc as shown in Fig. 3-6. By
the graphical method, these two curves are combined to give rhe third, the coal cotr-
Bumption duration curve. The area under this cuNe represents coal used per year.

Fiaed element :
Capital cost= cost of plalt + cost of transmission line.
cspital cost= 145 x 30,000 + 26 x 1200 = $4,380,000.
Depreciation = capital co6t - salvage v&lue.
Depreciation (plant) = (145 x 30,000) (1.00
Depreciation (line) = ( 26 1 1200) (1.00
- 0.10) = S3p10p00.
- 0.30) = $21,000.
Annual depreciation reserve will be calculated on the straight line basis.
Plant depreciation leserve = 3,910,000/18 : 9217,000.
Ure depreeiation reserve = 21,000/25 = g840.
Annual depreciation reserve $117,000 + $840 $2i7S40
Interest, taxes, and insurance (0.065 + 0.05) x 4,380,000 505,000
Maintenatrce (10% of 50,000) 5,000
Ma"uagement 68,000
Total annual cost for 6xed element $795,840

Energg element:
The area.under the coal consumption dumtion curve was found tob€?2000 tonEo.
and tbat under the load duration curve, 95p00,000 kw hr. Labor costs per annum
are estimated to be 30 x 150 + 16 x 200 + 8 x Bbo : $126.000.

Illii""rrr,moro486
l . . ...9;33:3ffi
Oil, waste, and supplies 25,000
Mairrtenance (50,000
- 5000) 45,000
Tot&l energy element charge $b4q000
l)u,stomer eletnent:
Dep. of the secondary distribution
system = (1.00
- 0.2O) X 3,250,000: $2,600,000
Annual depreciation reserve 2,600,000/15 . . $173,5m
fnterest, taxes and insurance (0.065 * 0.05) X 3,250,000 374,O00
Operaling costs 110,500
Franchise and publicily 150,000 x $t ... . 150,000
Cost of co)lectiog revenue .. 225,000
Total custome! elemenL cbarge $1,033p00
lnoestots' ptofi,t :
Assume annual profit on capitalization, ovdr and above interest, to be 8/6
Cost of plant, primary, and secondary distribution systems.
Capitalization - 4,380,000 + 3,250,000 : $7,630,000
Profit element - 0.08 X 7,630,000 - $610,400.
Straight li,ne neter ra,te:
Summing the vadous elements of cost:
MAKING.UP RATE STRUCTURES 81
Fixed elenrent $ 795,840
Energr'... .. . 546,000
Custotrrer'.. - . 1,033,000
Profit....... {i r 0,400

Annull ploductiol cost........ $2,985,240

Assuming 801 of thc l)l:rnt output to l)c registcred on thc crslomcrs' meters (20%
encrgy losses in linc, thrnsfon[crr, ctc.) the 05,000,000 Lrv hr p|in1 prorluction becomes
95,m0,000 X 0.80 = 76,000,000 Lrv hr delivcre<l to customers.

nrte : 2.085.000
: 0 0393 s41 4c P.r kr\, hr rcle'
tffiffi 11

Example 2: 'l'he elemcnts of cost, as computed in Example 1, vill be set into

the structurc of a tltrce-charge rote. For this rate let thc p?orf, clemcnt be placed rvith
fiied ane) customar tlemenls in proportion to thc capital investment in oach.
Demand chalge : fixed element + e poltion of profit

: 7e5,840 + ffi x oLO,+oo : $r,r46,840

.{sllmc that thc over-lll rlivcrsity fnctor i" 4.2. Then r fcn li stlrtion demand of
2a,000 krv reprc,rents r total of 25,000 X 4.2 = 105,000 kw of customrr peaks. The
Ilnrl demind chrrgc is 1,14(i,840/105,000 = $10 pcr kN ll4rroximatel5'. Actually the
dtmarri clrargc must be more than this, for customers irc billcd monthly, not annually,
rn.l thc rDr\iDrrm rnnual peak is not rcg;stcre(l cvcr]' month. Statistical operating
frctors contriniDg this information rvould be applied 1o the problem at this point. As-
sumc thrt sttch l'ould raise the demand charge to $I2 per annum. Then this portion
of the rlt. r'oull bccome: $1.00 per krv of maximum tlemand per month. The energy
element \v:rs $5,16,000 for 76,000,000 kw hr. Ilence the unit energy chargc is 546,000/76,-
000,000, or $0.0072 per krv hr, say 7/2 mills per kw hr.

Selvice charge : customer element f remainder of profit

= 1,osa,ooo + (*@ 610,400) : $1,2er,000

"
Dividing this equally between 150,000 customers, the result is $8.62 per year, or $0.718
per month. Here again the theoletical needs to be increased, this time to allow for such
factors as vacancies, temporary absence of such iDcrease due to customer being dis-
conuected rvhile arvay on vacation, etc. Assuming that this charge needs to be $0.75
per month, ue have the final rate as follows:
$1.00 per kw oI maximum demand per rnonth, plus 7/2 mills per kw hr used, pl':s a
service charge of 75C per month.
Example 3: The same basic data are here worked irrto a room rdt€ form. Suppose
itis desired to obta,in the fixed element and the customer element in the 6rst thrce kw
hr per room. (It is assuned that this will be the minimum individual consumption.)
The annual sum to be collected this way is $795840 + $1,033,000: $1,828,840.
Now, assuming all customers to be domestic (this would not be true, but it is a"s-
pumed here for purposes of simplification), and each having an aver&ge of five rooms
per home, the rate is found as follows:
Charge per kw hr per month lor the filst three kw hr per counted room =
1,828,840/050,000 x 5 x 3 x 12) = $9.6676,.r, 70.
& POWER PLANT ECONOMICS
Amourt realized from thie wouldbe 150,000 x 5 x 3 X 12 x 0.07 = $1,890,q00.
Rcmaining as n straight e4ergy charge $2,985,240 -
$1,890,000 : $1,095,2a0.
Kilo\y&tt+ours remaining after this preliminary consumption =
76,000,000 - 150p00 x 5 x 3 x 12 = 49,000n00.

Energl,rate :
ffiffi : o.oz24, ga.y 2it.
The room rate, theu, is 7d per kw hr per month for the flrst three kw hr per counted
room ar,d 2l/zi per kw hr for all energy used in excess of this,

PROBLEMS
1. A power plaDt cost $375,800 to build. Its life is assumed 20 yean; xalvage,15y'6.
Find the sinking fund payment. Interest compounded enuually at 5%.
2. Find the production cost pe! 1000 kg steam in e steam plant when the evepora-
tion rate is 7,2 kg steam perkg coal; initia[ cost of plant, $150,000; annual operal.ion
cost exclusive of coal, $15p00. Assume life of 20 years; no finai value; intcrcst on bor-
rored capital, 4% ; on sinking fund, 3/p, Average steam productioh is 14 5 00 kg pcr h!;
cost of coal, $8.00 per tome,
3. Determine the amual cost of a leedrrater softener lrom the following data: Cost,
$15,000; life, 10 J'e&rs; salvage va)uc,0; annual repairs and maintenance, $500; ennual
cost of chemicals, $825; labor, $20.00 month; sinking fund depreciation vilh r = 4qo.
4, The bonds issued to build & certain power plant have face value of $2,500,00C
and bear iutelest at 4!2/p.Ihe:x- aretobe retired at end of 20 years by an accumu]ate..
sinking luad which will yield'4% compounded annually. Find the annudl pa.yment tr)
the account of capital investment.
5. The fixed element invested io a 100,000-kw porver plant is $15,000O00. tr'ind irs
average annual cost per kw, based on straight line deprecifiion. Estimated life, 15 yr;
salvage,20/6; r,5/6.
6, An ash disposal system of a steam plant cost $30,000 when new. It is aow 4 years
old. The annual maintenance costs for the four years have been $2000, $2250, $2675,
$3000. Interest rate = 6/o. A new system is guaralteed to have an equated annual
maintenance and opemtion cost Dot exceeding $1500. Its cost is $47,000 installed. Life
of each system, T years; salvage value,5/p of flrst cost. Present sale value of old systen
is same as salvage value. Would it be profitable to itrstall the uew system?
7. Ten years ago a small steam nlant of 200Gkw capacity costi[g $125 per kw was
erected. The life was estimated at i5 years aud the salvage vLl$e at ,Eo. Atr present,
abandoning the old plant in favor of a new Diesel plant is being considered. A market
has been lound for the old engine and boiler equipment at $15,000. The remainder of
the old plant can be utilized in the new and is given a valuation of $8500. Depreciation
has been figured on the straight line basis. What is the difierence between the depreci-
ated book value of the old pla,nt and its sale value? Eow woirld the difierence be takeq
care of in the reconstruotion ?
8. The toad duration curve aDd fuel characteristic for a 45,000 kw plant are gigen
in Prob.20, Chapter 2. Other data for the same statiol are: Initial cost, $135 per kw;
estimated life, 20 years; salvage value, S/6 of first cost; interest rate, 5%; taxes and
insurance, \|fiy'"; labor,45 men; average salary, $175 per month; maintenance and
repairs, $65p00 per auum; oil, waste and suppties, S20,000 p€r &Dnum; coal, $8.25
pel tonno Find production cost pel krv hr.
9. The annual costs expected by a utitity system itr supplying a certein residential
'srrburb of 45,000 customers ere: Fixed element, $345,000; elergy elemett, 8180,000;
crstomer elenentr, S3fi),000; retum on investment, $200,000.
 PROBLEMS 83
17,050,m0 kw hr wrll be registered on custome$, metels during the year and their
maxirnum_ demand on the powe! plant will be of the order of 5500 kw. Diversity factor
from Table 2-2
(a) Form a straight line meter !ate. (b) tr'olm a tbree charge rate, putting ya of
the profit in the eneryy element, /4 in fixed elemeut. (c) f'orm i room rate ii wlich
the customer element is a 6xed monthly service charge and the fixed element is obtained
iu the flrst 4 kw hr per room. (Assume average home, 6 rooms.) Energy element iB
uniformly dist buted.
10. A town of 4500 population has 2000 connected custome$. The maimum de-
mand is 350 kw and the annual output 1BSQ000 kw hr. The plant is operated by the
municipality and its rate includes an element which goes lowards defrayiug thi ex_
penses of to\\-rl administration. The rate is expqcted to produce: $l2,E0d p"=" aonu-
for fixed element; $20,000 per annum for energy elemert; g30,000 per annrim for cus-
tomer element; S50,000 per annum for towtr expenses element.
Work out a rate of the following form:
(A) d per kw hr lor the first 25 kw hr per month; (B) d pn" kw hr Jor all energy
used in excess oI 25 kw hr.
1st block to return 6xed element, customcr elem.Dt, and $20,000 oi town expenFes.
11. The annual costs of operatitg arl electdc system are:
Coal, S300,000
Franchise and publicily, 520,000
Statiou depreciatioq, $190,000
Station supplies, $30,000
Primary line dep., $190,000
Interest, taxes and insurance: on plant &nd primary line, g50,000; on secon-
dary lincs, $85,000
Secondary lines dep., 9120,000
Plant maiotenance: Fixed $1000, variable g2000
Secondary lines maiutenance, 9b0,000
Labor : Geueration, S105,OOO; Distribution $80,000; Accounting g150,000
Superitrteudeuce &ud manag€metrt, 950,000
Dividends to stockholders, $A5O,O00
Aanual station output 70 X 100 kw hr, 10% energy loss in transmission; peak
load,20,000 kw; diversity,' 3.33; 100,000 customers
Compute a three<harge rate iu which one-half of the dividends are in the service
charge, the other half in the demand charge.
12. A customer owning an 8-room house has 365 krv hr recorded on his meter during
& certain molth. The local electric rate is: 6C per k$' hr for the first 6 krv hr pei
counted !oom, plus 4d per kw hr for the next 8 kw br per counted room, and 2d per kw
hr for all remaidug energy consumed during the motr1h. Compute the electric bill for
the month.
13. Annual costs in a certain porver syslem are:
- For fixed costs: Plant,
91,250,000.
$1,750,000; primary lines, g600,000; secondary lines,

For operating cost: Plant,975,000 indircct and $950,000 direci.

For distribution system, 9500,000.
Direct customer expense, 94O0,000; profit,8/s of fixed cost.
Peak load ou plant,45,000 kw; diversity factor,4; annual plant output, 1.2 x 10s
kry hr. Assume 50,000 customers and 20% transmission loss.
Find the straight line meter rate.
. 14. Using data oI Prob. 13, constmct a Doherty rate, putting profit into the proper
cloments, in proportion to the investment.
15, An air preheater imtallation will cost gl2,5OO. Its life is assumed to be 8 ye&rs.
84 POWER PLANT ECONOMICS
Salvaje value is nothing. Annual maintenance artd repair is estimated to average $150.
Use compound interest at 6% and 6nd thc annual cost of the preheater.
'Whst
16. idtial cost will au annual saving oI $675 per year for ten years amoBtize at
4Vo t:tetesl compounded annually?
17. A 30mhp'condensate pump motor has been burned beyond repair. The plant
supe ntendent has two replacement altematiyes. Manufacturer "A" ofrers to replace
the odginal (which was an "A" motor) for $510. Malufacturer "B" ofiers & cheape!
motor. at $400 but can only guarautee 87/, efrcietcy whereas the "A" motor is gua,ran-
leed lor 8g%. The imtallation operulel 2570 of the time at full load, ard 75/6 ofahe
time at hall load where the two efficierrcies become 8570 ad 847a respectively. Assume
a motor compa son pcriod ol 5 years, intelest rate 8/6, equal mainteoance costs.
Electlic energy is charged lor at the rate of 1%d per kw hr.
(a) 'W'hich motor is the more economieal buy? (b) At what energy cost do they be-
come eqlral altematives ?
18, Make a comparative analysis of the production cost per kw hr of the trvo plants
for which data are given. Annual production = 1 x 106 krv hr.
Dtescl Plont Steam Plant
Engine and generator ... . $53,000 Turbogen. and condonser . $24,000
Swbd. and wiring $5,600 .. .
Boiler and stoker S20,000
Miscellaneous $8,000 Swbd. and wiring ... .... $5,600
Building . $10,500 Misccllancous $10,000
Labor, per month .... .. $350 Building $12,U00
Fixed charges tt% Labor, Per month $45i)
Oil, per litor{o .6219/ m 1) 4]h Fixed charges 12%
Fuel economy 49 lblkrv hr Coal, per ton . $3.5C
Fuel ecolomy 1.?2 lb/kv br
19. Using data of the example in Sec 3-10, fcrn a block nreter rate with the fixed
element and one.half the customer element collected in the iirst 12 k1v hr per monlh
pei customer. In the second block, reduce the rate to 74 of the first block for the
collection of the energy element and the remainder of the customer element. As-<uxre
thetr 3/a ol the customers will avenge full consumption of the second block. Collect tle
profit elemert in the third and final block.
20. A 500-kw electric lighting plant cost $95 per ku installed. tr'ixed chc.rges, 14/e;
operating costs, 1.3d per kw hr. The plant averages 150 kri' for 5000 hr of the year,
420 kw for 1000 hr, and kw for the remainder. What is the unit cost of production
of electric energy?
21. The load duration of a group of residential customers served by a substation
is given by the follorving data:

Percent of the year 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

I{ilowatts 95 50 40 30 29 29 28 28 22 t2 I

Average efficiency ol distribution is g5%. Customer's mte is 8d pcr krv hr for thr: first
25 kw-hr, 5l per krv hr for the next 30 krv hr, 3d per kw hr for the next 50 krv hr,
and 2d per kw hr lor all remaining energy.'fVhat is the average montt y gross income
from this group of customers if 20 ol thcm avemge taking 300 krv hr per month, 50
of them tak€ 130 kw hr pe! month, while the remainder average 70 kw hr per mouth
each? Ilorv many custome$ are there in the whole group ?
. fotrio holse power
PROBLEMS 85
22. A customer's meter reads 29,543 kw hr ou May 1, and 29,598 kw hr on June l.
Iind the amount of his electric bill for May based on the lollowing rates.
(a) 7d per kw hr.
(b) 10C per kw hr lor the 6lst 35 kw hr; 5C per kw hr for the next 25 kw hr; 3d per
kw hr for all in excess of 60 kw hr.
23. Assume that s customer's msximum monthly demand was recorded as 120 kw.
His enerry consumptioa for the same pe od was ,10,500 kw hr. IIis rate is: $2.40 per
moDth p€r kw ior the 6rst 50 kw of maxioum demand; $2.00 per month per kw for
the excess of matimusr demand over 50 kw; plus 5d per kw hr for the first 1000 kw hr
per month; 3C per kw hr for the next,1000 kw hr per Bonth; aad 2d per kw hr for all
energy ir excess of 5000 kw hr. Whai is his bilt ior the mortb considered?
24. A customer haviug a 7-room house used 55 kw hI during a, certain month. What
is his electric bill for that molth if his rate iB that given as the example of "Xoorn
rate charge," Sec 3-9, and there is 8 5% discount for payment in 15 days
25. A customer owning an eight-room house has electric service under the followiug
rute: 9d per kw hr for the frrct 3 kw hr per room; 5d per kw hr for the next 5 kw hr
per room; 3d per kw hr for all in excess of 8 kw hr per room. His meter readings for
three consecutive months were: May 5-2789 kw hr; June 5-2984 kw hr; July 5-
3154 kw hr. What is the amourt of his bill for May 5-June 5? for June 5-July 5? What
is the average cost per kw hr Ior each of the two periods?
26. The rate for a commercial customer is $6.00 per kw per month for the flrst
krv of rnaximum demand, plus $5.00 per kw per month for the next 6 kw of maximum
demand, plus $4.00 per kw per month for all of the maximum demand in excess of 7 kw,
phrs cnergy chcrge as follows: kw hr at 4f per kw hr. All remuinirrg energy
First IOO
.t ld per kw hr. What type of rate is this? How much is the customer's bill in a
nronth when he registers 15-kru maximum demand and consumes 1850 kw hr?
 CHAPTER 4

THE PO\ATER PLANT BUIN-DNNG

{-1 General Design. There sre difierent approaches to the architecture

and etructural design of a power plhnt. The industrialist wilt usually specify
a purely functional building, one that is but a weatherguard for the equipment
it houses. Sheet metal construction is of thie character. The equipment of such
a plant may be just as excellent, as intelligently arranged, and as efrcient as in
another plant whose exterior is consciouely made architecturally beautiful.
Institutions such as schools, asylume, or sanatods.will frequently vant
the heating or power plant building to be ia harmony with the architecture of
the institution. Such buildings may heve to cost nearly as much as the equip-
ment they house.
The central electric station field exhibits a great variation of ideas from the
purely functional to the impressively refined architecture seen in so many o!
th,: modem plants built by public utility companies. Pride of appearance of r,
large and prominent project such as a central power station is only natural
on the part of comlany offcials. In approving the expenditure of money for
good-looking buildings the cold facts of economics cannot always govern, for
who can shy exactly how much a utilitarian project deservcs Leautification.
Many. personal and psychological factols are incorporated in the returns
upon money spent for beautification. One may, however, state that the expense
of architeetural beauty has usually been overestima.ted. As a matter of fact,
simplicity and ruggedness of structure may contribute more to pleasing ap-
pearance than a wealth of costly materials and ornaments. The porver plant
which generates electricity for public use is a public building and, as such, is
deserving of some erchitectural embellishment. lVhen the power plant was a
dirty, unsightly Etructure it was relegated to the outskirts of the community
and seldom visited by the general public. The majority of the customers hardly
knew where it was and certainly had no desire to invade the grimy locality.
That condition has largely disappeared; powcr plant interiors are clean, airy,
and sttractive; exteriors are imposing and inrite inspection.
That there is a return on the money expended in making the power plant
presentable is hardly to be doubted, even though the return is not tangible.
Public good will, which is a rnajor assct of any public utility, can better be
secured and retained by an attractivc structure than by all the rcfinements of
design of the machinery it houscs. If it is admitted that dignificd beauty has
86
GENERAL DESIGN 8?
a place in power plsnt srchitecture, the next logical question might be, ,,How
can beauty be obt&ined ia a utilitarian building, handicapped by such featurcs
as chimneys and coal piles?" Ol chimneys we shall speak later. lt is difficult to
efrace the ugliness of a coal pile and, yet, most plants will require a coal storage
to equalize the variable rates of delivery and usage. With a fairly constant coal
supply, lerge storage bins or coal silos may eliminate the outdoor coal storage.
A plant located in a city could be served directly by railroad cars and still
maintain, in the outskirts of the city, e coal storege yard of suficient capacity
to insure against shut-down from nondelivery of coal.

Fro. 4-1 Healy massive lines suggest the srchitectur&l motif of porver and permanence.

.4.nother school of thought in the public electric service field rnaintains

that the governing criterion should bi: the achievemcnt of minimum investment
consistent with reliability in order that the final cost of electric energy delivered
to the customer can be the least possible. It is interesting to note that when
working towards this objective engineers economize by omitting parts of the
conventional building structure but continue to give the remaining structure
an architectural treetment in excess of purely functional requirements. The
eemi-outdoor plant in which some of the equipment is left outside the building
proper will be discussed later.
Ouer-all Size. The obvious method to use for securing a building of satis-
88 THE POWER PL^A,NT BUILDINC
factory dimensions is to lay out, on paper, the best position of the necessary
equipment and then design the coveriug structure. The pursuance of this plan
will be nrore successful if thc building is to be qinglc-storied than if there are a
number ol floors and mczzaninc floors. This mcthod is logical ior a ncrv plant
which is to be built upon a lot of amplc proportions, lor it undoubtedly leads to
a neat and systematic arrangemcnt of the machinery and other building equip-
ment, On the other hand, the dcsigner occasionally must fit the equipment to a
predetermined lot size by carrying the building vertically until sufficicnt volume
is provided.

\Y€n. Penn. P@6 co

Frc. 4-2 Central power station of the steam turbine type.

The dimensions of the power plant building can be allotted after a plan of
the site is made and the dimensions of the principal pieces of equipment secured.
For this purpose, manufacturers issue catalogues and supply prints of their
respective products shorving dimcnsions that may be used lor preliminary
es[imating. These preliminary prints are seldom drawn with sufficient accuracy
to be used for final construction drawings. The designers make several studies
of possible schemes of equipment location, since it is improbable that first ideas
would be the best. In all layouts, allowances must be made for sufficient clear-
ances and for walkways. Generator and motor rotors, boiler, heater, and con-
denser tubes are examples of parts for which clearanee rnust be allowed in the
layout. Walkway clcarances around hot objects and rapidly moving machinery
should be wider than those just ne(essary to allow passage. Similarly, galleries
in the neighborhood of high tension buses should be as ample as available
space permits. Throughout the design, probable future extensions need to be
MATERIAI.S 89

kept in rnind, and the equipmcnt should be placed so as to allow for the addi-
tions with a minimum of change or rcl<.rcation and with no interruption of
scrvice. After the equipment has been arranged, the whole should be restudied
from the standpoint of operating routine. Convenience io operators, short hauls
ol supplies, and safety provisions are typical items deserving attention.
Archttecture. If the porer plant building is not to be purely iunctional,
then its exterior should receive a treatment apprcpriate to the field. The archi'
tectural motit ol a power plant shoukl. suggest, in its heauy mastiue lines, power
and permanence. Each wall should receive a symmctrical treatment in window
opening and ornamentation as far as it is possiblc to do so. Symmetry and
proportion are far more efrective than expensive marbles in lending the proper
dignity to the structure. Simple contrasting stone trimmings can be used very
efiectivcly to relieve the monotony of brick walls. Even the chimney has come
in lor architectural treatment, as is seen in Fig. 4-8. A chimney placed to one
side of the plant is less conspicuous than one mounted on the roof. However,
many plants have a stcel stack over the boiler room. Ilechanical draft makes
it possible to employ very short stacks unless the products of combustion must
be delivered at an elevation to free the vicinity of soot and gases.
Grounds adjacent to the hydroelectric plant lcnd themselves nicely to land-
scaping, with an expanse of water the main thcmc. Unfortunately, most of the
hydroelcctric plants are located far from centers oi population and ti,cir natural
beauty is seen l-ry relativcly few persons. The surroundings of the steam plant
may also be beautified with lawns and shrubs. lYlrere this has been carried out,
the formcr ugliness associated with power plants is largely forgotten. However,
many plants are located in metropolitan districts with no possibility of land-
seaping.
Within comparatively reccnt years considerable thought has been expended
in the beautification ol substations. The substation is often located in a resi-
dential district whete an unsightly building would cause a decrease in real
estate values and arouse thc opposition of property owners. As a rcsult, the
tendency is towards pleasing substation dcsign.
4-2 Materials. Brick, cindcrblock, hollow tilc, con0rete, and steel are the
principal buitding materials. lYood is unsuitable for power plant construction,
although it is occasionally used in the smallcr plants for roof trusses. Wooden
construction prescnts a fire hazard, it is relatively short-lived, and its strength
as a building matcrial is not great. Sheet mctal is incombustible, if not fire-
prriof, but it is unsightly in sidewall construction. As a roofing material, it is
too good a conductor of heat. However, ii. is occasionally used because of its
low cost. Although clay bricks may be had in various shapes and sizes, the
standard brick measures 210 x 100x55 mm. The better class of brick, called
facing brick, forms a wall that is quite impervious to all weather if well laid
in good mortar. Considerable attention has been given to the possibility of
achieving various architectural effects by the use of different colors of brick-
work in wall and trim.
Brickwork laid to a structural steel frame is a modern type of building con-
struction. The inclosing ralls betrveen adjacent horizontal girders are called
curtain and panel walls, and are much thinner than for the bearing wall type
of construction where the bottom walls support not only their own weight, but,
9O TEE POWER PLANf BUILDING
in addition, the weight of the superimposed walls. Masonry blocks ere used for
walls (interiorl, floore, and ceilings. One cubic oettc of brick masonry'will re-
quire approximately 050 standard brick and from r0o to 2.ro lirtr of mortar,
depending on the thickness and style of the joints. Proportione.for the mortar
are lrom one to three parts of dry s&nd to one part of Portland cement depen
ding on the gtrengttr aeeded. f'or prrlimin8ry estimating purposes, a clrb io rDctrc of
mortar may bd taken as made from Bcubic Eoircofgandsod lg ss6L8 of cebsnt.
The addition ol a small amount of lime to cement mortar will not matdriblly
impair its strength and will render it more easily worked. Iu the sbsence of
union rates, a bricklayer with helper will lay from 1000 to 2000 briok daily, the

Table 41: DATA ON CONCRETE MIXF"S TO YIELD 1 CU M CONCRETE

,Weight, SpIe
Mixture Ceoent, Sand Stone, Applicatioa Comp.
sacks mE m! trDr Stress,tfm!

l:2:3 0.51 o.77 Roofs, sills, teukr, 268 382.?8

tuunels

lt2i4 7.8 o.44 0.88 R. C. floors, beams, 2.66 12 8.10

and columns

l:21:4 7.9 0.52 0.83 Building walle !.66 2i s.A

1:3:5 6.2 0.52 0.86 tr'ourrdstions and 2.66 218.73

footingg

Cindere,
cu yd
l:2:4 8.6 0.49 0.98 R. C. floore 1.99 15&ll
Slag,
cu yd
1.2:4 8.6 0.49 0.s8 R. C. floorl zJe 16311

Table 42. APPROXIMATE WXIGIITS OI'BIIILDINC MATERIALS

Lg/qr
Plain coucrete, Bton€...... . . . 2323-2403
Plain concrrte, sIag.......... fr82
Plain concrete , cinder 1602
Roinforced concrete, Btone 2408
Brick uasonry, pressed . . . . . . . . . . . . 2248
Brick masoDry, .......... .
Ashlar mxonry, "o^-oo.
gronite............. 2643
Ast ar masonry, limestone...... . .. . . 2563
Ashlar uasonry, e&D4stone . . . . . . ... . . t24S
Sirnd and gravel . 1602-1762
Cinder 6lt. . . 64r-?2t
 REFERENCE LINES 91
former figure being for facing work and the latter for maeeive work such as
Ioundations or buttresses. Unions tend to regulate to much lower rate of con-
struction. Brick masonry varies in weight irom l.grotrrcs pef E! to 2.5 tonlc3
per rf. Facing bricks, have the greatest density. The building code committee
oI the Bureau of Stsndards recommends a maximum stress in brick maeonry
oil2t&/cmtfor bricke 8et in Portland cement mortar, but this may be increasd
tol75 tglcmr ifthe efrectsof eocentricloadingendlateral forces are fully analyzed.
Standsrd wall thicknesees are tmrnEo,2l0mB,322mm,432mm and .t*4 mm
The minimum thickness oI bearing wslls is 322 mm
Concrete is extensively employed in power plaat construction, perhaps not
so mqch for walls as for foundations and floors. For single-story walls, it is
poured.as a monolith both with and without reinforcement. For a building of
more than one story, steel framing is better construction since the walls of a
power plant usually have to support more than building and dead weight.
Concrete may be given a smooth clean finish which will hsrmonize with foun-
dations and floors of the same material. Supports for buses, pipes, etc,, can be
scrcwed into inserts placed in the walls at the time of pouring. flence, concrete
is especially suitable for such locations as bus compartments, circuit breaker
cells, ond pipe galleries. For strong permanent concrete the aggregates should
be clean, coarse, and well graded. Table 4-l gives typical corcrcte mixes s'ith
the charactcristics of each. This table is suitable for preliminary estimates or
for small amounte of concrete, but it should be remembered that lesearch and
development in the science of concrete proportioning have advanced to the
point where little short of a laboratory analysis is required to establish the best
and most economical mix for s given condition. Type and gradation of ag-
gregaoe, moisture content of the sand, snd water-cement ratio arc typical
lactors takcn into accouat ia a complete analysis for the specification of large
amounts of concrete work.
,l-'3 Reference Lines. The orderly dimensioning of design.drawingt re-
quires the choice ol reference lines from which to originst€ dimensions to
important subreferehce gxes such aB tbe center-lines oi machines, etc. Such
relerences are usually either the interior walls of rectangular buidings, or
imaginary lines connected with some important part of the structure such as
the gteel wall columns. Unless the ehape of the building lot prevents it, wall
columns are set in rectangular arrangement aE Bhow! ia Fig. 4-3. An imagi-
nary line drawn through the center-line 0f a row of columne is called a column
l;ine, and, it may be designated by a number or a letter. By assigning letters to
east and west column lines, a,nd numbers to north aud south column lines, any
particullr point may be designated by the combination of a letter and a number.
For instance, point M would be designated "82,' and point ou the
s€cond floor, 9 m above .ilf, would be "E2-Grade 9 m." if referred to the frst
f,oor as dstum grade.
The column lines msy be accurately located by transit at the beginning of
construction and readily re-established 8t any time; hence they form a con-
venient stable reference source for the whole design. It is usual to locate the
center-lines of the principal equipment by dimensioaing them to the column
llne system. The foundations mey thus be poured aB soon os the column linee
92 TIIE POWER PLANT BUILDING
6
2.5 n 5h 2.5 m 2'5 m 2.5 m

I
I BOILEF l" 00M
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ENGI E FOOM

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600 1900 r,1

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Frc. 4-3PIon ot' 6msll plaut, itlustrating the center-line to column line method-o,
locating equipment..
ale located, so th&t they will be well cured before the equipment is placed. For
detalls of steel design the reader is referred to any standard text on structural
design.
4-4 Architectural Features, The architectural motif and the materials
in common use have been mentioned. The size, arr&ngement, and shape of
power plant buildings are principally effected by the type of plant, i.e., internal
combustion engine, steam turbine, etc., but one may generalize on common
features such as floors, roofs, etc. Roofs are generally flat, with covering of
built-up tar and gravel composition. The roof deck can be carried on trusses
and purlins, on reinforced concrcte slabs and beams, on bar joists, or other
standard construction methods. The structure should be fireproof, and it is
often involved with other parts of the plant such as ventilators, stacks and
breechings, sBfety valve vents, etc. Floors are generally concrete, or concrete or
tile. Concrete is especially suitable, as it is fire resistant, impervious to rot, and
may have electrical conduits embedded in it. In accordance with the policy of
omitting combustible material, the doors and windosr {rames should preferably
be of steel construction. l{uch use is made of pivoted steel window sash.
The heating and ventilating of power plant buildings are usually given
careful thought in the design of central stations, but can be lost sight of in
small plants, especially heating plants consisting of one main room housing one
or more boilers. With the thought that such rooms tend to become too warm
anyway, the designer is tempted to dismiss the heating problem. However,
many of these plants have been too chilly {or winter-time operator comfort.
Two faetors contribute to thig. One is that modern boilers are usually very ex-
ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES 93
cellently insulated against heat leakage and often have the furnace walls lined
internally with water tubes. The exterior is cased in sheet metal, often painted
aluminum for decreased heat radiation. The other reason is the practice, in
plants of thiB type, of drawing the combustion air from the room instead of
through ducts and tunnels from outside. This exhausts the heated air so rapidly
that the boiler room becomes cold and drafty. Proper air duct design can elimi-
nate this condition. Elsewhere heating may be needed in ofrces, electrical
rooms, control rooms. Turbine rooms are readily heated by discharging part of
the gencrator cooling air into the room. The hydroelectric station may some-

.'.*
'-{

Frc. 4:4 Typical architecture of the Diesel plant

ormes be heated thus, but it has been found necessary in some northerly situ-
ated stations to install a steam heating system. Diescl cngine plants can be
heated by passing the exhaust gas through a waste heat boiler and heating by
steam. Alternately the cylinder cooling water may be circulated through
radiators, or air may be circulated over finned sections of the exhaust duct.
The illumination problem in power stations is somewhat specialized and the
installations are different from industrial lighting systems for reasons as noted.
1. It is not necessary for the worker to examine closely the product being
manufactured.
2. Considerable intensive local illumination is required, as, for instance,
instrument panels, gauge glasses, and control boards.
3. Emergency lighting of a dependable nature is absolutely essential be-
cause the power plant is the source of lighting service.
4. No open, or mill type, wiring is permissible.
5. High ceilings eliminate any consideration of indirect lighting.
6. Fumes and moisture may corrode lighting units.
7. Rapidly moving machine parts are enclosed and protected, but walkways
near highly charged parts such as buses and switches will be hazardous unless
well illuminated.
8. Many small lamps are used for safety and for signaling purposes.
Intenral C ombustion Engine Flonts. These plants may receive very simple
treatment. The auxiliaries to the Diesel engine are few and small in size. No
94 THE POWER PLANT BUILDING
coal pile hinders the landscape treatment; it is possible to locate the oil tanks
underground, although the reason for doing so is more often for conlenience in
unloading from tank car or protection against the fire hazard than for a desire
to hide the tank. Ii the water for the jackets must be rccirculated, a cooling
tower or spray pond will, of necessity, be located near the plant. The capacity
of the Diesel engine plant rarely exceeds 7500kw, the design of the building
being more or less directly de{ermined by the dimensions of the engine units it
houses. The rectangular block shape illustrated in Fig. 4-4 is the usual result.
Hydroelectrtc Plants. Building and foundation of the hydraulic plant are
mo..t important. In hydraulic nomenclature it is customary to designate the
building and foundation as superstructur€ and substructure. The substructure
of the hydraulic plant is the most massive and expenslve single item of the
plant, excluding the dam and certain very high-head projicts. The volumes

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t z , e Sao,T,abrzG

HfoaoPLaur- Htoao Pt axt-

SotrRsrRucru&E EEtow lTtAowaren LeveL Stetastaucruat ABovt Hcaowatta Levgt
trIc.4-5 Hydrcelectric plant structure (v/hen plant is located at the dam).

of water handled are large; consequently the water passages in the substruc-
ture are large. Since the bulk of concrete involved prevents' rearrangement of
design after construction, extreme care is necessary in proportioning water
psssages. Compared to the substructure, the superstructure ssaumes minor im-
portance, as is evidenced in Fig. 4-5. In the outdoor type of plant the super-
structure has shrunk to a sheet metal hood protecting i,he exposed parts of the
generators from the weather, with a small auxilia,ry building housing switeh-
board and bus structure.
Steam Plants. The typical steam plant embodies three classes of building
treatment: boiler rocm, turbine room, and electrical bays. Head room required
in the boiler room will be greater than in the others, and ventilation presents
greater dificulty because of the heat liberated from the boiler surfaces. Usual
drafty conditions and the presence of considerable moisture in the air further
complicate the prohlem. Coal handling and draft equipment make it difficult
to illuminate the boiler room from above. Conversely, the turbine room becomee
the shory room of the plant. Overhead, the turbine room is kept in the clear
ARCIIITECTURAL FEATURES S5
to allow operation of the traveling crane. It is characteristic of the most modem
plsnts that practically no piping shows in the turbine room.
fn central stations the room will usually be spacious, uncrowded, well
lighted, and c1ean. It is, however, somewhat noisy, since this is inherent in the
action and construction of the rapidly turning turbine and gencrator. A typical
arrangement of the central station building structure is shown in Fig.4-6. Also
other illustrations in this book, notably Fig. l-11, may be examined in this
light.
Eleptrical bays contain switchboards, control boards, relay panels, motor-
generator-battery sels, bus galleries, and circuit breaker cells. There is usually
a large number of circuit breaker cells arranged in rorvs, sometimes alt on one
Ievel, sometimes in tiers on successive floors. If built of concrete, the reinforc-
ing steel placement shoultl receive the study of an electrical errgineer to elirni-
nate the chance of induced currents.

E:
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Cor'd
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Wolcr Tunnal3
Frc. 4-6 Typical building arrangement, centrsl stearn-electric station

Mezzanine floors of open metal grating are often used in the boiler room to
carry draft equipment, economizers, air preheaters, and coal handling equip-
melt- In the turbine room, switchboards and control boards may alsi be-ele-
vated above the turbine floor on a platform or mezzanine floor. Iielow the tur-
bine room floor the condenser and auxiliaries are located on one or more.levels.
Access to these various levels calls for widely difierent stairway design. Space
is often restricted; hence intermediate landings are employed- to chlange the
direction of stair slart. Stairways infrequen y used are m;de single width to
economize space. Steep slants and highei risers than those usually incountered
are permissible in the power plant.
Out.d,oor-type Sieam Plantt.It is possible to save a oonsiderable part (up
to a third) of the cost of the power plant building by an outdoor tvpe of plani.
Maay such plants have now been built. Boilers, t-"urbines, tanks, Ians and'oihir
bulky pieces of steam plant equipment are normally. enclosed by a fairly
weather-tight casing, even wllcn locatcd indoors. The modifications necess&ry
96 TIIE POWER PLANT BUILDING
to weather-proof such equipment are not expensive. Of course, some equipment
must be housetl; also, a building space is needed for offices, control rooms, etc.
However, the physical size is greatly reduced under that required for fully
covering all equipment.
A certain amount of inspection and maintenance becomes outdoor work for
operators of this kind of plant. The prospect is more attrective in the southem
than in the northern part of the United States, for heavy rainlall is then the
only weather obstaclc to maintenance. Nevertheless, this type s'ill be found
in states having cold seasons, such as Utah and Kansas. The greatest saving
in building cost is obtained where the fuel is oil or gas, and it will be noted that
most outdoor-type plants use these fuels. The simplification of building can be
judged by examining the arrangement shown in Fig. 4-7. No basement is ex-
cavated; all equipment is set on a concrete slab laid at ground level. Thc boiler
and most of its auxiliaries are outdoors, as is the turbogenerator which is sct
on the roof ol the comparatively sdrall building. The absence of coal bunkers
and ash basement is a majol aid in holding the building to such modest dimen-
sions. The illustration shorvs the exireme extcnt to which equipment is exposed.

Cro^€

Offic€ &

IEfiI II
St.dm El!ct.
Spoce G€nerdlor
Eoiler

Wotor Tvnn.ls

tr'rc. 4-7 Building arr&ngement lor an outdoor-trype steam-clectric statioD.

In many cases the building is carried up over the turbine, but leaving the crane
above the roof. Then roof hatches are provided over the hea'vy turbine and
generator in order to handle thcm with the crane.
4-5 Chimney. The products of combustion from the furnace q! a steam
generator must be discharged to the atmosphere in an appropriate manner. In
some cases this duty is performed by a short staclc or exhaust pipe, this being
possible where the gaseous products are not dust or smoke laden, and where the
furnace draft is produced by fans. But in many plants the draft, or part of it, is
obtained by the confinement of a tall column ol the hot gas in a chi'mney. Con-
sequently, between draft producing and the need to carry the dusf products of
a coal fire to a required altitude before discharge into the atmosphere, the
chimnev becomes a usual feature, one might almost say a trade mark, of the
steam power station.
From the architcctural standpoint, there is nothing unlovely in the cylin-
drical rise of a chin,ney, towering 30 mto 60rl above the plant. Indeed, the
stately shaft of a concrete or masonry chimney visible from afar is a monument
to power development. Yet there are some plants, chiefly those connected with
educational institutions, hospitals, and the like, where both thc power plant and
oHTMNEY 97
stack should blend in with the general architectural treatment of the building
group. Fig.4-8 shows what can be done with the chimney from an architectural
standpoint. The important thing is to have the combustion equipment engi-
neered so that the chimney top is not continually surmounted by a plume of
smoke.
\\'here mechanical draft is used, the necessary stack height is just that
needed to discharge the gascs above surrounding buildings. Except in metropoli-
tan districts, this pcrrnits the use of a stub stack of sheet iron construction
mounted dircctly over the boiler room. When a masouy stack is located over
the boiler room, its weight must bc carried down to suitable foundations by a
steel or masonry stlucture in the boiler room.
The necessary diameter and height of a chimney are determined by gas flow
and draft. These topics are given due consideration in Chapter 12. lYhere the
chimney tapers, for stability reasons, ihe "thcrmal diamcter" is the internal
diameter at the top ol the chimney. Neglccting scismic disturbances, the struc-

i
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a r'

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Frc. 4{ Architectural treatment of a chimney. St. Paul's School, Concord, N. H,

98 TEE POWER PLANT BUILDING
tural loads on a chimaey are caused by its own weight and by wind pressure.
Dead weight is treated as a single vertical force acting through the mass centnr;
wind pressure, as a concentroted horizontal force acting through the centroid of
the vertical projected area. The loading conditions will next be discussed, with-
out reference to the type of chimney, theri the applications to eteel, concrete,
and masonry forms will be shown.
The following symbols will be used in chimney analysis:
w': Weight of chimney,Lg.
Horizontal wind load, kg.
H: Height of chimney, m.
'Point of application of resultant of horizontal wind load above
base, ur.
Inside radius of chimney, m.
Outside radius of chimney; m.
Factor such that Wz: P-h, z nwy be considered as the virtual
displacement of If
due to wind action.
t. Compressive stress due to IIz, kg/ma
lt Bending stress due to P*, tig/g1r
k Kem radius, m.
Experimental data show that wind pressure on a cylind€r is approximately
two-thirds of that on a plane surface of the same projected area and shape.
However, there is a lack of definite and c6rrelated information to guide the de-
signer. The unit pressures existing against a 90 m chimney are diflerent from
those against a 15 m one, even in the same wind. Therefore, some building
codes specify design pressures variable with chimney height, rather than wind
velocity being the variable. Where a Iocal building code does not furnish the
engineer with a specific design load the following may be logical. At160lm/h
wind speed (a common specification for chimneys) ,l5Okg/mrwind pressure ieset
up on a flat plate of a shape similar to the projected area of a common chimney.
Applying the tn'o-third! rule, one obtains therefrom 100 kg/ra! deeign wind
presEure.lThe total wind load is, therefore,
P* :loox 2E x r1 (4-1)

As most chimneys taper from Er at the base to,Eg at the top, the following
equation is more useful than Eq 4-1.
P*:100r1(Rr+R) (4-2)
The location of P* at the centroid distance h above the base may be found by
graphical or analytical methods. The product P,h, which is the moment of wind
load, is derived using ir,, the centroidal distance of a trapezoid, as a function of
R1, R2, and. H.
pJ,=try (2R, + ni (4J)

The forces W and P* have a resultant determined as shown in Fig. 4-9. This
resultant, projected, intersects the horizontll section (above which trf and P.
exist) at a distance z from the chimney center-line, or neutral axis. This may
be required to be less than .E for structural safety in some types of chimneys,
CHIMNEY 90
but ruay salcly cxcced fi in othcls. Thc interscction may also bc thought of as
locating that 1rciut tlrrough whiclt ll's'r,ruld have to aci if P. rvere to be left out
of structural analysis lexccpt for the detcnnination of z). This is becsuse
P*h: llz (M)
It will be noted frorn Fig. 4-9 that thc cfrect of I{r. alone, is to create uniform
compression l. ovel thc horizontal scctional area, while P-, alone. creat€s a
bending action that t'esults in tariable courpression, *fi,, on the leeward side of
g ncutlal axis autl vrt'irblc tcnsiorr, -f1,, to rvind-
l'ard. Stccl rud rcinfotct'tl conct'ctc chiurneys can N.lltrol
have /5 ; /", i.c., a nct tcnsion, but m&sonry con- Wind
stl'uction shoultl uot bc considcred to possess any
Dir.clioh
tcnsilc strcnsth.
Steel, C himnegs. These, if short, are made self- Ho.i:ontol S.Glion
supporting and are called stacks. High steel chim-
neys are usually built for srniall, natural draft
boilers (because of low initial expense to the
owner)'and are braced with guy wires. Their small
diameter would render thcir design as I self-sup-
porting structure difficult. Large-dismeter tsll
chimneys should be lined to extend their life, but
seldom are. Consequgntly, they need lrequent re- I
placement and, es a long-range project, actually i
become more expensive than a durable masonry
ll
chimney. The large-diameter, short exhaust stacks,
often used at central stations where draft is cre- rf
ated altogether by fans, are lined with brick and
consequently have a longer life expectancy. The
guyed steel chimneys are built with wall thickness
determined by rules of sheet metal shop practice.
3.J5,2,80 and z,OEm sheets ar€ adequtte f61 illllllillllf"
most cases; in fsct thickniss of 1.25 mm ard O.od w.igh, ir ditt.ibuL d ot
o unrfo.n colnlrtaaion dua lo
0.5mm sre often used where long Iife is not of lha !ymmelriaol thop..
impon ance, but light weight is. Stecl chimueys are
generally built in welded sections and erect€d in
the field by riveting or qr'eldins horizontal joinls
n"",[,
Reinlorced C oncrete Chimneys. This type, likc wiod lood cr.ot.ro rood rhodine
thc stcel chiu.rney, cru sithstand tension in the from windwo'd l'nsron to lt'word
lh' horitonlol
sr,ructural columnj thcrcfore :i ca,n be built rvith 'ompr'ilionlv'r
thinner walls and less taper than masonry types.
The principles of strcss analysis are those of siand- Frc 4-9 Chimney loads'
ard reinforced concretc construction. However, the
equations covering rcinforced chimneys have been used to construct design
charts of rela.tive.simplicity. The concrete chimney is more costly to construct
than masonry because of the need for forming the structure. Furthermore, con-
crete is not as lully irnpervious to weather as are the hard bumed bricks of
the chimney trade.
Ilfasonry (:hin1,neys. Formerly, many chimneys were constmcted of common
1OO TI{E POWER PLANT BUILDING
brick, but the excellence ol construction which may be achieved with perforated
radial brick has caused its general adoption for masonry chimneys. The bricks
are molded to suit the diameter of the chimney. The perlorations aid struc-
turally because the mortar partially enters them, giving good vertical bond-
The heat insulating properties of the dead air spaces formed are of advantage
in securing maximum draft performance of the chimnej'.
The maximum compressive strength of masonry is greatly influenced by
the mortar, and the actual crushing strength oI the radial brick is many times
the safe design value for the masonry. A conservative value is indicated for a
structure of chimney propprtions. With good lime-cement mortar, a radial brick
chimney that will not be stressed above15.6kg/cmtaethe reeult ofdead and wind
Ioad shoultl be satisfactory in any case where thermal strains are not unusual.
Radial brick masonry weighs betwe€D 1922and24 03kg/m! Other phyaicalproper-
ties of radial chimney brick are mentioned in Chapter 12.
The conditions of stability of this type of chimney will be considered in the
Iollowing secti6n, where the reasons for chimney taper will become clear. Design
of these chimneys is a trial processl first a chimney section is assumed, then it
is analyzed to determine its economy and stability. As a guide to estimation of
the over-all shape of a chimney for a given inside top diameter d2 and height.EI,
the data oI Table 4-3 may be consulted.
Table rl-3. TYPICAL RADIAL BRICK CHIMNEY PROPORTIONS
(160to/h wind)
Top wall thickness,mm. . .... . ,*Tr3T*:HlUt.."
Minimum wall thickness
otbase,mm......... 9.25 H

Ba.tter, (-Er Rr, mm Per mctre,

-
as a lunction of /I/dr ratio
H('rl/d,\tt Bqtq(Y,fn\
15 12
20m
30 2?
The table implies that the taper is uniform, i.e., a vertical element in the
outer surlace is a straight line. This is flequently true, but not necessarily so,
for designs may son.ictimes be made more economical if the structural column
is considered in sections rvith slight differences in outside batter.
Exarriple 1: An approximation of the shape and weight of a radial brick chimney
columu rvill be made for a 36 X 1.5 m chimney.
Taking the top thickness atlg0m6, rr = 750mm,Rr=940mm:O.94 m'
H/d":36/1.5: 24. Estim'ating from Table +3, Bat'ter 21.2 rnln per : m cr
763rnm for the chimney.
Then 8r :9() + 763 :170Bmm 1.7 m. :
Bottom thickness = 36x 925 :
333mm. UEe 322 mE( 1+ b!ick).

rr - 1,7-0322= 1.38m
OHIMNEY STABILITY 101

Although the chimney as actually built would vary the thickness by steps, it is
here assumed that the inte or is smoothly tapered so that the volume may be com-
puted as the diflerence of the frusta of two cones.

Outside conical volu-" = (r.rA + 0.g4, + 1.7 x 0.04) : fl)8.g6 6t

+1
Inside conical volume : 30
(l.ts2 + 0.76' + 1.38 xo.?6): lla08 as
f
Volume oI masonry : 70.87 d
At I082Ig,/m!, chirnaey weight = 86210 hg
This porticular case will be explored for stability in the next section.

4-6 Chimney Stability. As steel anrt rc'rniorced concrete chimneys are

stabilized in the prc-scrrce ol high wind by tcnsion in the windn'ard side of the
shcll, they will bc stable if structurally -safe and sct on an adequatc foundation.
It is the special feature of masonry chimtrcy slobilily rvhich we norv consider.
As a starting point let it be assumcd that thc moltar in a horizontal layer be-
tween radial brick courses is incapable of transmitting vcrtical tension. This is
substantially true because of the hard dense surface of these brick anrl the
-slight adhesion of rnortar to such surfaces. Ileferring to Fig.4-9, it is seen thal,
the dead iveight IIl produces a unifonn cornpression over the horizontal area
r(R2 - 12).Its magnitude is giver by thc follorving equation, u'ith * indicating
compressron.
L : *'ll /br(R' - r')) (+-[l
If the chimney is consitlered as a hollory cantileyer beam, the rvind load
produces a comprcssive strcss *,lu on the lectvard side, and a tensile stress
-/6
on the n'indward sidt' of the chimney. The common flxure Ionzulo of structural
theory has /6 given by multiplying the stressing moment by thc distance from
the neutral axis (ceutroid of the stressed area) to the point of maximum stress,
and dividing by the moment ol inertia I of the stressed area around this same
axis, so rhe bending sl ress l,e,.omps ,41R/f.
For an annulus area, such rs the cross section of a, chimney column,
I : i A^ - fl. M is the strcssing moment R,h l'hich, as has been previously
+
menlionerl, may be replaced by Il'2. 'lhese relations may be combined into the
following:

t: +flu+1 (4-6)

Note that, whcn a wind bki*,s, l" antl /6 act simultaneously*-subtractively up-
rvind and currulativel-v dorvnrvind.
In general a ruasonry chintney may tgrl by crushing of the masonry on ao
overstressed leenard section, by tipptttg tlownwirid or laterally due to gust
buffeting, or by horizontal slidirrg. Sliding is practically unknol'n. Qownwind
tipping is rare if lhe masonr-v is safe against crushing. Lateral stability will be
unimpaired as IoDg &s positive compression acts al.ong the neutral axis. Hence
tbe structural destgn crtterta are chiefly these: Provide sumcient sectional 6rea
I(B THE POWER PLANT BUILDING
to maintcin total maximum leeward compreesion safely witfiin the limits of
rnasonry atrength and spread it far enough from the center of the chimney that
the horizontal section under load is not
decrrased to the point of impairing
lateral stability.
Other causes of chimney failurc are
uneven settlement of the foundation,
lack or failure of protection against
lightning strokes, and weathering of
Dl I ECI ror{
joints due to age or;nor mortar. As
:l 4^- these do not directly bear on shape
itE, analysis, and as the remedies are ob-

ffi vious, this section will be devoted

I

primarily to the principol design cri-

teria.
Upon consideration of the aesump-
tion of no possible tensile stress we see
that a portion of the stressed cross 8ec-
tion will eufrer a horizontal crack to
windward if the wind moment is sum-
ciently great to cause f6 to exceed l" in
lis- magnitude. At one speciffc value of z,
-lo will exactly balance tl", and the
windward edge will "float," while 21"
acts to leeward. This value oi z is
knom as the "kern" radius, k, and is
!'
to the limiting virtual displacemeni of 7
if the masonry is to be everywhere in
compression.
d To derive an equetion for Ic, equate
a the right-hand eide tems of Eqe 4-5
and 4-6.
Frc. 4-10 Conditions for stability of the
economic masonry chimney. k:P*'"4R (+7\

In the general case, z will not equal k, except by coincidence. The totgl
maximum stress will be
w * 4wz&
.r:.f.+.fr - *(tr-rr)'r(P.a-ta)
This is reducible to
r- r.( +f;) (44)

Upon consideration of the weaknees of mortar in tension, one could srrive

at a rule of design that the maximum allowable vslue of z is /c. However,
chimneys designed in accordance with this will be found to be overeized com-
pared to commercial chimneys erected by the several succeseful large chimaey
contractors in this country. We shall now examine the baeis of their economy.
CEIMNEY STABILITY 103
If the reeultant of wind and dead weight forcee lies safely within the base
ring of the chimney, and if the :afe unit compressive presaules are not ex-
ceeded, then a partial crack to windward will not necessarily imply failure.
There is no rerluctian in stability trawaerse to the ttind direction, provided the
crack does not open up oaer one-hall ol the area, This maximum cracked condi-
tion is shown in Fig.4-10. Naturally, the neutral axis is shifted and the region of
zero strees shifts to NN. Let y be the limiting displacement of z to obtain this
condition. Lange,'whose equations are widely used by chimney designers, gives
this limiting value for z,

v &(z +\\
- 4\-'8,/ (4-e)

Il z - y, the maximum compressive stress is

l.-" :2f.Y/k (4-10)
Lange gives the follorving equation for y ) z ) k:

,:,[('n;)-(, -;)(=r)'] (4-1,)

The factor of safety against tipping downwind is the ratio of the stabilizing
moment to the wind moment, both taken about the downwind edge.
WR
: p.i-
r,,5*
but since P*h : Wz,
FS. : P1" @-rL
This factor of safety should not be less than 1.5.
Example 1: The chimney propoftions roughed out in Ex l, Sec 45, will be
analyzed for str€ss in a tootm/h wind. tr'rom Eq 43, Pwrl = !9{41t2 x o.or
+ 1.7 ) = 166520 kt rn . Add to the weight previousty deterrrined for the structural
column the weight ofg d of s l0ommbrick lining (l24SO kg ). Then gross I7 on base
lA6210 + !2{&t = 1t8690 ka. =
Calculate z, t, and g ftom the respective equations.
656 20
z: -A66- t
: t.05m; /c
1.7'l
4X1.7
+ 1.38'z
-orzf ni, : f (z + f, ) :,.,*-
The unit dead load stress is

: l{88m
"r" ,151x, - 13e1 - 4'8lo Es'm
From Eq 4-9:

i. :.mrc [(1 .*H) - (' -.#) (H,,,)'] " l3578OLS/ar

Frcm Eq 4-12:
tr'S* 1.7 71"65 1.62 : :
* Der Schornsteinbau. Gustav Lange, Helwiug,sche Verlegs-Buchsndhlng. 1896
104t TIIE POWER PLANT BUILDING
Ttese results iDdica,te a fairly ecotromic design without, bowever, pushing the theory
oJ the "half-crack to wiodward" to the limit. Since z is nearer to g than to /r, a coD-
siderable windward floating may be eiprcted at 1dokDrh, but
not to re&ch as far as the MM aig Therefore full lateral
stabi.lity is preserved. The 1S., being well in excess of 1.5,
l:'.i3ll tm* is no chance of tippin! iDgtability, while an l, of
' 186?a0/I06goo, or a0 /p of crushiug strength, i8 certaiDly
E workirg the ma8onry conservatively iu compressiou.
In theforegoing examples the chimney has been
E D5' 2.106 considered to be conical on both outside and inside.
Actually, the inside taper would be obtained by step-
€ ping the courses. The way this chimney was actually
laid out by the contracting builder is ahown in Fig. 4-11'
A eomplete chimney analysis will include an investi-
E
gation of each section where the thickness changes.
These must meet the same stability coriditions as the
base iteelf. An example of the section by section method
E
E
will now be given.
;n 3o2dm Example 2: The upper two batter sections of the chim-
e
lrxno ney shown in Fig.4-11witl be aualyzed for compressive stress
and lateral stability. Masonry volumes are found by the prod-
D"!{o' ucl of averase mern annular'area of a section and its height.
Scctiong ani iotermediate bases will be designated by sub-
scfipts, such as 4 for the annulus at D = 2.31 o and 46 for
E
the upper 16 E section.
o
'1"''u' Anaty$* o1 t at D', i.e,, uppet 15rn:
"utit
o,a* tsa =7.5 X 1.0e7x0.110+7.6 X 1.80fl'xo.lpl= 20'06 mr
Frc. 4-11 rofile- P
radiat bric& chimney. W* -2o'96X r@2:40206 kS
Employing same equations as in Ex 1

/1.90 + ,-sr \
P*le =rooX tr(---f/ : suots

P i.,. _
roox !6,(2 x r.ry + 2.3r)
: rr*o nr-
0.91
=0.48o;s4:'#(',
^- m:0.67D;tr l.t5 )
l.{: 40286/n(t.t61- o9{') :2et78 Lg/mr

r, =zsrza[(r . X) - (, - ffi)(P"I] = uaeootgl-,

Since yr ) )
a & lateral stability is unimpaired, As /'r is only 03900 when 105300 is
allowable, the masouy is definitely safe against crushing.
Atnlg$s ol secltan at D2, i.e,, upper !0 m:

!\ + uu -1,5 y-2.6ot X 0.3 +?.5 X 22 r X0.21 : 1230 or

FOUNDATIONS TOS

w%: s2!86x 1s4r-68rs6 kg

Wzt : 82}9a + 4c 20n : l024tll k8
Note tbat
P*hx : P.hu * P.x([." + 16) : P.h* * P-hnu I rbP"'a
p r,". : Pql-lq /2 x asrt + 3'04\ : 28?2: ksn-
'aau- 3 \ 2 I
P-hza : 28725 * 22950 + 15 X315O= 98925 kA tE
08sss t.62! + t.22':0.625m;y,= l.6P /o , r.22\
z, = 10846l --0.s66 Iu; k,: ^.-.^.
4 x,,6, * \, l,-_/ r.oom

l"t: to216r/r(1.622 - t.222) = 40 984 kSrEr

r,,:+oea,[(r *h3 - (,-P-J(;+lI]= ,,,,nu,l-.
The chimney is thus also drtermined to be safe and stoble st section Dr. In a similar
manner the analysis could be extended to section D1, with results but slightly diffeleni
from the approximations of Ex 1.
4-7 Foundations. The foundation is a most important part ol the power
plant building. Determination of the beariug power of the subsoil, sclection of a
working lactor of safety, and proportioniDg the wall footings to economical
construction, all are matters requiring a refinement of engineering judgtuent.
The foundatlon is that part of a structure which transmits the loads to the
suppofting material. In the design of a loundation it is essential that the settle-
ment shall be reduced to a minimum and that this settlement shall be unilorm at
all points. The first rcquirement may be {ulfilled by providing a bearing area
which is large enough to reCuce to a safe valuc the bearing pressure on the
underlying material. In thc case,of soils having Iow bearing valucs, pile founda-
tions can be used to rcduce settlement. The second requirement may be secured
by designing the foundatioirs so that the r€sultant of the vertical loads passes
through the center of gravity of the foundation. If the material under the foun-
dation is structurally sound t'ock, having a bearing value within safe limits,
there will be no apprcciable settlement of the structures; but thcre is bound to
be settlement in structures whose supporting medium is earth since it is a com-
pressible material. A bearing wall rests upon a continuous fouridation, whereas

Table 4-4. SAFE REARING PO\\-ER OF SOILST

Tonneslma
Native rock........... . 19.50 up
Ashlar masonry........ . 245-290
Best brick nasonry. . . . . 145-105
Common brick masonry . 50-98
play, compact.. i...... ' 50-78
Clal', soft. .. . s:5-1s.5
Gravel ond sand....... . 7&98
Sand..... . 19.5-58.5
Quicksand, loam, etc. . . . 5-9.5
llra O. Baker, 'l'rcdli-\e on Mdsova ConstrucLioa, John Wiley 6nd Sons, publishers.
106 THE PO1VER PLANT BUILDING
skelcton steel corNtruction has piers &t the main column bases, vfith lighter
footings lrom pier to pier to carry the lowermost curtain walls. Test hole drill-
ings'r'ill establish the bearing character of the undcrlying strata. Sometimes
the suil is tested by loading a definite area, laid open by excavation, until it
reaches the yield point, settling being determined by lunning weekly or mouthly
levels lrom a bench mark to a marked station on the load. A widely quoted
reference on the sale bearing power of soils is given in Table 4-4.
'lYhen excavating to suitable bearing soil, spread footings are used to dis-
tribute the load over sufficient area. It is assurned that sny concentrated loads
on a bearing wall (roof trusscs,
floor beams, etc..) are given uni-
{orrrly to the foundati<in unless
lrnit compres- the proxinrity of the point ol ap-
siYe str€ss p
rlong this linc lrlication to the fountlation linc is
such that it is appalent that a
i
.": i.;.' 1 . '...
concentration must exist. Column
Frc 4-12 spread rooting
iill',ffi::"3i:,*,L,",0tl"",1i'"1]
enough to resist the punching shear ol the column on the concrete. \\'hcther
required by the character of the subsoil or not, the column lootings should be
spread wider than the wall to give stability. Fig. 4-12 ill:strates the spread
footing. In the follorving example, the necessary offsets are determined. The
spread can be Civided into as many ofrscts as tbe designcr think." expedient upon
cornparison of the extra lolm cost against the saving in concrete tnass. After
divitling the total spread into cqual o's, per block, the depth b is lound by the
use ol the following equation
t,: "/.,1BlE (4-18)

where a and b are dirnensions ds in Fig. 4-12.

p = Unit compressive stress on the base of the block to which o and per-
tain, t n,r
I = Allowable stress, taken as 0.14ti t/m2 fol concrete.
Example l: Assuming that the wali in lig.4-12is4OOmmwide and carries l?,t58
Lgl- to th€ foundation, the dimensions of I trlo-s&p footlng are determiued. Soil
besri!8 is teken 8t 1..6 t/me. The wall reactiol i8 t?.86 t/m, which would require
J?.80/t(5,orr.r2 Dwidth of the lower step ol the footing, neglecting the footing $'eight
itscll. However, this gives some indication of the footing size and rve here ailow lor
& section of 0.766r area. At t{(F lglE! this furnishes &u estimet€d f.8 t/ra addi-

tional soil load. Trial width =flff = ,.rU-.

ofrsets, ":#:0223b=22:,lr6
'Width of upper step :9.469;- 2 0'223 o.m6
X = Dc

Estimating its weight at 0,6 roooe, , : iH = ?0.37 t/mr

)

FOTiNDATIONS r07
From Eq 4-13, 6 : O.tt 3/ x o.lddlto.t?
- 0.t8 D
p, : 1.5 tsI (speci6ed), D, : 0.r23lvlE-x-0J76i14.0 : o.$, -
Next check the assumption of r.8t/E of louldatioD,

If :(0.000 x 0.t8 + 1.E62 xo.!t)t.roE = r.s?r6

Ttis is nearly the same as assumed, but a larger discrepancy wor:ld have indicated
the need for a recalculation.
In case the soil condition is such as to require an extremely wide footing,
tinber or I beam grillage is placed under it to sssist the bearing power of the
soil. In fluid soils, piling is used to give aufrcient bearing power. Both wooden
and concrete piling are ir use, the fomer being tbe cheaper but the lee6 desirable
of the two. Some large power house foundatione are coDstructed on a mat of
wooden piles driven on 900 mm or l2fit mm ocotd!, ra*a ofi juat bclow the
gtouud water lile, aad surnourted by r mooolitbic cooGrrsta crpping which od-
& to the bearirg ol the piles by making 8vsil8bl9 whrts"er beariag porer the
soil b€tween the piles may poesess. A conmou lormulr, Laown aa the En9-
ineedng N ewt forlolia, glvel
' : l6'66url
safe road
on a pile
iifffi 'rg (4-14)

In this forumla u = weight of pile driter hammer,tg; Il = its fall in m; S =

penetration under last blow,cm.The author would emphasize that the selection
of length and spacing of piles used to
stabilize the foundation oi healry build-
ings requires specialize{ experience and
geological training.
Static foundations which may be FB-.l !--B---l l-- B---l
eccentrically loaded require adequate
analysis of the effects of external mo- krl67B
ments or eccentric Ioadings. A chimney
foundation will illustrate the point. Sqlsre Sloped Ocrogon Stepped Ociogoo
These are generally of monolithic con- Frc. 4-18 Representative chimney foun-
crete and should spreal the chimney dations.
load suffieient ly to prevent oversLressing
the soil or completely.neutralizing the windward compression. Typical shapes
are shom in Fig.4-13. Foundations for round chimneys are geneially octag-
onal,. being about300 mmlarger than the chimney at the top base. From ihis the],
should increase. to a lower hase sufficiently large to hold the maximum soil
pressure to design value, but not to have a width less than one-tenth the
chimney height plus chimney diameter at its top. The depth of the foundation
may be made 4/o ol Lhe chimney height, but should not 6e less than 1.2 m.
Example 2: Given a sloplng octagonal foundation 6E across flats on the base,
andtr.l m 6sep,weigting t 45tonror.'Ihis foundation rvill be tested for its ability to cally
safelyalot tornes chiD!€y oD x hich the calculated wind moment is ugrao ig- uni
wind pressure is 088E kg. Fouudatlon rests on a subsoil of compact clay.
rO8 THE PO1VER PLANT BUILDING
The wind moment must be transferred to the foundetio[ base which is 2.4m belorv
the chimney base.
Moment ,,lf on foundation : r?9?30 + 0888 x 2.4: 203401 kgm.
'Weight
I/ on subsoil : (l{5 + 183) x 1000: 308000 ks.

l:0.133 X 6 :
': lc>ffi: o'uu-
Since O.8ra , z ard there is no rvindlar',l llortirrg. l.lsing
Eq +8,

r-*:r.(r+ffi):,.e,ur"
Area of the octagonal base : 0.828 X 8r : 30 mr.

/ -- -80!qo0 ^'.---
Jmr, x t.826 : 1s736 k!/m.
30
This is lcss than 20t,m!, which, is secn from Tablc 4-.1 to 1r s consr.rviLtire Joeding
for con)pact clay.
Machine Foundation s. The nrachine foundation |srfe11u. flr itro:c thau
the simplc bearing function of the wall footing. Thc rnachirrc Ioundlti<in
must:
l. Distrtbute the weight ol the m.achine, the machine bed plate, atld its () ltn
u:eight ouer a saJc st,bsoil orea. If heavy unbalanccd vertical kinetic forces ai"c
produced by the machine, thcy should bc added to the dead rvcight r,o obtain
bearing area. The dead rveight must be well in excess of thcse vertical ,or-.es.
2. Prouide suficient m,ass to absorb tn qchine aibrotfon. Satisfactory founrla-
tion weight for this factor is not readily calculable. Table 4-5 is given to pro-
vide an indication of these weights.
Tabie 4-5. NEIGHT OIf IfACHINE IfOUNI)ATIONS
PER BRTKE METBIC EOR,SEPOIryER
Prime l[ooer Stngle Cylind,o Multi-cylind,er
Gasengine.... rt36 Lg ?30 kg
Diesel engile. . 910 kg 6?0 kg
Stcam engine. . 320 kg 23o kS
Steam turbine. Not to exceed pelmissible
deflection as stated by
turbine manufacturer.

These are handbook values which were evidcntly chosen to provide sufficient
mass to dampen vibration almost cornpletely. The concrete foundations yielded
by the application of the above data are sometimes grotesquely huge, obviously
unnecessary lor the average installation. The data should be regarded as the
extrerle upper limit of ncccssary foundation ncight and be dccreascd appro-
priately when cornplete dampening is unnccessary. If the shaking forccs can be
calculated, a nass of weighl equal to 10 to 20 times the forces should be ade-
quate to dampen vibration.
Safe bearing power of soils lor machine foundations are from a quarter to a
half of those given in Tablc 4-4, depcnding on the machine. Unlcss a uniform
TOUNDATIONS IOg
foundation soil is available, the concrete in the bottom of the heavy fouridation
should have reinforcement.
Examplc 3: To illu6tra,te, in a simple matrne!, the principles involved iu founda-
tion desigu, the foundatiou of the 250-kw, 4-cylinder, vertical, unaflow engiue shown in
Fig. 4-14 will be designed. The weight of this engine, together wilh generator a.nd
exciter, is a6!c0 l5. The betlsoit is found to be dry saud, noi exceptioDally firm.
It is not€d in Table 44 that the safe beariug power of the soil could be taken as
tg.[trEt,but, ar thisis a machine foundatioa, ihat will be hatved, giving an allowable unit
soit'itreis ofro ksrar T8bl6 4-6 gives foundation weight ii) &gpcrbnhpfor this type
of engine. The bhp of a 25Gkw unit will be about t76 b bp, makirg the
Total weight of rmit aad foundation i6t60 + ,76 x t8e - rtr0og Lg
Base area of the lourdation = r 6(np?&) = lt.opt

Frc. 4-14 Unaflow engine foundatiou.

A base !.t6 m X a,26 D gives l!.t E2. The sides are tapered to a top width of
,.?6 E, mr*iug top Breo 11.7 Dt.
Considering the volume of the pit left under the generator to equalize the projection
of the bearing and exciter pedestal, and Deglecting the toO om rige urder the engioe, we
may find, rougbly, the depth d of a foundation which will give the required mass.
The foundation weighi is to be tit0l6 !r8 i he4cq coucrete volutBe = !6rnt.
Average horiroutal erea = (tlJ * rt,s)/, = 12.?6 D!. Then 12.t6 d = t6, and
d, = ,:76 b depth. Now as this is a tather deep foundation, it is evideut that foundation
mass, a-nd not bearing area, is the governing factor.
By increasing the top to !,0 m X 1.6 D sDd the bsse to 8.6 o x 16 m

Average area : Ot.6 + u.7t)/r-l4.Bt6 Et

and
d : l!/11.086 - 2.il m
Tte 46300 is not uniformly distributed; prcbsbly two-thirds of it is in
Lg ol weight
the engine itself. The average soil stre68 -111600/15.?6 S!60 L8/rot- The moment of
-
unbslnnced weight distribution will incresse this $mewhat. From the previous slete'
meuts oDe c&u take one.third of the mochine weight as &D eccentric load. From Fig. 4J4,
 110 THE POWER PLANT BUILDING
estimste thot the eccentricity from midbase is I tn . Then to us€ the coronou flexurc
fgrmula, [ : \, tt
"
following ore co^puted.
artt60
jtf = --B-X t = I6l20kgm
4.6
i:r-2.2nrn
I = 1.6 .xt2{.6r - 38.66 Ea
.

r"=*I1%1*L:rrools/E!
Ilence extleme soil st €6s = tt50 4 llEo : e0r0 Lg/o!, which is less thatr the
et6c Lg/Dr ra}.,n to te a&oArable.

Large turbine iounilations are not required to contain foundation masses

compuibl. with sinrilar rcciprocatir:g rrnits. Still, the necessity oi providing
beneath the turboqenerator for condenser pumps, generator air cleaner
"nacre
ni and sometimeslhe titrottle lcad, materially cotnplicatcs the design of
"nol"r.

Frc. ,1-15 Typictl turbogenemtor foundations

thc turbine foundation. The turbine foundation does not carry the turbine upon
a heav1, bcrlplate, and hcnce a stucly of the loundation dcflections is all-im-
portani. No iwo foundations are alike. Reinforced concrete and structural steei
ioundations cach have their advocatds, but any installation should be figured'
upon a lrasis of conrparable costs of the two typcs, because each is suited to a
patticular fiel(l ol uaility and cconomy. The concrete base gives more rigidity
io thc turbinc, but it is claimcrl for stccl that its flexibility is an advantagc in
large units as prcvcnting distortivc bon'ing of the shaft and attendant dificul-
ties. Thc coucrctc lotrnrlation u'ill require less maintenance; the steel type yields
morc availahlc space belorv tlte unit.
Although tlre. vilxation problem is not so scrious in the turbine as in the
rcciprncating engine, there is another factor of iurportance. Referring to Fig'
4-l;, it is seen tlat tlrc poriion of thc lorvycssure shell above the condenser
inlet is subjcctetl to a tlowns arrl thrust, w)rile the corresponding area across
FOITNDATIONS 111
the turbine outlet is subjected to condenser pressure. The resultant downward
thnrst is exactly as though atmospheric pressure acted on one side of a hori-
rontal plate whose area equaled thst of the exhaust nozzle cross sectidn, and
abgolute condenser pressure on the other. If the absolute condenser pressure,is
o" Lg/cmr, and the exhauBt norlle ares is l{ curr, then the vacuum pull is

r'= ,{(1.03 - p") kc (4-15)

If the condenrer is bolted ditectly to the turbine, this pull is neutralized in
interaal str€s8€s in the shell. In such cosee the turbine foundation must support
tbe weight of the condenget as well as that of the turbine. Sometimes the con-
denser weight is eupported partially by springs, but the thrust produced by
the.m must not be eufrcient to take ell the gravity load ofr the turbine flange
rrhen tbe Gonden8er is empty of water.

- Elalnde 4: Yacuuu pull can be a significant factor i[ the design of turbift

formdstions. Coasider the case of a 15,000-kw turbine with€xhtust pr€ssun olo,tlS/oEr
+. A g:oerrting uDit of this aire would Lave an erhauEt openitrg sbout lla xB06 oo.
Subatitutiag in Eq 11-15,

F * 244 x 366 x
(1.09_0.1) -83{xi3 Lg
Setiiag Maclutnery to Fumilalitne. Customarily, machinee are attached to
their foundations by anchor bolts vrhioh are cast in the concretc and project
above the foundation surface far enough to pase. through holes in machine bcd
plates and be secured by nuts. Two forms of foundation bolts are illustrated in
Fig. 4-16, The eimpler, cheaper form is permanently set in the concrete and the
lrachiDe Euet be lifted over the bolts and carefully let down so that they pass

AASE
0r.,7

l0s

.:.?:.:.i
oast-[t BoLl iEI'OVAALE'IOII.AOJUSIAEL€
Frc. +16 Attachm€nt ol equipment aucbor bolts to cotrcrete fouDdations.

thlough the holes provided. The other type is more expensive to construct, but,
beiug removable, the machiae can be BkiAded sideways into position, then the
anchot bolte iaserted into tho prepared threads. Small machines for which an
oochor bolt setting template might be prepared directly from the machine could
be successfully s6t on foundations, the anchors to which were rigidly cast in
concrete. However, the bolt aettings for larger machines must be prepared from
blueprint information snd ghould olways be set in pipe sleeves so that some
minor adiustment of position can be made if necessary when setting the
machine-
When bringiDg a machine into alignment oD its foundation, shims or sole
II2 THE POWER PLANT BUILDING
platee are placed beneath the frame or bedplate and adiusted until the elements
'being
aligaed are correct. The elements might be the edges of the bedplate, the
centerJine of the shaft, a casing joint, etc. After alignment is secured, a tempo-
rary dam is built around the top edge of the foundation, and a grozt flowed
beneath the bedplate.
Groutiag is ihe process of filling a small clearance between machine and
foundstion with a hardening mixture. Grout is usually made of a 2:1 mixture
of sand and cement, mixed wet enough to be fully fluid. The machine having
been shimmed up level about an inch above
its foundation, and a board or clay dam
having been run around the edge of the
foundation, the grout is poured on and
allrrred to run into and fill the clearance,
and to rise slightly above the lower edge of
a 8LO
TA the mochine base. After the grout is hard,
SLEEVE
the dam is removed (shims also, if pos-
FOUNOATION FORiIS sible), nuts are tightened on anchor bolts,
ENSIONS SHOWN ARE and the exposed edge of foundation smooth
LAI D OFF CAREFULLY FFOM
FOUNOATION OSAWINGS
finished with a neat cement plaster. it is
preferable to pour the grout in two steps:
to the edge of the bedplate, then to the
edge of the foundation after removing the
I'rc. 4-17 Setting c! anchor bolts. shims. However, mechanics are not always
willing to take this trouble.
4-8 Miscellaneous Equipment. It is customary to provide the turbine or
engine room with a traveling crane of sufficient capacity to handle the heaviest
single piece of ec,uipment in the room. Since these rooms are usually clear of
overhead obstructions, the crane in greatest favor is the bridge type with rails
suppofted at opposite walls. If bearing walls are used, the crane load is caried
down to foundations on brick or concrete columns called pilasters. In steel
construction the crane raii supports are either brackets attached to the building
columns, or are short columns made integral with the building columns.
Any coal:fired power plant poses a major problem in cleaning. From the
time in which the chief tool used to keep the plant clean was the shovel, plant
owners have progressed to a stage which recognizes the economic and moral
losses occasioned by dust and dirt. A dark, oilproof, enameled surface is one
which is easily wiped clean and does not readily show fingerprints. Floor paints
give concrete floors a surface that ca be mopped clean. Aluminum paint on all
boiler room steel and duct work greatly improves illumination. The boiler room
ofrers the major problem in cleaning. Because of its finely divided state, coal
dust may prove an explosiorr hazard; and of course it excels as a begriming
agent. It is difficult to remove except by water flushing or suction. Confinement
of coal dust by functionally separating fuel preparation and handling from the
remainder of the building, use of covered conveyors and hoppers, and similar
me&sures are helpful. Plant design should give careful &ttention to illumination
and to provisions for cleanliness, but these have all too often been neglected,
Wash rooms, shower baths, toilet rooms, and offices may or may not be
provided in the plant, depending upon its size and upon local conditions. The
MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT I13
central station in the country must be very nearly I self-contained community
with its operators' village, its store rooms, and its repair shops. When a power
plant is privately owned by an industry, the same repair shop may serve for
both factory and power plant; otherwise the power plant must contain its own
workshop, small or large as the case may be. A public utility plant generally
rcquires enough maintenance to employ a repair crew regularly.
Power plant maintenance requires large stocks to be kept on hand, since the
plant is a specialized industry. How to account for and issue the many small
and large parts that must be carried in stock is a problem. Periodic inspection to
dctect wear, thus enabhng a part to be ordered in advance, will aid in reducing
the stock necessary to be canied. The storekeeping in a powcr plant should be
as simple as possible, and yet should maintain a stock that will be insurance
againet prolonged breakdown.
Building arrangements of central power stations often must include cxecu-
tive dffices, a control Iaboratory, equipmcnt control rooms, and load dispttching
centcrs.

PROBLEMS
t/nr2a ,onlcs per squale motE; Lgrol = Lg per cubic t!.tr!)
(

1. How high can a solid, unlorded brick wall ( i.08 toDn.. p.. 4r ) be caried with-
out the coEpressive stress on the lower course exceeding (a) t2 kgyorlr, (b)tr,6 tg/oDt ?
2. The brick walls of a small power plant are ofthe beanng wsll type,arg DDthick.
They arclo,sm high to the e3ve8 and ta,ke a reaction ol laoo L8 from roof trusses spaced
a.6r! ap&rt. (s) What i8 the maximum compression in .the brick work? (b) The safe
bearing power of the subsoil is 9z06 Lg/ol,and the wall footings weigh approximately
aot tglE.IIow vide sbould the footings be ?
3. A brick power pl&Dt building isltaxtl ro x ?.6 mbig!, tvith frt ioof. 'Walls are
6{4 ro thick for lower4.6 E,4E EE for upperSa.There,arel0$'indowopetrilgsl.6oxt.0ur,
sl]d 2 door opening t.otn x 2.0B.Th€ wa,lls srebuilt with tbiD cement mortar joints. Calcu-
late the cost of building .materials for the walls, given the lollowing unit costs: Brick,
$40.00 per 1000; eernen"t, $4.00 per bbl! sana, $ials0 per oubio metrJ.
4. What is the cost, in ptace, of a brick wall6 nhigh,$ mlont,a3, bD thick?Thin
cement mortar joints. Bricktayer, $15.00 per day; leiper, i8.0O per day. Brick',
832.00 per 1000; cement, $4.00 per bblj sand, $3.00 per toalo ( Izlo kg = I rur ).
5. An eDgine is to be set on a sjrrrmetdc&l concrete fouDdeiioll.tnxE lDtopface,
!.t mxt.lEbottom fece,l,!ndeep.Makea list of the marei&ls to be used in the construc-
tion of the foundation and calculate the foundation weight.
6. A !0.6 B circul&r water tunDel of 1., rl inside diameter and 806 Em thick wells is to be
constmcted of conctete. Allowing 4 bags cement to the bbl, 6nd cost ol m&tarials ba8€d
on the following unit prices: Cement, $4.50 per bbl; sand, $3.50 per tanac; Etone,
34m per toooa. Saud aud stone weigb tzSo Lg/Dt.
7. Estimate the quantities of stone, sand, a.nd cement required to build a circular
concrete wirter tank (wood cover) to hold rtmlitto. rrater. Interior depth of wat€r,
1.5 D; df tstrk, t.8 m. Walls anJ floor, 2oO DE thick. Neglect volume occupied by steel
rciuforcem€r*.
8. A to.6; higl' chimney of radial brick masoary is described by the lollowing top
end bottom dimeosious. De = t.0 m, dz = t.lrl-, Dr = ,J.D, d, = !.tm. Unifonir
bstter, weisht I8o tooDeltr'ind the maximum compressive siress under 160 Lro/h wind
load. Will a base crack be opened to windw&rd?

'Alloriag { bag. c.lncDt t th. bbl

1l'l TEE POWER PL,ANT AIILDING
9. The upper 1116 a of a radial brick chim€,y D8s Dr = t, D,rr= t ersEllthiclF
o€.! uE Dto'IE it fully steble lsterslly st tnc t4i0r! *ctioillod 9s,f6 sgslnst ctrshin8 rb
subjcct dtofao LtD/b wind ? DeDsityram f3/b!i altowablecompreesivc itrqf2.00Lgr(Dt.
10. Using Tabte 4-3, estimate the proportions of a.radisl bricl chimneg of il rr
ineide diametei x a6.0 o high. Masonry weight, r$g Lgrer.Wind,rco ko/h.Teat'the bose
and mid-height E€ctions for marimum compressive strese. No lining.
U. Repeat Prob. 10, except forr.t6 tlr x oon chiEney.
lZ A:aaly?e the chimuey base sectiou a8 mentioued at the end of E:r 2, Sec. 4-6.
Lining to weigh !t.a t q..-
13. A ro r x 1a E climney has beeo lsid out ss fouows,

Section I 3 4 5 6 780
IIt. above ground. o 0 I ,! a.6 10.6 10.6 t .6 & t.! tt
Bott€r, hE per D lxr!0mn n lt r rt.6 ttt
Wall,ao a8a tgt 8tt !s, 108 na l?8
Lay out this chimney to scale I oo
'lr
a,Determine its weight, crunulatively
=I sectioa by
section, u8ing l9tt2 kg/Et both for matn column and lining. .Ianing extends ftlm l' 6 n
to t0 E above ground, is carried on corbells st lf.6 t! and ll l! , ia l()l, t!lur61o1 ,16 5o;L
to giv€ ininimuE6o nn ah space,
14. Analyze the stabfity of the chimney of ?rob. 18 at Bections 1; 4, and 6 when
subject€d to r@ fa/h wind load.
15. Proportiol, from Table 4-3, the dhimney whose dirqeDsious are given ecooomio
study in the example, Sec 12-12. ConEider chimrey foundaiion to'oe ra below fumace
grates. IVill the chimaey, a.s 80 laid out, be safe itr l@ lo/h yind, or will the economic
dimensions be jettisoned because of structu!&l requiremeats?f9t lg/at Top thieknesa,
I7t DE. Uniform inside strd outside trper.
16..A block-type concrete foundation must support s ststic lordof t&6 t@!a tranr-
mitted to it on a tbick steel pl&te 0l0Eurx ei6an.D€sign s foutrdrtion of miaimum weight
tb&t witl be safe against settlement end crscking. F,stim&te the concretd m&tetisls
needed. Bearing power of soil, t$/82.
U-A.SrEDblick wall l8.rlEhigh rcEts uponacoDcr€t€ footing The soil haa a bearing
power of tttl@!. Design a two-step ofrset footing of concrete a.nd detail to a 8csle
ofl0o@-lh
18. A reinlorced corcrcte wall carries a lo&d to foundation of !o t/art[r. The wsll
ig tq, ED thick, A eubsoil berring power of ler+f b &llor€d. Design and draw a
Bketch of the wall footing (two-step).
19. The followiug data refe! to a 6-cylinder,450-kw,0$tr{hpDiesel engine alteraa-
tor unit having direct contrected exciter: Weight of e.ngine and flWheel, OIOO Lg;
weight of alternstor and exciter, 68mf3; bedpl&ie of €ngine, saxr.l nr; l€nglh of
whole mit,t0.6qwidth of generator bedptate, t B.fbe subsoil is everage dand. Desigt
aud detail a fouudation for this engine. The foundation top is all irr one horizontal
plane. Calculate the amouut oI sand, stone, cement, and form lumber required for its
construction.
Z). Tle cotdenser df a 10,0(X)-kw turbiae is rigidly caniqd by it€ own foundstion
snd is connected to the turbine by a copper expansioo joint whose dimensions crc
t r E x ,a 6, &pproximately recteugular. The water a.nd steam normally in thg oor..
denser weighgCll Lg. Condenser pressure =o.O? karoE eb. ffiut is the vsdrtio! i.n.
weidt on the condenser foundation between il+enrice anal out-of-sewics conditiou?
2f. Desigh & sloping octsgonal concret" foutrdatioh for tbe chimney of Ex 1, Sec
44. Bearing power of soi[ le,6t/6t. Justify 8oy necersary assumptios,
22. A a6.7! D cbimn€y witb Dr,a.7t tliD2r.?9 Dteigbs rrt toncr.The chimaey ir set
PROBLEMS 1I5
oD a two-st,ep octagollal coDctete foudatiou, laid on soil haviug 21"ot1nr sale bearing
power. Wind load, l0O kDA. Design and make a drawing of the foundatiou.
23. A 60-kw vertical, siugle-cylioder, steam mgine-generato! set has a bedplate
1.6-E x !.tt E. It8 weight iEa6l0Lg.D€sigD I foundation to re6t on average sandy
Eoil. FouDdstion mass in accordance with Tsble 4-5.
24. The foundation under the engine of Fig.4-14 isloOoo highertan th&tunder the
generator. Considering the generator pit to h&ve the same yolume as the exciter pedestal,
fiod the amounts ol sand, crushed 8toue, and ceroent required for this foundation,
25. A Diesel engine Eets on a plain block foundation I o x 0lll x ,.?6 adeep. Find
costof foundation snd form lumher (forms of t6 an lumber). Lumber, 126.00 per r00
board nctre; canent, 81.50 per aack; stone, tiii.OO p€rt@ac ; sand, $2.25 pert na..
26. Estimatc the weight aDd cost of materials for foundations for the following
3oolobpprime movers, using 70la of foundation masses from Table 4-5. Get local unit
costs,
(a) Vertical multi-cylinder unaflow eugine.
(b) Vertical multi+ylinder Diesel engine.
(c) Horizontal single<y)irder gas engine.
(d) Horizontal single-cylinder Corliss engine.
27. Piles are driven in a quicksand (bearing = 661qr ) on OlO rao ceuters, Ttey
are driven until th€ penetrstion under the lsst bammer blow s 2o ao , The driver's
l- totDc hsmmer drop, t.6q. Piles ere s8r'n ofr and surmountbd by a coacr€te slsb
900 roq thick. Wh&t svrrBg€ bearing power, btrqa, do€s this fouDd&tioD provide?
 CHAPTER 5

F"UE,N-S AND COMtsUSTNON

5-l Fuels. The raw materials of the heat power plant are the potential
energy dormant in a fuel and the oxygen necessary to convert it to a dynamic
high-temperature condition. A luel is composed of chemical elements which, in-
rapid chemical union with oxygen, produce combustion. As this definition is
contingent upon the meaning of combustion, the latter term will now be defined.
Combusti.on is that rapid chemical union with oxygen of an element u'hose
exothermic heat of reaction is sufficiently great and whose rate of reaction is
sufficiently fast that useful quantities of heat are liberated at elevated tem-
peratures, In all the fuels tlrat are in common use, the elements which are sorrght
because they do have the necessary heat of formation and rate of reaction are
carbon and hydrogen. These two chemical elements are combined with others in
various ways, producing the Iuels of commerce. Solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels
are employed, usually separately. Coal is the most use*solid fuel for generating
steam, but sometimes industrial wastes are used. Fuel oil is the most important
liquid type of fuel. Natural, by-product, and manufactured gases form the third
group, but manufactured gases are seldom employed for they arc high in cost.
I'he use of by-product gases is occasionally possible. Gcncrally thgy are em-
ployed only by the producing industry and are not distributed.
5-2 Gas Natural gas is widely distributed in the United States, and a
growing network of pipe lines is making it increasingly available to industry:
Its cost per unit heat content at the wells compares favorably with other fuels,
but the cost of transportation through expensive pipe lines, having compressor
stations at periodic intervals, adds a delivery charge which causes it to be 8n
expensive fuel, compared to oil or coal. Its advantage is its convenience in use,
stemming from esse of control, smokeless combustion, and absence of ash. The
cost is a deterrent to any considerable use of it for pro{ucing steem. Methane
(CHr) is the majoi constituent of natural gas. In addition, this gas sometimer
contains ethsne, nitrogen, and carbon monoxide. Most samples of natural gas
average about 37260Jou16/litrcs measured at standard conditions ol?cimdr,Hg
andl5.6'C.It is generally sold by volumetric measurement with the actual gas
flow corrected to standard conditions by use of temperature and pressure
measurements.
5-3 Oit. The liquid fuels of power plant practice rre nearly always by-
pmducts of petroleum. Crude petroleum oil contains mainly carbon and hydro-
116
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUEL II7
gen, ilong with Bome small amount8 of'oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. The
hydrogen is present always in the form of hydrocartron mixtures. This crude
oil ie seldom used in its original form. Its decomposition into numerous com-
meroial products is a major industry in the United States. The approximate
chemical composition of petr<ileum and its derivatives is: carbon, 85/a;
hydrogen, l5/o. Among products and by-products of petroleum the chemical
properties vary but little, although the physical properties, such as viscosity,
density, color, may vary greatly. Many special luels are produced from crude
oil by distillation and by qhemical cracking, which is decomposition under
conditions of high temperature and pressure. Cracking of crude oil yields a
larger fraction of I.C. engine fuel th*n does distillation. The tremendous demand
for engine fuel is reflected in the processing of most crude oil by the cracking
process. Thus it will be found that most fuel oils are the products or by-products
of a cracking process. The products produced by cracking refineries must be
separated according to boiling range into light oils and residual or hea'vy oils.
As an end result there are certain heary, tarry refinery sludged which are not
conveniently utilizable in anything but very special equipment, used either in
the refinery power plant or in a near-by station.
The total proved reserves of crude oii in the United States in 1947 were 24.7
billion barrels. Comparing that with the current withdrawals, it would appear
that the liquid fuel reserve will be able to last only until 1960. flowever, pessi-
mistic predictions like this have been repeatedly delivered in the past, and all
have ultimately been wrong, mainly because of the discovery of new reserves.
However, it certainly seems to be a fact that, before this century closes, the
pumping of pool oil Irom the ground will gradually end. Major oil companies
are, of course, cognizant of this fact and have planned programs that seem to
indicate that the demands lor liquid fuels will be met for a long time in the
future. Such programs include large-scale importations from abroad, thus err-
abling the companies to reduce to temporary inactivity some of our domegth
fields, and the production of synthetic liquid fuels from coal and ga.s. Further-
more, pilot plants are investigating the costs of extracting oil from the oil shales
which represent a large, but at present economically unusable, source of fuel
oil. Further, the possibility of ultimately being able to hamess nuclear energr
and thus replace the chemical enerry of oxidation is very definitely a live one
at the present tirne, and one which beclouds the analysis of {uel type selectioa
based on a long-range economic plan. Nevertheless, it is noted that the cost of
fuel oil is currently higher thm coal on a straight Joule comparison. In most
cases this throws the decisiot to coal, but sometimes factors such as the
simplification of the steam generator and its auxiliaries, lower initial cost of
equipment, reduced space requirements, elimingtion of some labor, snd more
nearly smokeless combustion have been influential in favor of oil. This has oc-
curred principally in industrial, commercial, and institutional plante and not
in central power stations.
5-4 Internal Combustion Enginc Fuel. The I.C. engine as used in the
United States is opgrated alrnost exclusively on firels derived from petroleum.
The exception is fuel gas for an occasional gas or dual-fuel engine. Although
Dieml originally intended to operate hie new engine on coal dust, neither he nor
anyone since has solved the ash problem. Crude petroleum has been abundant
II8 I'UEI,S AND COMBUSTION
in thie country, but the mounting uee ol the liquid-fuel-powered LC. engine on
land, sea, and sir ie naking grievous inroads into natural supplies of crude.
The largest demand has been for gasoline on accouDt of. the automobile, truck,
and airplane. Refineries process the crude for maximum gasoline production.
Up to the present time Diescl fuel has been chiefly distillate, but, as the demand
for it increoses, doubtless more of it will be blended straight-run distillste and
cataMically cracked oil.
1'}e typicsl petroleum substance is a complex of carbon end hydrogen, mixed
in varioug compounds eoch having its otrn boiling range. The compounds are
classiffcd in four groups; parafrns, oleffns, naphthalenes, and aromaties. Carbon
is ahout 85/o by weight7 hydrogen, l5/o. Fig.'5-1 shows the range of volatility
oI the commercisl luel products derived from, petroleum. Liquid-fueled spark-
I'DED FOF
xr{.ilr?.:t:r otlaEt ault

I'}I.IIJI- Trrfibliit-6li-
I{m*UIIII
-,tIffi-
2! 30 too I 0 alo 100
B{IL|X6 POrNt - DEg. C ,.
trrc. 5-l Products of drstillation of cnrde oil.

ignition engines require a highly volatile fuel fol'carbureticn and therefore

need gasoline. Diesel engines c&n use a less volatile, cheaper iuel. Normally
their fuel has been a distillate composed oI blended kerosene and gas oil, but
increasingly this is being mixed with cracked distillates. The resulting fuel,
though not favored by operators used to straight-run distillate, appesrs to
perform satisfactorily if properly selected for the engine. Since the Dieeel is the
principal I.C. engine for stationary power plants, the important comparative
properties of fuels suitable for it are to be considered. They are:
1. Density. 5. Calorific value.
2. Viscosity. O Pour, flash, and color.
3. Yolatility and residue. 7. Purity.
4. Ignition quality.
Dezr.srty. Mass per unit volume is the universal definition of density. Ifg
per litrc is in iommon use for liquid fuels, also specific gravity (S.G.).
Density at 15.6"C= (8.€1, 8t 15.6?t5.e) Lg per lioc, (5-f)
The hydrometu lumishes the dmplest method of determining gxsvity. The
gravity bottle, or picnrimeter, is far more accurete, as are specisl balances, but
where its accuracy is adequate the hydrometer is preferred on account of low
cost and the easi and rapidif of use. In reporting S.G. data the 15.6o/i5.6'
standard is common, that is, the oil is atl5.6"Cand is referred to the density of
water taken atl5.6'C If the measurement is made at Bome other temperature, a
correetion is ia order. The volumetric coefrcient of expansion of oil is 0.0007 per
.c.
Hydrometer scales will be found to be marked in "degrees" aB well a8 S.G.
The degrees may be expresred in Baume or API units.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FIIEL lle
o
Baum6 : 140
- 130 (f..2)
S.G. at 15.6'/15,6f
141.5
'API - S.G. at 15.6f15.6" - r3r.5 (ffi)
The American Petroleum Institute scale of degrees is accepted as the gtandard
by -the-petroleum industry. There is little difference betweeir resulte using .86
or " API.
Examplc I : A 28" API oil has e tempersture ofa.at . Ita deority in g pcr lt*,cwill
bs calculated.

S.G. 8t - -J!!4- - 0.887

r!.trrr6.tr
Eq S.1: Deusity at f!.!9O - o.tt,Lf p.cUt.
Coutroction lroB ll.rr0 cooliug - (XXXII x tf.t- 0.m
Density at, lfo - OSgrlO.CotrOJOr Lg[
Yiecosity. This property me&surea a fluid,s rrsistsnce to fow. In the C.G.S.
srystem the abeolute unit is the ,,poise,,, which dimensionally is orpreesed il
lb'(force) ssc
$ry
sqcm , io *n" eogish aystrem, ita counterpart is defined in t""-" og
- sq ft
or afternatelf in Kinematic viscosity ia absolute viscosity divided by den-
ffi.
sity. In the C.G.S. system the unit ie ,,stokea,, and dimmsionally ig g!Lt, 1. tr5.
sec
Fnglieh system, dimensions *" #. Centipoises and centistokeE ane morc
commonly used.
The time tak*n by a fluid flowing ihrough a calibrated tube at specified
temperature and head ie proportional to kinematic viscosity. Laboratory meas-
urement of viscosity is made with the Saybolt viscosimeter, consisting of e
telnne_r1tur9 bath surrounding a standard oil tube. The Saybolt rating 1s ob-
lain9d by ti'ning the interval required for 60 cc of oil to flow through tf,e tube.
As the viscosity varies with the temperature it is necessary to add-a tempera-
ture to Saybolt seconds when reporting viscosity. Most Diesel fuels hsve vie-
cosity between 30 and 45 Saybolt Seconds Universal (SSU) st 3?.Er.C. In this
range centistokes = 0.308(SSU-26). Another viscosity index is Saybolt Seconda
Furol. 62 SSF = 690 gglr.
Viscosity is an important quality of fuel oil. It is s fair indication of how
readily the oil will a{omize and how it will afrect the injection pump. It afrects
the fuel spray droplets, thus governing the atomization as well 8s the penetrat-
ing qualities of the spray.
Volatility aniJ Residu,e. Diesel fuel being a mixture of hydrocarbons, it ie
important to know the distribution of volatiiity, especially the two extremeg of
low- and high-volatile compounds. This can be tested by tie ASTM Distillati.on
?e.st in which a measured sample of the oil is slowly heated. Ae the various
boili:rg points of its compounds are reached they distilt ofi, arc condensed, and
I20 FI'EI.s AND COMBUSTION
measured. Alter complete diatillation the data arc used to construct z ilisti.lla'
tion anrue of temperature vB. percent evaporated. The average range between
iaitial boiling point and end point is 163'C to 37lq0. The distillation curve
should be smooth for good balance of compounds. I{igh-speed engines require
larger fractions of low-boiling-point compounds than do the low-speed, since
the latter allow considerably more time for combustion.
A test is sometimes made for resi.due by carbonizing the {uel in a covered
dish and weighing the dry remainder. The result is an indirect indication of
the quantity of healy, low-volatile material in the fuel and is especially uselul
where the high-temperature end of the distillation test is inconclusive, possibly
because of the presence of residual oils containiug high-boiling-point fractione.
The principal value of the test is to distinguish between distillate and residual
fuels, for distillates have very little carbon residue.
Ignition Quality. Of many factors influencing fuel ignition, the chemical
nature of the fuel itself is one of the most important. Means of measuiing and
controlling this quality in a fuel are not yet perfected, btfi C etone Number and
Dtesel id,er are extensively employed. Cetane number scale is derived from
the practice of testing a Iuel in a single-cylinder variable-compression test
engine ond comparing its ignition quality with that of a stdndard fuel composed
of cetane (good ignition quality) and alpha-methylnaphthalene (poor ignition
quslity). When the proportions of the standard fuel have been adjusted so that
tire ignition quality* matches that of the fuel being tested, Cetane number is
the percent of cetane in the standard fuel. Present-day fuels range from 30 to
60 o; this scale. The average high-speed engine requires a fuel of better than
45 C)etane. Full-compression ignition dngines will scarcely run on fuels rated
lower than 25. Cracked oils show lower Cetane number than straight-run dis-
tillates.
It, has been {ound possible to get a comparative indication of ignition quality
by a rapid simple test requiring but little equipment. The "aniline point" is
that temperature where equal parts of oil and aniline (a coal tar derivative)
will dissolve in each other.
Diesel index :0.018 x APIror+0.32'API (5-4)

where L,: Aniline Point in "C.

This index has a range of approximately 20 to 60. In the 50-60 range Diesel
index is 5-10 uniis higher than Cetane number of the same fuel. It correlates
closely between 35 and 45 and is a few points lower below 30.
Recently the practice of adding components to luel oil to improve ignition
quality has been growing. When these additions have been made, Diesel index
or other formulae are without value and ignition quality determinations must
be ruade by the CFR Diesel method. The additive in principal use is Amyl
Nitrate. One percent of this in fuel oil will increase Cetane number approxi-
mately 10 points.
I DetcrEioed &s the time lag tretveen idection a.ud igBitioE of the fuel uuder running
conditioas. This is the CFR Die;el method iCFR is from the title of the SAE Cooperdtive
frrJ no"u""t CornmitteB.) Alten8tely the lortest or critical compre*iotr ratio at which
iuet sill igDite is used.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUET, PI
Cal,orifia V aha Detemination of t&e heats of combugtion of petrolorm oils
may lre msde with the bomb calorimeter (8ee Sec 5-Z), results so obtained beiry
the higher heatiag values Qr. The net or lower heating value is a better indical
tion oj the hea! engrgr gvailable to tho engine, since exhaust gaees arc hot
enough to contaiB the E2O ia the form of vapor-
The relative carbon and hydrogen content of oil is closely allied to its
-
deneity, for the impurities in commereial engine oil are an insignifrcsnt fraction
of the total. It follows that the deneity is the main variable in hiating value, and
empiricsl formulae expressing Q1 as a function of density are successful.'The
following equations grve Q1 to a probable accuracy v:rilti; l% of actual value.
(ASME Formula) Qr - 4lrl,30 { x"ApI llg
139.6 (&S)
(Bureau of Standarde Formula) 0o : 5l,216-3793.S (S.G.X J/S (ffi)
Table S.l. ASTM DIESEL F,UELOIL CLASSIF,ICATION
Grade of Fuel

1-D 2-D &.D 4D

tr'lash pobt 'C, min. .. .. . . $.r at,l {).0
or'7.8
legal or legal or legal
Water & sedimeut, /s by vol., max. 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.5
Viecosity ot tr.t C
Centistokes, min... ... .. ... .. 2.0
Equivalent Saybolt . 92.6
Ceatistokes, max. .. 6.0
Equivalent Saybolt . 45.5 65 140
Final boiling poirt, og,max...... uo
90/e Point oO, m&\,............. 36?
Corbon residue, /sby wt, max-. . . . 0.6 2.5
Carbon reeidue on 10lp residue. . . .
/6 by wt, rnax. . . .
o.25
vt, max
Ash, /e by 0.01 0.01 o.02 0.05
Pourpoiat'6, rtr&x...... -...... - 0 -6.7' 1.1. t.7
Sulfur, /, by wt, rnax.. .......... 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.O
Cu strip corrosion &t 50S ....... Pass Pass
Cetane uumber, min...... .. .. . ... . 45 45 35 30
Alkali and minerol acid........... Neutral Neutral Neutral Neutral
* Lover Pour Poiots may be specified *henever required by local
.
tioD8 to fscilitste storsge iDd use.
tempenture cotrdi-

ASTM Drrsrr, Fuor, RBcororproerrols

Graoe Type of Engine
1-D Solid-injection engines op€r&ting at more than 1000 rpm.
}D Solid-iniection engines operathg from 36G1mO rpm.
4-D Solidia,iection engines with cylinders more thaniOo mn in diamotlr., ond o;nr-
ating at less thao 240 rpm.
Air-injection engines operating at lees tban 400 rpm.
Oil heavier than rl.D may be epecifled by refering to No. E Fuel Oil with an
'D sgreenent between buyer aud aeller regarding Carbon Residue and SulIur
IiDits.
7n ruErs aND coMBUSTIoN
fuel oils vary from {07G1 to {5520 J per g ; the higher the density, the
lower the heat content. High-gravity luel will have more heet units per lit !,
although fewer per gnn than light iuel. Iower heating velue is obtained from
Qr as explained in Chaptcr 1. Lat€nt heat ol watcr vapor ie taken as 2*12 J
p€r 8, 8nd hydrogen content from the following equation:

Percent IIr - 26 - 15 (S.G.) (5-7)

Pour, Flnah, and Color. This is a group of qualities which bear little relation-
ship to the performance of fuel in an engine, but may be epeciffed for some
other reason, such as handling.
The flash point is the tempersture at which ignitioa of the fuel vapors rising
above the heated oil will occur when exposed to an open flame. Safety in han-
dling and storing will usually be adequate if thie is c6.0ro or more.
?our point is the minimum temperature at which the fuel will no longer
pour freely. It is more important to the fuel for mobile engines whose fuel
tanks are generally e;<posed and unheated then for stationary units.
Color is sorletimes specified on the basis that good color indicates clean
freeh stock of Batisfsctory volatility.
Punty. Although oil is a relatively pure fuel it may contain some sediment
and water, ash, or sulfur, all of which are undesirable impurities and are
limiied to low permissible amounts in specifications. Sediment and water sre
determined by diluting the fuel with benzol and centrifuging. They are reported
together, sometimes by the abbreviation'B.S, and W., meaning bottom sediment
and water. Fuels have no B.S. and W. when initially manufactured, so this is a
test for the possibility of subsequent contsmination. Ash is the incombustible
conterrt of fuel oil. As it is quite abrasive and detrimental to the finely finished
surfaces of injection equipment, it must be limited to minute amounts by oil
specifications.
Sulfur to an excegsive smount may produce corrosion and deposits in the
engine. All oils have some sulfur, but the allowable content is small, Iess than
2/o in any case. Tests are sometimes carried out lor the sulfur content and lor
the corrosive efrect on polished copper strips.
Manrifacturers establish minimum luel specifications for their engines,
besed on their individual experience. In addition there are some general
standards. (See Table 5-1.) Opeiator's endeavor to purchase fuel supplies which
satisfy the minimum requirements without greatly exceeding them, for the
superior oils cost the most but do not outperform the poorer, provided the
latter meet appropriate minimum standards.
5-5 Furnace Fuel OiI. The characteristic qualities employed to melsure
the value of furnace oil are mainly the same as those mentioned in Sec 5-4.
They are: heating value, specific gravity, viscosity, flash and pour points,
carbon residue, and impurities. Commercially, fuel oils for furnace use are
marked by a number index, specifications lor which are to be seen in Table 5-2.
There it will be noted that six grades of fuel oil are desip5nated. In general, the
higher the grade number the lower the cost of the oil per Jourc of hest content.
Also, the higher the index number, the more difficult it is to get proper atomiza-
tioa end smokeless combustion of the oil, more maintenance is required on
 38
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I24. FUEI.S AND COMBUSTION
bumers, and the burning equipment may be additionally complicated by the
need for heatere to reduce the viscosit.y of the oil before spraying.
The common uait of measure for oil sales is volumetric, either the litro or
the i'barrel," which is 139 litrct (42 U.S gallons) . The pricing on euch a
volumetric basis is commonlr made at tl5.6oC volumc,and the volume therefore
sor.l in any caEe is the actusl volume delivered corrected by a coefficient of ex-
pansioa. The coefficient for fuel oil is about 0.0007, hence an oil thai was
delivered into a tank of knowa voiume, and gauged atlgg0O.litrcr in thetank st a
temperature of {,,lq0, is actually a commercial volume of 19900 + 19900 x
0.00041 5.6-.r.,rr, a 2mt5 Utr€r
The relation of the API and Baum6 scales to specific gravity is stated in
Eqs 5-2 and 5-3. The Bureau of Standards formula for 0u of all petrbleum
products is Eq 5-6. Sherman and Knopfr suggest the following lor luel oil:
Qr:42450-9iltBc'+10)Jpds..t 156"C (5-8)

Where the prospect of oil as a fuel is considered, mausgement frequently

inquires whether the necessary BupplieB of oil will be forthcoming in the future,
for it has been generally understood that the reserves of petroleum in the
ground are far less than those of coal. This is a question which cannot be ode-
quately answered by statements like "there is plenty of oil in right for the next
five or ten years" for two good reasons. The first is that the equipment which
will be installed to burn oil rather than coal as a fuel is of a fairly permanent
character and might conceivably be expected to last for filteen to twenty yoars,
so that changes of a fuel from liquid to solid could not be made without sub-
stantial major alterations to the steam generating unit. Second, there is a
question as to the efiect of ebnormal future demgnds. Such questione are stimu-;
lated by the knowledge that previous wars have made increasingly large inro;ds
into the reservee of liquid luels of the country, and by the instability, from the
labor standpoint, of the coal industry. Such considerations are the coadern of
owners considering the types ol fuel to use, and continuity of supply m'by be
more important than relative cost. The use of oil fuel is attended by several
tangible advantages which will sometimes outweigh the uncertainties.
5-6 Coal. Coal is a heterogeneous compound, difficult to define. While its
constituents are always carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and certain
mineral noncombustibles, not ordinarily analyzed but lumped together as
"ash," the many ways in which these elements are compounded in coal as
found at difrerent sites precludes any simple definition. In fact, coal is quite
a variable substance, and the classrfication of its difrerent lorms has not been
easy. There are several classification systems-which attempt to find some com-
mon principle of variation among diflerent kinds of coal. The inventor of a
practiqal system will necessarily have had to eliminate moisture and ash, Ior
these ard strictly of random occurrence in coal. The presence in coal, as found
in storage piles, or ready-to-fire, ot as-receiued, at the laboratory, of both mois-
ture and ash gives rise to certain variations of analysis of the conetituents.
These variations sre:
l. As-receiued,. As sampled from car deliveries, storage piles, stoker hoppers,
then tightly sealed for delivery to the analyzing laboratory.
2. Air-ilrieil.When the as-received sample, partly ground or cmshed, is laid
COAL I25
out in the laboratory room until it no longer loses moisture to the surrouhding
atmosphere, its condition is said to be air-dried. In this form it contains some
surface moisture, but not much. It can be satisfactorily ground to fiae consist-
ency in sample grinders (which wet coal canuot) and will remain stable while
being weighed on analytical balanees.
3. Motsture-lree. This coal could actually be produced by holding the sam-
ple at slightly above 100"C for a suficient length of time to drive ofi all the
sur{ace moisture. The moisture content of air-dried coal varies from time to
time, but the moisture-free basis is a duplicatable condition.
4. Moisture- anil ash-lree. This is a hypothetical substance. Actually one
is not able to separate ash from coal except by the. process oi combustion.
Moisture- and ash-Iree coal is generally called combustible, since it represents
the fractiou of the original sample that can be gasified during proper combus-
tion.
' 5. A variation of Item 4, known as ,noishtre- and mtneral-lree, is occasion-
ally used. Certain of the mineral content of coal, such as pyrites, will be gasi-
fied during combustion. To some extent this mineral content may be eliminated
without destroying the coal.
The sulfur content of coal varies from as low as 0.5% to as much as 5/o.
It adds a little heating value, but furnishes some undesirable characteristies.
The purchaser may well view with suspicion a coal whose analysis shows high
sulfur. It occurs &s pyrites, as sulfates, and as organic sulfur compounds. Fre-
quently high sulfur coal is priced low, but the operating engineer should shun
large contracts for it until a thorough trial has demonstrated the efrect of the
coal on operation and maintenance costs, service availability, and capacity.
This is because the sulfur may be responsible for clinkering and slagging, cor-
rosion, spontaneous combustion, and air pollution. In spite of these disagreeable
features, it sometimes ha,ppens that the attractive price of high sulfur coal more
than outweighs the difrculties.
Based upon the composition of the hypothetical "moisture- and ash-free
coal," there have been several systems devised for the classification of the dif-
ferent grades or "ranks." The ASTM Standard Specification is shown in Table
5-3.
Two lorms of coal analysis are used by combustion engineers. The first, the
proximate analysis, is a separation ol the cosl into moisture, volatile material,
fixed carbon, and ash. This analysis is readily made by thermal means with a
moderate amount of equipment and is or should be within ihe capacity of any
mechBnical engineer to perform. The addition of an analysis of sulfur content,
and ginilabilitE inder, is desirable in evaluating firing characteristics oI the
coal.
' The grindability index is an important characteristic in pulverized coal
plants, since it is a measure of the.relative ease or difficulty of pulverizing dif-
ferent kinds of coal. One of the tests, the Hardgrove, nses s standsrd miniature
pulverizer into which is sent a definite smount of grinding enerry. The weight
of the $ound product that will pass a 75 microtr sieve is employed to calculate
an index number called the Hardgrove Grindability (HG). Typical values of
this index are 50 to 60 for good bituminous coal. Lower values mean more difr-
cult grinding. This index is principally comparstive, and the power and enerry
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coAL r27

requirements of actuel pulverirers are not readily ascertained from the IIG
index.
Another important physical characteristic is the ash fusion temperature'
other ihines b.ins cosl with highest ash fusion temperature would
Uu it *o.i "quil,1h"
desirs-ble, foi it would give a stable, solid ash particle in the prca-
ence "of high furnace temperature' In some equipment, the fusion temperature
o.odu""r u" ti.itution upon the capacity at which the equipment can be oper-
It * low aeh fusibn coal is contemplated at the time of designing the
tfr" oroper provieions can be mede lor successfully using it' Thia is often
"ir"t.
"t"d.
ilnu ln u""ount oi the attractive price usually ofrered by the producere of low'
iu.io" .o"f. However, to switch io low-fueion cosl on a unit that has been
operating satisfactoriiy with high-fusion coal is usually inviting trouble from
- -Tt snd closqing of the gas passages.
slassine
J p-*i."Iti aialysis ii oi littlJ use in combustion calculations, which

Table 5-4. ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL AMERICAN FUELS *

A- 4.1.. r.cdiql
IJldar. Aldydr-laoi.tu! llduld
,oql,

l_ 7.19 5,T' &.r1 5.90 o.s, 7.10 86 3' o,r 3.55

2, t.B 12 aa 12.21 2.0t lra 71 19 l39 a.J6
l PaL S.!r.BituDbd,1 O-r6.ld. ,. . , ,.r! 2t 29 8.8a r35 a.11 ,l 5r lt9 stt
a, W. V. Sdl'Diluiloln N! RiE . . . 2@ 25.61 2.32 055 3all
t W, Vr S.Di.Bitulno{r, Pool@t ... , !r0 tl.ot 3.7J 053 4.!o 4 tt2 lt,
V. Vr S@l-EitEllos Pqldi{ .. t.t8 16 J6 ?3 dl l.ta 1.20 l0 ?o l.,t l25Erl
?n6. lilulirDua Apr.LdL!.......
1. 2.+t b.4 @.68 t.a.l L32 5(, ?6 9l t.ar !roar
& AL" Eit@i!@.,....,.....,..,......
q
,.sJ b* t9.{l u,l! 0.t9 4.E0 l59 ,!J !1000
ll- BituDlndu.. - -. l!.Jl 3t.62 ar.3a tl r,t 5. r9 5e 0, otl t9 3r 2.4612
lo 3a 5' t0.aa 510 62t l 2t l! 5o 26iU
u. 36 ll b11 a.lt !.r0 06a 6.16 l9 a5 05t a!& 1553t
lr. r3 oa 4.15 ,9.itr ll,t5 l.(ll 5.lt 5t.06 09! 25 !J 2la],
B. Ulf@r. Ar.h/i. o{ oilt

.r t!.6"c
!. la,Cir&...,...,.,.. t0.90 2.t, , 6l ,r.t6 4219
,. ad, !a1..,.,.,-...... a, ,6 !2.a1 3.aJ 50 t5359
J. P6aCnnr,...,,.... 13 ,0 2lor ./l23
a, C.I P'rd.,..,..,,..,., tr 52 rr.h 6.4 o.t5 ar!r5
c. vol@ui Aohd. d N.tu..l Cu

car Crtlr co c!t llttt

It_1, o13 tro st 3 t2 oJo ,7Xt
,r.lt !t! t.@ 20@ o 80 0to y,D,
,3 35 oJ5 o.ar l6t 0.t5 ,16?,if
tt.to , 5ol oo J,I .10 ,5T12

D. Vdrr,t A.drnr d Ur{rxt!,.d rnrl Br.Prodwt Ca

cE. co c!t
I ,1 7 53 t, !7X
l. C.rtdrod 'na !- It ii I J5 'i 2 I 2q9t
l. Cotr !6 8...,.. . tl t ,|. ! , 2Oa9I
,l lariEr ar..... .. .. a ,2 It 5' tt9o

. Dlrl Eatb ltd oI U.S. Bu'..u d Mln.r. 56 hof..'io'.I P.P.' ,18, lgOO 6d lult€tiD 85, l9t.
tc. H.
128 FUELS AND COMBUSTION
are essentially chemical equations. A chemical, or ultimate, analyais, is re-
quired for that kind of l,ork. The quantitative separation of such a compound
as coal into its chemical elements requires not only a well-equipped chemical
laboratory, but cxpcrt chemists and chemical technology, and thus is not a test
orclinarily in thc rcpcrtoire ol the engineer. However, it is not always possible or
convcnient to gct such an analysis or to have it preparctl on short notice. Studies
have been made of thc possibility of constructing a synthetic ultimate analysis
from the proximate analysis. If this could be uone, it would eliminate much
inconvenience in combustion calculations, particularly field or preliminary cal-
culations, for the proximate analysis can usually be quickly obtained. There
halc been soure solutions to this problem published in the form of empirical
conve'rsion equations. Those of F. C. Evans, summarized in Table 5-5, have
hccn found by thc author to givc excellent results. Nitrogen is not included in
this table, but one o{ the follorving empirical equatious may be used to calculate
the percent of -Y in the combustible using Iz, the percent of volatile matter in
the combustible.
lf : 0.07Y for anthracite (5-9)

N: 0.0210 - 0.Ol2V for bituminous anrl lignite (5-10)

In order to climinate the random elements, the transfer is made from the proxi-
mate to the ultimate analysis ol combustible; hence the first step is a reduction
of thc analysis of coal to one of combustible, implying the asli- and moisture-
Iree basis. After the application of the transfer equations, lhe resulting ultimal,r
analysis of the combustible is then reconverted to the desired basis by the inser-
tion ol ash or ash and moisture. The following problem will illustrate the
transfer of a proximate to an ultimate analysis.
Examplc 1: Chcek the ultimate analysis of the Illinois bituminous coal given in
Table 5-4 by applying the conversion formulae to the proximate analysis.
To reduce thc proximate analysis to a combustible basis divide by
(l - ash - moisture)

Thcn thc proximntc ;rnal1'sis of the combustible is

Volatile matter, M48; fixed carbon,0.552

From Tablc &5, rvc find that the equatione to use for this case &rc:

I{ = 0.M57 + 0.0206I' C=0.953-0.362I/

H : 0.0457 + 0.0206 X 0.448 : 0.0549 c : 0.953 - 0.362 X 0.448 : 0.7m5
From Eq 5-10
N= 0.0210 - 0.012 X 0.448 : 0.0155
Tlrc ultimate onalysis of combustible has become
C,0.7905; H,0.0549; N,0.0156
The ultimate analysis as lired is'Iouud by including ash and moisture. Multiply the
cbove by (1 - ash - moistrtre), thcn compare this with the analysis from Table 5'4,
Nith moisture seframte.
 L
.l al
l!t 5
cil ts
{ B^
q q
+ l.r I
I
+ I I I El€
I I I
.i I+ + + + + .j
8 5h. ;9
a l I
;a5 1 ilE lA B
a ll it
I I l ['
F]
t o L) (,) +l
>:l
+ lt
z EI tr
I
o
tr Z
x
ES
a9 E g E g I
I
o; ;o
z^ & B. &
g.E .I &
T t ?
HA 6 3 I
<l
trll ra-b
:_:
5F. I o{ o
trp
\J5
M
il d
tZ
> jq . U E ?E
:Ed z b9 y:5.
g'ir -g
!nx
.J .a t ei2
>*-i ae {
Bir .3
z;
>i jo ; E€ E 3
! o !i Y"E
,d
3 uz:;.E
I"5 H!
Jtse
!r ;- ()z- 4, ?
F
= 6:
U '-[ ts
xa '-[
; ,i;;i
-E
F
129
IM TIIELS AND COMBUSTION
Convertcd: Q 69.8; E,4.1; Na 1.2; EO 1E.3; ash, 11.7; other, 10.4.
Aaolyzed: C,69.1; H,,3.7i Nr, 1.0; EO, 13.8; aah, 11.7; other, 11.2.
The firing Waktins of a coal are highly important when selection of the coal
or combustiotr equipment is being considered, for if it were not for the effects
of these qualities, coal could be purchased on the basis ol heating value alone.
Some of the factors that muat be considered are:
1.Sizes and grades for economical and eatisfactory perfomance. Sizing practice
ia the coal industry is to state the screen limits through which ihat sample of coal
will pasq, and on which it will be retained. For example, a [o oE x !0 oo size ig that
size of coal which will p&ss throughaq, D,r rcrmd hole opening or its equivalent, but be
retained on a to mnn routrd hole screen. $pical stanclard sizing practice and the use
of those eizes are given in Table 5-6.
2. Constitueots. This includes such informstion es proxirDate aod ultiDate analyses,
ash analysis, aud uniformity oye! a range.
3. Physical characteristics such as (a) friability-resistance tro degradation; (b)
gdndebility, as measured by Eardgrove Grindability or some othdr standard; (c) size
consistency.
4. Storage characteristics. Detedoration, spontaneous combustion.
5. ?erformance cba,recteristics---cokiDg a,nd caking tendency-the reteDtion of
original shape during combustiou vs solteuing or crusting.
6. Slagging characteristics-depeadeDt ou ash fusion temperature and iron contellt.
7. Corrosive characteristic+-the sulfur content.
8. Ignition chamcteristics--the preseuce of cert i4 Dilrerals of low-ignition tempera-
ture in the Yolatile,
The purchaser of small quantities of coal rarely pays any sttention to
other thsn its costpcr toune, and,ocoasionally,if ffring choracteristice have forced
hiyn to it, the sulfur and moisture content. The large-scale purchaser needs a
definite contract basis, for the cost of coal is e large item in total operating
expense. The contract between the purchaser and seller should set forth elearly
the coa! to be furnished by stating its trade narne, region mined, and size limits,
as well aB the quantity. Ranges of acceptable physical and chemical qualitiea
are fixed and, of course, contract prices are given.
Table !6. COAL SIZING PRACTICE
A bdcile B uminous
ItO ED x t0 Elr Run of miue sold because of de
mtom x 00 torl -Btok€o -Rarely
mand for graded sizes.
-tq
0O tEa x {0 DE --fltovo 116 EE Lump firing
ao ab x m Eo --CheEtaut 126 6D x 60 E E Egg
-Hand firing
,0 EE x l{ erq d0DExSomENut -Iland stokem
-P€8Buckwheat to ao :< t0 nm Stoker-Domestic
ta &D x t rru-No.l -Industrial and industrial
t aE x 6 ErD-No.2 Buckwhcat Etokefs
& ED x&6 Da-No.3 Buclwbot trO an 1 0 oo Black
-Industrial
stokers.
Screepiags
-cul, 60 ,oB Nut & sr."k-i*HilTi""t"k","
Typical form of a coal purchasing specificstion:
1. Specifc desiguation of coal field or seam.
2. Size end range, such as ".60 oo, [ut ard d!cL', &nallest ir that will Frf-
ocn propcrly in furarc L uadty @io,
rIIEL TOSTS FOR EEATING VALUE I31
3. Quality---&cceptsble ranges of analysis of (l) moisture as loaded, (2) volatile
m&tter, (3) fixed carbon, (4) ash, (5) sr:lfur.
4. Firing qualities.
Ash fusion temperatue-uinimum acceptable
'Eigher heating value--Dinimum acceptsble.
5. Contract cost. Per delivered tormc, Per delivered milliou Jouter of higher becting
vatue. g6o,a and peoalty clauset-
5-7 Fuel Tests for Heating Vdue. Most modem ceDtrsl power stations
have a laboratory in which routine tests are made, including tests ol the fuel.
The same is occasionally found in iudustry, where some technical department
of the industry m&kes iuel tests. This is also sometimes done by central publio
authority in the case of institutional plants, but by and large, outeide of the
public utility field, the check-ups on deliveries under coal contracts are quite
irregular.

STIRRER

I}ISULATING
JAC(ET

BOMA

WATER
cat'l
Ftc. $'2 Oxygeu bomb ealorimeter.

Eeating value tests are performed by the use of one of the standard fuel
calorimetets. These are likely to go much better for solid and gaseous fuels than
for liquid fuels, which are inherently difrcult to teet sccurately for heating
vslue. On the other hand, fuel oil is a much more homogeneous substance than
coal, and good estimates of heating value can be obtained from hydrometer
readings.
The apparatus for heating value testing falls into two general categories:
(1) continuous flow and (2) individual sarnple or "batch" apparatus.
Solid fuels are tested with individual sample apparatus, geseous fuels by
continuoue flow apparatus, and liqriid fuels by either type, depending upon the
volotility.
Most types of calorimeters measure the htjat released by absorbing it in
water. If the maximum temperature of the absorbing medium is low enough
to cool the products of combustion below 100"C, the latent heat of vaporiza-
tion in the products will be released. Since this is always the case, it is the
higher heating value, rother than the lower, that is obteined by calorimetty-
I , FUELS AND COMBUSTION
Coal Calonmeter. The heatlng vrluc of coal is detemined either ly.the
peroxide or orygen bomb calorimeter. Use of the lstt€r type is here descriH.
The apparetus, illuetret€d in Fig. 5-2,'/employs gsseous oxygen under pressure
as the oxidant, and electric ignition. The bomb ie constmcted of two pieces held
together with o screwed collar. The bomb hae r fuel tray, orygen valve, two
external electrical leads, and internal poles to which fuee wire can bc connected.
A polished container holds the bomb snd aboutr.rlraof water. Thie, in tum,
is iurrounded by a heat insulating jacket. A etirring device is provided so thot
the water bath will be homogeneous in tcmperature.
About 1g of ffnely ground coal.is selected for testiug. The eample must
be briqu'etted with a measured smount of fuse wire, put iu the fuel tray, and
weighed belore being assembled into the bomb. It has been found advieable to
briqlet the sample and embed the fuee wire to (1) insure ignition ond (2) pre-
veni loss of fuel from the pan before ignition. It is customary to pdt a few drops
of water in the bottom of the bomb when charging it. This is done becauee
P

Finol obaarvotiona
l,,riol obrervoiioh! 3to 3 hin.
opp.orihotaly 5 min, o2
PO ploc.cd .o thot
Fir. o ot r 02 Than POrAT
TIME AXIS
I'rc. 5-3 Interpretatiou of temperature rise in the bomb calorimeter.

otherwise part of the latent heat of vaporization of the products would be held
as a hurnidity in the atmosphere of the bomb. The bomb is charged with oxygen
to a pressure of about l{kslcrn!.The electrical connections are maCe, then the
bomb is put in its container along with a weighed quantity of water. The water
used for the bath should be about 3' C below room temperature, since it may
be expected to rise about 6'C when the bomb is fired. Adiusting the water
bath thus minimizes the effect of radiation. External electrical leads are at-
tached, and the sample is ignited. I\{eanwhile, the water bath is being electri-
cally stirred. Combustion is presumed to be almost instantaneousl however, the
thermal capacity of the outfit prevents any rapid temperature rise upon ignition.
Fig. 5-3 Shows about what rate of temperatrlre rhange mey be expected.
-The
heat released by the ensuing combu'stion is absorbed by the wster, by
the bomb, and by the container via a small rise in temperature. It is convenient
to express the heat absorbing capacity of the bomb and container per degree
temperature rise as that of an equivalent weight of water which would absorb
the iame hedt with the sanie t€mperature rise. This value is called the "water
equivalent" of the bomb ahd is added to the water weight in the heating value
calculations. It is necessary that the heating value of the fuse wire be known,
for the heat so released must be deducted from the gross heat initially calcu-
Iated. The e,pparent hest, release is:
Q : u'cLt, (e11)
FUEL TESTS FOR HEATING VALUE I33
in rvhich ro'= Weight of the wat€r bath {.water equivalent of the outfit.
c = Specific heat of water, which may be taken ts I .
Al : Observed temperature rise of the bath.
After adding or deducting any necess&ry corrections, Q is divided by the
initial reight of the coal sample to get the higher heating valuc.
It is important that thc temperature rise. be rationelly dctermined. Before
thc bomb is ignited, thc tcmpereture rise is gradual. Thc tcrnpcrature is plotted
against time, resulting in a curve similar to that shown in Fig.5-3. Thc ob-
served temperature approaching the firing point, and follou,ing thc combustiorq
will usually plot as a straight line against time, howcver, the ternperature rise

WET TEST
METER
CALORIM E TER

8U RNER

PRESS
REGULATOR

Frc. 5-4 Gas calorimete!

following ignition may bc expected to be nonlincar. After the straight parts of

the curvc are cxtended, and a lir.e PQ is drarvn vertically so as to intersect
equal areas o1 and o2, a height measurement PQ is produced. 16 can be theorizctl
that this indicates the tenperature rise Af more accurately than can be done
by any disorganized observations of the temperature. The fimt pari of the
curve slopes slightly upward duc to energy being imparted by the stirring de-
vice. If the last portion of the rccord slopes downward appreciably, it is an
indication that the calorimeier is poorly insulated.
Gqs Calorimeter. The apparatus shown in Fig. 5-4 is a Junkers continuous
flow gas calorimeter. Fuel is burned in a steady flame, with air as the oxidant.
To test gas in the continuous flow calorimeter, a special gas burner was devised
for perfect combustion. In this calorimetcr the heat released is absorbed in watcr
as the latter circulates in tuhes surrounding the combustion chamber. A con-
1E4 I.UELS AND COMBUSTION
silnt, rate of water flow through the calorimeter at any given valve setting ie
obtained by supplying the water under conetant head. This is obtained by ad-
mitting an excess of water to a small supply chamber hsving an overflow.
The quantity of gas burned is indicated by a "wet tlpe" gas meter, which
ehows the pressure and temperature of the gas as well ss the volume consumed.
The customary way of expressing theheatingv;lue of I Bt8 is Joul6 Fr lltrc
under standard conditions of temperature snd pressure. These conditions. have
been desigaated by the ASTM asl5.6rc.Ed762eoHg. The volume measured by
the gas meter can be reduced to standard conditions by the use of gas laws.
'The calorimeter is equipped with thermometers in wells for the measure-
ment of temperature rise of the water and temperature of the outgoing products
of combustion. A special valve allows the water leaving the calorimeter to be
discharged at will into a receptacle or wasted. The heat absorbed by the water
during test is:
Q: wcAt (5-12)

in which u : Weight of water caughi during the test.

c: Specific heat of *ater, which may be taken as 1.

Al : Temperature rise of the water passing through the calodm6ter.

If the air used for combustion is not saturated, a part of the hest released
will be carded ofr in the latent heat of the vapor required for saturation of
the products. The correction for this is small. Although it is theoretically cal-
culable, one usually employs prepared correction tables.
In this celorimeter the products are cooled nearly to room temperature.
Ordinarily, no correction for the residual heat in the dry or wet producte of
combustion is required.
The heating value of the fuel is found as follows: '

Qo : Q/t * corections (if any) (F13)

"
Where u, is the volume of fuel flow which produced Q Joul.r, corrccted to stan-
dard condition*
The lower heating value is obtained by deducting the latent heat of the
moisture in the products. For this purpose the water of condensation must' be
caught and measured.
5-8 Proximate Analysis. This analysis is made by heating the coal until
it decomposes successively into three of the four complex items of the proximate
analysis. Since the fourth is found by difrerence, the only feasible check on test
reeults is to analyze duplicate 6ampl$ and compare results. The laboratory
must be provided with a sample grinder, a good muffe furnace with temperature
control and indicating pyrometer, a thermostatically regulated drying oven,
crucibles, desiccatqr jar, and analytical balances. The following description is
founded on the standard ASTM procedure, modified for speed in routine check
work. Six clean sample crucibles are used, four of shallow and two of deep ehape.
Covers gre used in some ca6es. All of these items are to be empty-weighed to
.iilt least the nearest milligram.
Motsture. Tho samples are weighed and pQced in the shallow crucibles in
COMBUSTION I35
a 104.{oC oven for one hour, then removed to a desiccator for cooling and rt-
weighing. The desiccator is s closed vessel containing a dehumidifying sub-
stsnce which will keep the test samFles {rom absorbing moieture from the at-
Dosphere as they cool. Samples must be cool, otherwise rising thermal currents
would disturb the anallrtical balances.
To check efrectiveness of the diying the samples are reheated. for l0 min,
cooled, snd reweilhed. This is continued until constant weight is indicated lor
two consecutive heatings. The percent of moisture contained is the loss of weight
of the sample divided by the net weight of the original sample in the crucible.
V olatiJe Matter. Two samples are placed in deep crucibles with lids snd
weighed. These are inserted in a 9550C oven for exactly 7 min, then removed
and cooled. The loss of weight of the sample in this instance is due both to the
moisture and the volatile which were driven ofr. Moisture having been previ-
ously determined, volatile is found by difrerence.
z{s[. The remaining two samples are heated in a ?60" C oven for 2 hr,
then removed, cooled in a desiccator, and reweighed. The process ehould be
repetted, as with the moisture samples, until constant weight is obtained. The
percent ash content is the weight of the sample remaining divided by the net
original weight.
Finally, all other items having been analytically determined, the fixed car-
boh is considered to be the difrerence between 100/o and the sum of all the
percentsges evaluated for the other three constituents.
5-9 Ash and Refuse Analyses. The complete ultimate analysis of coal
ash is a major job in the chemistry of quantitative analysis, which would not
be expected of a power plant engineer. Indeed, it so seldom is needed that the
information is obtainable only on special order. Ash fusion temperature is,
hoxever, often needed. This test is made by preparin! small triangular pyra-
mids of ground ash mixed with binder, then heating a group of them slowly in
a fumace until a central specimen of the group softens and defonns in a menner
prescribed in the standard ASTM test. A special fumsce is necessary, since the
heating is to be carried out in a reilucing atmosphere.
Analysis of the refuse of a coal fire is needed after a heat balance test in
order to determine the combustlble content, iI any. No more laboratory equip-
ment is needed than for the proximate analysis. Samples of ground refuse aie
given the same processing as described heretofore lor moistu,re and osh in the
proximate analysis of coal. The combustible content of the refuse is generally
assumed to hs,ve been carbon, although this is probably not always exactly
true. The refuse analysis is used to determine the ,,dry refuse per tg coal
bumed." In the event that the refuse of a test is also weigiied, the two methods
Berve as a check on one another. Sometimes the refuse is wit down or sprinkled
with water before removal from the ash pit. Since the ash sample ii conse-
quently damp, it should be kept tightly sealed until deliverd to th; laborstofy.
5-10 Combustion, As was recorded in the beginning of this book, the
reader is assumed to have done preliminary reading in the fundamentals of
heat power. Consequently, the chemistry of oxidation, which we call combus-
tion, is nol repeated here, although the basic equations of combustion will be
found summgrized in Fig. A-4 of the Appendix.
Combustion, whlch was somewhat elaborately deffned in a prcvious section,
136 FUELS AND COMBUSTION
occurs when an atom of fuel and one or more atom8 of oxygen sre ioined through
the medium of their electrons. After combustion, these molecules possess the
same number of electrone as the combining elements had originally, but the
electronic configuration is difrerent--its enerry level ie lower. Thio energl
originally got away from the molecule as electromagnetic radiatiea, but quickly
changed into the high velocity activity of surrounding rnolecules on which it
impinges. It is then heat. Belorc the combination can rake place, the stoms of
fuel and oxygen must be well mixed together, and be in a highly agitated state
which, extemally, is the ignition tempetatme. This is a simplification of the
real nature of combustion. Further insight on this phenomenon is fumished by
Sec 9-3.
To obtain good, efrcicnt combustion of a fuel, the following are required:
1. Thorough mixing of fuel and air in proportions which will insure com'
plete combustion.
2. Exposure of fuel particles to oxygen throughout a period of tirne suf-
ficient for their combustion.
3. Combustion zone maintained above the ignition temperature of the fuel.
The atmospheric combustion of coal is of a more complex nature than for
fuel oil; therefore-this section will relate mainly to the combustion of coal.
The combustion of liquid fuel in the pressurized cylinders of engines i8 de-
scribed in Sec 6-3.
When a coal is subjected to combustion conditions,.it first abgorbs the heot
necesaary to cause volatilizstion of the hydrocarbons. This intludes both sen-
sible heat and lstent heat necessary to vaporize any moisturd in the coal. After
the distillation of the volatile hydrocarbons is complete, the remainder is coke,
a mixture of fixed carbon and ash. It is the hydrocarbons which must be most
carefully hendled to obtain freedom from smoke and incomplete combustion.
Hence a major function of any furnace and stoker, grate, or burner installation
is the propcr mixing of air with this distilled volatile matter, and holding it at
the ignition teripcrature sufficiently long to obtain complete combustion.
The fixed carbon burns in a somewhat complicated way, the nature ol
which may be expressed most sirnply by saying that the manner of csrbon
combustion is an incomplete oxidation to carbon monoxide, which itself is a
fuel. The carbon monoxide will then be reduced to carbon dioxide, provided
enough oxygen is mixed with it, and it remains hot enough to continue the com-
bustion. Duling combustion each small piece of incandescent carbon becomes
blanketed with either carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide, and unless this gas
blanket can be continuously scrubbed off so as to expose a fresh surface the
combustion will stop. Continuous combustion is accomplished in stokers and on
grates by moving the air past a stationary fuel bed at high velocity induced
6y draft pressure- In pulverized coal bumers, where the streams of fuel and air
aie moving into the furnace at something like the same velocity, this particle
cleaning action must be done by gaseous turbulence created by design of the
burner, jet impingements, etc.
When comtusiion of coal is complete, the gqseous products are CO2, N2, 02
from excess air, and SO2. Water vapor is also present, originating from three
sources: (1) moisture originally contained in the coal: (2) vapor produced [y
cgmbuction of hydrogen; (3) the water vapor of atmospheric humidity. Cases
 COMBUSTION 137
of incomplete combustion will, in addition, exhibit some CO, possibly olso
some hydrocarbon gases.
The quantity of vapor from items (f) and (2) is nine times the total hydro-
gen content, by weight, of the luel analysis. This moisture can absorb both
sensible and latent heat. The vapor from (3) carries sensible heat only, since it
is already vaporized in the atmosphere. To find the qusntity of atmospheric
moisture in a I lq of combustion air, one uses psychrometria readings and a
chart, or the following equation:
(2,"",0l,- -A0
kg vapor per Lg dry air (5-14)
nrs- + 1.84,
in rvhich h1,* : Latent heat of vapor at wet bulb temperature(f/g)
Al : Depression of wet bulb below dry bulb temperature 1'C)
w*t: 0.625p*r/(L03 - p"*) kg vapor required to saturate I kg
of dry air at wet bulb temperature.
p".r : Saturation pressure at rvet bulb temperature (kg/cmr)
The air required for combustion may be considered as being composed of two
psrts: that which is used t9 supply oxygen sufficient to unite with all the fuel
atoms; and that which is supplied in excess, so that there will be s certainty
tfiat an oxygen atom will be adjacent to a fuel atom when required. Since at-
mospheric air is only 2O.9/o oxygen by volume, the remaining. 79.7%* is inert
.and merely absorbs heat, causing a loss of thermal efrciency. A cubic mctre oI
oxygen burns to a cubio mctre of carbordioxide: hence the theoretical maximum
carbon dioxide in the products of combustion is 20.9, say 21ft, by volume. This
is ii the combustion is perfect, if there is no excess air, and if the fuel is pure
carbon. In sctual combustion the percent of carbon dioxide is considerably
lower; l4/o COz is considered to represent good practice.
Combustion calculations of the steam plant engineer are fairly elementary
since temperstures do not rise high enough to cause much chemical dissociation
to exist. Although it is possible, as many operators regretiully admit, to have
situations where incomplete combustion with smoke and carbon monoxide are
never completely eliminated, the power plant engineer's design computations
are generally predicated on the assumption that he will be able to achieve the
prcp€r technological conditions and obtain a fuel buming installstion that will,
produce complete combustion. His study will include estimates ol flue gas
quautities and volumes, temper4tures, densities, heating values, heat transfers,
etc. In studies of gas temperatures, reliable specific heBt data are, of course,
indispensable. Fig. 5-5 shows trhe mean specif.c heat at constant pressure for
the products commonly resulting from the combustion of commercial fuel. These
sre mean specific heats over the range from l5.6olQ to the abscisse temperature.
As a riubsequent example will show, this chart can be made to furnish the
proper dBts when the initisl temperature is higher than the datum of the chart.
Combustion calculations involve weights and volum$. Coal analyses, of
. Chieay dtrogen, but with amall, generslly negligible quatrtities of argou, carbou
dioride, aud other gases.
r88 FUEIA AND COMBLSTIOI.ri
cour8e, sre gravimetric.6o, also, are those of liquid fuels, but gas analyses are
customarily volumetric. The gaseous products of combustion are analyzable
by test, for which the portable Orsot oppcrotur is commonly used. Wherc s
gaseoue state is involved, either as a product of combustion, or in the fuel itself,
the cdculabions may be made eibhet on vdumebic or graimelic bases, or in
combination. Yolumetric calculations may be written in cubic co units; also
in nrols. Mols are especially useful in the case of gaseous fuels, for the equE-
tions of chemical reaction are also mol equations. On the other hand, gravi-
metric calculations may always be checked by the law of Consewation of
Mass, whereas there is no law of conservation of volume, and mol equations
may ta,ke this unarithmetical form: I mol ! Yz mol = I mol. Thie would never
happen in gravimetric calculations. Either of these forms of gas calcrrlations
will, if correctly handled, give the same result, and the individual cau feel at

.29
l2o

.2A
NITFOGEN AND CAFAON
MONOIIOE
ll

9.,,

8.rc
d /54

e. '27 2t00

.56 2350

2300
.ta
2750

,200-
i '23 .32
950 2150 -
5 .50 2r00
9.22 E
2050
i00 2
.40
2000
r.2l
1350
.46

.20 t5o0
60 5OO 750 1000 1650
-l FINAL TEI{PERA]UFE'DEG. C

Fro. 5-5 Mesn speci60 host of gases betwe€a r!.oo srd tiDal t€mperature,
ldrta iC (at couta.Dt Prcssure) '
'
COMBUSTION T3O

liberty to employ his pexonal preference. Actuqlly there is not much difrerence
in the two methods. Reviewing the basic facts of mols and mol volumes, we
have:

l. A mol r8:
weisht o!Egg!qq!!9Jql_
molecular weight of the substance
2. A mol volume is 23.693 litrtetetl5.6'C and l.03hg/cmr aD. Ttis is
independent ol the kind of gas.

3. At -T" R and p kg/cmr ab, the Bol volume i"0:9993 16",

p
Several standard equatione are put forth for use in combustion calculations,
and many others may be invented to euit the need by using two simple princi-
ples, namely:
1. Analysis of equations for dimensional homogeneity.
2. Principle of continuity of mass in steady flow.
As an example of equation invention, suppose aD equation were desired, in-
terpreting the results of an Orsat analySis of the products of combustion of a
certain coal, in terms of t\e air-luel ratio employed during combustion. Firet,
note that the Orsat is a volumetric annlysis and, therefore, likewise a molsl
analysis. Next, the idea of continuity of carbon mass is introduced by relying
on the equivalence ol all the carbon in the flue gas to the carbon actually bumed
ia the fumace. Also, with another continuity idea, that of equating the nitrogen
in the products to that coming from the airr (kaowing that the dimensional
unit of the A:F ratio is "air per kg coal") we can set up an equation involving
carbon end nitrogen continuity.

mols Nr . - Lg N, .. tgC
kg air _ *ol sr" ^ mol Na ^ L-g
Lg fuel mol C ., Lg C ,. I'8"*l
Nr
mol gas " molC " lgair
This equation will be found to be dimeneionally homogeneous. In it the
"gae" is the dry gaseous product of combustion and the lg C per kg coal is the
carbon actually bumed, which excludes any combustible in refuee or dust.
Some of the terms being constante, the equation can be Eimplified for work-
ing purposes:

: :
o,,
**61t1* B.o.aC'[co# co] tu-,ur

in wbich Nr, COr, CO : Orsat analysie.

C' : Carbon bumed per Lg fuel.

For a,n equation of weight of dry gas fomred per kg coal bumed, note that:
t f ,rr' - f0OO [!F..
. This ir true elough in the case of coal, slthough not for a fuel like by-product or hanu-
rsctured 8os, rrhich itlelI c6utrilr colridersble Ditrogptr.
140 FUEI-S AND COMBUSTION
tg gas Lgc
kg gas mol gas
x Lg coal
hg coal kgc .. nrctc
^ *t -gr"
rnot C
Lggas
Since : 44 CO2 + 28CO + 32O, + 28N,
mol gas
kg sas _ (.14 CO, + 28 CO + 32 O, + 28 NrC'
lg coal 12(CO, + CO)
This reduces to:

.tt **, : [11 Co, + 8 o, + 7(Co + N,lC' (s16I

kg coal 3(CO, + CO)
The symbols have the same meanings as for Eq 5-15.
The foregoing equation does not include SOz. When S in the coal is not
negligible, the SOz formed should be considered. In the Orsat equipment SO2
is ebsorbed in the COz chamber; hence the Orsat CO2 is really CO, + SO2.
When this is given the proper consideration,* Eq 5-16 becomes:
ll cO,+8O,+7(N,+ CO)/c,*!S\
,Lger. _
coal + CO) ' -/ *IS
' 8 (s_tz)
Lg 3(CO, \- 8
in which C' and S are decimal fractions.
5-11 Illustrative Examples in Combustion. The conditions existing in
a case of actual combustion, the air supplied, and other quantities are obtain-
able froin calculations starting with an ultimate analysis of the fuel and an
Orsat analysis of the products. One method is shown in the following illustra-
tive example.
Example 1i The various products of combustio!, the A:F ratio, and the excess
sir will be established, mainly from fluc gas ond fuel analyses. All computations will
be maintained on a rveight basis in the first solution.
Data: Coal, as-fired:. C,77 ; Hr, 5; 02, 6; S, 1; Ash, 11.
Refuse; Ash, 80; combustiblo, 20.
Orsat: CO2, 11.90; CO,0.36; Or, 7.13; Nr,80.61.

C' of Eq 5-15 is found by applying the principle of continuity to ash flow, assumiug
here no fly-ash.
Ash - 0.11 of the cosl = 0.80 of the refuse.

Refuse per kgcoal : ffi;

0.80
C in refure : ffi - o.rr : 0.0275 &g

C' - 0.77 - 0.0275 : 0.7425 kg

Next transfer the volumetric analysis of products to a gravimetric basis by Avogadro's
Low.
.P. M. Ro8s, "Efrect ol Sulphur o!. trlue Gas An&lysi6," Thc Engineer, July 14, 1944.
ILLUSTRATIYE EXAMPLES IN COMBUSTION 141

Item CO, co o, N, Totel

1, Ors&t (volumetric) 11.90 0.36 7.13 80.61 100.00

2, Molecula,r weights u a 82 a
3. Product, (1) X (2) 58 10.1 2Xl 2257 30r8
4. Gravimetric analvsis, .7471 1.000
ffi .17

.x.67'
40 0033 .0756

5. Divisor lor C content

6. C in products 0.0.174 0.0014 0.0488
7. Products of combustion
15.24t X (4) 2.65 0.05 1.15 11.39 15.24

* See Fig. A-4, Appeodix.

t See followiog calculstioD.

: *f,;H" r :
EHffia - x
0.2425 15.,,
#"**", 0o488a
Ifence dry ga-c produced per tgcoal bume<t = 15.2416*
Air supplied per lb coa.l burned : 11.39t/.768 - 14.85 t8.
Tteoreticsl air needed per Lgcool : 11.5 X .77 + 34.5 (0.05 - H) * n., >< o.o,
: 10.32 tr8. (11.5, 34.5, and 4.3 ere coDstants frcm fig. A4.)
Excess &ii. : 14.88 _ 10.32 : 4.EB &g (43.8/a excess).
Alternate solutiok: Were the oir suppked alld dry gas prod,wed, items of the fore-
going calculations our only objective, a shorter, quicker solution is possible.

F.om Eq 5-15, A:F : 3.03 x o.z% (*$) : 14.85rs.

Dry gas per kgcool : + 1 - wet gas - $O: - refure

14.85
=15.85-9X0.05-2X0.01 - (0.11 + 0.0275)
- 16.24 Lg

Examplc 2: Exact aud approximate calculations oI the heat absorbed aud caried
ofr by the products oI combustion found in Ex 1 will be made. Assume
laCC preheated
sir t€mpera,ture and |cdo discharge temperature. Atmosphe c humidity is defined
by psychrometer dry and wet bulb temperatures of u.0 and 10rc
Apprwimale method. TLe water vafor content of the &tmosphere is small enougk
to be neglected in apprbximate calculations.
In Ex 1 it is seen that there are 15.24 Ig dry gas per Lg coal. The ASME Code
permits a composite cp of tooS J pcr k8 .pcr dlg C to be used.
The water vapor from combustion is 9 x 0.05 = ,4519.
Average c, for weter vapor is taken as t00t Jpo! h8 Fr d6f O.
Seneible heat above laFc io produck:

Q.= (1524 xr(m + 0.45 x tr}r.) (!00 - r40) = ao06 LJDdrs cosl
+Eere 8o' is neglected.
t If fuel contaiE appreciable Nr, gubtract st this poirt.
ta I'UEI"S AND COMBUSTION
Lstent heat prcseBt i! products:
Q6=0.45 X [rs, t per Ls co&l

The specific value of /1, to enploy is u4cett&in. If conditions warrant, a value crn
be calculated by thermodyuamic methods, employing Daltor's Law. Usually some value
betweetr [rg etl6.eq0 and at 100' O is assumed. The ASME boiler t€st code uses i4 at
!6,6rc .

Errut method.. All sulfur is assumed to be in SO2, with a ca of 0.2 (exact vslue not
importart); atmospheric moisiure being calculated from Eq 5-14 or prcked lrom
peychrometric ehart, I'ig A-12, Appendix.

{r..r : X 0,01,f(1,0t-0.01) = 0.00766 B

0.625
Y t-ttar-6-6
- = '- 0006.0--s.sr6;(r3;3o- : 0'0054 Is
_ E9Or00f-1oaM
'"
The manner of use of Fig. L5 for average c, when initial temperatue exce€dF t!.0q0
is os follows. Subecript^s a and 0 refer to initial and 6aal st&tes.

Meeu co : - cE(tr - rco,)

cDb(tb - 16'0)
lr-L
For the caee oI nitrogen, with ( = l{!F(l lu : l.AO

Mean c, :
r !72(809
- r6.0) -r.00(lr0 --r!.6 ) - r,08 tJ.p.I lg por dos O
800-l{0
In a eimilar fashion the mean cr's for the other gases ore deiermined and entered in
the following tabular calculations.

Item co, CO Or N, H,O SOr Totot

Weight 2.65 0.05 1.15 11.39 (0.45 + 0.005) o.u2

Meau 6 0.252 0.258 0.238 0.258 0.472 o.2
toX6p 0.668 0.013 o.274 2,940 0.215 0.004 4.|.4

SeEeible hesl, &bove laepc in produch:

Qs = l?.!l(a8p-r!$):4903 LJ F Lg ooel
Latent heat sa,me as in approximate solution.

Cases eometimes arise where the engineer need8 an estimste of the products
of combustion and their composite physical characteristics at Bome defilite
temperature. 'fhe next two illustrstive examples will thow how these charscter-
ietics may be computed for solid and for gaseous fuels.
Exampte 3: The as-frred ultimate .analysis oI a certain coal that ruilt be burned
with sn estimated 50% excess air is givel as follows:
C, 0.&t11 ; Er, 0.0499; 02, 0.0630; Nz, 0.0104; S, 0.0055; Ash, 0.0232

The probable results of combustion wi[[ be calculated, assuming complete combus-

tion snd t86rc ftral temperstute. Combustion coDstants &re used from Appendix,
Fig. A-4.
ILLUSTRATTVE EXAMPLES IN COMBUSTION 143

Theoretical combuetiou sir - 6., X 0.8411 + 16.0 ** - Y)

0
* t0 X 0.0055 = 6.(x Ls
Caaeour pmducte of combustion are CO1, EO, Nr, (r, SOr.
/ CO^ = r-, x 0.8411 l.4l kg
I{O :a.rx 0.0409 0,20 lrg
Nr : 6.0 X llfi%o X 0.768 * 0.016 = 6.t4 Lg
Oz: 6.0 X b07ax0.232 0.60 kC
SOr = 0.0 X 0.0055 0.0r k8
t'07 rg btal
of products :* *H *# *H * :o.:xt xror.otsperrgc,oa,
H
At
1.03 LgloEr aud SS6.C the molal volure is lg.8E litr.!
Volume and detusitA. The products of one tg of the coal will have a volume of
0J72 x lO x a0.88 - r8t3? litro6. The deusity wi.tl be 8.0713.t87 -0.688 Lg/me
Dry gaa anoly6t. The diy gas wiil consiit of 0.07b3 mol COr, 0.0403 mol O2, and
0.458 mol Nr, a total oI 0.5686 mol. By dividing individual mols by the total, a volu-
metric analysis is produced. (Probable Orcat aualysis.)

COz, l2.4Vo; Oz, 7.tTo; Nz,8O.57a

Example ,l: The products of combustion of the Pittsburgh aatural gas, Table
5-4, wheu it is completely burned with 50Vo excess air are Dext caleulated; slso s,
prediction of the flue gas analysis; and the flue gas density at 204arc. Neglect moisture
rn alr.
The mol equations are:
0.721s cH{ +2 x 0.7218O,: 0.7218 CO, + 2 x 0.7218 H,O
0.0300 C,IIr + 3 X 0.0300 Oz =2X 0.0300 CO, + 2 X 0.0300 HO
0.0100 CO ** X 0.0100Or= 0.0100CO, + 0HlO
H, +* X 0.2000Or-
0.2000 0COr* .2000 HO

0.9618 mol gas f 1.639 mol Oz = 0.792 mol COr * 1.704 mol HO
The Or rcquired frcr4 the eir : 1.639 - 0.008 = 1.631 mol.
Since the compositiof of air is 0.791 mol N, to 0.mg mol Oz, esch mol Oz supplied
701
brings with it : 3.78 mole N, \{e may now write the products of combustion of
ffi
one mol of the natural.gas.
The wet gae is composed of 1.704 mols EO plus the dry gae.
The dry gas is composed of:
COr:0.792* 0.008 : 0.80 mol
Nz: 3.78 :
X 1.631 6.16 mol from theoretical air
Nr: i X 6.16 : 3.08 mol from excess air
Or: * X 1.631 : 0.82 mol lrom excess air
Total iT mol dry gss
The dry flue gas analysis is obtained by dividing each of the above by 10.86. Then flue
gas ar*lyais is: -
QOq 7 .4Vo; Ot,7 .57o; Nz, 85.L7o
I4 FUEI-S AND COMBUBTION
At ml{no tho molsl voluEe has becoloe !le.U lit ..radtotal volume of dry flue gaa por
mol gas burned - rOD x i.ta - at6 Uho..
The weight of wet flue gas per 10.86 mols of dry gaa ie:
CO: 0.80 X 44 - 35.2 l4
Or: 0.82 X 32 : .2
N,r 9.24 X 2l! : 8;t
EO: r.704 X 18 = 30.7
Total 350.8 gd
In thie case, the volume of ihe itlt ga.of ateam is obtained by converting the weight
to nols snd EultiplyiDg by the motal vol\me ettoa.ago, i.e., by r0.ra I .
Volume of the fluo gar = ,- * %Z
X !e.l{-4el
Deurity oI the flue gas ot 8.$C srd lrr lSloni - tr = o.tD grrl
In both this and the previous illustrative examples, no sttempt is made to
apply Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures to the gas-water vapor mixture. In
mo€t combustion problems the vapor in the products is so highly superheated
that it can be treated like a gas.
5-12 Approximations and Short-cuts. There will be times when the more
exact combu8tion calculations can be dispensed with in favor of less accuratc
but more rapid methods of approximation. Sometimes this arises in connection
with quick check-ups st the plant, with roughing out preliminary work, or
simply because the conditions do not warrant more precise calculations. Some
of these short-cuts will now be mentioned.
It has been found that the air theoretically required for combustion of or-
dilary coals is approximately I t1t for eecb ,t6 kibo.lolia of higher heating
value. The composibe molecular weight of the products of combustion of coal
fires is alwaye about 30. Thie is useful in quick estimates of volume of flue
gaa, etc.
If combustion is complete, the percent of excess sir can be determined fmm
the carbon dioxide content of the flue gas end the fuel ratio of the coal, C:E.

Excess air : R
,. - B-+ 2'37 (Fr8)
-, -29r!
co,(E +3) R+3
in which COr : percent by volume in the dry flue gas.
.& : fuel ratio C'/H. Anthracite 5G25; Semi-anthracite 25-N;
Semi-bituminous 20-16; Bituminous 16-12; Lignite 12-9.
Eramplc 1: By means of approximations, egtimste perceDt of excess air iudicated
when the Alabame bituminous coal given in Table 5-4 is burtred to a 12/6 CO2 aoalysts
by volume. The refuse cotrtaiDs 15% combustible.
In Eq 5J8, E, the fuel ratio, is C7H, wherein C ir the weight of carbon actually
bumed, and E is the weight of hydrogen that'is bumed by oxygen lrom the cir.7t
eome of the orygen ia the fuel is ueeded to burn the eulfur, a correction is readily
applied as follows:
(totsl ox]E€o - eulfur)
H - Totel hydrtren - 8
SMOXE t&
Ibercforc,
c' = o.7a4a- (|1, o.',ou)': o.ro,
II:0.048 :0.0398; wheucei - 18.2

m.9 x 18.2 +
la.z 2.97 _
: oo.o-to
zo tnl
Exc€aa a,rr = rr(l&, + 3) -EiT{
5-13 Smoke. The dischargie of smoke to the atmosphere is,an unnecessaqz
evil. The efrects oI smoke may be considered under three hesdings, viz.: (1)
efrect on health; (2) finaucisl losa due to incomplete combustion, deleterious
efrect on plaat growth, and begriming of buildings; and (3) effeot on standard
of living.
The smoke nuisance is bt its worst, of course, in metropolitan districts. The
smoke is produced from both industrial and domestic ffres. Smoke abatement
worken have found it much eaeier to render the former class smokeless thotr
the latter. For instance, through building permit control, through smoke in-
spectorr, and through technical cooperation with induetrial plant owners, it
ha8 been found that industrial smoke can be controlled. Often this has neent
major changes in boiler settings or in coal-buming equipment. Qut it can usu-
ally be shown that bad smokers are wasting enough monqv by thbir incomplete
combustion to pay for the smokeless equipment. Domestic smoke is mtch harder
to control, owing to the larger number of individual installatione and to the
layman's ignorance of combustion theory rudiments. Publicity campaigne and
individual cooperation and inspection, and the enlistment of lsrge numbert of
citizens in smoke abatement leagues, have been used to solve this phase of the
problem.
There has been no definite coordination discovered between dieeases of the
respiratory tract and smoke density; however, common sense would indicate
that a smoky atmosphere was bound to be less healthful than smoke-free air.
It is, however, a well-known fact that smoke has a deadly efect on vegetation,
principally because of the sulfur products it carries. Smoke corrodes metals,
darkens paints, and in many other ways creates a tremendous economic loss
besides that due to loss. of heating vglue of fue1. Those who have lived in smoky
cities know that a lower standard of cleanliness is prevalent. Neither building
interiors nor exteriors, clothing, hangings, furniture, etc., can be kept clean.
One of the oldest methods of classilying the density of smoke mitted by a
chimney involves use of a color comparison chart.
The Ringelman Chart is composed of four sets of gratiugs, black on white.
'When
these are placed aboutt6.24ofrom the observer the gratings merge to s
solid color ranging from light gray to a dense blsck. The chart enables a emoke
inspector to rate the smoke emitted from a chimney on an arbitrary numerical
scale. Smoke ordinances are often based on the Ringelman rating. A typieal
smokE and dust ordinance will contain:

0.2{e ar iu Ex l, sec 5-ll.

'Alternately C, = orll!- - (W - 0.llo5) =
1116 FT'ELS AND COMBUSTION
1. A pruhibition agaitrst emitting 8 moke the ebade or appeareuce of which ia equal
to or darker tha[ No, 2 Riugelman except
a. Equal to No. 2 uay be perEitted for periods aggregating 4 mia in any 30
min, s[d
b. Equrl to No. 3 msy be permitted for periods sggregsting 3 min in any l5 roin
wheu buildiug new fre, having maintenauce difrculties, etc., not reasonably
preveutable.
2. A prohibition &ga.iDst eEitiiug dust in gases to exceed 0.85 lg per 1000 L| g8ses,
sdiusted to boy'6 excew zir, except that dugt collestor efrciencies of greriter than
85% will uot be required.

Furnaces buming coal in suspension (pulverized coal bumers and spreader

gtokers) will always throw out duEt in the forrn of fly-ash, snd collectors will
have to be inetolled in the breeching.if there are any dust emission regulations
to meet. However, no reasonably priced equipment can take smoke out of the
products of combustion. The proper way is to burn the iuel in the furnece
completely.

PROBLEMS
1. (a) Sir hundrcd twcnry thrcc cubic mctrcr ol a fuel gas arc prsaed througb
s De .t€t rt O.t6 L&l@t gr,g.a'O ; B8l@etet, 78 eE,Bg.I.inil the comnercial rolec mlumo
of this gcs.(b) Tatrk cotrtai[r tt4Etof fuel oil st! l.?qc.g.G. = 0.945. Find the volun€
r,nd weiSht of this qurrtity of oil measurcd etu.lFrlo.G
2. (a) At a natural ges metering st&tion tbe tempereture is ste&dy &t 2a0eC durirg
a period in Ehichl!8r {d 8re r€gistered. Prcs$'rs in mcter sverrger 0.s{ lg,carg..
Borometerr r[oE Eg. tr'ind the commercial sales volume of this gas. (b) IIow much
volume ( mr) will ,786 utcr. fuel oil of 18" 86 8t u.e'4!.6r oocupy wben heated to
?
3. During s gss calorimeter test there was a ?.03'
',8rc O rise of water temperature.
While 0r,?r! litr.. gas registered on the meter, 0.78 k8 rvater were collected.. Meter
prcssure,20s brDHg; tflttper8ture,9.8o. Fiud Qr, correckid to 782 mm strd 16.0rc'
,l' Given this proximete slalysis dais sheet, gst the complete proximate anolysis,
air-dried basie, to nesrest 0.1%.

Arn-onrro S,rupr,r

Iloisture and
Test Moisturc Volatile Ash

Crucible weight, g 16.025t7.t76 15.821

Cruciblr Initial 17.116 18.155 16.862

+
coal Fiual 17.094 L7.842 15.936

5. The lollowing are the results of a proximate aDalysis test run on air-dried coal.
All veights in grams. Calculate the proximate aoslysis of dry coal and of as-6red coal.
 PROBLEMS ta7
Emrtr Ctrlciblo orul wI
IL,/t cnod0l, Inrltbt F;aot
Moi.tuc tat 13.m1 14.680 14.010
Mofutue aod volatils tat $.276 88.6G' n.62l
Alh tet I1.265 rr.8m 11.878
(aaired aobtur,c tad) M.4n 15.0,I} 16.906
G Tctbg r oert in W6t Virginir Pocshoot!, coal by bonb calorimeter yielded
thc tBult!. A?, 8.49' C. F\el eample, 1.0595 g. Fure sira oorruE€d, 0.0073 g. Wst6r
cbergod, f856.6E g. Wltcr equinlent of bonb, 470 g. Test cosl bad 0.90y'e moirturr.
Clhulst Qr for dry col. (Q of fuae wire, 1000 Cel per g,)
7. A cylindrioal oil tlDk t andi.mtrrxi alog ie filled to tbe neck with fuel oil
wbicb is cbeck€d rt 2l' 86 rt tt' O. Estim8t the lfto iroh heoting vdue storcd ia
tLi! te*.
& Fxel oil of l0' 86 is stor€di! I t{nk to aupply a boiler whce rated.max. stra,D-
irg trt€ is tloa tl per hr 8t 150 psig. Feedwater, I.t O. Av€rirg€ thermal effioiencS
707o. Conaider thst plstlt'E csp8oity fsctor is 45% ond tbat, l)d months' supply is
carried. Mrke stly Decessary assumptions and caloulrtB the numbor ofl.t ro dlr,xl,O u
long cylindrical tanLs aeeded to hold this qulntity.
9. A horirontd clindricel fuel oil ltomsatrr}|.aadL.xt rolm8ir gsuged 8t sott0
Dtild.Dth.A ddivcryof oil bErdawhioh rsrses ib hv€l ttrt|LtErurDGllursd after tb€
t lttpersture of the. coDteotE hrd stt,Ei!€d grouDd t€rnpemtur€, i.e., ?roc. Thig oil ig
puttbsEed for li}Sl
to thc Desrcst dollsr?
!g bbl.tlt t rq'? The delivery is billed 8t Ei18050. IE this correct r
10. n€duce tho snslysig of a cpal desieDst€d frm Teble 6-{ to (e) moisture-fr€e
besiE (b) moistule- ond ash-free basie.
ll. Check the ultim&te sDalysis and heating value of c oool deeignated from Tabte
!-{ by qpplyng conversion fotmulae from Table 5-5. Also estineti tho air required
for combustion st exc6.
$Oy'o
12. Given a co8l sith pruxinste oulysis as follows, 6nd beating volue gnd Lf eir
-per la cosl st 60% excers. Moirtue, 4.4?; volutile, n.tui fxed cerbour
-Mflr"dasb,
&j.72; 19.O7.
t3. Prrdict the 0ue gss.n"lysis to be obtained when s cool of tho following prui- .

maie analysis is oompletely bumed with 857o excess air.

Moisturc, 1.75; volstile, 2110; 6qed carbon, 69.f3; asb, 7.4.
- l{. The1.75;
. Moisture,
as-6red proximatc analysia is takrn of s cool of lt'ost Yirgiuia origin-
volatile,21.70; 6xed carbon,69.13; aeh,7.--t2. When bumd with shst
iB presuDed to be sufrcieDt 8ir for complet€ combustio!, the CO2i/{J6lAqo by volume.
lVhat percent excess air ie indicsted?
15. Apply ihe d,Bte of Table 5-3 to a coal deeignated from Table 5-4 a,Dd fx ils
rank thereby.
- 16. Predict the Orsat analysia resulting frcm the combustion of a coat designated
from Table 5-4, ttrith 50% excess sir. l0y'e combustible in the rrfuse.
17. A coat is analyzed in a plant laborstory aad found to have Q1
= 14.806 LJ;
C,58.93; VM, 31.81; 8sh,9.26. All on a dry basis. Iind thd rank of thls co&I. Estimato
the A-tr' ratio used when 8 CO2 met€r Ehows 12y'6. Use approximate methods.
18. A Kansas coal, reported on the combustible basis, has 5.7% 5,79.6y'6 Q. Av
fired, the moisture is |ly'o, esh l4%. Oreat of combustion gases is: QO2, l2.ti O2,.7.1;
CO,0.8; N2,80; carbon ia refuse, 10le. Find dry gas per Lgcoal bumea (a) neglectin!
SO2 and (b) including 3O2.
19; From the analysis of o coal sample t&ken during a test it is estimated thst tbe
a8-6red total carbou was 76.5y'o zr.d lree hydrcgetr was 4-ZEo. From othel t€st8 q
0.7263, Orsat: CO2, 10.53; o.2,3.74; CO,O.49; N2,85.24. Find A:F rario.
=
lla FUELS AND COMBUSTION
An Boiler plent test dsts, in part;
hoximate analysis as fired: tr'C, 6O.65; VM,33.45; Moist.,0.83; ash,5.07. Combusti-
ble in dry refwe, 29.8y'o- Or&ti CO2, 11.3; o.2,6.75; CO,O2.Find the air-fuel ratio and
the percent €xcess air.
21. Further adalysis of the co&l mentioned il Prob. 20 reveals a sulfur content of
3.2%. Fitrd theLAdry gas produoed per kgcoal during this test.
22. Usitrg the test data mentioned iu Prob,2O, change proximate to ultimate analysis
and calculatc the weights of the individual products tormed by the combustion of a
lg of coal.
23. A coal designated from Table 5-4 is burned with 60/p excess air. Atm. humidity,
6 I per tsg. No ircompleto combustion. Combustiotr air at 178,7.c. Flue gas at
a,u qc. (&) Estimate sensible heat loss by approx. me,thod; (b) colculate sensible heat
Ioes by exact method.
24. Eumid air which eaters & combustion cha,mber at 9r9'c is transfomled into
products of combustion at i 88" G kychrometer readilg8 alt t12'c rnd@ ,PO goy mauy
kJ are. carried ofr per rg coal burned by the superheeting of this moisturc? A:F =
15.5.
25, A coal as designated from Table 5-4 is burned iu a pulverized coal fumace
with 20/e excess air. Preheated air temperature, ll8.oPc; furDace outlet temperatule,
l0l(). C No incomplet€ combustiou. Calculate the L, absorbed bry the gases leevilg
the firuaoe, per kgcoal.
26. Catculste the volume ( tol ) of the products oI combustion ol a coal designated
from ?able 5-4 if &t 16o'c aft€r complete combustion with 100/p excess air.
2f. 'What is the volume ( E ) at lm.7f of the products of combustion of a cubic
en'. of fuel gss -8t I .1I1 kglo,lt ru , roOp, whose volumctric analysis ir C286, 14.5 ; QE.,
60,1;COr,26.f : N!, 1.3. 50% oxcesE sir.
28. A coal of following composition is bumed to ar Or6at gas ana[ysis of 9/6 CO2.
Reflse analysis, 15y'p combustible. Flue gas atg8r.l"c. Find the density of this flue gas.
C,76.82; H2,4.96; Or,6.38; Nr, 1.46; S, 1.39; ash,6.26; moisture,2.73.
29. Wlite mol equations of combustion oI a gas desigDated from Table 5-4, when
bumed with 25/6 excess air. Then calculate the specific l'olume of the productr, ol
pert& at 204' C.
30, To what temperature, above an ioitiall6.6'o, would the produck ol combustion
of the California fuel oil, Table 5-4, be raised in a fumace wherc 45/6 of the sensible
heat developed is imntediately atrsorbed radiantly. 45/6 excess air, complete combus-
tion. Specific heot from Fig. 5-5.
 CHAPTER 6

NNTER.NA]L COMBUSTNON
ENGN}W POWER. PI-ANT

6-l Internal Combustion Brgines. Power can be generated by heat en-

gines wherein the products of combustion form the working fluid of the thermal
cycle. The influence ol these internnl cornbustion engines on life in a technically
advanced country such ss the United States is profound. They are largely re-
sponsible for the suceess of the self-propelled vehicle and have their major ap-
plication iu that field. Small I.C. engines power mobile equipment and stationary
units where electrical service is not convenient. Although, increasingly, station-
ary power needs ore being met by electrical motors, an important exception is
where the mechanical power is employed to drive generetors originating the
supply oI electrical power. It ie to this use of the I.C. engine that the present
chapter is addressed. This application has the following variations:
l. Portable generating units which may be Eoved from site to site s'here
electrical power is required ternporarily.
2. Standby units, normally idle, which can be activatcd when there is e
failure of central station power where an interruption would mean financial loss
or danger. (Tunnel lighting, operating rooms, key industrial processes, etc.)
3. Engine-generator units instslled in power plants where they are the
normal primary source of electrical power generated for publtc, industrial, or
institutional consumption.
Internal combustion engines are built around s variety of thermodynamic
cycles. One type msy vary from another in characteristics such as flexibility,
fuel used, ease of starting, weight, cost, etc., but all have many features in com-
mon such as:
1. Use of the picton and cylinder to creat€ a variable volume chamber in
which to work out the cycle.
2. Gaseous working medium.
3. Open thermal cycles, meaning a flow of air as well as fupl into the engine
and a discharge of gaseous products of combustion from it.
4. TVo- or four-stroke mechanical cycles.
5. Cyclic rather than uniform power output, necessitating multiple cylinders
and./or healy flywheels for steady delivery.
The principles and comparative features of the nine commercial varietions
l4s
 I5O INT,ERNAI, COMBUSTION I]NGINE PO\I'ER PI,ANT
used uowad&ys &rc summarized in tr'ig,6-1. Engines using gaseous fuels arc lcss
frequcntly scen than the liquid fuel typcs, as liquirls are morc rcadily trans-
ported. The two most-used liquid Iuel engines are thc gasolinc cnginc anrl thc
Dicscl cngine. Since the Diesel is the more important to the ficld of clcctric
gencration, this ch&pter is mainly devoted to it. Howevcr, whcn local conditions
ju-etify, enginecrs arc not hesitant to employ the othcr typcs, for all arc suc-
ccssful commercial dcvclopmcnts. For example, an aluminrrm prorluccr, to
l'lrorn elcctricitf is a principal manufacturing expcnso, locatr.rl ir flrctorv in a

ffiffi;>
tHEN-;-N'D-fitrEi?\
CAREURT'TOR MIXINC VALVT L-P INJECTION
HIGI.J. PRISSURE
INJECTION

OUTSIOE CYLINDER.EEFORE COMPRESSJON INSID€ CYIINDER,EARLY IN COMPRE5S]ON

FI,,EL AND AlR MIX

I
DIAGRAM
OF ENGINE
OPERATION

coMfrlss,oN \ LOW LOW

,ONIT'J] SPARK SPARK

'/ETHOD\
ll{rr<ror| c^a .rcrxr
,.&,-."-;..,"., r xr. 'rryni&rrta+

OUTLINE OF
ENG INE'5 /.irr nr4r ,t^-!d-
CYCLE OF .^d ot --'B!rF nd.
EVENIS

I.rc. 6-1 Principles of courntercral I.C. engines. (Courtesv Poter.)

gas field territory and built a power supply plant in which wcre installed mor<r
than a hundrcd 1150-kw engine-generator units driven by 2-cycle, outside-mix-
ing gas engines.
As cmployed iu stationary power plants, engines are direct-connected to
generators oI rclatively low speed. The speeds employed (200-1000 rpm) neces-
sitate a large-diameter, salient-pole generator of rather short axial length. The
hr:lvy, rugged slow-speed construction is productive of high reliability and, al-
tl'rorrgh costiy, can be justified in central station practice.
In a patent dated 1892, Dr. Rudolf Diesel, a German engincer, described an
engine to operate on the Camot cycle. CoBI dust wes the fuel, and it was to be
fed slowly enough so that isothermal expansion would result. After luel cutofr,
an adiabatic cxpansion s'ould continuc, followed by a compression made ito-
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 161

thermal by the injection of water into the cylinder. An sdiabatic compression

then brought the cycle back to its beginning. A further clsim of the patent cov-
ered the use of liquid fuels and the spray valve. Early attempts to build ihis
engine* resulted in the adoption of a modified cycle which, alter much experi-
mentation, was built into a successful working engine. Since then the Diesel has
slowly but surely established itself as a practical prime mover oI high efficiency
which can use a comparatively cheap fuel.
Engine installations may be divided into rn obi.le and stationary. The class

HIGH - PRESSURE INJECTION INDUCTION

INSIDE CYLINDER, AT ENO OF COMNESSION OUTSIOE , BEFORE

o
r0w H16H

SPARK I
HOT SURFACE COMPRESSION COMPRESSION PLUS PILOT OIL

[D'*[(B'lh-

Frrn b .&r-ar.*
ELO' hs &
'e

,. ..dw,b! n .rr.dr., '.rnh.drt..rF*. . i... tid .r n.or., lle

!. ,n, lbn tnr*! r. ,.b a.o rrtk*

of stationary services with which we are here concerned used to be the principal
outlct of Diesel enginc manufacturing, but acceptance of this prime mover in
the railrvay, truck, and motor bus fields now accounts for a large share of the
output of cngine builders.
The Diesel is an excellcnt prime mover for electrical generation in capaciiies
of from l0l hp to 5070 hp. As such, it is widely used by private industry, hotels,
utility companies, and municipalities.
The advantages of the Diesel enginc are:
1. Low fuel co;t.
2. No long warrriing-up period.
3. No stanrlby losses.
. Drdiculties ia isothermal cortrol, in addition to bulkiness of o Camot eagine caused
by its small meatr effective pressure (thin cycle).
16' INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT
4. Uniformly high efficiency of sll sizes.
5. Simple plant layout.
6. Needs no large water supply.
The Diesel can extract more work out of each heat unit than other engines.
For that reason it becomes an attractive prime mover wherever first cost ir
written ofr slowly enough so that operating costs are influential. Central sts-
tion service is of that type. On the other hand, the Diesel is not the answer to
oll power supply problems. Unlike the steam turbine, an increase of capacity
increases the plant floor area and cost nearly in the samc proportion. This fixes

F]
louct
Frc. 6-2 Elcments of the stationary Diesel engine. It can be seen that engine parts
brcak down into scvcral gtoups: (1) structural palts-bedplate, framc, liners' heads,
(2) mnjor moving pnrts-piston, connecting rods, crankshaft, and their respectiye
bearings, (3) nrr,rngemcnts for gettidg air io and exhaust out-volves, valve mechanism,
manifolds, scrvenging and supcrcharging systems, and (4) fucl-iniection system-
pumps, nozzlcs, control dcvi"es.
DIESEL ENGINE POWER 153
an economic limit to the size of Diesel centrsl stations. Also, the steam plant is
not necessarily inefrcient compared to the Diesel. Large steanr central statione
have net therrnal efficieneiee nearly as high as that of the Diesel. Another objec-
tion to the Diesel is the exhaust noise. Proper exhaust silencers can minimize
this fault.
Where fuel prices or reliability of supply favor oil over coal, where water
supply is limited, where loads are relatively small, and where electric line
service is unavailable, or is available at too high rates, there one will irequently
find informed engineers recommending Diesel engine power.
6-2 Diesel Engine Power. The ideal thermal cycle of the Diesel cngine
is illustrated in Fig. 6-3. Beginning with the working medium at state 1, it is
first polytropically compressed to state 2, then heat is added during a limited
isobaric expansion, alter which a polytropic expansion to the initial volume
reduces the pressure to state 4. The ideal work produced by the cycle is repre-
Bented by its area, and the mean efrective pressure is its average height.
Polytropic proceeses l-2 and 3-4 in the ideal cycle are isentropics with air
as the fluid. Thus, for the air standard purfonnance, n : t : L.4
The ideal air standard efficiency,*

,t,:t-#=.tH] (6-1)

Idesl mean efrective pressure,*

R-1 R1 -l
P^r: Pr'l (r-1)(y-1) (6-2)

Thesc equations show that high efrciency is promoted by high r and low .E,
but that engine size (which may be considered proportional to p.1) is increased
as .E decreases.'fhe requirement of adequate fuel combustion imposes a limi-

3o o
25 PISTON oISPIACEMENT
= q-v.
rucrrotr* crernnrce = "
.20 co.paEss.ri =
i. t= )i-,t
"olo
dE cuToFF RAro =
-(:R)
tt -nn stlttolSo"_cycLe,
{rs n = 3-

POI.YIROPIC EIPANSIoN pT=c

gro POLYTROPtc COTiPAESSION p

0 .01
o2
ri)
VOLUME-CU M

t-tc.6-3 Ideal Diesel cycle

* Symbols a! deecribed iu Fig. &3.
154 INTERNAL COMBLTSTION ENGiNE POWER PLANT
tation on maximum R that can be used. Since Diesels are load-governed by
varying point of cutoff, the ideal efficiency increases at part load. This partially
ofisets other tendencies, and a fairly flat efrciency-load characteristic results.
Real engines have cylinder cooling for mechanical reasons; also they work
on an open cycle, meaning that the fluid at state 1 is not the same as that which
completed the previous cycle. The products of combustion of each working
cycle are discharged as exhaust gas, and fresh air is inducted for use in the fol-
lowing cycle. Instead of heat being transferred between states 2 and 3, fuel is
injected into the air and its heat of combustion provides the energy input. The
real engine will have nonisentropic compression and expansion processeE; rL =
1.35 is a fair average in practice. Although Eq 6-1 has.its uses in Diesel engine
studies, the actual th,:rrns.! efficiencies are considerably less than those of the
eir standard.

Examplc 1: An air standard Diesel c1'cle rvill be analyzed for state of the workrng
fluid and performance.Using the nomenclature of Figl &,3, st&te 1 iE at 0.9 kgicirrab and
fi'c. The volume quantity i6 that ol a single-cylinder engine with 25 oEbore and
:tg om stroke. It will be assumed that, after a compression sufficient to produce 618o10 ,
heat is added during the first l0% of the liorking stroke- Equations of polytropic
processes in Appendix I'ig. A-17 are used where necessary without further refet€[ce.

_-L
Ratio of compression, r : otfoz: (T2/T)1-r : (8Ili3ool/.4 = 12.0
p,/pr - Q,/0")1 = lzt 1 = 32.4' p, = 2e.2 ks/cmg sb
The pisto! displacement (ur - ,r) : r2 5tx38/10 :0.01865 mr
Clearance volume, o, = Qtt - or\/(r - 1) : 0.01861t/ll 0- 0.00107 m8
:
ur 0,01885+0,00107:0.02082 mg
u: * lOToQr - t)r) : 0.00167+0'00187-0.00354 m8
oz

:
h/Tz os/Dz - 0.0035410.00167:2. Di f . = firg'I(
p1/p, : (u/oa\1 = (0.00354/0.02032)r..- 0.0869; p. F r.e{ kg/ard.b
Ta/Ts: Q's/uil-r : (0.003i 0.02032).4: o 498; ?. : 856oK'
1i

Principal physical states of tlre cycle are summarized:

State 1 I 4
'29.2
Pressure, kg/cml sb 0.l, 29.2 2,54
Volume, rnt n.U2rtt2 t),001o? o.(D35.r 0.02032
Temperature, "K 300 IJII l?l1r 856
Tempemturc, "C 538 1441t 583

tr. ron Eq &2,

T t.{xl2.oqr.t2_t}-:(2.t2r. -l :s.e:t ug1o-"
p-r:0.9. x tz.tt x [ 1rz.u_l1l.4-r) I -

Net worlt done per cycle : b.83 x 10ax(1.01805-t087 kg-m

Ideal thermal efficiency,,ri = 1 - .*r : r*

[+#+]
* As a check. iDvestigate the isometric plocess 4-1. prlpr should eqttel Tt/T,i 2-at1l0.9
:856/300_.2 85.
DIESEL ENGINE POWER I55
The outstanding characteristic of the Diesel engine is compression igruition.
It is possiblc to raise the air sufEciently in tcmperature, by polytropic compres-
sion, to ignite hydrocarbon fuels. Control of ignition timing is obtained by in-
jecting Iucl into the air olter the comprcssion. Atomization rather than carbure-
tiou is cmploycd Ior dispersal, and inexpensive low-volatile liquid fuel, such as
pctrolcum distillate, can be used in place of the gasoline of spark ignition
engincs. Timing oI combustion is accomplished by timing of fuel injection. The
cxtcnt of compression required for ignition may be understood from Fig.6-5.
Hcre the volumetric compression ratio is shown plotted ageinst the pressure
and the tempcrature at the end of comprcssion, assuming r, = 1.35 rather than

:#

L,:
L

i
l'l-'.-:r
E
/8
! -.\
- :l
_tt
.A I ,r7 f.*
- {\

No lbae t4& co,

Frc. 6-4 Irlunicipal power plant two-cycle ]liesel engine, 3600 hp.
the ideal 1.4. 'I he ellcct oI lnrtlal p arxl I is considerable. For exaurplc, a super-
'pressure
chargeof about U.l kg/cmrab over the naturally aspirated suction of
about I kg/cmr ab raises the, pressurc at statc 2 by B ks/cm, when the compressiolr
ratio is 14. Even more signiffcant is the initial teniperature. At r = 14, adecreaseof
suction temperature from tS"tolh. C lorvers final cmpression temperaiure Irorn
,152 369"G. The graph also will explain wny relativety trigh comiression ratios
.to
are inbuilt by Dresel rnanufaccurers. Assume an initial aii conditiou of 15. C.
Then, for the typical ignrtron data givcn, a compression ratio of 11.7 \rould be
needed (intcrsection of ignition and comprcssion temperature curves). This
would allov no margin over variables sugh as los,er inlet temperature or ait.
leakagc. An cngine rvith r = lL.Z , using this fuel, rvould not have reliable igni-
tion. Some nargin. ol aEaurance of ignition is necessary. If this were set bylhe
designer as I l5', then a compression ratio of about It is indicated, for a[ this
156 INTERNAL COTIBTISTIoN ENGINE POWER PLANT
ratio the compression temperature is
tl5' above the fuel ignition tempera-
ture. It is hopcd that the foregoing
discussion will have pointed up the
oroblem of compression ignition and
tlisclosed the variables involved.
60 The mechsnical heart of the Diesel
ia the luel 'injection system. The en-
t gine can perform no better than ite
fuel injection system. A very small
quantity oI fuel must be measured
3 c
aad out, in,iected, atomized, and mixed
E o
with combustion air. The mixing
problem becomes more difrcult the
e larger the cylinder and the faster the
: Ig rctative speed. Fortunately the high-
i0 30E speed engines are the small-bor€
c automotive types; however, special
eombustion arrangements such as pre-
,irrlollon. or lual,h, combustion chambers, air cells, etc.,
are neeessary to secure good mixing.
2oo
t0 l2 ta
llll It
t6
t5 Engines driving electrical generatort
have lowcr speeds and simple com-
cotaPt[5stoi iAlto -r bustion chambers.
Frc.6-5 Compression ignitiol. Atomization of fuel oil has been

I -.

Frc. 64Trvo typcs of common-rail injection. ,e/t. A single pump supplies high-
pressure fuel to header; a relief valve holds pressure constant. The control $edge ad-
justs lift of mechanically operated valve to set amount and time oI injection. 84lrt.
Controlled-pressur€ system has pump which maintains set header pressure. Pressure-
relief and timing valves regulate injection time and amount. Spdlgloaded spray valve
aets inerely as check. (Courtesy Pouer.)
DIESEL ENGINE POWER t57
Becured by (l) air blast and (2) pressure spray. Early
Diesel engines used air for luel injection at about
70 kg/cmr.This is sufrcient not only to inject the oil,
but also to atomize it for a rapid and thorough com-
bustion. The expense of providing an air compressor
and tank led to the de.velopment of "solid" injection,
using a liquid pressure ol between lO5and 2lOkg/cml,
which is sufrciently high to atomize the oil it forceg
through snray nozzles.
Great advances have been made in the field of
solid injection of the fuel through research and prog- '7[s
in fuel pump, spray nozzle, and combustion Frc. 6-7 Unit injector.
rees N{echanically actuated
chamber design. This has stimulsted a trend to solid pump plunger raises luel
injection, and comparatively few new installations to a high plessure, me-
are found with air injection. ters the quantity aud
The fuel injection system must pressurize, met€r, coutrols injection 1im-
and time the fuel. These functione are achieved in a ing, Nozzle contaitrs e
variety of ways, but the common rail, the indirti'dual springJoaded delivery
pump, or lhe unit tnjector Eystems are usual on power valve actueted by
station Diesels. Although these can properly be classi- change in the fuel-oil
fied as internal characteristica, their great importance prcssure,
(Courtesy
justifies them as Power.)
to successful operation reviewing is
done in accompanying illustrations.
Engine types in commercial use may be classified as follows:
l. Cucle. It is possible to build the
2-cycle engine without valve gear. The
absence of this feature is indeed the vir-
tue of the 2-cycle principle. In the 4-cycle
engine the exhaust and iulet valves are
mechanically operated from .a camshaft.
Since the Diesel engine is commonly rather
large, the valves are correspondingly large
in diameter and are operated from a mas-
sive cam-shaft. The first euccessful Diesels
operated on the 4-cycle principle; then
2-cycle engines made their appearance. For
variable speed operation the 2-cycle engine
lscks thr flexibility of 4.cycle, but, for
electrical generation which is a constant-
speed service, it is quite Buccessful. ItB
capacity is not twice that of the 4-cycle
Fro.6-8 Pump-jnjection system. engine of the same dimensions because of
An individua,l pump or pump cylir- its lower volumetric efficiency, but there ia
der conoects directly to each luel
nozzle. Pump meterr charge and
not much difrerence in thermal efrciency.
control injectioB timing. Nozales 2. Number anil anangemmt ol cylk-
contain s delivery valve actuated dcrs. It is customary to design a line of
by fuel-oil pressure. (Courtrcsy engines on the bssis of a fixed bore and
Potocr.) stroke, and to vary capacity by adding
r58 INTERNAI, COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT
cylinders. In-line arangement is common, but increasingly the V-bank ar'
rangement is seen.
3. Single- or danble-acting. The double-acting principle n'as adopted to ob-
tain larger capacity than the single-acting without much incrcase in over-sll
dimensions. Although chiefly used in marine Bervice, ther€ have been some
stationary applicationa, Most Diesele are eingle-acting.
4. Goueming. Constsnt Btroke with variable by-paes or suction, or variable
stroke. Goveming is accompliehed by control of the quantity of fuel oil spray.
The governor speed control is derived lrom centrifugal flyweights whoee action
is to vary the metering function of the iniection system. The load may be
divided at will between unitB. Govemors are sensitive enough to permit exact,
load adJustment. For electrical generation even the multicylinder engines
must be equipped with a heavy flywheel to prevent cyclic variation of speed.
5. Fratnes. (s\ Hor;z,ontal or uertical; (b) A-lrone or bor-lrome: I' lew
Diesels, chiefly single-cylinder engines, have horizohtal cylinders, but general
practice prescribes a vertical or Vee engine. The box-type frame is standard.
Of al1 the questioas which arise in purchasing an engine, the one least
smensble to precise analysis is the selection of the engine type. Some answers
are furnished by local requirements or prior usage, but any man with an under-
standing of Diesel engines csn find good and bad arguments for any type of
engine. The greatest assurance of success lies not in the type of an engine, but
in the deteils of design, materials, and workmanship, as proved by the engine's
record, by the manufacturer's reputation, or both. An engine should theretore
bc as conseruatiuely rated in speeil anil mean efiectiae preszure as the Pu.rchqser
can afiord to nse. Crowding a high horsepower rating into a given engine loraars
the cost per horsepouer and shortens the Ltte ol the engine. Every etep in the
direction of simple design, if proved successful, is an advantage for the pur-
chaser.
6-3 Combustion. In the previous chapter the nature of fluid fuels was
exsmined and the principles of combugtion were presented. IIere the special
festures of combustion as carried out in the Diesel engine cylinder are to
receive attention. However, first it appears deeirable to repeat and summariro
the equationo pertaining to fuel oil.
Specific density (ot r5.6"c) : 8.. tul X (s.G. r@ 15'6"/16'0") ks/ (L3)

Denaity acoler: 'ne : g3iffi6-r*;rao (il)

"APi - s-s$fft7--16.6; ral6 (e6)

qudity: Disl ildcl - 0.018 x 6API x ,aDt + 0.32 x 'API (6{)

Ignition
Eotiug valtre: (rr - ltrm + 139.6 x 'APl q8 (47)

slro Q. r- 5l7ro 8793.8

'is.G.I
J/a (6{)
Eydrcgen contcut: Er - 26 - 15 (8.G.). percent by wt (G9)

Combustion in the Diesel engine cylinder begins theoretically at the instant

injection starts and continues, at constant pressure, until iniection ceases. The
' rrp ir' "F.
I
'"p io "c
COMBUSTION 169
distillate fuel used may be considered to have an average chemical formula of
CroHgz'for which the ideal air quantity is found as follows:
CrrHaz + 24 Oz : 16 COz + 16 HrO

Considering the numerical prefixes to be mols, the equation of combining weights

is written as followg:

224k9 Crllo + 24 X 32kg O, : 16 X 4,1 kg COr * 16 X 18 kg HzO

Since l kg air provides 0.232 kg O2,

Air perkgCroHoz : ffit: 14.8kc.

As was explained in Sec 6-2, early fuel cutoff is necessary to good therrnal
efficiency, but early cutofi is not possible with the ideal A:F ratio of 14.8. This
is due to the need for limiting maximum ternperature Of the cycle for mechanical
and thermal reasons, under circumstances as set forth in the following example.

D.

Psript..t ot j.l
Cora ot i.l
\\\\\l
Oi3anl.grotion ol ,.1
ot j.r

tr're. 6-9 Schematic analysis of the disintegration of a fuel jet. (Courtesy Trans. SAE.)

Example 1: The ideal maximum temperature of combustion of a fuel of 24" API

is calculated, on the assumption of 127"C compression temperature and 14.8 kg air per
kg luel.
F'wlcalculations: s.c.: 131.5
,111
5,:o.sr
+ 24
Eq G8: 8L : 517t0 - 8703.8 x O.gts - 14434 J/g
QL : 44434
- 2442j xt 1.26 - 0.15 x O.9l) : 4t?ls Jlt
Duriag isobaric combustion, usn(co = l.oo, the sensible heat, Q1, will nise ihe products
At degrees, according to the relation
Q : wcAt
4t719
A'=
(14.8+r)xl -
2640.C

Maximum t€mperature 13 : ,1 + A, - 42': + 9640 - 3067rc. Since ?3il7, : Vs/V2dv-

ing an isobaric pror.ess.
g:3067+ 2r3 _ .,.t,
42?+zl3 - "'"
* Cetane is CsE!, alih&-methylnaphthalene G,H-. Either C,'II. or C,uHe may be used
to,represent aYerage fuel oil.
160 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT
Not only is the calculated,r3 higher thau cau be considered practical in the engine
cylinder, it ia high enough so that themal dissociation of the products would have
prevented it8 attainment. tr'u hermore, an fi of 4.8 is large enough to impair idea,l
efficiency seriously. The solutlon is to use A:F ratio, higher than the chemical ides,l.

Assume that tsto.C is the limit of tr. Then.E : : g.?ETtis is colopat-

#+#
ible with good efrciency.
1n = Q/o"L,T = 417t9/l(lfrm - 4rn):34.1 I
A:F rulio:34.1-l: :13.1

Although this example is based on an ideal engine, the actual engine is

similar. Diesels work ou from 2 to 5 times the ideal air ratio at rated power,
more at part load. When the engine cannot aspirate charges of air of standard
density on account of altitude condi-
o 100 tions, the efrect is to curtaii the
Z quantity of fuel that can be injected
te \\
ito
90

II \
\ aB
per power stroke if the samc maxi-
mum temperature limit is to prevail.
The power output is therefore re-
tn duced. Fig. 6-10 shows manufactur-

o60 A.IUFBO-SUPERCHARGE
(
5T er's practice in derating engines {o?
altitude opelation.
A.UXSUPERChAiGEO Some of this loss of power can be
()50 svoided by :using a supercharger
o .5 to 15 2.0 2'5 30 3.5 4{ 4.5
A!T|TUoE ABovE SEA IEVEI-IHoUSANDm with the engine, driven either me-
Frc. 6-10 Decreaee of power at altitud... chanically frorrr the-crankshaft or by
(DEMA Data.) an exhaust gas turbine. Also super-
charging is practiced on ses level
engines in order to reise their mean effective pressure. Substantial increases in
power Fer cylinder sre possible.On maoufacturerwhoss22.B6cmx30.4tlcmxr[50
rpm,O-cylinder engine is rsted at 197 hp is able to increase the sea level rating
to 313 hp with a turbo-supercharger and oil iooling for the pistons.
Combustion of Diesel fuel goes on in two stages, first an ignition delay stage,
then a stage of inflammation of the fuel-air mixture. For brevity, the actions
occuring in each stage are diagrammed in Fig. 6-11. The implication there is
that the process of combustion is complex. This is substantiated by research.
Although the whole deiay period may be only microseconds long, its character-
\stics are quite influential to external operating characteristics of the engine,
such as detonation, starting, products of ccmbustion, and smoothness of opera-
tion. Injection must belin several degrees of crank angle before dead center, the
advance being governed by engine speed, colrrpression temperature, spray
shape, delay period of the fuel, and other lesser factors. Following igfiition
there is a rapid.pressure rise during "inflammation," the extent of this being
inyersely to the delay period, for the Ionger the delay the more fuel in the cylin-
det to be suddenly inflamed. In an exaggerated case the pressure rise is sharp
enough to constitute a,n engine knock. Higher Cetane rating of the fuel is one
cure for this. After inflamrnation the incoming spray bums directly without lag.
Whether this final stoge is at constatlt pressure or not depends on the rate of
noszle flow.
ENGINE PERFORMANCE l6I

hnilloo
o.ldy prriod
Ft icol &b,
+Oh.t{cor d.lo,

0iahlagrotldr
hi.cl.d ,sd
0rldlrotion
llquid tu.l

lo-portIo tto" llhiuia ol

9orliol dtdottor

(ctillla!,

Frc. 6-11 Outline of combustion process in the Diesel engiue. (C,ourtesy Trsns. SAE.)
Products of combustion are theoretically COz, HzO, and N2, but, as Fig.6-13
Bhows, the products may contain carbon monoxide, unburned fuel, and the
(odoriferous) aldehydes. However, con-
centrations of CO are nevet very much, ppEssunE, re/.o. rssoLgr€
and there is an absence of the H2, CHa,
and C2H6 found in spark ignition en-
gine exhaust. As the fuel-air ratio in- IONIY'ON q-b lNFuratlrtot
creases there is a tendency to production BEGINNIXO OT b-. C0NTROLLEO
lNlacTloN CONBU3TION
of smoke from unburned carbon. This
and cooling requirements may be the
Iimiting factors on the maximum power
of an engine. -90 -6 0 -30 ,Dc 30 60 !o r2o
6-4 Engine PerIgrrnance. The rapid cR^ni ANGLE FFot roc
cyclic action in an actual engine modifies Fro. 6-12 Trme record of the Desel
the ideal cycle of Fig. 6-3. The diagram combustion process.
corners are no longer sharp, fuel must
be injected ahead ol dead-center, etc. The forms of "indicator cards," which
are instrument-drawn p-z's from running engines, are shown in Fig.6-14 for
both 2- and 4-cycle types.
A Diesel engine is used as a source of power which can utilize I relstively
162 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENT.INE POWER PLANT
zo
lo
7
I L- =-lE:
5
I

2 ll
l

7
7----:r
-3 t\ -----r----r
I

.?

6l
'/ J\:
t := F=
o2
I
oor
9 .oo7 ]::l
.oo5
t-r _-i-
-----T---- r--T---
r-N_
I
ooa
oo2 -T-
E-
I
-. o

o06
dil 009
a

tuEL:ArR iATro, kg oF FUEL PEi kB

&c. 6-13 Products of combustion as ahected by fuel-air ratio. CFR Diesel engine.
Note: 1o/I = I for clear exhaust; .o fo! opaque exhaust (Courtesy ?runs. SAE ')

cheap fuel. Therefore its power capacity and thermal efficiency are paramount
engineering considerations.
The developed cylinder pcwer is the indicated horsepower, abbreviated, ihp.
After engine friction and accessory power needs have been satisfied, the net
power available at the engine shaft
is the brake horsepower, bhp, so
called because it can be (but nowa-
days seldorn is) measured by a brake
dynamometer. Indicated poner is
difficult to measure directly on small
Diescls with great accuracy, because
Frc. 6-i4 Typical eugine indicator dia-
the volume of indicator lead through
' grams. the cylinder head appreciably lowers
the normal compression ratio. Also,
the cylinder heads of small-bore high-speed engines have special chambers,
valves, and other equipment, Ieaving little or no space available for an indi-
cator lead. Since nonc of thcse difrculties exists with the large stationary Diesel,
indicator openings are provided as standard equipment.
A hypothetical pressure, known as brake mean effective pressure, bmep, can
be employed to show the magnitude of mean efrective pressure. The true pres-
sure, p.ep, is higher on account of engine .friction losses.
ENGINE PERFORMANCE IOiI

ihp : p*o LAN o/ 449 7o2hp (&10)

bho: %rAr'7'11r* (e11)
'O*,
bmep : 5tr, x1497o2/LAN"bg,lcd (6-12)

in which p-- : Indicated mep, kg/crf.

.L : Piston stroke,.cm.
.,{ : Piston face area, cd.
.V, : Number of power strokes per min.
JV : Rotative speed, rpm.

W : Net dynamometer force, lg1.

r= Dynamometer arm length, cm.
As is true of all prime movers, there are a number of efrciency expressions
applying to Diesels. Mechanical effetency is the r atio, bhp/ihp.

Indicated thermal efficiency, ,"r:4ure (6-13)

Brake therma -
I effieicncy, ?" -ffi
: 2614 (C14)

in which roi, u.ru = Ftel consumption, kgper hr per ihp oy bhp.

Q : Fuel heating value, J/g!, either G.or Qr, according to
policy.

The Diesel Engine Manufacturers' Association (DEtr\lfA) is the trade group

in this field whose standards ard policies usually plevail. DEMA power
guarentees are made on the presumption ol altitudea les than 317.5 mabove
sea level,barometer 7t .6 mm mercury or more, air iDtsketampersture 32.2qC
or lesr. Power available at higher altitudes ie indicaied by Fig.6'10' Fuel oil con-
eunption guarsnt€es are made in kg per net bhp hr at r/2, s/t, and full-load rat-
ing, assuming fuel with Qt = 45016 J/S
Eramptc l: A O+ylinder Diesel engine on dyna.mometer test w8s found to ute
!8 i.g of fuel, having Qn =
$ofo J/3 , in a
ono-hour test st steady load. The
brake thermal efrciency and the brake mep will be determined from the following test
dsts and measurements. Cylinder ie 21.6 om x 20.? oB, tlcycle type. Speed, 600 rpn"
Dy[amometet torque, 25ooo kg.om.

bhp :2. , 25ooo x 600/&9702 = 200.6 hp

bmep = 2ee.5 " nn',or!(ru.r,'f *. rry) - 6.!6 ts/oa'

u,b : t8/200.6 - 0.18t ks por bhp Lr

Ttb = 26{8/(0,18l x {5018) - C9.49lc

. Jouts. p6r grorD.

164 INfERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT
The cncrgy supplicd to I.C. engines in the form oI Qr ol the fuel input is
generally htoken dol'n into thc f<.rllowing items for heat-balance' purposes.
1. Oselul uork, the actual net shaft output.
2. Cooling. Heat absorbcd by water jackets. Sometimes this is not separable
from some of the friction and exhaust loss due to merging streoms of water that
cool cylinders, exhaust manifolds, and lube oil heat excbgngere. A ocAt tlpc 4f
loss.
'"""i;. Erhaust 0d8 ,oss. Heat caried ofr as sensible and latent heat in the prod-
ucts of combusiion. Sensible heat is a urcAt loss; latent heat is of the form
24+2.7 >\ 9ll (inJ/g units).
4. Mechotricat- iri'cfioz- Crankshaft and conn€cting rod beariage, pisto.n,
etc- Usually taker to include eaerry supplied to engine-mounted suxilisries
such as puurP, governor.
5. R;ditiio; and unaccounted'for. }Jleal rsdist€d from engine ald incom-
plete combustioa loss due to presence of fuel in exhaust gas.

Table Gl. TYPICAL FTILLLOAD HEAT BALANCES (%)

(Bssed on Qr)
O a Cycle Dtnset Cycle
Sporh ComTrestkm
IWiriotu Ignitir'tl
l. Uselul work 25
2. Cooling 30 30
3. Exhaust 26
4. Friction, radiation, and
unacoounted 8 10

Inpui; heating value of fuel 100 100

Items 4 and 5 are not often separable nor measurablc. They are usually
combined, then the balance is made by subtracting Items 1, 2, and 3 from the
heat of the fuel and considerinq the difierence to be Items 4 and 5.

ffi+
- -T.Tf
ll t-Tff
-TTTTT
TTTTT ]
fTT TTTT- T f
0.t
f-
-T_TTTIT :rn E
fffT TTTIT
TI
-.1
r-lI

H
I
l ! z 3E
I Ffn -rr TtrTTI tc
IIt =
Z f tTt rtI t- o.
2 gi
TN ;TI o.
lll
tt th. in
rhi. lo.d r.n9.
ttl LI ITIN tlt 0
to 20 !o 40 50 60 a0 !o 100
o$20loao5o6070 !d 90 100 70

PERCENT RAIED LOAD PERCENI PLANI CAPACIIY FACIOR

Frc. 6-15 Range of variable load performance of Diesel plaote.

.See sec &2 for defnitioa of lleat Balance.
 ENGINE ?ERFORMANCE 165
An advantage of the Diesel is its fairly constant efficiency over coneiderable
range of load; also the achieved efficiencies do not vary greatly with the size of
the engine {as they do in steam plants)..In Fig. 6-15 are shown these variable
load characteristics lor a large group of uuits. The areas represent the range
and include approximately 90/o ol zll data. Fuel consumption data are for the
engine alone, under optimum or test condi-
tions. The other graph represents plant
operating experience, taken as it was found,
with gross output per lirro of fuel given .. i rcr
against plant capsclti factor. Net, plant I
output per litrc would be somewhat lower .' i rao "9
due to ener$, consumption by plant auxil- !
iaries. Note that a certain plant capacity j ro
/T*, Y
Iwtor, say 3O/o, does not iriply units oper- 6 FUII

IE
Ptrota)
ating at 3O/o of rated !oad. If there were
several units in the plant, it would be pos-
sible to operate some of them. at the point
of minimum specific fuel consumption. PaFcElr FUrr LoAo powEt
The variation of engrne perlormarrue of
a specific engine (a slow-speed,. 2-cyc1e p16. 6-16 yariable load perforrn-
crankcase compression unit) is shown in ance characteristic ol stoo,_sieecl sta-
Fig. 6-f6. Note the characteristic low ex- tionary Diesel engiaes.
haust temperature. Generally the higher
the speed, the higher this will be. I'he exhaust ternperature is important, for
it indicates: .(a) magnitude of exhaust loss, but not comparatively between
two-engines unless they use the same A:F ratio; (b) extert of problem of
shielding or cooling the exhaust manifolds and ducts; (c) proper adjustment
of injection pumps.
. In a carbureted engine all cylinders get approximately the same mixture,
whether it be correct or otherwise. Hence caiburetor adjustment can bring

.! IG. O-l/ Thermocouple measurement oI individual cylinder gxhaust temDera,tures

(Courtesy I llinois T e sting Lo,borutoies. )
166 INTERNAI, COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT
equally good combustion to all cylinders. But the compression ignition engine
has individual cylinder injectors. Fuel-air mixture will not be the same for all
cylinders unless the injection mechanism is individually adjusted, using the
exhaust temperature as a guide. Other cylinder difficulties, such ss clogged prts,
gummed piston rings, scaled water isckets, can also b€ detected and isoleted
with multiple exhaust thermocouples.

Frc. 6-18 Auxiliary equipment of the Diesel engine power pl&nt.

6-5 Plant Design. The I.C. engine is almost a self-contained prime mover
in that it requires very few auxiliaries beyond those built onto the engine by
the monufecturer. Although some are built as complete power ulits on a-single
base, this i6 not customary if the engine is a stationary type Diesel designed
Ior high-capacity-factor service in a power station. Fig. 6-18 shows the usual
auxiliary equipment that must be selected and worked into the complete plant
by the power plsnt engineer.' These auxiliaries may be grouped into the follow-
ing systetrs: (1) fuel supply; (2) cooling; (3) intake and exhaust; (4) lubrica-
tion; (5) starting.
It is common practice to set the engine generator units in a power plant on
r A few of the auxiliaries shown are standard equipment fumished by the etrgine matru-
lact^trcr. Standord, Proclices, publiehed by DEMA, cotrtairle a complete listof the statrdard
equipment phich the etrgine manufacturera propose to furnish. In geoerol it does not il-
clude aoy apparatus vhieh might require difierent trcatment for difierent installotions.
PLANT DESIGN 167
parallel center-line8. As the average plant has two or more engines, the parallel
amangement leads to s building of somewhat square shape. Ample clearance
should be allowed in the layout for dismantling of the engine, generqtor, and
exciter. Manufacturers' prints indicate extreme dimensione for removal of
rotors, pistons, etc.
Engine foundations !,.ere described in Chapter 4. The hea'ry reciprocdting
parts of the Diesel will cause objectionable vibration unless sufficient foundation
mass is provided. It is better to err on the side of too large a foundation than to
have complaints of. vibration, because nothing can be done about it Bfter the
foundation is poured and the engine is in place. Foundations of engines in the
basements of hotels, and in similar locations where any vibration transmitted
from the foundation would be undesirable, must have the foundations insulated
from the rest of the building by corkboard or vibration dampeners. For the
s&me reason, piping connections to the engine should be through short flexible
sections.
Power station engines are always direct-connected to their generators, usu-
ally close-coupled. The standard engine-typd generator has its own bearings
and is connected by flexible coupling to the engine shaft, outtroard of the fly-
wheel. Flywheels are furnished with jacks for rotating the engine to its starting
position and for use when repairing or adjusting. Engines large enough so that
one man could not operate the manual device have pneumatic turning appara-
tus.
Voltages preferred for a-c generators from ebout 100 to 600 kw are either
480, 6@, or 2400 v. Larger units may go up to 4160 v. Excitation is at 125 v d-c,
with the exciters being belt-driven to increase spced, thereby reducing physical
size. The relation between number of electrical poles z, the frequency l, and the
rotative speed .l[ is:
N : tZ\t/nrpm (6-15)

A typical layout of a multiengine Diesel power plant is shown in Fig. 6-19.

This design has a pipe trench below the floor to accommodate auxiliary piping.
fn other plants one may find a basement has been excavated which will provide
room for piping, conduits, storage, workshops, etc. The concrete sides of the
engine foundations are visible in the basement.
The Diesel plant arrangement must include a number of instruments for the
guidance of operators. These are chiefly temperature, pressure, flow, and
electrical instruments. Discussion of the latter is deferred to Chapter 15. If
reliability, economy, and safety are to be obtained, a continual check must be
meintained on operation by mcans of instruments. Thermometers and pyrom-
eters are highly useful as an index to operation. They may be used to indicate:
1. Individual exhaust tempcratures, and so tell whether one cylinder,
through faulty pump setting, is performing less than its share of work.
2. Jacket water temperatures. The rate of flow of cooling water is adjusted
by valves for proper outlet and inlet temperatures.
3. Injection air compressor temperatures to check on worn rings, broken
valves, or carbon deposits in the compressors,
4. Lubricating oil temperatures to check on oil cooler operation.
5. Fuel oil temperetures.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT
168
Pressure gauges are used on the injection air system to gauge both.final and
interstage p"essur"r. The starting air system is alio equipped with a pressure
gauge, as is the lubricating oil system if pressure oiling is used. Fuel oil day
tanks are equipped with glass liquid level gauges and the main storage tanks
have a sounding opening so that the lcvel. and thereby the volume, of the oil in
Btorage may be determined by a stafr gauge.
The engine brake horsepower itself is generally detemined only indirectly,
that is, either from the generator output and its efficiency as stated by the manu-
facturer, or from indicated horsepower, and an assumption of mechanical

s?Ac€ for
ft lUlE UNll No. 3

t?
le
i";

I iIl]U

scRttN
z
!
2
0

I \
2 E

rutr strvrff

Fro. 6-19 Typical Diesel power plaut layout.

AIIJILIARY SYSTEMS 160
eficiency. For operating records luel flow meters are used. Proyieion should be
made for primary weighing for calibration and performance tests.
6'6 Auxiliary Syst€me. The equipment here described is not ordinarily
supplied with the engine. It is the work of the designing engineer to select and
locate such equipment properly. The operating engineer rnust understand it,
Lnow how to control it, and detect any malfunctioning.
Fuel Supply. The Diesel plant may involve considerable outlay for fuel oil
equipment. To select and arrange this equipment one needs: (1) to be able to
predict the maximum rate of fuel flow; (2) to know the engine characteristics
and accessory equipment; (3) to know details of piping system layouts in order
to arrenge equipment connections for reliability and flexibility of fuel supply;

,- aMr l-.1

sh.i or t.r sr, drLl

ffi

DDLIA
FrG. 6-20 Installation of fuel tank underground.

(4) to determine what luel supply is available, viz., size of deliveries, as wel eg
their frequency and reliability. Then the design of the fuel supply system is an
arrangement of equipment and piping to accomplish a flow described briefly
thus: Delivery from tank car or truck through the unhading lacilitA to matn
storage tanks, thence by transler punps to smaller wruice storage tozlcs from
which the fuel passes throv,gh cleaning equtprnent to the engines which burn it.
Thie main flow, ao described, is msde workable and practical by arranging the
piping equipment with the necessary heaters, by-passes, shut-ofrs, drain lines,
relief valves, strainers and ffltere, flow meters, pressure and temperature indi-
cator8.
The actual flpw plans depend on type of fuel, engine equipment, size of plant,
etc., ead are quite varied as they are subject to engineers, individual idegs.
Most arrangements, however, can be classified as:
l Simple suction system by means of engine-dtiven pump from service
tank located near engine and few feet below it. Such pumps are constant volume
delivery, and an overflow line ie required back to the tank.
1?O INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT
2. Transfer system by which a motor-driven transfer pump moves oil from
main storage to an elevated service tank, sometimes called a day tank, from
which it can flow by gravity to (a) engine injection pumps or (b) engine
auxiliary oil pump.
3. Like the preceding, a transfer to a
day tank with gravity flow to a small en-
gine oil tank from which the engine pump-
ing system takes what it needs.
'fhe volume ol oil storage should be
eufficient so that the maximum rate of ,uel
consumption in the plant will not empty
the storage during the expected period be-
tween deliveries. Truck trailers can usually
drop 11300-19900 I at a delivery. Railway
tank cars vary from 30300 to 45400 I in
capacity. lVhether the tank shall be located
ro above ground or below is a matter of local
conditions, including method of oil delivery,
local ordinances, building location, etc. The
rb4a ta,, National Board of Fire linderwriters has
regulations covering the construction and
installation o{ fuel oil storage tanks, as do
Erc. 6-21 Seryice tank for gravity many local authorities Comparison of ex-
fuel supply to engine. posed vs buried tanks reveale the following
advantages.
Etposed Tank Buied. Ianha
Cost of excavation is avoided. Oil can be delivered by gravity.
Leakage is readily detected. Fire hazard is reduced.
Maintenance is easier. Plant grounds more easily landscaped.
Water and sediment are easily drained.
Horizontal welded steel tanks are quite conrmon, the large-diameter, exposed
vertical tanks being scen only with very large plants. Exposed tanke are set on
concrete saddles snd can have ope ings from the bottom as well as the top.
The buried tank, as shown in Fig. 6-20, has all openings on the top. More de-
tails on storage tanks are given in Sec 12-5.
The number and srze of tanks are established from the plant size, capacity
lactor, and delivery schedules. It would be well to have sufrcient tank capacity
to carry the plant for twice the normal time between fuel deliveries. Also the

o. Cesr type b. Lobe type c. Screiv type

Frc. 6-22 Some types of fuel transfer pumps.
AIXILIABY SYSTEMS 171
tanks must be chosen eo that there can be oil remaining for operating when
empty storage volume is sufficient to accommodate the delivery. Capacity of
the fuel oil unloading pumps and lines will be determined by the size of delivery
and the time wished to be spent on unloading. Transfer pumps and the oil sup-
ply lines from storege to engines must have sufficient capacity to be well in
excees of the maximum rate of flow at full plant capacity.

Examplc 1: A Diesel plaat will have one 775-kw end two {I}'kw urits. Delivery
oI the fuel oil is to be arranged'on a monthly basis, the veudor exp€ctiDg to deliver by
tank car. Expeoted plant cap&city bclor, 35/6. Tbe ta*age and traDsfer system will
be slzed-
The Upacjty of this plant is ?75 *
400 + 400, or l5?5 kw. Aversge outpul at 35%
lotd lrctor is 550 kw. Exsmination ol Fig.6-15 shor8 thst the gr€Etest fuel coasump
tiqD td,e;perrt at 35% lo&d factot is l.72 Lr hr Frlit.l oq thc lowe8t'2tffo? hr per I

= a .€-
R€quired storage '(t,72+2,04lle X X{ = $1060 I
Five trnla of appro:imataly rrtd I earb are iadiorted by ttm figutes, pre8lming
thsi the tank car capacity is tze6ol.
At full-rated load the fuel consumption csu b€ expect2d to be sbouto.ts Lgp€r bhp
hr (tr'i8. &15). 1575 generated kw is 2lto engiue horsepower if a generator eficieucy
of 94y'6 is assumed,
Maximum rat€ ol fuel usage =t2to x o.lt - al0.a lapcr ht. At 0.e l.g pd I this
would bGr f,or of ?.0 UmiD. lta,Dsfer pump. and pipiq rlould brvr Et last tbi! cspaciw,
probably nore in view of the teudency of electric s€rvic€ plsrts to. grow iu sire with
the paing of time.

TANX
CAR OAY
F- Fl,al oil titr.t TA XS
lr-Fu.l otl mat.i
P -Molor.driyan ,ulnp

ST AGE
KS

fiea
) ,{r,

Fro. 6-23 Multiple-urit fuel h:rndling s,'-stem. Ileliel lveut, drip, and otber aecondary
iines not sho\\'n-

A study of Fig. 6-23 will short how equipment iu interconnected thmugh

pipe headers for maximum flexibility of uee, how pumps and flltem Erc provided
in duplicatq where relief valvea are plsced so as to prev€nt excccivo pump
pre8sures, and the location of flow meters for checking deliveries, meaoring oil
ia transfer, 8Dd metering flow to individual eogiaea.
772 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE PO1VER PL".INT
Il'hethcr oil must be heated for flow either in tenk,car or storage tank, {or
atomization, depends on the climate and the viscosity. R.efer to Fig. 12-21 for
need for hcating. If heating is lequired, hot water coils can be connected into tle
engine jacket rvatcr circulation.
Fucl oil transfer purnps are positive displacement, rot&ry types, direct-corr
nected to motors. l'here are sevcrrl other practical designs in eddition to thmc
here illustratcd. Bcing oi the positive displacement type, all t,hese punrps nced
to have pressure relicf valves on their outlets, drairring to storage tanks, or to
their orvn suction lincg.
Satisfactory operation of a fuel oil supply s)-st€m is impossiblc unless tbe
desigtrcr and builder competently handle provisions (1) for cleanlincss, (2) for
valving to alternate lines during ernetgencies, and (3) for insuring tight pipe
joints in all suction lines. Imperlect pipc installations thet worrll give no
troul;le with watr:r will sometimes suck air at the joints whcn carrying oil at r
vacuum. Before being covered, all oil lines should be put rtndcr air pressure and
the joints tested q,'ith soap solution. Small air leakr into lhc air lines can bc the
source ol exasperating operating di$culties and are hard to remedy once the
plant is in opcrarion.
Great emphasis is phced on the need for cleanliness irr handlirrg bulk fuel
oil. Distillatr: fuel is clean as it leavcs thc refincry, but thc mrrltil,lc h:inrllilg
before the ultimete user gcts it nr'r,y inl roduce dirt. Thcrc is no comparison lre-
tween the purity required lor oil crgines and that for grsolinc cngines. The
latter have relatively Lrrge jct openings in their earburetors. Thc iuel is light
and grar-ity will remove almost all dirt. If thcrc is dirt that passe-s the coarse
screens used, the most it can do is cause the engine to misfire or stop. But I)iesel
fuels are more viscous and hold dirt in suspcnsion. Thcy are rarnmcrl a', high
pressure through small, finely linished injcction pumps and thcn sprayed
through lozzles with minutc orificc openings. Dirt particles will ruin the liue
lap oi injection pumps or plug the injection nozzle ori6ces. Hence, high-grade
filters are <rf grr:at importancc to the Dicse! oil supply system. Engines arc
equipped with one or more, and the plant dcsigncr shotrld arr:rnge for one or
more external filters in his piping systcrn. These should not be by-passe,l. In-
strad they should be in duplicate so that one may be in use nhile the filter ele-
rnent oi the other is being renewed. TIrc piping between filter an,l engine should
be thoroughly oil-flusherl before being first placed in service. Waste- anrl cellu-
lose fibcr-packcd filters rvith rcncwable elcments, hag filters, and clcanablc
metal fi.lters (edge typt') arc able to elean luel oil to the extent of removing all
partirk,s ovcr 5 rni,'runs in siz{.
Lubricatir,'n. Th\s is irDportant in any rnechanism. It is espccially 1,ital to the
Diescl engine becluse of tLe high pressures. and small clearances ,'ornmon in
these engines. The life of the enginc, the efficiency, snd the extent to which it
may be expected to provirle continuous service are tlependent on the efrective-
ness of the lubricating system inbuilt in the engine, t.he succcss with rvhich ex-
ternal features of the system are seleeted and iustnlled, and thc quality of the
lubricating oil.
In a Diesel engine the lubrication requirements nsturally fall into the fol-
lowing grouping.
1. Pieton and cylindera.
AIIXILIARY SYSTEMS I73
2. Crankehaft and connecting rod bearings.
3. Gears or other mechenism designed to transmit motion to auxiliaries.
4. Integral injection or scavenging air compressors.
Lubrication may be achieved in difrerent ways, i.e., full pressure lubrication
eimilar to that employed in the automobile engine, mechanical foree-feed lubri-
catom, or gravity circulation from an overhead tank. The presaure circulation
system, in which an oil pump supplies the lubricant under preesure to many
parts of the engine through e duct eystem, and to the crankghaft end wrist pin
besrings by drilled passages in the ehalt and rods, is used more than any other
type. The cylinder walls will be lubricated by oil mist slung outward from the
connecting rod bearings, or by splash of the rod ends into oil pools. Large, slow-
speed engines ere not readily sdaptable to cylinder lubrication by this method
and rnay have mechanical force-feed lubricators for the cylinders.
The complete lubrication system will usually include some of the following

Frc. &24 Lubricating oil extemal circuit. (Continuous centrifugiag system.)

auxiliaries external to the engine: pump, oil cleaners, oil coolers, storage and
sump tanks, gauges, and safety devices. It is quite common practice to have
enclosed crank cases $'hich eerve as oil sumps into which the oil supplied for
engine lubrication drains, .and from which it may be withdrawn by a pump.'
As oil paseee through the lubrication cycle it accumulates impurities in the
form of carbon particles, water, snd metal scrap. Continuous reliable operation
may not be expected iu a recirculating system unless definite attention is given
to oil cleaning. For this purpose flters, centriiuges, or chemical action have
been employed. Typical of mechanical filterr are cloth bags, wool felt pads,
paper discs, and cartridges of porous material. Many engineers prefer to rough-
clean the oil with simple screen type strainers, and then pase the oil through
high-speed centrifuges for ultimate cleaning. Centrifuging may be done by peri-
odic cleaning of the entire charge of lubricating oil or by continuous cleaning of
a gmaller fraction which is split ofr from the main flow and returned to the
crankcaee after cleaning. In either case, the oil should be hot before being ad-
mitted to the centrifuge.
The friction losses of an engine will appeer in part as the heating of the
lubrloating oil during its circulation through the engine. This muet be removed
by cooling the oil before recirculetion. Ordinarily, not much over 212/o ol the
I Deaedptioar of eosiDe lubric.&tiou systeEr are not poeaible iu thie book. Many of the
oil rc6!i!S compaoiec publiah ercellent[ illustruted literature on thia subject.
I74 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POIVER PLANT
heat in the fuel will find its way into the lubricating oil. By assuming this and
taking the useful output as 3O/., it, would appear that the heat to be rtmoved
from the oil would be (632.4 x0.025)/0.30 or 52.7 kcal per bhp per hr. Shell-and-
tube coolers are errrployed, gcncrally being part of the engine cquipment. The
water used to absorb the heat may be part of the engine cooling water.
Lubricating oil replaccment is no small item of Diesel engine operating cost.
Data ftom several stationary power plants show an average consumption of a
gallon per 1600 kw hr generated at full,load rating. Thus lubricating oil con-
sumption is about lft of lucl consumption. The type and quality of the lubricat-
ing oil are always spccified by the engine manufacturer. In general, slow-speed
engines operate satisfactorily on a well-refined straight mineral oil, whereas
specially treated.aid fortified oil is required for best results in heavy-duty
medium-speed and in high-speed engines. An engine lubricating oil, in addition
to preventing metal-to-metal contact, must dissipate heat lrom the upper
cylinder and bearings, wash deposits from the surface (detergency), and hold
them in suspension (dispersion). The qualities of "oiliness," film strength, and
viscosity are produced by the selection and processing of the mineral oil base.
Resistance to oxidation and foaming, detergency, dispersion, and anticorrosion
qualities are provided by adding dctergents and inhibitors to the straight
rhineral oil.
Lube oil tests are (1) oxidation, (2) sedimentation, (3) acidity, and (4)
viscosity and viscosity index. The fourth item is a most important physical
property. It governs both manufacture and application of the oil. It is commonly
graded by viscosimeter tests, but reported as an SAE number. SSU viscosities
may be converted to SAE numbers by tabulations of which Table 6-2 is an
abstract. Most reffning companies offer Diesel lubricants in SAE grades from
10 to 60 in ten-numbcr increments. Viscosity index is an, empirical number
which rates the change in viscosity with oil temperature. This index was
originally established at 0 lor asphalt base oils and 100 for parafin base oils.
Today some solvcnt rcfrncd oils have viscosity indices over 100.
Intake and Exhaust Passages. A large Diesel engine requires no inconeider-
able amount of air for combustion. An cngine needsfrom0 056 to0.084m' of air
per min per hp developed. In its natural atmospheric state the air will vary in
temperature and in dust contenl, An air intake sgstera thus becomes a necessary
part of a Diesel plant installation, and this will include a suitable engine mani-
fold in the case of rnulticylinder engines. The air system begins with an intake
Table &2. VISCOSITY CONVERSION
SAE Number ,, n.o"fr*
Urff,
10ml20
n ln 185
30 185 255
.10 255
8S[/ d, 98-rc
40 80
50 80 105
60 105 125
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 175
located outside the building provided with a filter to catch dirt rvhich would
otherwise cause excessive wear in the engine. In northern states, the outside air
may sometimes reach such low temperatures that it promotes misfiring at low
loads; consequently, the air intake system may need to have a heating elcment
using exhaust gas. The filters used may be conveniently classified by types as:
oil-impingement, oil-bath, and dry. The impingement type consists of a framc
filled with crimped wire or metal shavings. These dre coatcd rvith a special oil
so that the air in passing through the frame and bcing lrrokcn up into numbers
of small filaments comes into intimate contact with thc oil, rvhosc property is
to seize and hold any dust particles being carried bv thc air. Nhcn in service,
the cleansing capacity of this type of filter becomcs progrcssively exhausted,
and it is necessary periodically to refrcsh it lry removing, washir,g, and re-oiling.
In the oil-bath type of cleaner, the air is swept ovcr or through a pool of oil so

fTflfTI_l lr o
O
trtrtrNDtrtrtr-
I

Fro. 6-25 Typical filter and silcncer instrllation.

that the particles of dust become coated. Thc air is then caused to florv through
a filter, which retains the oil-coated dust particles. The dry type of filter is madc
of cloth, felt, glass wool, etc. The eflect of such filters is to catch tlirt by causing
it to cling to the surlace of the filter material. This type also needs to bc cleaned
at intervals, the period between cleanings bcing governed by the amount of air
which has been used by the engines and the dust concentrations in it. Occa-
sionally engine noise may bc transmitted back through the air intake system to
the outside air. In such cases, a sileneer is rcquiretl betrveen the engine and the
intale. Lightweight steel pipe is thc material lor intake ducts.
The erhaust sgstem also requircs the attention of the designing engineer
because, although the engine manufacturer will provide an exhaust manifold
for the engine, thd plant designer must, arrange for connection oi the manifold
to a suitable exhaust system which will convey the exhaust gases !o the atmos-
phere with proper provision lor the following:
l. Silencing of the exhaust noise to the required degree.
176 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT
2, Discharge of the exhaust sufrciently high above $ouad level.
3, High temperature of the exhauet gas, which may neceesitat€ wat€r-cooled
oxhaust lines or special high-temperature materials.
4. Expanaion aad contrsction due to changes in temperaturc between the
extrcmea ol full load and cold.
6. Poeeible by-product heat utilization. Wherethe exhaust ir to be employed
for buildhg heeting, or other sources of heat, such conditions neceeearily modify
the exhauet syetem.
6. Arrangement oI the exhaust system to minimize the back pressure created
by the exhauet system itself. (Header pressures ought not to be over 0.l43to
0.21 Lg/cmt gauge prersure.)
7. Ieolation of engine vibration from building and mufler oyetem by use of
s flexible section of exhaust pipe.
The exhaust system must carry approximately 0.168-0.224mloin of grses
p€r hp developed, this volume being ot the average exhaust tmpersture.
Where the exhaust from a single cylinder of o 2-cyole eagile i6 carried a dis-
tance to the heoder, there ie eome poseibility ol rtsoaaoce of prcseure vave
creating some impairment of engine operation. Thig mav need investigathg itr
some instancee, but ie of little importance in the case of {-cyole enginee or 2-cycle
multicylinder enginea having an engine manilold.
Muffiing of the exhaust noise is the main problem met in the exhaust system.
This is done in a silencer usually located outside the building. It ia customsry to
provide individual silencers for each engine. They may be of cast iron, sheet
steel, or concrete, the latter being simply
pits provided with bafres. A pipe or stack
slightly smaller than the exhaust line should
extend vertically from the silencer and
carry the gases above the building roof.
Commercial silencers, built by firmo spe-
,, cializing in acoustical engineering, are
I t, usually m&de of steel. Several principles are
to be found in the types now available on
the market. Some operate by absorption
of pressure \raves by acoustical m&teriril;
some by expansion through carefully de-
signed inner chambers in the silencer body;
and some by providing bafles, or in other
ways creating intemal friction. All designe
of silencers must necessarily create some
back pressure.
ElYdt Co-
One system of supercharging, the Buchi,
Fr(,. .,-26 Exhaust-ddven super- becomes part of the exhaust and intake
charger- systemg. In orde! to obtain increased power

ized. rhishas r,een covered in :3lH"llirtti"\:,;1f,r'fffi:';

engines and by an exhaust-gas-turbiDe,driven
":'"r1r.1" centrifugal compressor. The
construction of this unit is shown in an accompanying figure. The single-
stage turbine gnd compreesor wheele-arc mounted on the BBme shsft, urcon-
AIDilLIARY SYSTEMS I77
nect€d extemally. Exhaust gas paasing through the turbine developr the power
to give the combustion Bir an initial plenun of 3E l-508 ED. Hg. Typical location
of the supercharger is illustrated in Fig. 6-3ii. Sometimes mechanically driven
blowers are used for supercharging, but the presence of such doea not neceE-
sarily mean a supercharged engine, for all but the slow-speed, crankcase-
compression, 2-cycle Diesels require blowers for scavenging air.
Starting I.C. Dngines. The cycles of these engines must be externally moti-
vated until the essentials of fuel-air-ignition are correlated and power ensues.
Spark-ignition engines are employed mainly in the smaller sizes----on auto-
motive and portable equipment where the compression ratio to be overcome in
cranking is only 5 to 7. Iland and electric motor (6-12 v d-c) cranking are
practical.
The high compression pressures of the full Diesel make it difficult to etart
even the smallest Diesels by hand cranking and, in general, Diesel engines must
be started by a mechanical cranking system. Compressed air, electric cranking
motors, and auxiliary gasoline engines are used. Large stBtionsry Diesels are
started with compressed air.
In addition to compressed air for starting, the air injection types require an
injection air system; also some solid injection types have a scavenging air sys-
tem. A mechanical injection engiue, having no air compressor cylinder as tn
integral part, requires the separately driven compressor for starting air.
Two or more compressed air storage tanks, or "bottles," are provided. A
small compressor is installed either as a normal or emergency supply of com-
pressed air to recharge the storage tanks. An air injection engine has an integral
compressor, and oir may be bled from the injection system for the purpose of
recharging the starting tanks. Starting air pressure needs to be between t4 and
42 kglcm2.
During the starting period, compressed air ie admitted to one or more of the
eagine's cylinders. This powers the engine much the same as steam works in a
steam engine. The in,jection pumps are inoperative while speed is being gained
under air power. Then sir is tumed ofi, and oil injection is started while the
(drifts" on its momentum.
engine An engine in proper condition will fire im-
mediately if it is a high-compression type with considerable margin of assurance
of ignition. When cold, the oil eugines with lesser compression ratios and smaller
eylinders require the use of expedients suc.h as electric glow plugs in the cylin-
derc, continued operation by external .power from a gasoline engine until
warmed by the heat of compression, or auxiliary flame heaters for the intake air.
Cooling System. The temperatures existing inside engines would disintegrate
the film of lubricating oil on the cylinder liners and otherwise render the engine
unservice'able by warping of valves, pistone, etc., were they not cooled by circu-
lating water through jackets surrounding the heated parts. The operation of
cooling and recirculating this water accounts for much of the plant auxilisry
equipment. Small engines may be served with a cellular heat etchanger,.
through which the air is drawn by means of a fan, the water being broken up
by the flow through the radiator cells into numerous small streams ofrering
large surlace exposure and treing rapidly cooled by the conduction of heat to
the air. Although this is a compact form of hest transfer equipment for small
r Oftetl' erroneowly alled a "radiator."
I78 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT
engines, it is inferior to euaporatiue cooli.ng lor power plants. Cost, bulk, and
auxiliary power required all favor the latter.
The calculations necessary to determine the amount of cooling water re-
quired are simple. The most difrcult part is to fix upon the jacket inlet and
<.rutlet temperatures. If the water is too cold, the emciency suffers; and it
should not rise above82.2'Cptherwise there mBy be danger of insufficient cool-
ing with resulting failure of the lubricating film. The theoretical limits might
be put at 37.8' inlet to 65.6" outlet, giving a27.8\ise. As a matter of fact, more
unilorm thermal conditions are obtained by circulating the water more rapidly
than that would indicate. An examination of current practice discloses the fact
that temperature rises in actual use vary all the way from I l" to 27.8', with a
majority in the range froml9.4' to 25orise. Inlet water temperatures are gen-
erally from26.7'o32.2'and outlet temperatures from 43.3' to 54.4".
\f 3O/o is taken as the thermal efrciency ar,d 32/o as the loss to cooling
water, then the weight of water per hour per brake horsepower is

, 631.1 l x 0.32 nr
' = (/,, /' >( o3o kgPer Per
nP

From this comes the following equation relating cooling water to brake horse-
power.

u : 674.58
bhp (6-1.6)
h-tr
in which p: cooling water, I per hr.
bhp : 11u1"6 brake horseporver.

11, l, : Inlet, outlet, water temperatures "C,

-B
G
N c
1t EE[[E
oooog o?
.{

:i' H H-

A-Surle or f,xDansion Tdk E-R.w Varer Br3itr L-R.w lvar.. Pun'D

r H;t \ry€I Mav Be U*d
lnsread of S;rg. Tank) C-To*er By-p!$ V.lv. N*Vrr.. Dnch.r.c iroo tnlin.
E-Lrhri.!.itrs Oil Cool.r
C-Automati. Air Vcnt I-traw IV,t.. MrL..uD Cor&ctio!
D-Heat Excha0ger K-J L.t W.lcr Pum;
Frc. 6-27 Closed cboling system with torver. (Courtesy D.UM.4.)
EYAPORATIVE COOLING I79
The engine builder, of course, provides thc jackets around the cylinders,
their interconnections, cxhaust manifold cooling, lube oil coolcrs, and any
other water cooling passages which are considered standarcl cnginc equipment.
But the pumps which cleate thc flow through thcsc passrgcs, the external.
circuits for cooling water flow, and the rvater cooling cquipment- are the respon-
sibility of the plant designer. Sometimes the same water that undergoes evapo-
rative cooling is circulated through the engine (open systcm), but this is not
recommended on account, of the variable impurity content of water so used.
The closed system wherein the engine cooling water circulates around a elosod
pipe circuit is best. The r^'ater al)sorl)s heat in thc cnginc and releases it to rarv
water flowing in anothcr circuit, ria a h.cot erchqnqer.
The $attr in the plirnary, or cnginc, circuit lnust, be free frol.r. impurities
which uould {orm a scalc on the inside of the rvatcr jackcts. Thc action of scale
on the Dicsel cnrine ,iackcts is similar in cffcrt to that on a boiler tube. Rq-
duction of hcat transmission causcs the surfaccs in contact rvith hot gases to
become overheatcd, even though ample rvater circulatcs through the rvater pas-
sages. In the boilcr. the result is a burned tube; in the Dicsel, it is scored cylin-
ders, trlistcd crankshafts, etc. An inrlircct or doublc-cir.cuit s1'stcrn is shown in
Fig.6-27. The s'atcr circulatcd throrrrh thc cngilc jackcts is not exposed to
evaporation loss, but is inrlilectly coolcrl by .flou'ing throuah pipc coils over
which rarv cooling u,ater drips. Tlris hcrt cxchrngcr. is nr,lc up of standard
5qmm . pipe allowing 6bout I .5m of pipe per engine horsepower. Initeadol a prpe
lteat exchanger as shown, a commcrcial slrcll-aurl-trrlrc coolcr. or a submcrged
pipc coil in the cooling tou'er basin may bc u-scrl. Thc cquiprnclt of such a
systcm corsists of pipcs and fittings of aplrroplittc sizc, purnps (generally
motor-rlriyen centrifugals), exltan-sion tank, ratl rvrrtcr tnakcup, enrcrgcncy
l ater feed into thc prirnary circuit, lrlc-.surc gaugcs, thcr.uromcter, and & \ratcr
cooler. As the latter is the most exltcnsir-r,, llrlkr', and thcrmodynamicalll'
tccluri,..rl portion oI the cooling systcu, tlrc lrr.occss ol rr.nlrorative cooling rvili
Irc consirlcrcd in somc clctail in thc next sccliol.
6-7 Evaporatlve Cocrirng. Thc atrnosplrclc is lr rtixtull. of air and watet
vapor'. in ploportionS described by the term huntitlity.It r4rcly contains all thc
vapor it is capable of holding, and when it docs its vapor-holding capacity can
be further increased by rrarming it. In any process rvherein more water is
vaporized into the arr the proper latent heat of evaporation must be supplied
from some source. Under certain conditions this source can be the internal
energy of the liquid rvater fLom which thc vapor is being produced. \Yhat
liquid remains after the vapor has passed off is found to be considerably coolcd.
The practical application of this to thc Diesel plant is vorked out in cooling
apparatus rvhich is designed to expose a large surfacc of rvarm waier to an air
flow, thereby humidifying the air and cooling the rcmaining water. The forms
of this apparatus* are: (1) atmospheric cooling torvcrs, (2) mcchanical drtrft
cooling towers, and (3) evapor&tivc coolcrs.
The cooling action is the -sanre in all of them. Air is humidified; some of the
warm rvater goes ofr into thc atrnosphcrc snd frcsh \rater must be added to the
systcln to take its placc. The makcult is 2--:t% of thc rvater flol'.
rCooliag poDds, once in considerable use, arc Dot fayore(l now becruse oi the cc,m-
paretively large.rea lhey rcquirc. Spray ponds rre much smaller {or the snme coolio8 job,
but they arr infrequeot compared to the apparatus rlescribed.
I8O INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANI
Atmospheric towers are long, narrov structures of considerable height
placed with the long axis normal to the prevailing wind. They are built to
utilize horizontal wind movements. Decks of wooden lattice inside the struc-
Ovrrheod
Tonl(

Vint.r to*, V[hr

Ovr
l,lokeUpr

sP-y
Droin
-1
So{+
t ffi
Vd}.r
Ro*
Row
to Erh
VHcrSupply
Errcrg. Row

Stwrr
Coolcr
€mr.g. Row
\^ro+rr Supply
t
Wol.r Sirlten.r
Frc. 6-28 Closed cooling water system using soft water coolers and spray pond

ture serve to break up g stream of water released at the top o{ the tower so that
it rains down through the air currents and iB evaporetively cooled. This type is
not often uscd with Diesel plants.
The cooling tower in Fig. 6-27 is on natural draft. Air circulation in obtained
through the levity of a confined column of warm air. The performance ol these
js best with high water temperatures
WARI'I AIR OUI and if.built es a high structure. They
SATUMTEO SPEAY
LIHINA'TORS are fairly common as adjuncts to small
plants.
RM WAIER
With a fan providing dependable air
SEAY NOZZLES
rlovement, a cooling tower does not
TOWER F'LUN6
5I,AIS TO AIO have to be as high as with natural draft.
l/lla^/lA According to the fan location, the
IYATER EXPOSURE
A\A &A \A
(,OLE()
l a\a l\l a-A ANI AI tower is classificd as forced or induced
Y/ATER
I{ORMAL
AIy0sPHtRrc draft. The principle is explained and a
HUT,IIOITY typical cross-section shown in accom-
panying illustrations. When this cooler
is built entirely of steel, including a
CATCH BASIN I'IOTOR vtN Leat exchanger for cooling the water of
Fro. 6-29 Principle of forced-draft cool- the engine circuit -it.is called an "ev&p-
ini tower. orative cooler." Wiih sheet metal ducts
arranged to lead air to and from it, this
cooler may be located indoors in engine rooms, utility rooms, etc. It has somc
use in Diesel practice, but most coolers are cither natural or forced draft out-
door towers.
Some senaible heat is transferred from water to air in the tower, but the
latent heat of evaporation of the water vaporized is the main source of he&t
 EYAPORATIVE COOLING I8I
transfer. The degree ol cooling action is limited by the vapor that can be ab-
sorbed before the air reaches saturation humidity at its leaving t€mperature.
Counterflow principle is employed because the natural direction oi air being
heated is up-flow whereas gravity assists the down-florv of water. The outgoing
air comes in contact n-ith the warmest water, thus giving the maximum it
capacity to absorb vepor.
- The water vapor carried by air is determined by hygrometry, customarily
with wet-and-dry bulb thermometers such as the sling psgchrometer. \yiti
psychrometric charts (see Bppendix) these temperatures can be converted into
humidity data. The chart can be used to obtain relative humidity (a percent.
age) and specific humidity, i.e., the water vapor in kgperlgdryair Thc
following symbols will be employed iu explaining the cooling action.

SHr, SH, : Specific humidity of entering, leaving air.

u- = lYater circulating per kg dry air, kg.
aru = i\{akeup vater per kg clry air, kg,
,' - Makeup rvater t€mperrture, .C
,., ,b : Temper&ture of wlter in, out, 'C.
hr, [u : Enthalpy of moist air, in, out, J/kg dry slr.
An equation of mass balance for the cooling tower is:
l kg air f SHr * ro- f Aur : ltg air * SHr * ra. (et7)
The corresponding heat balance is:
ht * w*hu * Awhe = hz * u.ha (C.18)
\Yith these equations and the chart, the florvs needed at assurtred pBychro-
metric data can be calculated for design purposes, and the working fieiform-
ance of a cooling tower can be determined from test dats.
Examplc l: The florvs through c cooling torver suitable fo! the cooling Eystem of
a l27o-hp Diesel engine rvill be investigated. Consider the equipment to be iepresented
bv Fig. 6-13. Datr for the installation are: Engine water into heat excbanger 6s.6., out
37.8';_to\rer Nt-ter into heat exchalrgerg2.g" out48.go, all C.otigmdo. I\.Iake-up water 8t
l;.6'c. Atmospheric pressure, t.oa t g/cl[ ab; dry bulb, 29.{rc; wet bu.lb, 2l:r.C. From
Eq er6,
ti?{.rt x 1270
r, - _6;;:l _: so8l8 I pcl hr .
Let 1,. be the wet€r florv in the cooling torver circuit.
({8.9 - :t2.2)r,w
- (65.6 32.8) 3o8rs; @w : 6l&)0 t/hr
- : 866 k!/ltiD
This cnters the to$cr at ,s,g.c. The theoretical maximum humidified state of the air
leaving is. 48.SpC ct 100% humidity. This crnnot be obtained as actual performance.
There *'ill be a temperature difference of
"ceveral degrees: the smaller and cheaper the
tover, the grcater this tempemturc diflerenti&I. Also it is not possible to achieve a fully
saturrted state on the outgoing air. Assume here a 6.6. difreiential and 90y'7 outgoini
hrrmidity.
 IE2 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT

peraturB SII1 = 0.0t23 t8 and 11 = z0o0t J/Ls. hSitue

FroD s psychrometric chart (Appndir) .t 2s.a. dry b 0od 2r.t.r€t bulb tcm-
the 6!al stst€ Islls out-
side the limits of this chsrt, the iollowiag equations are provided.

Sr : .mozr nn (-*-) rrlper tgary &ir (G19)

\p. - p,l
- t0lt.a d + lt(ll6.? + gE x tg pcr Lg dry oit
,r (ezo)
wherc te - Dry butb temper&ture, 'C.
RII - Perceut relrtive humidity.
p. - gaturstioD preEsure oI wster vapor &t d.
p. = Atmospheric pressure.
[. = Enthalpy rt ta, dry and saturated, ,lltg
gubstitut€ h F,q &19,

slrn : 6.6s626 x go x ro0-.%.. = 0.0595 r.s.

,h - lor3.r x €.3 + 18016.? + O.O6$t x f5$ll(t - mooglt J/tq.

Now Eqs &U snd il18 &re Eet up.
EO tetZl Ao : 0.0&35 - 0.0123 :
0.0412 ks nrke-up per Lg air
Eq (e18) '!rq)tt + 204780 rrw + 06610 x o.oll2 :
,OO08S + Itr0OC l,w
froo which u. : 1.7 kS w&ter per Lg dry air flowing.
Since eso kg water are needed pler min, the air flow i8 tJ6 /f-7 : 6Gt tg per mir..
specific volume of,air gt 2o.r"and l. =21.1" i8
.ls 503The> 0.86, 0,862 r rkg hence the air flow
: {33.0 ot/oin -
N{akeup w&t€r is orrgxo,oal'.- ,0.i Ltper min.
A performance coefficient for evaporative coolers, called ,,cooling efficiency,,,
is given by the following equation.

actu,ll c:oli1F range

cooling efficiency
": ,,
theoretical eooling range

Cooling efficiency : (G2t)

lrhglg r, - Atmospherir wet =

bllb temperature; other syrgbols as previously used.
The average coolihg efrciency of spray ponds i approxiirately Eti/o; of
natural draft cooling towers, 60/o; and of forced draft cooling towers,70/o.
Manufacturers base their efficiency guarantees on winds of B to 5 mph normal
to the long axis.
The efficiency of the apparatus in the sample example is (48.9- 32.2)/4S.9-
2t.llor 60%.
I.- f5is 5.6- 16.7'C. tr'snpower is typically3.75 hp
The practical cooling range
per 1000 water cooled. The value of l- to be used in. deeiF needE to be I
compromise between the highest for the vicinity, and some lesser value that will
. Note thst 865(rt'0 - 32'')''10
iD r dry coolar ttro uhimuo & rquirorncotr tqrld hrvG bco
r (66'6 - 2o'')
= 1063 kgler min.
TESTING PLANT PERFORMANCE I88
give a less expensive cooling tower. One authority recommende that L be
ielected ae that recorded wet bulb temperature which will not be exceeded for
more than 200-300 hr per ennum. The difrerential ,b - ,, iB aleo important to
cooling tower size and cost. The emaller this difrereace, ihe larger the tower.
The economic range is 10'-20' F.

r''*:""*__
d ll d (
Tt"

I
Fotrer Whcslet Co.

Frc. 6-30 Low-head forceddrafi cooling tower,

6E Testing Plant Performance. The operation of a Diesel plsnt i8 o

routine of eupervision, inspections of the equipment, and rgadings of pressuirs,
temperatures, and electrical dbta. Yerification of normal operating conditions ie
achieved mostly by watching pressure and temperature instruments. Fautts
and tJ"nendinS troubles usually show up by abnormal temperaturee. If these
are detected soon enough, some may be corrected without intermption of
service I in other cases damage may be avoided by a preventive ehut-down.
The Diesel ie 8n all-metal machine enclosing fiery gas without benefit of
refractory protection; hence its temperatures are most important. It is critical
to the malfunctioning of any of its auxiliaries; hence indicating thermometers,
preesure gduges, and automatic waming signals for dangerous conditions ehould
be liberally, albeit intelligently, applied by the plant designer.
From time to time the operating stafr may wish to ma[e teets of individual
elements of the plant for the purpose of determining their condition or checking
performance after some adjustme.nts have been made. The acceptance of newly
purchased equipment is customarily breed on f,este which seek t{r discover
whether equipment lives up to claims made for it, or substantiatee contractual
guarsnt€e8 ofiered by seller to purchaser. The ASME Test Code foms a con-
venient, carefully worded set of directione Ior such teete. This oode ig too vo-
184 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT
luminous to be exhibited here, but the following may be said of it. The Code
prescribes tests with appropriate preliminary calibrations and agreements on
iolerances, methods, ui". Ii of course, the determin-4tion of specific
"oreis,
thermal performance, but also leads to secondary testing which may be ol even
greater importance to operators, viz, adequacy of speed control,-cyclic irregu-
Lrity, and governor cliaracteristics. The Diesel Engine Manufacturers' As-
sociation alJo has a suggested Field Test Code which is often used as the basie
of acceptance tests of stationary engines.
Diesel engines for porver plants are usually equipped for indicator testing
-Electroni;
of the cycle. indicators are required for high speed. They are also
sood for low specd. but there the mechanical indicators are practical, as well
is much simpler u,id .h"rp... For speeds up to 350 rpm the pressure-volume
type is satisfactory. For higher speeds, up to 1000 rpm, the mechanical pressure-
time indicator is used. High-speed electronic indicators also give pressure-time
data. This is of limitecl value for cycle analysis; however, it can be converted
to the p-u type by graphical means, then used in the customary manner for
determining mean efiective pressure, power, valve action, etc.
Example 1: Given the engtrne p-r diagram of Fig. 6l-31A, to construct a' p-'
diagram.
-1.
The Rod:Crank ratio of this engine is 4.
Locate TDC (Top Deod Center) of the successive cycles and divide the time
axis betrveen them inlo a suitable even uumber of parts.
2. Select a suitable length lor the p-o diagram and, using it as a diametet, dra\r s
semicircle (Fig. B).
3. Divide ihe arc of this semicircle into half the number oI parts used in sub-
divirling the p-r diagraEl.
4. F-rom ihese points of division swing arcs which wilt locate the horizontal position
of the ordinates upon which pressures are laid ofi. The radius is the semicircle I
radius multiplied by the Rod:Crank ratio. Finally transfer the ordinates from the p-t
diagram and drarv in the p-o outli[e.
Thi Diesel indicator diagram, such as that shown in Fig. 6-32, has compres-
sion and expansion lines roughly polytropic in nature' The average value of
the exponeni zr for the expansion or compression curve is sometimes wanted for
the purpose of analyzing part of the engine performance. Theoretically the
same n-should exisl all along each curve. Actually heat tr*nsfer conditions

1 T

B0c

0
obc I e c bo 0

Atmo.phoric tl n.

tr'rc. 6-31 Transformation of indicator diagram from pressure-time to pressure-volume'

TESTING PLANT PERFORMANCE I85
between gas and cylinder walls vary during the stroke and the polytropic cx-
ponent fails to be constant. The best way of determining thc average value is
to plot the curve on logarithmic axes, as is done in thc illustration. Then a
atraight line is averaged through the plotted points. The tangent of this line is
a, In the example used, the tangent
was measured and found to be 1.32. .o
line is: pur'rz =
r00

50 Il ]ilil
rl! aattlt lr-
-
Ifence the expaneion !! tf arllll IIT
c.
Performance testing includes the
E
o 20 il tlrtr
:30 I !!=r
taking of meny dats, much of lshich E
ia "just for the record" and is not :25
subsequently employed in calcula-
tions of efficiency and heat balance. '20 T l 1
Datir pertinent to determining en- o t5
erry distribution are those which .00t .Di3 '!06.01 .0?.0!
implement calculations for heat bal- o.l0
ance. Theee are power, flows of fuel
coolant, snd exhaust gas, tempera- 5
tures of these flows, and quality of
the fuel. Engine builders are able to o 0ol 0.02
make 6hop tests for bhp with dy- yorurE-n,'
namometers direct-coupled to- the p,o. G32 Indicator cord of 10,, X I5,,trvo-
engines,- but when these- are plant- cycle Die.e1 l.J, Logarithmic
installed they are part of an. engine- Dlot of "n!in".
the expansion curve.
generator unit &nd not ordinarily
open to direct measurement of shaft power, The generator output is measurable
by electrical instruments, leaving bhp to be determined (l) by use of a gcn-
erator efficiency or (2) by adding to generated output the individual generator
losses, e.g.:
1. l2R losses of generator Btator and rotor coils.
2. Core losses.
3. Stray load losses.
Table 63. STANDARD DEDUCTIONS *
(Engine Generator Effi ciencies)
DEMA "Standard Practices"
Deductions from NIIMA
Generator Efficiencies
Full toad NEMA Full Thren-Quarlo Holf
C.gnerator Efficiency Laon Loon Lood
88:1 to 89 4.0 5.1 8.0
89.1 to 00 3.5 4.6 7.2
90.1 to 91 3.1 4.0 6.3
9l.l ra 92 2.6 3.4 5.4
g2.l to 93 2.1 2.8 4.6
93.1 to 94 1.7 2.2 8.7
94.1 to 95 1.2 1.8 2.8
95.1 to 96 o.s 1.1 2.0
i See Appeudir for NEMA Strnded Dffciencies. Fig. A-16.
186 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT
4. Exciter losses (irr;plies engiue-driven exciter).
5. Field rheostat losses.
6. Bearing friction 4nd windage losses.
7. Cable losses (leade from generator to switchboard).
These may be determined by electrical testing in odvance of engine testing;
however, if the generator is built to trade standards, the NEMA standard
generator efficiencies are used since they are correct *ithin the limits of ac-
curacy of field tests. However, these standard efficiencies do not include items
4-7 of the foregoing list; consequently from them should be deducted the al-
I6wances shown in Table 6-3, which are an estimate of these items.
"If a test is made at constsnt load for t min, the watt-hour meter readings
being W1 and fl22 8t the Btart and end of the test, then

Generated Power : ( I'[z - "t X @

Wr)

Calculatione of power and efficiency were treated in Sec 6-4.

Ileat dietribution is determined by calculating all items except the "friction,

ntalrina Cl,lEl O6.d!a Oiit Wth Edr tti6 llrata

(
A t c , r r G lt I , r
ItJ
lar!l yt LA'LT -l.rr-f , .toJ 3.1r2 o.r* ,..1 2!t+6 t.'872 2.L97 o.8 o'6t?
tlllt5 ?.lqtt6 6.350 rqp ++ro o.306 2.+ 2-.1+l I'E7L ,.L71 o.l o-€31
Ltal L69fr c,88 t.g9 +1U o'26 L.+ L ?+5 ,.3?2 L'r11 o.8 o.6yl
tlr!a t+3t L.olra 6. +4 o.Y5 L,+ 2. -t41 1.212 2,'lil- oi o 69q,
tlr$-* a38$ 5 -q* t .o, ,'lt2 , 504 ogd 2..1 ,.t+i 1.3'r7 7..A79 ot o"w
,lrrs 635
ZA I7L c,5o., t .at +.124 7.@4
O.ao6_ L.1 ,.a$ l37Z *+'n ot 6189
i+!tr* 2t r.86 7.o10 A o83+.lll ,..6* o.3o€ L4 ,.a+{ t.212 2.*n ol o.'rt+
llti,litc t50 "r.saq t:l+ 6 L 5 ,9 ,,.*tf * +7' o.1

c. &33 Dimensions of Nordberg 4-cycle unsupercharged and supercharged engines.

5, 6,7, and 8 cylinde$, tl.o2oq bore x alg! ltrol(s.
 TESTING PI,ANT PERFORMANCE 187
radiation, aDd un&ccounted" losses, then flnding these by the difierence between
heating value of the firel and the sum of all other items.
Cooling loss is found by testing for qusntity of cooling water flow and its
rise of temperature. Piston coolant, if employed, should be included, but not
lube oil cooling, as that is friction energr. Exhaust loss includes heat of the
racAl form, as welJ as the latent heat ofwater vapor in the products, which may
be taken as the difrerence between Q1 and Q1. The quantity flowing may be
determined from gn orifice box attached to the air inlet, or from exhaust gas
me&Burements which, coupled with luel analysis, can give the air-fuel ratio.'
This ratio, used with the measurcd rate of fuel consumption, gives the mass flow
to the engine which uecessarily is also that of the exhaust gas.
Fuel messurement€ for acceptance tests are required to be made by direct
weighing. Temperature and gravity of the fuel oil should be taken frequently
during a test.
Example 2: A Diesel-eugiae power plaut was given a test of 45 min duretion,
with results here givel. The various pedormance quantities that these data 6x will be
calculated. The ergine is 8-cylinder, 2-cycle, 87,17 oa x $.72 clrrx'267 rpm, dilect-
conDected to a_ 750-kw getrerator. Electrical output was read by watthour meter, F1
7562 kw hr, W2 8087 kw hr. Fuel quantity was measured by direct weighing,lsS.? t t
for the ruu. 'Water flow by Venturi meterllit8 UDin in at 35rc J out at {8.loc . Average
fuel temperature, 23.9rc ; S.G.; 0.921. Atmospheric temperature, t8.3'C ; exhaust ges,
808.9'c. AveBg€ mean efeotive preaeurc ol indicator csrds tskea during t€Bt, 6.73!gloa2
?ower used for plaDt pumps, {0 kw. During the test exhaust gas analysis determined
tb&t the Air-Fuel ratio was 26.62.
Powt Co,laiotions:
Generator output = (8087 -
7562) X @/45 T00kw :
This ie 93.4/6 of rated load. NEMA efficiency is 94.0/a. Correction from Table 63 ig
1.4/6; rct, efrciercy - 92-g/o.
bhP:766716.*U X o.?e0) - lo% hp

!. 7tt x 4.72 x
gf x r0z x s
ihp = : lffihp
440703
Ftul Oil Calculations:
Correction factor on S.G. of fuel oil : -- .] : ,.*U
I - 0.00072(23.9 - 16.0)
s.G. at15.6/r6.0"= 0.921X 1.006:0.927-
&8,
From Eq 8L : 61716
- 8?03.8x o.027r: {4169 4s
G9,
f'rom Eq Hz : 26 - 15 X 0.927 : l2.1qo
Calculate Qr: 14t69 - g x o.tzr>t lr.7:41490 4g
Rate of fuel consumption = r08.?X *8 : 22a.9 LSper hr
bi : D1.911912 : 0.164 L8 per ihp hr
wb:t2A.9ll0r.8: 0,2rs Lg per bhp hr
* T.lrese calculations, equivalentr to those for fumace combustion as set forth in Chap-
teri, are not duplicat€d here.
188 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT
Eficiency Calanlatime:
From Eq &13, ?rt : :oas/(o.roa x a.r@) - 10.6% based on Qr
From Eq &14, ?rb : 26aA(0.r30 x +ll(A) - 27.57o ba.*d ot Qt
Plaut efliciency, ?e = (7(n-a) x L0x l0t/(l%.0 x lO x .{160) = 20;l%
Engine mechonical e6ciency, ,- = lo!d/l8m -7a8\o
ENOINE HEAT BAI,ANCE-DIST'IiIBU1'ION OF EEAA ENEROI @
Iteit loUbr %
1. grfiil ortpEt : tor6 x o0t.{ Caa,tio N,6
2. Oooliog lor : 1186 x 0O x I0r({A.l - t6} 160,N 8I.s
3. Erlrort lc I (Oce no' : ,,l,S x t6.0t + ,l.e
: 6lff.7 ka Per h!)
A, h6t, 081I.7 x 0.r66(30E.0*r8.!)
r.,c - fir,?10
L.t ot h6.tt 94.0(a'1160 - rltog} x 0.2t0t - 16p69
7,tr,,r0 ,{6't70 tl.6
4. FliotitD, tsdi.tiotr ond u,l.molrnt d br (difil sl40m el
Tot r(rr4.oQh)x0.I9t : 110C600 tm

PROBLEMS
1. Plot the cycte eD&lyred in Example l, Sec 6-2, to acalee of lo|B=t Lg/ot!r8,ndt@
- o,ool'm. Calculate a similar cycle having same itritial state, same r, and same
remperature at point 3, brit rvith n = 1.35. Then superimpose a plot of this cycle on the
original example for comparison of pressures and areas.
2..A hypothetical Diesel cyele is to be plotted as rvas doue in Prob. 6-1 for data
as followa: p', 0.0 kg/omt sb: compreesion prtasure' 38.?L3loDrot; tr,l6,6"c; R,zl,t
n, 136; 26 ola x 38 om cylinderc
3. Using Prob.6-2 data, calculate (1) ideal thermal efficiency (with tz = 1.35 ia
place of 7), (2) mean effective pressure, (3) power lrom a 6-cylinder, 4-cycle, 327-rpm
engine operating on this cycle.
4. An ideal air stalldard Diesel cycle (except tt = 1.35) begins with &ir at le0,
supercharged to 1,2 kglcmr at , sud attails sD€frcielcy \ of qqo-Wilh the help of Fig
6-5, determine comDression retio, minimum perEissible suctioD 8ir temDgr&ture, s,!d
maximum t€apereture of the cycle for op€rstipD with a "mstgiD of aseurance" of
igrition of E3.B'c
5. Plot the air standard Diese! cycle beginring with pr t.o2 kglomt ab, ,r 83.2qC, l,,l
0.028 mt. IUax. cyclc temp€rature,l0!?'C ; r,lS.Scsles: lcm* 3 tg/cmt Icm : 0.00, Dt
Fiod work dooe per cycle, and 4,.
6. The specific gravity of oil tested at 20.{"c is 0.652. Find its API degrees.
7. IIoN'ma,ny heat uDits are there in a staDdard l5.o' litrs of fuel oil? When this
was tested rt 6.0rc,a l6,0"hydrometer sank to the 0.8966pccific gravity level.
8, Estimate tLe 8L of 18" API ftiel oil.
i. U.irg -"ai"" ifita from Fig. 6-15, find ihe oil storage volume, n: , needed for
a two-srek supply of 25' API fuel oil to operate a lou hp eDgine TOYo ol the ljl.rc al
fuli load, 1016 at 3/a load.It i8 idle 20% of the time.
10. The load curve given in Prob. 2-13 is to be considered typical for a plant con-
*This is.c" for the 18.3-30Of range for typical exhaust gas. Method of eetimothg
average c, oI products of combuslion is giYetr itr Chapter 5.

@ Iloot balsroo worLod out in keal/hr.

I Mulliplier for coavorting J/3 to kcaULS,
PROBLEMS 189
t8iliug two 35&.kw aud one 500-kw Desel engine getrerators. With help from Fig. 6-15,
estimste the lltt4 mrDimum daily consumptiou of 20' API oil. Compute the avereg€
daily thermal efficiency.
ti. FiDd the higher and lower beating value per lirE oI distillate fuel oil of some
assumed, or assigned, API degrees.
12. An engine o! test developed [54 bhp steadily for 30 min during which it cou-
Eumed 16.14 k8 fuel. This same fuel when tested at 2t,yc with.s 16,0r hydromet€!, showed
g.C, of 0.905. Calculate thermal emcieocy, bes€d on bhp and Q1.
13. Write'tb€ ldeal combustion re&ction of fuel oil considered.as C16FI66; also the
reaction ,with sufficient air to yield A : tr' ratio of ,10 : I .
1,1. Fird the percent excess &ir reprcsented by 32:1 A-F ratio rith Cetane es the
fuel.
15. The oir flow to sDeeel elgiae ie measured as 3?.6sstl6ln at fE.yC t.O2 Lg.loro! .b
at'a time wheu the fuel0oE iE 1.02 kCper min. AssuEe thst the fuel is Cr.Hroand deterF
mhrs tbe lErcetrt exces rir.
16. Assume that the cycle analyzed ia Ex 1, Sec 6-2, is produced wiih a fuel of
Qr, = alslo Jh per lb. Assuming cn = r.06 J/grc, 6ud A:F ratio.
17. What ideal thermsl efficiency is possible from a Diesel having r = 15, A:F =
tlo:1, Qo = 12800 J/g? TEle cD = l.06 J/Cc, tr = 16.6"c.
18. A !0.37 oE x 66.88 om x 3n4@,l&cyliader, 4-cycle stationsry Dieael enigine
is cornGcted to s Al25-Nvs ($% !'ower f8ctor) generstor. It also drives o 3o.kw
exciter. Agalme a gdcieacy ol V2/6 atd determiDe bmep at Bted loed.
19. Specificatious of a 4.cylinder, 4-cycle gar engine areto.l6on x l6.2aon 900 rpEr.
Mechanical efficieucy,86/6. Find the kw output of a direct-connected generator ol g0y'e
efrciilrcy, wheu the indicsted mep is 7.?8 t8/o8!.
20. Aa eugiry-type geneBtor witb 30 poles generates 3-phase, 60-rycle curent at
600 v. Its r&ted butput is 400 k!r. Epgiue specifications: ao.o{oEx 60.8cm. Fitrdl,he brskc
mbp exieting wheu line cumDt iB 360 amp; p6ve! fsctor, 0.8.
21. &timate the electric&l power output ot a uoit cousisting of a Wo-bhp, ,77-rym
Diesel engine direct-corrnected to a $0-cycle, 2400-v, 0.8 power factor generator.
2. Make a scaled layout, plan and elevatior, of a Diesel power plant as assigned
or, altemately, to carry the load depcribed in Prob.2-13. No auxiliaries need be shown.
Proportion engine foundations in accordance with prinoiples of Chapter 4. Use iaforma-
tion from Figs. 19, 25, and 33 of this chapter.
23. Diagram a fuel oil supply system suitable for the plant ol Prob.6-22, aud
determine (1) storage tank requirerrrents; (2) day tank sizes based on 6 hr mnning
cspacity at 50fi use lactor. Monthly deliveries by trailer truck.
24. Find 7tu and bmep of an 8-cylinder, 4-cycle Diesel engine which is direct-co!-
lected to s 230Gv, 3-pb8se generstor reted 8t125O kw. EEgine specifcstioDs are 80.870lu
x65.88oh x 327 rpltt. During 8 te8t this unit used 260.6 k8 fuel oil of 44660 4g heat:
iDg value. Wattmeter readings at the start and finish of the one-hour test weie 25,156
and 26,378 kv. I'or electdcal efrciencies use NENIA data, corrected by Table 6-3.
25. Dagram the three fuel supply systems described in Sec 6-6.
26. Esiimate the fuel storage tank capacity ior a Diesel plant having 5000 kw
inetalled capacity. Expected plant capacity lactor,55/o, Fuel contmct is to be made lor
semi-monthly delivery, but allow 7N/e extra for cortingency. Also determine the gpm
transfer pump capacity.
27. Find the necessary litres crpacity of a day tark large enough for 4-hr full-load
op€ration of the engine described in Prob. 6-24. Assume an average fuel rale from Fig.
6-15.
28. Diagram a fuel supply system lor a plant having one engine uith supply from
day tank, two storage tanks, fuel delivery lrom tank truck. Include all necessary
meterc, filters, pumps, etc.
I9O INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT
29. Cooling water for a 60? hp Diesel ergine is pump€d to a cooling tower at m'
c. It is desired to cool the trater to a maximum t€mperaturc of t7.8'under an atmos-.
phere condition bf 8c.a dry bulb temperature,rr.S wet bulb temperature. l.ind re-.
quired capacity snd efrciency ol the cooling tower.
30. A Diesel plant has a cooling Bystem employiag a cooling tower that loses to the
'When
stmosphere approxim&tely |Vo of. t\e water circulating. the two to?-hp engines
&re operated at full load on an average day the tower cools the trater lrom 64.1 to tf .
What should the capacity of a water softeniDg plant for the makeup be, in l/miD .
31. Diagram the water cooling system of the plant of Prob. &22. Include forced
draft cooling tower, Ehell-and-tube hest exchaDger, raw li,ater softener. Det€rminelrEiD
flow in various parts o{ the system. Tower cooling efrciency, 70%. Design wet-bulb
tempetaturc,D.g'0. Engine cooliug watar discharge, e,5.0.c i inlet, ag.!rc . Towet iDlet
veter 6eC .
32. Rtr;pf,l Prob. 3l for a plant containing one olo-bp engine,
33. A eooling tower, needed in conjunction with an I.C. engine plaDt, will be re-
quired to cool 081 UEin wa.ter at 06.6'S enteiDg tempela,ture. Atmospheric pressure,
t.o8tg/oar;Cry-bulb,2r.8c; wet-bulb, z.iqo. Forced dralt tower with 68y'p cooling
emclelcy. Calculate B.eke-up (8.6'c) flow, air flow, and estimate fan power, Assume
air out of tower a.t c(Irc ,90% humidity.
34. Find tlmin loss of water due to evaporatively cooling an inlet flow oft7olt/mn,
water in a cooling tower from 00oC to 40.1'C. Atmosphe c dry-bulb,26.?rc; wet-bulb,
sl.l'o. Air discharge at m.26c ; 95/6 humidity. No make-up.
35. The p-r diagram of a 2-cycle Diesel engiue is given herewith by coordinates.
This engiue has 4.5 R-C ratio. Construct its p-r, cycle graphically.
0 0.2 0.5 0J 1.0 1, 1.4 1.6 1.64 1.68 1, 1.8 1.9 1.96
'-sec
!.tt l.m 2.06 t.60 6.08 13.16 25.31 20.8t 8r.{ 33.76 38.(X 81.?l
,rkg/cmr sb 1.09 t0.04

'-sec 2i 2.0 2.1 23 2.62-9 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.33

p kg/cta! ob 2t.lrr8.98u.r5 ?.0t 4.92 a.08 3.16 l.rtl. 1.00

36. Solve Prob. 34 altered to include makeup of evaporation losses with water et
,1.Irc.
37. The following are coordinates taken from the expansion portion of an I.C engine
cycle. By meaus of logarithmic plotting find the averuge polytropic exponent ll.
p, Lg/omr ab $.15 28.11 tE,98 7.0t t.62 I.76

o, mr 0.00255 0.003&) 0.flN25 0.00878 0.0l5or 0.02832

38. Analyze au assigned indicator diagram for the average polytropic n for both
expansion and compression cutves.
39, The shop te6t of an engine whose record is here reported $as made for heat
bplance. Calculate a four-item beldnce. Dyuamometer torque, 051 kg-D a,t 450 rpm.
A:F ratio,27:1. Speed,450 rpm. Temperaturcs: Atmosphere, 26.?'c exhaust 9as,4t4.1"
C; coolant in, 65"c; out, 66.?rc ; fuel,8.g"c Fuel flow, 87 tg per hr; coolant flow (c
= 1), 98 gpm. Ilydrometcr test of fuel oil,0.945 S.G.
,(). The following readings rere taken during a 60-min test at steady load of 300-
rpm Diesel engiue--generator unit mted at 650 kw. Initial fuel meter rexding,l4.0l64
mr final. l4.l8llmr. Initial rvatthour meter,86,547 1 1' hr; finnl, E7,00? kw hr.
Ayerage tcmperatures: atmospheteJ 4,4'C; firel, l5.6oc; exhaust gas, 416.7'0; cooling
water in, 46.l"ci out, 6l.loc . Water flow,549 Umin S.G. of fuel by hydrometer, 0.905.
A:F ratio, 22:1. Calculate a five-element heat balance, inc]l.rding electricd losses as one
item. Use NEMA efrciency data and Table 6-3.
 CHAPTER 7

G,{.S T{,]RBNNE POWER. PI-ANT

7-l The Gas Turbine. This type of prime mover derives it6 energy from
heot, commonly supplied by combustion. Thq products of combustion form
the working medium,r but the combustion region is external to the prime mover.
Hence the gas turbine ie removed from the internel combuetion machines of
Chapter 6, sE well a8 from the extprnal combustion cycles of Chapter 8 whoee
working nedia are not the products of combustion.
The industrially succeesful gas turbine power plant is relatively a aewcomer
to the power field. Although gas turbinee hove b€en the subject of experimental
development for decades, only in recent yeart have there been gas turbine plents
of performance and cost lhat are commercially acceptable. The obetacle to
zuccese reeided principally in the condition that the plant usea approximately
70/o of its primt mover output internally snd, if 811 processee are not highly
efficient, the loeses easily coneume the potential net output, leaving the mochine
unattractir'ely inefficient. Early experimentol plants sometimes lailed to pro-
duoe any net output. Furthermore, good efficiency of the cycle used demande
high initial t€mperatures of thg working medium. The manufacturer is con-
fronted with a series of high-.temperature problems of difrcult solution. Com-
mercial deyelopment followed when science rnd engineering had progressed
h
1luff*ut""tor""s would build high-epeed turDures tor use wrth gsses hot
( 538'C and up).
'--t:ii; to be incandescent
enough
if,"o"y or blade sction in turlinis had developed to the point where
* rn"* 67, "t the theoretically available energr could bb converted into
".
----S. work.
ahalt
High-ep""d .ir compressors of about 80/o comprtssion efficiency or botter
could be built.
The aeronautical iet engine is a specialized gas turbine plant whose net
output is a kinetic propulsion jet of the working medium rather than shaft
work. The high-perfonnance aircraft which could be made possible by an ex-
tremely compact prime mover for jet propulsion interested' governments in
expending large sums for development, mueh of which was to perfect the solu-
tion of tho three problems mentioned above. Some of the reBulting know-how
has been beneffcially. applied to the maaufacl,ure and use of stationary gas
*This fu not sE abcolute requirement of:as turbioe plonts, as will be shovn.
192 GAS TIIRBINE POW.ER PLANT
turbine power plants. Although currently few in number, the prospects of in-
creasing use of gas turbines in this field are considered sufficiently bright to
devote a short chapter to this type of stationary power plant.
At this point it is well to review the meaning of working process by reference
to Sec 1-3, for the critical action in any gas turbine plant is this process per-
formed in the turbine. A reversible adiabatic expansion of a gas is theoretically
possible if the gas is made to pass through a properly shaped nozzle irom a
region of high to one of low pressure. The ratio of high to low pressure will be
called the pressure rotio, whether the process is an expansion or a compression.
Actual expansions are almost reversible, there being but little friotion or turbu-
lence generated by nozzle action. The result of this process is a jet of gases con-
taining high-grade meehanical (kinetic) enerry. Turbine wheels heve blades
onto which th; jet is directed in order that thii kinetic enerry may be trani-
lormed into a blade thrust and thence to a shaft torque.

NOZrll
. SHAat tocrEl
NO UADE

!uDll !N xoroN,
NO Allloltnota
or ,Ets
iNanc aNEot

IITDE
AOlloN
outtut L BtcH !LAD!
SHAII 5rttD,
row rc$olrll
JtI VA.OCI,Y
ll.lo $rqrt
o
a
I
Frc. 7-1 Priaciple of the 9&6 turbine

In the gas turbine a stationary nozzle discharges a jet of gas (usually prod-
ucts of combustion) against the bladcs on the periphery of a turbine wheel,
as shdvn in Fig. 7-1. The jet is thereby deflected aud slowed while the blades
receive an impulse force which is transmitted as a mechanical torque to the
shaft. The prospective jet speed is sometimes sufficiently high to warrant divid-
ing the expansion into a series of stoges with a set of nozzles and a row of blades
in each stage, all blade wheels being mounted on the same shaft. By limiting
the gas cxpansion per stage, the blade speed and rpm of the shaft are suitably
decreased. 'lVere the blades thernselves so shaped as to be virtual nozzles, some
cxpansion would also take place in the gas as it went through the blading.
The lattcr would, in consequence, receive a "reaction thrust" distinct from im-
pulse action. Many gas turbine designs have employed the reaction principle.
The hcat made available for conversion to work during en isentropic work-
ing expansion is
Lh : c$T (7-1)
TEE GAS TURBINE 193

in which q = Mean specific heat of gases for the tempera,ture ra.nge of the
expansion, J/g'oC.
A? : Temperature droo.
oC.

Since gas turbines work with a high-temperature fluid medium, the best ex-
perimental data shoultt be used to establish the value of the specific heat.
Many special charts and tables are to be found in the litcrature of gas turbine
engineering. Here we will present only instantaneous specific heats derived lrom
good spectroscopic data, these being for the Droducts of combustion of an as-

1.34
t.32 [IltttIlllllllltt
[[lt IIlttIllillI
IT
l
TI
T
a
a2

[Iltr 19 Cfltlr3/tg AIR {

Im
.3r
t.2 0
tilIlIlt IT Tf
rIIlIItt !T
ffi
.30
1,24
llllril
tIItIlt IT ll
il IT
0t
1| .29
1.2
l!l
tIl rlrrl
lIil
0

IIt IIT
o ln2 ill
lll 'aalIilt
II!
ltIT
.2 7

ln ,26
1.06
I

IIT tIl
lll llIT
,z
2 IIllr
lll IlIl llIT
1.00
ll tIItlIllllllll tl
.96 Il llr
il400 I !t ilr ltIItlttt
600 a00 1000 1200 1400
il H 1600
.23

275 1655
TElIPERATURE, I
tr'rc. 7-2 Constaot pressure specific heat Ior air and combusticn product8

sumed liquid hydrocarbon (CrzHzo) rvith various fuel-air ratios. A mean c,

value is obtainable from Fig. 7-2 l,o any required degree of accuracy.
Erarirple 1: The svailable energy of an isentropic expansion of product8 of com-
bustion of kerosene, considered to be CrzHro, will be computed. Fuel-air ratio,0.015;
initial temperoture, lofl)oK: pressure ratio, 6.
By a trial solution it is guessed that the final tf,mperature will be about 6ll.f .
I'ig. 7-2 gives c, : l.u? a,t l0ooo;1.u80 at 6l t" . An arithmetical average* is ct : l.lr8.
The molecular weight of air is usuellJr giver as 28.97. Air-fuet ratios used with the gos
turbine are lean in order to hold the t€mperature to that allowed by the turbine design,
hence, the product's molecular weight is but little more than air's. Toking 29.0 as the
molecular rveight, mol specific heat Co : 29.0 x l.l2t : 32.?12 J por mol-oC. From
* More accurate values of ci are obtained by giving due consideration to the curveture
of the graph thrcugh the estimated temperature raage.
 I94 GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
the kiuetic theory of gas€s, C, - C, : s.gro f per mol (independent ol temperoture).
Ileuce C,:24.36? per mol and 7 = t2.7142a.W -L.341. Now with ?e 1.341 end
6 = l.r$ the following calculations lead-to the desired available energy.
T'/Tt: (P'/P) " :60'!{:1576
Since ?r : IOOO"K, ?, - l00o /1.576 : 0!4.6'K.
Although the ci value is bssed on &n 0ll" eetimate of 7r, a recalculation is not
considered necessory il this exomple.
A?: rO00 - 6:14.5:366.5
From Eq 7-1,
A[: 1.f28 x 366.5 : 4!r,3 J p6r 8 of goB ava,ilable euergy
The turbine emciencyr 7r is taken to be the rstio of actual work output of
the turfine to the work obtainable from a reversible adiabatic process such as
that investigated in Example 1. The inability of a gas turbine to convert all
the ideal energy into work is mainly attributable to the blading, with its leakage
through clearance spaces, friction, irreversible .turbulence, and residual gas
. velocity. If a turbine were to operate under the conditions of Ex 1 at an effi-
ciency of 80/o, the gas flow required per hp hr would be 2.648 412.3 x 0.80) or
8.03 kg.The compressed air required would be8.03/1.015 = 7.91 kg per hp hr.
It will be found later that the air rate o{ s gas turbine plozt is much higher
because it is the air per zel hp hr, and the net power is approximately a third
of the turbine power. The remainder is used to compress the air for combustion.
Ideal reversible compressions and expansiong emphasize the convertibility
of velocity and thermal etate. For example, the equation

2gtRT r
Yz2 - Yr' : t-l (' - (fi)-) (7-2)

shows that ideal reversible nozile flow from p1, ?1, to p2 produces the velocity
increase 71 to 72. Similarly, a reyersible velocity difrusior from I/: to Iz1 would
prTllce_1 pressure incremenl Lp :
p, p2 atd a ternperature rise A?-
- ?1 (-
- ?z).'Ihus, we have (total" quantities, which are the zum of the static quanti-
ties and the increments representing the velocity. Using prefix I to designate a
total qusntity,

&:h+v'z/2sJ (7-3)

a : (t;) *)+
e(t + (74)

"r:r(r.( , )r) (7 -5)

The symbol M represents Mach.Number, a velocity descriptive term defined

as follows:

lNote that u!i6 is trot a basic thermal eficieocy, but is more like ,,edgitre eficie[cy,,
(ree p. 367).
 CONSTAN? PRESSURE COMBUSTION CYCLE 195

M - v/\/;sti (7-6)
It relates the gas velocity to the velocity of sound, rvhich is r/-rali?,.
In the internal combustion engine and vapor cycles the fluid velocities are
usually low enough to render hegligible any diffcrcnce existing between total
and static quantities. However, this is not the case cveryrvhere in the gas tur-
bine plant, and exact analyses may need to be bascd on total quantities.
7-2 Constant Pressure Combustion Cycle. It has bcen seen that the gas
turbine must receive a continuous supply of gas under a prcssure above thaiof
the exhaust region. A gas turbine plont consists of the turbine and a mcans of
supply of the working medium. I\{odern gas turbine plants are based on a cycle
of continuous flow of the medium. Air is compressed in a machinc drivcn by the
turbinc. The compressed air then goes to a combustion chambcr rvhere fuel is
burned in it, raising the temperature and increasing the volume at ccnstant
pressure. The working medium is then ready for thc turbine. After the working
expansion thc gas is discharged to the
atmosphere. A closed cycle is not pos-
sible if the fuel is burned directly in the 3 AIR FUE
EX
air, but is if surface heat exchangers arc
used. We shall consider first the direct H LOAD

combustion or "open" cycle. A

Referring to fig. Z-5, air. existing at .8
FLOW DIAGRAM

state I in the atmosphere is taken into

the compressor and compressed to state
2, where it is ready for delivery from -QEEI!
the compressor to the conbustion cham-
ber. The compression work is reprc- voLUME

sented by the area al2b. The fuel-air Frr;. 7-3 Opcn cr.cle of the simplo gas
ratio rtsed is such as to procluce the tem- t]lrbine phnt.
pcraturc 73, which is the lirniting high
tcmperature of the cycle. Currently the upper limits run between 649"C and
816"C in stationary plant.practice. The products of combustion, now at
ps aw) Tx, are expanded in the turbine to state 4, r-hich is the dischaige state.
Ideally p3 = p2,pr= p,, and the processcs l-2 and 3-4 are isentronic.
Difterenl types of compressors have been used in gas turbine plants (i.c.,
centrifugal, positive displacement, rotary), but the axial flow type is favoled
for stationary plants becausc of its efficiency and inherent high rotative spcctl.
Tliis is a multistage, axial-flow compressor, resembling in action a revcrscrl
turbine. Fig.7-4 shows a plant with a turbo-compressor. Air flows over a set
of airfoils (arranged circumlerentially as blading). The airfoil blades turn the
air stream dhrough an angle. A difrusion thus eflected slows down the air v'e-
Iocity and increases pressure. If air speeds remain nearly constant, then blade
heights can diminish in succeeding statcs (as witnessed in Fig. 7-4) owing to
increasing density of the compressed air. Operating the blades at high angles
of attack on the air helps build up pressure rapidly, but operation near the
stalling angle rvould bc undesirable since small variations might occur which
eould burble the airfoils and cause an unstable, rough, or even hazardous condi-
tiorr to exist. Turbocompressors may be employed under conditions where ut-
196 GAS TURBINE PO'WER PLANT
rnost emciency is imperative, as in gas turbine power units, and should create
thc optimum favorable balance between good downwash and minimum turbu-
lcnt, airfoil wake. They have been built with energy efficiencies as high as 85/o.
Thcy may be operated efrcctively at high speeds, i.e., 5000-10,000 rpm.
In order to produce compressed air the compressor executes a polytropic
co?npresston of the air, followed by delivery at constant pressure. The perform-
ance of actusl compressors is described by compressor efrciency, '7c.
Idcal rvork of compression
Work actually required for compression
Itis also called "adiabatic eficiency" or "internal eficiency."
It can be shown that the ideal thermal efrciency of the simple gas turbine
cyclc.is given by the equation:
I
?,: I - h:1- t=)
(7 -7)
(p,/ p') ,
From Eq 7-7 one might drarv the conclusion that, for ma.>iimum ry, make pz/pr
maximum. But there is a temperature ceiling Is for the bycle, set by the struc-
tural limitations of the turbine. This imposes a limit on the pressure ratio that
can be used. Theoretically a pressure ratio of 'pr/pr: Qr/Tr)A rvould prorluce
the maximum efficiency, but it could not be tolerated because the useful work
of the ideal cycle then vanishes. Fitrthermore, the optimum pressure ratio
-_L
hecomes less lhar. (TrlT)A rvhen the turbine and compressor are given
realistic efficiencies.
To analyze thc simplc combustion gas turbine cycle the following nomen-
claturc is employed:
?a,4c: lntern&l efficiencies o{ the turbine and compressor.
0r : Heat added in the combustion chamber, J per g air.
Wr, W" : Ideal reversible rvork of the turbine and cornpressor, kg-m per kg
air flot'.
. I[" : Net rvork of cycle,kg-rc pcrkg air flow.
.f : !'uel-air rttio.
The thermal efrciency of a gas turbinc plant is nct work done divided by the
heat input to thc combustion chamber.
I[r'rr(1 t,/) - Iryc/K - W
^nt (7-8)
to2* lQ
rvhere I["," - Work to auxiliaries, kg-m per Lg air flow.
I : I{eating valrre of the fueJ, J per g'.
Fuel-air ratios empl-oyed are vcry small, as also is the auxiliary power sup-
plied directly from the machine shaft. Cxrmbustion efficiency with liquid hydro-
. con.tsnt wilt bo 420.9 if Ql ie in kcsl per kg.
THE SIMPLE GAS TURBINE PLANT 197
corbon fuel is quite high. This being true, the Eq 7-8 loses little ol its meaning il
simplified to

,t":w!v -=w"
l02tcQr
(z-9)

the ratio pr/pl for this efrciency to reach its highest value, replace
'llt Toartdfind
Wc rvith lo2.trltn andl02tAic, respectively, but using cnA? as an ex-
pression for A,D. Then

qr: Tt- T Tc-

tdi(T" - Tr)
Consider 5, T4 atrlTl consta.ut, and use ?r : T{Tr/Tr) tq sliminste ?.,
thereby obtaining
- - GtmcTs - Tz\(Tt- T)
nt:-;\TsT..-Tr)
By performing the operation &nid.Tz = 0, the value ol Tz tor maximun 41,
when Ir is fixed, is found to be contained in
(2qrtcT{)Tz - (?, - (1 - q.qr)Tr)Tr' : qrn"T"'Tt (7-10)

Using & obtaiued from this equation, the best pressure ratio is

P"/P, : (T,/T,)'--Lr
The closed, cgcle would. be similar in appearance tg the p-u diagram of
Fig.7-3. A high-temperature surlace heat exchanger would take the place of
the combustion chamber. Combustion coul,l be carried out in an external iur-
nace, using coal if desired, for the products of combustion are kept sdparate
from the working medium. Likewise, a low-temperature heat exchanger would
accomplish the constant pressure cooling albng process 4-1. Being in a com-
pletely closed unit the gas could be employed at highcr pressures, thus reducing
the size of the equipmdnt needed. For example, a pressure ratio of 6 might be
incorporated into a cycle working betrveen pressure Jimitsof!88and2.8Lg/cm.
The gas would not even need to be air, and it is likel! that other media might
be found to f,e superior for the purpose.'
The closed cycle had not received cgmmercial developnient in the United
States prior to 1950. Partially closed zycles have feen built, but are involved
with compound units, a type discussed in Sec 7-4.
7-3 The Simple Gas Turbine Plant. Fig. 7-3 has indicated the princi-
pal elements needed to produce power in such a plant. Fig. 7-4 shows how the
elements rlay be assembled compactly in a single machine. The illustration is
that of an open-cycle unit currently being oflered commercially. It is rated at
3500 kw when connected through gearing which changes the 6700-rpm turbine
speed to 3600-rpm generator speed. At 704' C to 760o C maximum gsg
temperatures the thermal efficiency is approximately 15ft. Atmospheric air is
compressed in the multi-stage turbocompressor at approximately 5.9 pressure
ratio. Air leaving the compressor flows into the multiple combustor (6 chambers)
* Eeiium, for example.
. Constaat vilt bo 420.9 ifQf , Ah ' Are sro iD Looulg.
 t
I I
b TI
[i''
rrl
tt(K'
I
I
I
) Di)
,!
,t
,I
.t
I' 1 I
t
, &
1
F,
I'
l a
i,
(,'
14
a'
i'
,
I
198
THE SIMPLE GAS TURBINE PLANT T99
where it bums the fuel necessary to produce the design tempersture. Bunker
C (black) oil, pressurized and preheated, is fed in through air atomizer spray
nozzles. Ignition is by spark plugs located in two of the chambers, the other
chambers being ignited through cross tubes connecting them. Combustion is
self-sustaining, and spa,rk ignition is used only during starting. Also, Diesel oil
is the fuel during starting and stopping periods of operation. Primary governor
control is by varying the fuel oil pressure to the nozzles. Secondary controls are
provided to limit overspeed and maximum temperature. Upon leaving the com-
bustion chamber the products of combustion are expanded to atmospheric
pressure in a tllo-stage gas turbine. The turbine and compressor rotors are
shown in Fig. 7-5. An extension of the generator shafl is conaected to a l87 f,rv
electric motor which is needed for starting. Until a critical pressure is developed
by the compressor the unit is not self-energizing. This occurs at about 3400 rpm
in this unit.
Example 1: Some of the operational factors lor a simple gas turbine plant will be
analyzed for a case rvhere maxrmuin permissible tem'perature is 760"C and a. fuel ol
43155 J/g lower heating value rvill be u-"ed. Othcr drta lre: atmosphenc temperature,
2fl,?'c 4r,0.80; 4,0.78; combustion efficiency,95/6. Subscripts employed rvill refer to
state points on Fig. 7-3.
On the assumpiion that it is desired to use o pressure rrlio that rvill yield the max!
mum thermal eficiency, Eq 7-10 is first employed to determine ?2.
(2 X 0.80 x 0.78 x r0$ x 300)fz - [300- (1 - 0.80 X 0.78)103t]?,':
0.80X0.78X1033cx3fi)
Solution of this equation gives ?, :466.3"1t, ft being the ideal tomperature of com-
pression of air, the pressurc rulio pz/pt =
466.8130U af{ :
4.7. Peak efrciency is not
critical to exaci pressure ratio; furthermore, considering the assumptions of c6s = cp1
made in deriving Eq 7-10, the comput€d optimum ratio should }te rounded ofr. Thus, a
pressure rotio of 5 ie taken. This gives on ide l T, ol412.r vhich rvill be used in further
calculotions.
The actual ?, is higher on account of compressor losses which add to the enthalpl,
of the compressed air.
Real ?, leaving compressor and entering combustion chamber :
m+
172.2
- W: 621'K.
ora
0r needed to raise products IO3B.K: (log3 * E2t) r.rr8 - 622.36 J/g.
to
Fuel-oir ratio - 68r.01(13166 x 0.05) :0.014.
By means of a preliminary trial it is cstimated that the ideal ?e rvill approximate
0s?"K. Now tr'ig. 7-2 is used to obtain the mean co for expansion. Average c, : I.lBo
for/: 6.914 urr4 l"mpemture r&Dge lo33 - 067'K. Then
Ce :fi x 1.t39 - 33.03J p6r mot rC r and t:7.88/(7.88 - 2):1.34.
@-1)/t=0.2*,.
Calculated ideal ?r = lo33 /(5)o.%a: 6s6.{"K. t
* l.ll8 = me&tr cD, 521'to loSllo0 laage, for estimated J = 0.0i5, Fig. 7-2.
. t Use of pr/pr = p./p', ol cou$e, is l! Ileglect of pressure loss in combustor and exhlust
plpe.
M GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
Ilr - roqr *!pf7qt-t'd: lo2 x l.otl x l.lgs (10!! -'688.a) t8'E !.! b .lr.
Wo : lui,,6. (r, - lri - lor x !'ort('1,., - l0o) L8'E por k8 'it'
Sub€titute itr Eq 7-0 for thermal eficiency:
r.ot. x r.r3e *
: -----
ro.1ljjl1g1:fjllill : rz.s%
4, (..Ig x 61,:r.ri

lncluding combwtion lossee, pla.nt efreiency - 17.8 x 0.96 - 10.6016

.
Net output pertg sir floii, - 1,014 x l.l3s x 8O.0 x 0.m xlo - t.OlEx l7f.2 x tO/O.Zt
- (rto.2 - l,r.r)rol - 99.r x r0l J/kg.
Air ratc, o. - 2.848 x 10./00.1 x l0r - 18.7 L8 por bp h! .
Fraction of turbine power used iatemally in the pl&[t - ,jrl.r/Sro.2 : 0.601.
The actual exhaust temperoture exceeds ?r becsuse turbine lcsses reheot the gas. Actual
exhaust tempemt[re : 1033 - (1083 - 080.ra)0.80 : 756"K.

7-4 Thermal Refinement of the Gas Turbine Cycle. Although the

nerformance of the gss turbine which has been described in the previous three
sections is not especially attractive compared with efficiencies possible in Diesel
and steam power plants, a simple gas turbine has advantages in weight, size, and
vibration compared to the engine, and in size and cost cdmpared to the small

TURBINT
ffi.
-r
REGENERATOR

GAS COOLER
(INTERCIOLER)
COMPRESSOR

GEARED A.C.
GENERATOR
--{- SHAFT & COUPLING

corlBUSTloN
CHAMBER
---o STARTING MOTOR

Frc. 7-6 Symbols Ior gas turbine plant flow diagrams.

steam plant. It is also superior to both in quantity of water used, for the simple
gas turbine plant uses almost no cooling water. However, lorge steam power
stations will be more compact and less expensive than had they been powered
with gas turbines.
The efficiency handidap is surmountable, at the expense of adding complexity
to the gas turbine plant. The priucipal refinements which sccomplish this are
reo- en erati on, in ter co olin g, und re h eat.
Regeneration is the transfer of heat energy from exhaust gaoes to compressed
air flowing between the compressor and combustion chamber. A surface heater
called the "regenerator" is required. Resulting cooler final exhaust gases repre-
sent a reriuction of waste heat.
Intercooling is the removal oI heat from compressed air between stages of
cornoression. This reduces the internal consumption of turbine power by the
olant. Usually water-cooled surface coolers are employed. Ideally the obiective
is isothermal mmpression, but actually plant designers must be satisfied with
 THERMAL REFINEMENT OF THE GAS TURBINE CYCLE 201
staging, consisting of adiabatic compressions rvith intcrvening cooling." Only
a few of thcse are cconomically practicable. The compressor must necessarily
be compoundcd, i.e., low- and high-pressure scctions scparately cncased.
Reheating is the increase of temperature of partially cxpandcd gas by burn-
ing more fuel in it. It necessitates a compounding of the turbine, and a partner-
ship with regeneration, for it raises the tcmperature of the turbine exhaust.
It is especially good for impror.ing the efficiency of plants having high pressurc
ratio but moderate maximum cycle tempcrature.
COMPRESSORS IURBINES

L OAO
H.P,

o STARTER

BUSTORS

EXHAUST

Frc. 7-7 Flow diagram of a rcgenerative plant having intercooling and reheat. Open
cycle.

These improvements to the simple cycle mBy be epplied separately or to-

gether. They are capable of raising plant efrciency to over 30/o, thereby erasing
sny advsntage of fuel efficiency possessed by Diesel or condensing steam plants.
The rclative location of the equipment of a high-performance gas turbine
plant will be seen in the diagram of Fig. 7-7. The p-z state oI a unit quantity
of the wor\ing medium is shown in the next illustration.
The basic simple cycle for pressure ratio p2/p1, and temperatures 71, ?x,
would have been l-2'-3-4'. The enclosed area would have been net work output,
rvhile heat input would be represented by the constant pressure combustion
process,2'-3. But with the thermal refinements actually incorporated, the work
area l-2-?-4 is larger, while the combustion efrect, 2z-3 plus 3a-36, may be
less. The result is more pbwer per unit of flow, at greater efficiency.
The actions of the components of this plant are explained with Fig. ?-8 as
lollows:
Regeneration. Exhaust gas is cooled in the regenerator-from 4 to 42, deliver-
ing heat to the compressed air and raising its temperature from 2 to 2r. The
temperature fall of the gas is approximately equal to the temperature rise ol
the s,ir. The pressure iosses in the regenerator are small and are not shown on
the diagram.
Intercooler. The total pressur€ rise is divided into two increments (maybe
more in some plants) by compounding the compressor into low- and high-
pressure sections. Between the two sections the air flows through an intercooler
and is reduced in volume st constant pressure. This action is represented by the
portion lo-lb of the cycle. Intercooling is usually accomplished with water-
cooled surlace heat exchangers, thus imposing a water requirement on the plant.
* Wet compression accomplished by water. spray iato the hot air has beea suggested. ft
would appear thst coDdetraate would be required in order to prevent scaliag up oI the
co,ropresscr blades.
202 GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
BeheaL ll the working expansion is carried out in two or more turbinb
stages, the turbine may be divided into high-pressure and low-pressure sections
so that the gas may be intcrrrcdiately reheated to the maximum limit'in s
combustion chamber. Bccause oI the low fuel-air ratios, there is adequate
oxygen in the products to support the reheater comtrustion. The portion of the
cycle representing this reheat action is 3o-3b.

TIEAI
2x
3

HI6H PRESSURE
TUREINE

COMP

INTERC@L
1b
1OIY PREsSURE
3o
REHEAT
3b L
LOW PRESSUNE
TURE INE
OP€N

voLuMt
Frc. 7{ Cycle for gas turbine platrt with regeneratiol, intercooling, and reheat. See
Fig. 7-7.

The foregoing indicates that the efrcient gas turbine plant musc be provided
vdth heat exchanger equipment, regenerator, intercooler, or both. The principal
requirements may be summarized as follows:
Regeneralarc Inlercoolets
Ges-to-gas heat transfer Gos-toliquid heot tronsler
Iligh temperatnres Moder&te temperatures
Lorver coefficients of herlt transfer thgn Water circuit required
for intercrnlpm (approx. .4. ko&l ac I,ess heat to be transferred than for
aga.irst ?! kcal por hr Br "c ) rcgenerator
The extent to which bne fluid is cooled while the other is heated is described
by \\eefiecttueness of a hcat exchanger. This is defined as follows:

, :_ Temperature drop in heat releasing fluid

"* ffi-"i*r* t"-p"*ture difrerence betvreen the two fluids
rvhere Eo : Heat exchanger efectioencss.
Rather high (say 0.804.90) values of .o", are used to design intercoolers,
whereas 0.50 to 0.75 is more common for regenerators. Because of the low
cocfficient of transfer in gas-to-gas cases, the regenerator will tend to become
bulky on account of the large surface involved. Both types are of the shell-and-
tube construction. If the pressurized air is inside the tubes, the shell ie not
stressed and may be made oval, rcctangular etc. However, often the gas ig
sent through the tubes, and the air through the shell. In such csses the 6hell
THERMAL REFINEMENT OF THE GAS TURBINE CYCLE 2O3
must be cylindrical to withstand the air pressure. This arrangement makes the
gas side easier to clean, should it bbcome soot-laden.

Bxlnplo l: Temperatules of turbine and compressor discharges &r€ 4*7C end

t77'O, Erpectiwly. Msximum cycle tcmperature, $6rc; ,", = 0.75; combustion
efficieac;i - 0.06; Q. of fuel, ,,,',o J!g. With theoe Cara the tcmperatures of the
rcgeuentor &nd tlte &ir-Iuel ratio arc found in the follorvrug manner.

.E- : 0.75 = #!h, & (final exh. t€mp.) : 23e.6'c

Assume / will be about 0.015. cp O'ie. 7-2) = l.o8 for exhaust g:rs.
Ileot r€lease p€r hl &ir flow-(r + 0.0r6X427
Air will be heoted approximotely 4t7 -
- ,30.6) 1,08-x l0! : 206.6t x l0r J.
23S.6 or 187.5o estimated ,rr-17?+187,5E864.5-
687" F. cp on the air side of the legenerator may now be estimated.
co (FE 7-2) : t.007. A, (eiD : 205.58 x tot/( t.06? x 103) : ls?.2.C, t4, = tl1 + ts7.r:A74.tC
tr'or rsnge t?4..8.t0.C. cE = t.lC for an estimatcd / of 0.015.
l.l6(8tO _ E7t.5)( t +0,0t6t
tr'uel-sir ratio.
'f= {9270 x 0.05
- 0.0t26.

Although Fig. 7-7 has shoi;n all rotating elements of a compounded system
coupled together, the mechanical connection is not necessary; in fact, it is ad-
va*ageous to have separated sections that may be operated at difrerent speeds,
as well as st variable speed for part-load control. When both compressor and
turbine &re compounded, this can lead to a number ol variations of plant ar-
rengement. Several plans which have been used are set forth in Fig. 7-9. In an
electric power plant, operations are confronted with the usual condition of

A, CROSS COiTPOUNDEO PLAN' 6. EUROPEII{ OEStGt{ OF 27,O00 XW COllpOlJrlDE0 PLtlll

C. rl,l-llNE DESTOI{ FOR SOOOxl{ COMPOUND o_ pLrNt wrTH 0tvtDE0 GAsFlow lo luRal Es.
R€GEIIEiATIVE P!ANI I'ITH INTEROOOLIT]O TWO StiAFIS erVE iLEXlAlLllY. lr[Co PO!!90E0.

Frc. 7-9 Flow diagrams illustrative of high-efficiency, open-cycle gas turbine plants
(See list of symbols in Fig. 7-6.)
2M GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
variable load (Chapter 2). However, the a-c generator must be driven at con-
stant speed. Part-load operations are more efficient if the compressor speed
can be varied; thcrefore, a two-$hart plant may be expected to be Iess adversely
aflected by part-load operations, and the starting power required is considerably
less with divided shafts. For examfle, a commercial design of 8 3500-kw,
single-shaft. machine apecifies 253.5 hp in the starting motor, whereas another
of 5000 kw, but a two-shaft design, has specificationof40.6 hpon thelow-pressure
compressor shaft and l0l.4 hp on the high. Divided shaft plants permit several
advantageous arrangements of the equipment lor compound-closed cycle and
semi-closed cycle plants.
7-5 Field for Gas Turbine Power. The important application of gas
turbine power, so far as the average citizen is now concerned, is in the airplane
where the gas turbine plant is used either to supply gas for jet propulsion or to
drive an airscrew, as in the so-called turboprop engine. These are highly special-
ized and very progressive applications due to their association with military
},AS'E FRODUCTS
OF COMEUSTION

AIR H€ATER g.g}{a/orn!

2
ST EF
OR
EUBirER

Frc. 7-10 Closed-cycle gas turbine plant. Possible thermal eliciency, 3216.

needs. Railway and marine propulsion are also fields of active experimentation
with gas turbines. Some operating experiences have been accumulated with the
gas turbine as a heavy-duty truck engine. But though less known to the public,
the application ol the gas turbine to stationary pov'er generation is the oldest
field of successful use and one in which steady progress is being made today.
This is especially interesting since these units must compete actively on a com-
mercial basis with the highly perlected Diesel and condensing steam power
plants.
The likelihood of many variations from the basic simple cycle of Fig. 7-3
is implied by Sec 7-4. These variations, however, only begin to cover tlie pos-
sibilities, for the gas turbine idea is amenable to advantageous combinations
with ilrdustrial heat-power needs, r-ith steam plants, with pipe-line gas trans-
mission, and many others. A few of the cases that could be mentioned are:
1. In place oI-the regenerator of tr'ig.7-9(C), a rvaste heai boiler could
generate industrial steam. The gas tulbine could operate on an open cycle, as
shown, or on a closed cycle, using as the gas precooler, ahead of the compressor,
a water heater or other low-temperature heat exchanger. Unbalance of heat
and power demand could more readily be met with the open cycle, for then, if
FIELD FOR GAS TURBINE POWER 2O5
steam demands exceed those which waste heat will supply, an auxiliary oil
burncr in the boiler could be used to make up the deficiency.
2. As an auxiliary to a large steam plant, the gas turbine plant could be a
simplc unit l'hose cxhaust heat was largely absorbed by heating steam-plant
fecdwatcr, super-heating stea,m, or supplying steam for low-pressure station
auxilirrics.
3. Sevcral combination steam turbine-gas turbine cycles have been proposed,
all liighly intcrcsting from the thermodynamic standpoint.
4. Thc cxtcnsive pipe-lirre transmission of natural gas now carried on in
this country offers a fertilc fiekl for the gas turbinc as a drive !o high-speed gas
comprcssors in thc intcrmcdiatc cot).lprcssor stations required along the pipe
linc. TIic samc can be said for oil pipc-linc pumping stations. These have been
powercd bv Ialgc rcciprocating oil or gas engines.
5. Thc closcd gas turbine cycle may become a suitable vehicle for the
nuclear power plant. Unless a. fcasible mcthod ol a large-scale direct conversion
oI nuclear radiation into elcctricitl'
is found, any nuclear porver schcrnc a lo0
for electric gcneration must includc n crost0 = a
a heat porver cycle lor the conversion H
of hcat
work. It
energy into mcclranir.al
woul.l ippear that thc closcd !-
q
CYCLE

/ I COMPOUNDEO
OPEN CYCII
gas turbine cycle operating on com- ITWO SHAFT I
-$ 60
pressed heliurn might fill tLc necd as ,<
wcll as tlrc stcam plants prescntly q
= SIMPLE
I
contemplated for this field. ) 4O ,/ OPEN CYCLE

A summary of the comparative i lt REGENERATIVE

Ieatures of thc gas turbine as a prime b ff // OPEN CYCLE

mover includcs:
1. Mechanically it is simple
E
H
Y// II
IIT II
compared to steam and I.C. engine o
plants, but in the endeavor to reach
20 40 60 80 loo
competitive eficiencies some of this PERc€Nr RATEo LoaD
advantage is lost. Frc. 7-11 Part load operating efficiencies
2. An elcctric motor or I.C. en- of gas turbiue power plants.
gine.is required to start the gas tur-
bine plant. As the starter must bring the compressor well up toward operating
speed, starting is not as simple as for I.C. engines.
3. Like steam turbines, the gas turbine is not readily reversible. Steam en-
gines and trvo-cycle, I.C. engines are best in this respect.
4. Turbine plants have less vibration than engine plants of similar size, but
high-frcquency noise emanating lrom the conpressor intaLe is likely to be
objectionable.
5. The gas turbine uses high temperatures. Even though the pressures ere
moderate, service conditions are complicated by the existence oI these high
temperatures.
6. \\'ith certain types of compressors, efficiency of the gas turbine planl, is
not as rvell maintained at part load as with steam or the I.C. engine. However,
206 GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
compounding, with vSriable speed control on one shaft, is a means of overcqn-
ing this disadvantafti.
7. Water consumption favors the gas turbine.
PROBLEMS
(MW = molocular weight)
1. Calculate tho work dole perkgof gas expotrding fp6 6.33kgfomr ob tol.06 kglorrr
.bir a gssturbbe of92Voirlteru,J efficiency.Inifill teEDer8turr,750tr1:1.34; MII -20.
2. Producta of combustion witb 1 of 1.35, 5s6PK, MW 20, are mqvitrg Wi! ar
exhauot pipe &t l?{ D,frec l.l2 }8/crn! ob static pr€ssure. Find the total pr€ssue snd
temperature.
3. The exhaust temperuturc of a ga6 turbine, teken with a, good totol tempera,turc
probe, is recorded at 63a"C . Air-fuel rotio, c 0.015; ; fuel ia oil.. The gas velocity having
been determined to be 650 fps, calculate the sta,tic tempera,ture.
tL Kerosene is the fuel of a gas turbine pl8nt. , = 0.012 I. = 972oK pr€Esure
ratio, 4.5, exhaust to atmosphere. .!'ind the available energi',kg-m per kg.air flow,
5. A gas with 1 = 1.35, t€mperstur€ 049t, is expouded ia c gas turbine front
1.62 to !.06 kg/omr ab. ?t : 0.80. Wlrat i8 the temperature of the exbaust gas? Is thia
static or totel teEperature? Give the reason.
6. Sketch the pu and ?-s cycles of an ideol open gas turbhre cycle having: pressure
otio, 5; lo 640'c. Atmospheric state ie standard for sea level. T : 1.37. Calculate the
ideal thermal efficiency,
7. An open ga! turbine cycle is to be operate$ with a maximum temperature of
?6O.c. Irtske eir, I kg/omr sb, 29.{"q; fuel, GrHri Qr, 4:}165 J/8 la = 0.84;
?c = 0.80; combustion efliuency, 95lp. Draw the full load ?t vs. pressure ratio character-
istic th:ough the pressure ratio range of 4 to 10.
8. Consider that !'ig. 7-11 is characteristic of all gas turbine plants and determine
the efrcieucy of a plant at half load. Plant hos a pressure ratio of 6; other data sane as in.
Pmb. 7.
9. tr'ind the full-load efficiency, air rete, aud exha,ust t€mpemture of an open-cycle
gas turbine plant tb be built for opttnum ple,ssure ra,tio with Ts : lo28K ?r : r?8'K ,
rf : 0.82, tc - 0.79. Oil fuel with 0r : atl65 Jr8. Combuetion eficiel!.cy, 94/6.
Standard eea level atmosphere. Specific heat data as in Fig. 7-2-
10. An op€n-cycle r€g€nerative gar turbine plaot bas: a, l.oz Ldomr sbih,er.8'ci pr,
7.o3kgrom8.b h"8l0"C It, 0.85; 4c, 0,84; fuel, Bunker C oil; combustirin efficrcncy, N/6;
Z-, 0.60. tr'ind r and u..
It. To the pla.nt described in Prob. 9 is added a r€ge.neraior ol 5ole efiectiveneee.
Calculate the plaut thermal efrciency.
12. An irteicooler of 90/a efrectiveness is added to the plant of Prob. 10 at p - l6fpr.
Cooling water avsilable at 11"0. Find 41.
13. Graph the pw cycle of Prob.. 10with scst€6 of r 06:r La/omtand I 0ra:60 Gm!
Quantity : I kg air at intake. Consider that compressor and turbine losses appear as
constaut pressure reheats following isentropie processes.
14. Dr&w to scale o p-u cycle similer to Fig. 7A for a plant of the foltowing data:
gcrlos I om
- 0.5 kg/cot,qusntity, I kg oit ot iDi.ke ?r, o.o8kgloml sb ; ,r, 15.6 C ; ,o2, 6.91
kg,/otrlr rb;15 ?oorc; intotoooliDg at 2.{O Lg om2 sbto 3?.8'C.Rohostst2.tl!,g1cmrob- 29.fC
Regenerotor -E- : O.75i ,1r,0.85; lc, 0.85. Consider thot turbiDe aud compressor loss€a
appear aa const&nt preseure reheats following isentropic proceeees.
15. Au open-cycle gas turbine plant will exha,ust into waste hea,t boilers which receive
06.G"c fe€dtrst€r. The plant is otherwice like that described in Ex 1, Sec 73. The gas
turbine plant produce8 8660 bp. Eow much soturatpd 8te3m at 8.62 kg/cmt go ocn be
 m7
PROBLEMS
t''8'C thc
t'b'! thc io.l8.. t EParatuto till bo 'bovc
?toduocd P.r bout, "'uDiug
lt€ato t€mperotuts? cycleir for the plaots of Fis' 7-9(A)
16. Sketch tbe shape ol ine Pt, oud ?+ graphs of
snd 7-9(c).
'""r2."il"1*"t the other two plantE show!'
'P.ii. 7-16, except u8e
Prob.
u* tn" pboi rhowu h Fis' 7-10'
i;: ilffi i-i6,
"*""'pt
 CHAPTER 8

VAPOR CYCI-ES

8-1 Energy from External Combustion. Heat energy, produced by com-

bustion of a fuel, can bo converted to work under circumstances where the prod-
ucts of combuetion do zot form the working medium of the heat cycle. This
extemal combution, principle implies a umlcing meiltum interposed so as to
tranefer heat from the regiou of combustion to the heat eugine. The principle
of external combustioa can be represented thue:
fuel work
H*terl Prime mover
working medium

Heat produced by combustion is trarrsfemed by lhe heater to the working

merli,um; by it conveyed to a prime moaer,which is able, in Bome way, to trans-
form part oI the heat enerry, carried by the medium, into mechanical work.
Tbe working medium is a fluid substance capable of absorbing and dis-
charging heat energr by physical or chemical processes such ss:
1. A change in temperature, but not in phyaical phase or chemical composi-
tion.
2. A change in chemical composition.
3. A change in physical phase.
The first of these could be accomplished by a pressurized perm&nent gas
being heated to a high temperature in the heater, then flowing to the prime
mover, where it would expand, do work, and be cooled. The apparatus would
be bulky and much of the prime mover output would be needed to compress
the cool gas before heating. This method is exemplified by the closed gas turbine
cycle. It has been proposed that working media be employed which would
absorb and release heat by chemical composition and decomposition. However,
these have not been utilized beceuse the third altemate is so well suited for an
extemal combustion cycle.
The change of physical phase which has been so widely tsed, is uaporization
and condensation. The fluid is taken into the heater as a liquid under pressure
and there vaporized'by the heat energy. It then flows as a high-pressure vapor
to the prime mover which can be either of the engine or turbine form. There
+ Eence the herter ir o ,.boiler.,,
208
VAPOR CYCLES 209
it expands in a v,'orking process whereby the available energy it carries is
transferred to mechanical work.
It is important to understand why this system is superior to onc using a
permanent gas. Only a small part of ihe prime mover output is needed to in-
troduce the fluid into the heater. The tork of pumping lhe comparatively small
volume of liquid is far more favorable t<.r equipment size (not necessarily to
thermal elficicncy) than is that of compressing a gas.
The low-pressure vapor dischargcd from thc prime mover is not difrcult to
condensc to a liquid; hence a closed cycle may be produced. The thermodynamic
state ol the working medium as it circulates lrom heater to prime mover and
back again constitutes a uapor cycle, deflned as a succcssion of thermodynamic
processes occurring in a vaporizable fluid by means of which mechanical work
is produced from heat energy and after which the fluid is returned to its initial
state ready for another cycle. An enqine cgcle considers only the changes oc-
curring within the engine, but a uapor cycle involves, in addition, all changes
in the vapor state from the point of leaving the engine until it is again ready
to enter it.
There are several vapors which have physical properties suitable for work-
ing media. Those rvhich have been either seriously proposed or actually used
are steam, mcrcury vapor, sulfur dioxide, diphenyl oxide, and certain of the
hydrocarbons. The requirements for an ideal medium are:
1. Ample amounts should be available at low cost.
2. It should be noncortosive and nontoxic.
3. The pressures corresponding to the maximum tempereture range possible,
that is, from safe maximum temperature as dictated by the properties of the
metals of boiler, pipes, ete., to the minimum temperature as dictated by the
temperature oI condensing water, should not be so high as to be .cornmercially
irnpracticable, nor so low as to render maintenance of vacuum difficult.
4. It should wet the boiler surfaces enveloping it and should be stable,
chemically, at the maximum temperatures of the boiler.
5. Its heat of the liquid should be a minor part of the total heat since the
available heat is contained in latent form.
6. There should be considerable decrease in volume upon condensation.
Although water does not satisfy the third requirement as well as other
available vapors, its low cost and general abundancy have precluded, until
reccnt ye&rs, the use of any of the others. It satisfies the other requirements
well. It is in widespread use and its properties and cycles are cfell known to the
rank and file of practicing engineers. Nevertheless one should bear in mind that
rising fuel costs and smaller margins of profit will emphasize the importance
of the third-mentioned requirement, for we recognize that any possible increaee
in t}e temperature range of the working medium itself will bring, without
further perfection of equipment, an increase of thermal efficiency. For instance,
mercury, although expensive and of toxic nature, has attractive possibilities
because of its moderate vapor pressures near the present-day temperature limit.
8-2 Vapor Cycles. Several thermodynamic combinations are currently in
'rse
for vapor cycles, but all of them have absorption ol heat at constant pressurc
\n a boiler, and a working expsnsion it a prime mouer. An expansion of the
reversible adiabatic form would be desirable since, of all possible processes, it
2IO VAPOR CYCLES
alone achieves the conversion of all the i'availabld$eat energy into mechanical
work. Since friction destroys perfect reversibility, acttal expansions approarh
the ideal only to the extent that fluid and mechanical lriction and heat transfer
are minimized during the working expansion.
A reversible adiabatic process is isentroptc in nature. On temperature-
enhopy plots, therefore, an ideal working process for a vapor cycle is repre-
seuted by a line perpendicular to the entropy axis'. Actual expansione are
accompanied by some entropy increases, those most inclined to veer from the
isentropic being least efficient. It can be thermodynamically proven that the
work done by an expanding medium equals its decrease of enthalpy, whether
idesl or otherwise, providing it is a simple expansion concerned solely with
transforming heot into work. The ares'enclosed by a cycle on temperature-
entropy axeb also is work perlormed ( inJoulcunits), provided the expansion is
isentropic. However, if the working process is partly irreversible, area of the
cycle has no significance.
The efficiency of any working cycle is its output energy divided by its input
eners/.
w (&l)
a:dl6IQ,
where 7: Work performed, Lg-m per cycle
Qr : Heat supplied, Joulcspcrcycle.
In thischapter we will describe the various vapor cycles in commercial use,
showing how to compute their performance and break down the enerry flow in
"heat balances."
,f,Bh r..r...itr
'Et.rl, A heat balance is an accounting of all energy
units involved in a system, a cycle, or an indi-
vidual piece of equipment. It is the bookkeeping
of energy credits snd debits with Joules es the unit
oI currency. The most-used principle in heat bal-
ancing is the First Law of Thermodynamics. This
law is so.generally employed and is so simple and
obvious that engineers often employ it without
thinking each time of its significance. The value
of the first law to heat balance calculations is
that, in the accounting for energy, simple addi-
tions or subtractions may be used to account for
Fieur. ot rithl the total of heat, mechanical, or electrical energy.
Otre way of showing a heat balance is in a tabular
form; another shows the energy as a stream, prop-
erly branched and subdivided to indicate the
Frc- 8-l princinles 61 5ps1 distributiou.
stream consiruction. A heat stream is often the best way to present
a heatr balancg since it enables the reader to grasp
at once the relative magnitude of energy involved in the diflerent sections of
heat-power equipment. To construct t*re diagram, one must have at hand a
cslculsted breakdolyn of all enerry quantities, being sure to test the calcula-
. Coo!!.trt Yill b6 atG'o itor L lD to.L
VAPOR CYCLES 2II
tionq at all points possible for obedienpe to the aforesaid law. In other words,
one must be careful to account for aJl energy. The widths of the heat stream
represent enerry graphically eo the scale could be any unit of enerry. A com-
moo basis, where combustion supplies the heat, is to consider the heating
value of the fuel as 100/o and have the widths of the energy streams as per-
centages of thst heat
Since stream wldth is energr, any tapering of the streem is in violation of
the first law. Streamo may be split ofr or added together, but they may not be
tepered. Ilence, where stresms are to be curved, it is important that the same
center be used for both inner and outer arcs. Never use square corners for heat
streams, for the width perpendicular to the center-line wourd not be constant.
The performance oI vapor cycle plants may be expressed in several ways.
The ouer-all thermal eficiancy will probably convey the most meaning to the
novice who has a basic knowledge of thermodynamics snd heat engineering
rvitbout much practical plant experience. On the other hand, the plant engineer
uurlly thinlr.in tcrmr of hir ln* nte in forulc (or Lcal) pcr ha ir. urcaning
ht that the numbcr of Joulc {or lcal) ured to producc onc kw hrr The Joule
(or tcal) arc thocc reprocnted in thc hcating yaluc of thc coal uscd, or thcc
trrnsfcrrcd to thc vapor cyclc in thc ltcaro gcncrator, dcocnding on the
purpocc for which hcat rate fu 3tated.
Neittrer of theee expreseions ie entirely descriptive of a power plant'a worth
in comparison with others in that they do not consider the efrect of partial
capacity operation.
Sodi Carnot, a French Gngineer of the early nineteenth century, during the
couree of studies in natural philosophy recorded in a emall brochure a descrip-
tion of an ideal cycle. The baeic eoundness of his'conclusione and the worth
of hie cycle were not appreciated until sft€r his degth. Today his name ia
perpetuated in the Caraot cycle. Although it has not been poeaible to construct
a practical plant operating on this cycle, it is of great velue to heat power
theory. Ite value resides in the high thermodynamic efficiency it possesses, the
highcst, in fact, poeeible for any cycle operating between a heat source st
[ "K and o heat rejection at ft "K. It ia a atandsrd of comparison for all other
oyoler, whose poasibilities may then be gauged by their approach to the Csrnot
otolo cfficiency, etpreseed by
*-\# (&2)

The low efficiency common to all heat power cycles, including even the Car-
not, may be understood if thought be given to the conditions which would be
required in order to make the value ol w lo07o. Either Ir would have to be
infinitely large or ?2 zero. As we can scarcely expect to worh a plant at these
t€mperature extremes, there is but, little prospect of working the Carnot cycle
efficiency much higher than it is now without some radical change, an eveDt not
to be expected iu the light of present experience.
Along with Carnot and Joule,'W. J. M. Rankine* is one of the pioneers of
heat power science. RsnkiBe'B modification of the Camot cycle is the basis of
the modenr steam plant, even though the Rankine cycle itself has been modi-
. Profeoeor .t the UDiverlity of Glasgow; b. 1820, d. 1872
212 YAPOR CYCLES
fied and changed with ihe. passing of'time. For instance, Cotterill perceived
that the extraction of somb of the steam lrom an engine for thc pi.rrpose of
heating the boiler feedrvatel nearer saturation temperature would result in
considerabie gain over tlrc simple Rankine cycle. This idea was first applied to
reciprocating steam ergine plants, but it riid not enjoy its present wldespread
use until the advent of the high-capacity, stcam turbine central stati6n. This
cycle is called the regcnerative vapor cycle and is norv apphed to nearly every
modern central station and to a great many industrial plants as well.
The reheating cycle is a logical outgrowth of the trend to higher pressures.
The reheat vapor cycle is designed to keep the steam dry throughout more of
the expansion. This is accomplished by removing the steam from the tur-
bine or engine before it reaches the state of saturation, resuperheating it
and readmitting to the prime mover for further working expansion.
There is another class of cycles which might be termed multiple vapor cy-
cles. In 1899 Josse used the steam-sulfur dioxide cycle; in 1913 Emmet began
experimentation with a mercury-steam cycle. These are binary vapor cycles.
In such cycles the heat rejected from the leading vapor becomes the heat ab-
sorbed by the following vapor. Thus, there are two working media, one of
which absorbs heat from the fuel and rejects its unavailable heat to the other
which, in turn, rejects as unavailable heat at the lowest possible temperature a
certain proportion of that which it receives.
The reader's attention is directed to a compilation ol diagram symbuls
carried in the appendix. Some of these will be frequently, but not exclusively,
employed in the lou diagrams by means of which the equipment connections
required for the various cycles will be here illustrated.
ti-3 Rankine Cycle. The closed Rankine vapor cycle can be carried out
in four pieces of equipment which are appropriately joined with pipes for con-
veying the working medium from one to another. The basic arrangement of

St om

Frc.8-2 Elemcnts of the Rankine vapor cycle.

this, the simplest of all vapor cycles, is shown by Fig. 8-2. This ideal plant
consists of a stearn generator which receives feedwatei under pressure irom a
pump, a prinxe rnouer \n which to obtain the working expansion, ar,d a cun'
dmser Lo reduce the exhaust steam to liquid, ready lor pumping.
A closed cycle plant ordinarily contains auxiliary equipment added for
economic reasons; hence r-rc turn to an open cycle Ior an example of the
simplest form of an actual steam power plant. Illustrated by Fig. 8-3, such a
plant has a boiler generating steam for an engine which then discharges the
waste steam to atmosphere, thus losing the fluid. Replacement vater, however,
RANKINE CYCLE 213

is taken in by the pump and pressurized for boiler use. Thus the condenser is
eliminated, but the cycle iB open. L small refinement is the inclusion of a water
heater in which a small portion of the engine exhaust hest is salvaged by the
feedwater.
The efficiency of such a plant is necessarily poor; yei for small amounts of
power it represents a type that has minimum invested capital and can be
operated in a successful manner by nonprofessional attendants'
When water is pumped into the boiler, it has the heat of the liquid, hr, in it
corresponding to its temperature. This tcmperature is that of the condensate
out of the condenser in an arrangement such as is shown in Fig 8-2, but would
be the heated water temperature in case there is a heater. \Yhen vaporizcd by
the steam generator, this water has an enthalpy determincd by its prcssure and
quality, i.e., wet, dry, or Euperheated. The enthalpy enteriqg thc prime mover
is nominally the same as that leaving the steam genera+'or. Call this enthalpy i1.

n
m
0?."
o

Fro. 8-3 Plant equipmcnt for producing the open Rankine cycle.
In an ideal Rankine cycle the next action is an isentropic expansion to exhaust
pressure. Final enthalpy i.2 may be calculated alter determining quality from
ihe equation s1 = s2, or it may be traced out on the Mollier diagram. Aftel ex-
haust lrom the prime mover the steam is condensed to a liquid at constant
pressure and temperature. Then it has enthalpy /ra3. This assumes that the
enthalpy at state 4 (entrance to steam generator) is the same as at st&te 3,
since the temperature is the same. Actually some pump flow work is added, a
factor which is not entirely negligible for a hrgh fluid pressure as was demon-
Etreted tn Sec 1-3. The efficiency of tbis Rankrne vapor cycle, neglecting pump
work' is expressed as follows:
,* : h:-4 (,*)
h- tu,

in which ir - iz : Ideal heat-work transformation of an isentropic expansion.

fo. : Heat of the liquid at exhaust pressure'
A slightly lower net 4a is the result if pump rvork, IIlo, is included. Eq 8-3 then
becomes:

$:ffiJ.:
h, - - w"/J' i'.-htr-wilo.to2
h"
,,.=:L_ffir0, (84)

in which IIlo is the pump l'ork perkg fluid per cycle,hg-m Eqs 8-3 and 8-4 will
be in substantial agreement except for high-pressure cycles.
. J- Dooh.aiosl equivslont of ,b6.t 6nd : {tr0.0 if ho.t ulit .r. i! korl
214 VAPOR CYCLES
Where the working expansion is not carried isentropically fully to the ex-
haust pressure, [s must be determined by other means than entropy equality.
Incomplete expansion, the custom in steam engine practice, is illustraied by the
cycle 1-o-b-3-4, Fig. 8-2. In place of h1-h2 of Eq 8-3, one must use
0s(PB-?b)
h'' h' +
n ro.2t Ph)

in which p" p6 : Pressure a.t states o, b in kg/cmr ab.

u. : Specific volume of ste&m at st&te o, cmE per g.
tr. : Enthalpy of steam after isentropic expansion to p. , J/g.
Actual thcrmal efficiency of a uapor cgcle based on the Rankine is given by
the lollowing equation: r
2648 @
w: (&5)
- tyS
where ra : Steam rate, i.e., kg steam^1r,
consumed by the prime mover per hp hr
of output.
h:
Heal of the liquid of the fluid entering the steam generator r J/g .
The efficiency 7t is based on.either indicated or shaft power, depbnding on
whether tu is steam rate in kg per hr per ihp or bhp.
The combiued thermal and electrical efficiency of a prime mover-generator
unit is

,.: wv(fu'''u"1
-
, h1,)
i8-6)

whereur is steam rate in kg per kw hr. Steam rates need to be established by

timed tests durtng which output power and steam consumption are both
measured.
EIoplo I : Ih6 idesl RaDLino olnoioroy for a vrpor oyolo op€BtiDg botwoon ll.6
ka/c.nt sb dry end ssturstoal at66m stoto otrd atEo6phorio prt66uro vill bo d6temDod
Negloot pump work.
At Il.8 k8/cmt a,b, ir: }783 J/t After an isentropic expa,Dsiotr to t.Og k8/om! ub. Ir -
2173 Jls hp : $4.7 ,lA. Ir8ing Eq 8-3,

,R:
2781
- 237t :173r;
27sg-.8J
Next, tLe thermal efficiency of an open-cycle plaot operating at the same termiml
condrtions is calculated. Feedwater is heated to 93.3'c . The steam flow, when producing
76 bhp, was measured as l20l kA per hr.
t6= l Ii?6: t0.0 ks perbhphr
Then with Eq 8-5,

"
= *for# r*", : u''z
r If lrr. is used, the equ&tion becomes one of sctuol thermal efrciexy ol Lhe pime mooer.
@ Conltent tiU b6 689.4 if ir rld h oio io koelrLS.
t Cooltont wilt be t60.0 illl ead &r .n iD Lol/ka'
 RANKINE CYCLE 216
Example 2:
The calculation gf Rankine efficiency ol an incomplete expansion
oycls ia now sirown. Assumo 10.55 kg/oE2 ob dry and ssturgtod initial st6to ; r6l6&so
Pr6aure ?s - 2.ll kg/cmt ab i oxbsust pressuro : 0.21 kg/oms sb.
Iirst detcrmine enthalpy aDd volume at strtes I rn(l a.
\ - 277ri,4 Jls, ho : 2494 I ls, ,a - 0.903, u" : 0.903 x 8s?.8 : 774.6 cmr per g.
Tbon with Eq. 8-3, modi0od for
2779, - 0,21)
.2
2775.4
- 251.5
Example 3; Consider tb&t the following dati pertain to the open-cycle plsnt
illuEtrated by fiS, &ts. Heating value of coal. 32407 J/g; boiler and furnaco
efrcie y,72.9/6; engine output, 8l bhp ; steam ratej l7 ks per bhp hr; steam to prinrp,
43.lkgper hr;
equivalent pumping herd,g2.36 m; ste^m pr.ssurc, 125 psig, 99/6 dry;
feed temperature, 03.3'C; colll Niter snppil.,15.600. These are use(i to rorstluct a heat
bahnce of this plant.
Enthalpy of stcam = 755.6 + .99 x 2021 : 215A.a;llg
Increase of enthalpy Ly steom generator = 2156.4 - 390.8 : 23s5.6 J/g.
Stesm used : 8l x l7 + 43.1 - 1420 Lg p6r hr.
H!]AT BAI,ANCE OF DNCIND AND PUMP
1'housand Ihatsant
kcallhr Petc.it kcallhr PGftent
Receivod from boiler,t4z' 2756"4 x 0.*0r
x 932.1 8l.g
Inpun to engino, 1317 x 2768.4 I 0,239 904.5 x l0g
-
Engine output. 1377 y 9!34 ril.2 1.1
Friction loes sssumed ss 4% of input 38.2
Erhau3t loss (diff€rence) "' ' ' 817.1 74.4
Ioput to puEp, 4,..l x 2756.4 x 0.230=28.3xI03
Pump ourput, 1320 x 92.3i/428.9 .... 0.3 0.o
Exhsust loss (difforenco) .. 21.9 2.5

Balsnoe .. 932.? 932,7

Befole computing the heater balance, the portioD of the enginc cxhaust usod by the
heater must be found. The mixing and heating are at constant pressure. Enthalpy of
engine exbaust = (817100/1377) Jlg.
4.rg : 24SO.S

Let ?ru : Exhxust steam ente ng heater; l42O - o" = Cold rvater entering. Then
1420x10tx390,8 - 2490.3x loe 1,.+65.61 (1420.1 _ irs)ros
?0" = 190.5 steam condcnsed pcr hr
Cold uzter entedng hea.ter : 1420-190.5 : 1229,5 k,r per h!
Atmospheric exhaust : 1377 * 190.5:1186.5kgper hr
IIEAT BAI.ANCE OT TEEDIIATER HEATEIi
afhonsand ThDueand
Lallht Pctc.nt kcallhr Percc*t
Eeoeivod in engin€ 6xhsrlsi 817.1 74.4
ll6&t eDt€ring in oold walor.
122$.5 65.51 x 0.239
x 19.2 1.7
Dolivorsd to boiler, t{20 x X 0.239. . . . .
390.8 132.2 lr.0
ExhauBt lods, llt6.5 x 2490,3 X 0.239. 704,I 6.1.1

Bolanco. . . 836.3 836.3

r ![ultiplie! to ooavort J/g to kcol.ik8,
210 VAPOR CYCLES
EEAT BAI,-{NCE OF BOII,ER
fbudr, llhor/gd,d
},aqlw Percont t,,utr Per@ l
Received from heate............... 132.' 12.0
In herting value of coal,
(ott 7 - r3?.2)t01.720 :. . 10ryr.0 100.0
Output in geusted'Btesrn... . . . . .. 91t., 84.9
Boiler loeeee, l0&?.0 x l0! x .971 : w,1 fl.r
Balance t230.1 rro0.r

By dividing all items of these balances by 4371.1, thcy are rcduced to a basis of 1et-
cent heat in the lue[.

8-4 Regenerative Cycle, Study of the Rankine vapor cycle has shown
that improvement requires either an increase in the thermal state of the high
pressurc steam, a decrease oI that of the exhaust steam, or both, In other words,
increased efrciency requires increased boiler prebsure, initial superheat, and
condenser vacuum. These improvements reached natural limits of boiler

@r
E
NEI ELEC.
Eh

r=

ooNoEtisttlc talEi
Frc. 8-4 Florv rliagram and graphic heat balance of simple condensing steam power
plant.

strength, high-temperature metallurgy, and available condensing water tem-

perature some time.ago. lVhile the upper temperature limit is slowly being
increased, the ideal Rankine cycle performance is relatively static. ProgresB
has come with other cycles, primarily the Regenerative. This cycle is definitely
more eficient than the Rankine, for the same teaminal steam conditions. Its
principal feature is a thermal regeneration oI condensate into high.temperature
feedwater by the use of steam bled from the prime mover et points intermediate
between throttle and exhaust.
The advantage of this cycle over the Rankine is that the heating steam, as
extracted lrom the priure mover, has released considerable of the mechanical
rvork represented in its available energy while retaining most of its leedwater
heating ability. By extracting a portion of the main flow belore it reacheg too
REGENERATIVE CYCLE 2I7
low a thermal state it still contains most of the initial enthalpy. When the
feedwater is progressively heated nearly to boiler saturation temperature, the
necessary heat input to the cycle is decreased. As this decrease is greater than
the mechanical work lost by prematurely extracting a small quantity of steam
from the turbine, the cycle efrciency is higher than thai of the nonextracting
or Rankine cycle. The gain becomes more the higher the boiler pressure em-
ployed, for then heat cf the liquid is a larger part of total enthalpy. The extrac-
tion of steam at a number of points is readily accomplished with steam turbines,
although not with steam engines. This, plus the fact that the regenerative cycle
plant is costly to construct, has meant that its prime mover is a steam turbine.
The regenerative cycle shows improvement over the Rankine in the item

LI
L_l
I

I
2

L€- .-o Lo
iJ
a b E]
i
o I o
,)

tr'rc. 8-5 I-low diagram. The regenerative vapor cycle.

of heat lost in the exhaust steam. It does, however, require more euxiliary
equipment in the lorm of heaters, pumps, traps, and piping. The heaters are
generally of the closed, or surface, type, but open, or contact, type heaters,
have becn used. In order that the steam bleeder lines may be short in lengt\
the heaters are set &s close to the turbine as the plant layout allows.
The elements of the regenerative vapor cycle are shown in Fig. 8-5. As
pictured there, feedwater heating from condenser to boiler fecd temperature is
accomplislred in three stages, using closed heaters. Heaters 2 and 3 are high-
pressure heaters, that is, they are on the boiler side of the boiler feed pumpl
heater 1 is a low-pressure heater. This designation is based on water, not steam,
pressure. The condensed heater steam is pumped from each heater into the
main leedwater stream leaving the heater. Thus all of the heat lrom the ex-
tracted steam is given to the fecdwater before it enters the next higher heater.
218 VAPOR CYCLES
The surge tank absorbs the irregularities of cycle flow. Its water level does not
alter except during changes of load ot the generating unit, at which timc water
cither accumulates in it or is drawn from it, due to the time lag in rate of change
of flow in the difrerent elements of the vapor cycle. Alternate schemcs for the
handling of heater condensate are shown in Figs. 8-5 at (a) and (b). Traps are
float- or bucket-operated chambers which can pass condensate and will hold
back steam, trut there must be a pressure difference between the steam chamber
and the condensate discharge. These traps do not involve ss much initial or oper-
ating expense as pumps, but their use results in a vapor cycle of slightly lower
efficiency on account of the flashing of the condensate to a lower pressure, with
attendant increase of entropy. In scheme (a) the heater condensa,te is retumed
to the condenser hotwell through a water leg seal. This is possible only if the

r, E

D
Tj o
af c F

laal
r---.i
ll
L K H
c g o H
8
ab
S.turtcd.t.D SuD.tL.ttd ltt !
Frc. 8-6 Ideal regenerative cycle employing infinite number ol heaters.

Iowest extraction pressure is sufrciently near the condenser pressure so that the
Iength of the vertical leg of the water seal is not too great. Otherwise it could
be cared for as in scheme (b), in which ths condensate from all the heaters is
returned to the main feed stream just beyond heater I by a pump.
The terms regeneratiae uapor cycle a,nd eatraction cycle are not synonymous.
Eutraction cycle relen to any arangement whereby steam is bled from a
turbine at one or more pressure8 ttir any purpose whatsoever, i,e., fecdwater
heating, process steam, heating steam, etc. Regeneratiue cycla implies that the
o;tracted steam is used for one purpose, the thermal regeneration of the con-
densate to a temperature level approaching that of the boiler water. The terrns
"bled stearrr" and 'lextracted steam" may be used synonymously, as may also
"bleeder point" and "extraction point." The efrect of bleeding steam to heat the
feedwater is shown in Fig. 8-6 (a) which is for a cycle having an infinite num-
ber of heatere. Were there a finite number of heaters, the line IJ would become
teppd instead of smooth. In so showing the regenerative cycle on the tempera-
REGENERATIVE CYCLE 219
ture-entropy plane we assume that, by extraction, the entropy of the expanding
steam is decreased by the extraction of heat at constant temperature. This re-
quires arbitrarily assuming lh*l only heat passes through the ettraction lines
to the heaters. 'fhe extracted heat is immediately given up to the feedwater;
hence the line FJ parallels the liquid line CB since the heat that will be bled is
equal to the heat added to the feedwater between condenser temperature fe and
feedwater temperature 11. But note, meanwhile, that as a definite steam weight
is actually extracted instead of the heat only, as assumed, the attual condition
of the remaining expanding steam follows the line Etr'G anl not EIJ.
This theoretical regenerative cycle (a) assumes, in addition to an infinite
number of heaters, no pressure or heat loss in the extraction lines, no terminal
temperature difrerence between water and steam ih the heaters, no undercooling
of the condensate below condenser saturation temperature, and an isentropic
expansion. An equation for the efficiency of the regenerative cycle can be de-
rived on the basis of these assumptions. Pump work will be neglected. Referring
again to Fig. 8-5 (a),let it first be noted that
7s : Condensa,te temperature, K. o

?r : Feedwater temperature, oK.

hr : Initial enthalpy, J7g. Ares OADEH.
hr : Final enthalpy, Jlg, Lres OABGH.
/zr, : Enthalpy of condensate, Jlg, Are.l,, OABL.
irr. : Enthalpy of lhe liquid aL T b Jlg - fu@ OACK.
I" : Enthalpy of extracted steam, J/g. throttle flow. lrr.eg, IJ|H.
Feed heating also is 16 : Areu LBCK.
w
1-=
Jrr
Heat equivalent of net work of the cycle. Lrea BDEFJ,

Efficiency of the cycle : tu" : ;;-l+' ^ : !DE{,J

J(Irr - lr.r" ) ht- hn
The area BDEFJ will be interpreted as follows:
BDEFJ = OADEH - OABGH * JGF
However, since FJ parallels CB, JGF = BCM = LBCK - LBMK. Hcrce
BI-tEFJ = OADEH - OABGH - LBCK + LBMK.
Substitute in the effictency equatron, with replacement of areas by cquivalent
enthalpies, noting that ZBCK = hn - hn.
h,
thc =- - - ho * h,* TzAs
ho
/,, - r,,"
Make the following substitution: - (h" - h,,) : -rrhtgt; a1n-lTt -273\4,187
,1..
as = 4.1BTln -#
"J - -oou*l"l equivslent of host.
r Assuming coNtaqt pressure heating with c' = I cal p€! g'C : .f.f87 J por g'C.
220 VAPOR CYCLES

h1- qhtgz - +.lt,ilr-l I143.1 + 4.$7f , br'lf

- 4.t[.fr + ll+11
h',

Seeking the feedwater temperature for maximum efficiency, -ut" ff : O;

then it will be found tha.t 7r : fr, meaning that the feed should be regenerated
to boiler saturation for maximum ideal cycle effrciency. Should
tempera,ture
Tt: Tr, lhe area trICDEG would become a rectangle equivalefit to the Carnot
cycle. The follorving example rvill shorv that under this condition tu.E : ,tc.
lVhile the ideal regcnerative cycle of maximum efficiency equals thc Carnot,
provided the prime mover uses saturated steam as in Fig. 8-6, the two cycles are
not equivalent whcn the steam is initially superheated because all the energy is
received at the high temperature in a Carnot engine and this i; not truc of the
stcam cycle.
Example 1: The lnimum cfficiency of an idcal rcgenerative cycle working on
estureted stoam botwoon l4.l kg,'crl2 sb snd 25.{ mm IIg sbs wilt bo compsred {ith th€
Cernot eflicioncy.
u:0.747 dri'ness lactol alter isentropic expansion (from Nlollier Chart)
Atl.1.l kg.cmrah fr - l9+.5 I 273 - +67.5.K.
At zs.+ mnr Hg f1 : 28.t0 +273 - 299.2"K. Substitute in Eq 8-7, using steam ttble data.
1198.4 - 0.747 X 1049.2 - 842 + 492 * 539 ln ffi : 3670
27a9.7 - 4.187 x 4d?.5 + ll48.l
t61.5 .-. 299.2
Iaor compariEon : n":-=369^-
'- 461-5

In the modern powei station, where initial superheat is the rule, extraction
to the heaters begins in the superheated steam region. This alters the conclu-
Bions made lor saturated extraction. Rcferring to Fig. 8-6 (b) in which the final
feedwater temperature is ?1, y represcnts the initial extraction point or^ the
turbine expansion line. That is, if all the 6team wdre taken by thc hcater, the
cycle would follow the line gg', which rcpresents a constant pressure line on
the 7-s plane. But since oniy a portion of the steam is extracted, and that in
a Eeries of Lcaters operating at constantly decreasing temperatures, the cycle
lollows a line gI to the saturation line, after which the remainder is the same
as in (a). The location of IY'is so that the shaded areas will be equal. No
reasonably simple equation which will represent the efficieiicy of the cycle
BCDDgYJ may be formed; but it is found that a line Fl', rJrzwn lrom the
expansion line at 71 parallel to the liquid line approximates the cycle and has
the advantage of offering the same thermodynainic conditions as pictured in
Fig. 8-6 (a). Applying the prcviously dcrived equation for 1.n* to this case, it is
again lound that the maximum theoretical efficiency occurs whcn i'r equals the
saluration temperature at boiler pressurc. But now the Carnot cycle eficiency
is considerably larger than the regenerative, the truth of which is demonstrated
in the lollowrng example.
REGENERATIVE CYCLE 221
Example 2: The maximum emciency of an ideal regcnerative cycle working be-
tween29".68g/cmr ab,3lll'Cand49.5mo f[gabswillbe compared rvith the Carnot eficiency.

er : 0.812 dryneas factor after isentropic expansion (from }lollier Chert).

4t20.5 kglctrr ga, ?-r - 231.89 9ZO * 504,89, : .oy 505"K.
At d0.5mm. Irg,?, : 3?.0 + 273 :
3t0.9, say glloK. 6ob
3186.3
-,812x2411.3 - 4.187 x 606 + + {.187 x 3ll tn 5iT
1143.1
: 39.s7o
3106.3
- 4.187 x 505 + Il43.l
3rr - 38
But now ltc : 5t.7o/o.
s;rT z.o:
Example 3: It is norv shorvn that failure to regenerate the feedwater fully to ?r
is noi a severe penalty on regcnerative cycle efficiency. Assume feedwater at l82.2lO.
Tt: 465',f,. Other conditions as in Ex 2.
8166.3 -.812 x l2.A
- 4.187 x 465 + lr4.l + CfaZ x Slr raffi
= 39.270
3166.3
- 4.187 x {56 + ll4l.l

II

.t
;l
:l
a
.l

r
I

I I
I t. I :i.L i
l 9,,:!- €} J
Iurbin. Extrqclion
Prt ss qr a Hi qt Ftow
Stqgr 2
rg/cm Jlg I
kg/hr
5 20.5 3t5 4.6 22135
I 9.9 293 5.9 s888
'[ 3.68 281 2.7 I S595
tt 0.72 256 8.4 15286

Fro.8-7 Flo$' (liagr&m-Ivatts Bar steam plant. tr'lorvs are hourly, pressrres absolute
Heat added by feed pump is included.
222 VAPOR CYCLES
A difference of 89' in feedwater temper&ture csused od.y O,3y'6 dillereoce ia
efficiency.

Because of the excessive cost of hgating 8urface and piping connections, it

is not possible to use sufficient extraction points even to approach the condition
represented by the line FJ. The number of heaters used in the modem plant
oper&ting on the regenerative vapor cycle ranges from one to five. Ae higher
pressures are used, more heaters may be justified, but not many more on account
of the ever smaller increments of efrciency to be gained by increasing the num-
ber of heaters. The criterion governing the best number of heaters ie one of
economic justification requiring studies to be made for cycles using difrerent
numbers of heaters, such studies taking into consideration costs and complica-
tions added wit} each heater as well as cycle efficiencies. The optimum feed-.
water temperature which theoretically equals 71 is reduced by the use of a finite
number of heaters, nonisentropic expansion line, throttling losses, etc. Calcula-
tions for the most economic feed temperature and the proper number of extrac-
tion heaters are inextricably involved with cost data and details too extensive
to be given in this book. However, there have been several studies* of this
problem. The results of studies of R. L. Reynolds are set forth in Figs. 8-8 to
8-11.
If the actual turbine expansion line is to be used and hest and pressure losses
in the bleeder piping not disregarded, the construction ol the vapor cycle dia-
grarn is thereby rendered sufrciently complex that a ?-s diagram is of question-
ablc value.. The actual case will be handled by vapor cycle calculations based
or assumed florv diagrams. Problems of this type are included in this chapter.
Fig. 8-8 shows thg improvement in heat consumption obtained with difrerent
numbers of stages of extraction. These curves show that the improvement due
to stage extraction increases as the final feed temperature increases, up to a
certain point, after which it decreases. As the number of stages oI extraction in-
creases, the most efrcient final temperature of the feedwater also increases.
Because of the lact that the pressures in the turbine increase or decrease with
the amounts of steam passing through the various blade groups, the saturation
temperature of the steam in the turbine, and consequently the final feed tem-
perature, will increase or decrease with the load carried by the unit. For the
average central station turbine, the most efficient feed temperature should be
obtained at lrom 75/o to S/o oI the full-load rating. Fortunately, the curve is
fairly flat for a considerable range of temperature on either side of the ideal,
which means that the pressure in the turbine can be varied almost without
appreciable loss in efficiency. The culves in Fig. 8-8 have been based on the ae-
sumption that all the feedwater heating is done with steam extrncted from the
turbine-
Fig.8-10 shows the efrect of throttle preesure on the gain which can be ob-
tained by the extraction of steam from the turbine from various numbers of
stages. In each case the feedwater is assumed to be heated to its most eco-
nomical temperature. It can readily be seen thst the gain due to the addition of
heaters decreases as the number of heaters increases. Also, additional heaters
csn be used more advantageously with the higher throttle pressures than with
* Aleo J. K. Saliebury, "The Steam T\rrbine Regenerative @cle," Tran*. ASME.
REGENERATIVE CYCLE
t!
t(
t2 -l #
_TT
-r-rTTTT-
-t\
10

l0
I tlt
5

84.37 t
Ltt + _1_
\
I
2
,
0
*
0 50 r00 t50 200 250 275
TOIAL FEED WATER TEI,iP RISE-OEG.C
(Not. Chonsc o, icol.)
ffi -T-rl r.II
rttr t0

t0
t
ffi
1tf ffi
l rlrr
trrl
aaaz
27,12
iEs-
!ar
-t#-- v7-za III 2
alll II TTI
tlr
6
r++ r T
.IT
l-!
2

0
i 1500 si)
I
T
!
lrl
ttt
Il!
o 25 50 75 r00 125 r50 165

t2 10

10

g 3
2
6

0
l) 50 75 100 r?5 r50 165

r2
II I
-I f -f.-fTi -l-Tfrl-l
t0
-l-TiT
E

ffi I

ffi
6

06 s
2 00

0
0 25 50 75 r00 l?a 150 155
TOTAL FEEO WAIER TEME RISE- DEG, C

Fto. 8-8 Reduction in heat consumption obtained \1itll r.ariots degtees of hetting at
full load, ?36.6Et vacuun, 309"C steam tempersture. (Corlect vsristiol! witb Fig. &9. )All
pressufos, gauge.
224 VAPOR CYCLES
the los'cr. The data are derived from a thermodynamic standpoint and do not
takc into account the increased cost of iastallation and maintenance, due to the
addil.ion ol extra hcatels rnd their resultant piping, foundations, etc. Fig. 8-11
shows the effect of throttlc prcssulc on the temperatdre to rvhich the feedwater
should be heatcd to obtain the maximum gain with stage extraction. These

Multioti.r lo 6. ur.d o. rh. aa ll P.rc.nlaga lo b. odd.d lo or

p.r..n'o9. itrrpro,.m.nl ZZ ll 3lblrc.t,d lroln lh. p.rc..t
t.0 obloin.d ol 735.6mm Hq
vd.uum .i 5hor. aa
tt tt
-s
imp.ov.6.nl obldi..d dl i
throtac t.nlp.r.tur. d3 .horn
aa
a:a
f tt
tt t
tI
l-8
tlrtl
I { 0c%
aa
2 ll 9 tt
tt tt ttt lt I I I
rtltl tlt
IIIII rlt
ll
tlal attll tlll II II :!tlt lrr
rrtt! lrist
trttr ttr
lrrtt lt a435I Ilttt{95 llr
I I
-0.
tt IT
660 690 ?24 7to 375
ltt 5a5
VACUUM- mn Hl IHFOITLE STEAi rEupenalune-oC

fro. 8-9 Correctron lactors for yacuum, superher,t, and partial load.

r5 m
T-fT-[[ 1
81.37 kE/cm2 9o
I!-!176.31
63.28
:--56,25
4 7_.-

Fffi
ta ,,,, 19.21
12.16
//l '4 , /l
S,Z
fl- /t 35.r5
z
9ll
F
lro
)
l /.
r/t 77
,//1

//l ,,,
/ /,/
'/''..

r FII
tr -
t--
2*.12
2t.09
ll.05

ttl
//1
le
ilil7l IiiLl -T-rl
ffifr+t
o
u8
F
t,
'//l /7
t// t
l//
?c
z
gr w/
mliF
l,

v -T-f
F
f4 W
o tttrl
CI sIEAlr co orllot{s I

2
THROTTLE PRESSURE' k9/c m 90 -'ll. L.17
THROTIIE IEMPERATURE - 39gE C
YACUUII -?36.6 tnm HG
o ra!456rO9ro
IIUMBER Of IiAOE5 0F fXaRAcllOX

Frc. 8-10 Reduction ln heat consumptlon obtarned rvith va ous numbers of stdg€s
and various steam pressurcs. (R.L. Reynolds.) Steam conditions: Prcssure a,t throttle,
14.06-84,3? L8/cm! gs; total steam temperature, 3gs'C; vacrum, ?30.6 mm. II8.
REGENERATM CYCLE 22s
curyes show that the most efficient final feed temperature increases quite
rapidly as heaters are added for the first four heaters, while additional poinis of
extraction above four affect the efficient final leed temperature only sligh y.
The Iocation of the turbine zones to which the heater should be connected de-
pends upon the steam pressure at the turbine throttle. From Figs.8-8 and g-11
the final temperature of the feedwater may be estimated. To obtain the maxi-
mum eficiency it is desirable to locate the other feedwater heaters at such points
that the amounts of steam bled from the turbine to each heater are as ncarly
equal as possible. This means that the temperature rises over eaeh heater
would be approximately the same.
The highcr the boiler pressure or the lower thc condenser pressrrre, the better
will be the gain eflccted by the regenerative cycle, and more stages of regeuera-
tion will be justified. Certain secondary effccts of a desirable nature resuit from
bleeding operation. A reduction in the vohrme oi steam passing the final stages

260

(12 00 psiq )
{n00)
2A0 q
11 lr000,
cu
1 (900)
B
(J 3 (800)
220
I
I //' 56 { 700)

I s
I

200
// /z 1 8
{600t
ts00)
I /., //,, j 5
(100)
Lll
J
t80
2
'/1.
28 '\?

?\ og t300)
c /l / //
I '/t .06 (200)
o-

160
//k 7z
/y 7t
,,/ 4
l//t, 77 7
z
t10
r/,
/t
7
t20

100
0t23456 ?c910
NUMEER OF STAGES OF EXIRACTION

-tJc.8-11 Final fecd \ratcr tcnlpcrrtulcs for ]]ruxirnum gain rvith various nurnber of
stages and stearn pressuros from 14.06-E4,37 kg/cmr go- (R.L. Reynolds.) Total *eem
tero pemture, 65.6"C; vacuum, 736.6 mm, flg,
226 VAPOR CYCLES
of the turbine blading allows the turbine casing at the exhaust end to be much
smaller, an important Iactor beca,:se size of the turbine casing at the low-
pressure end is frequently a limiting dimension of the unit. Another result of
less steam in the exhaust is the higher vacuum possible without increase ol
condensing water to the condenser.
Regeneratiue Turbines.It is common knowledge with those v'ho are familiar
with turbines that the expansion of steam is not isentropic. Friction loss in each
stage causes loss of availability and increasing dcparture of the steam condi-
tions from the isentropic in the direction of increased entropy.
The extent of this defect is govcrncd by the moisture in the steam, velocity
of the steam, the number oI stages, and the general excellence of design.and
constmction. Consequently it is to be expecteci thiat turbines of different rnakes
and types will have varied exp*nsion lines upon the Mollier Diagram. Some
typical Iines are shown in Fig. A-13. These liles Jorm the basis of regenera-
tive cycle calculations and should be thoroughly understood. The exact form
of the line is a curve, but considering it a broken line between the known points
is accurate enough for practical purposes. The use of nonextraction expansion
lines for extraction calculations is an assumption frequeutly made. Turbines
from which steani is to bc extracted are provided with suitable outlets to which
the extraction lines may be ionnected.
There are two types of extraction, i.e., extraction at consta,nt steam pressure
and extraction at whatever pressure exists in the turbinc at the cxtraction point.
Extraction at constant pressure requires that an cxtraction valve gear be pio-
vided to regulate the area through which steam florvs into the lower prcssure
stages. This is necessary because, not only would the extraction pressure vary
with different amounts of cxtracted steam demanded, but varying Ioads
on the turbine would cause the casing pressure at the extraction nozzle to vary.
The extraction valve gear is often complicated by the use of a control or pilot
valve to operate the maiu extraction valve. Turbines equipped li'ith extraction
valve gear are naturally more expensive than the simplcr forms which,have no
pressure goveming on the extraction lines. Industrial use of extracted steam
ofter requires that the pressure of the bled steam be kept constant. Also, in-
dustrial use of the extraction turbine differs from central station practice in
that frequently a large portion of the total flow is extracted, whereas in the
power plant only a small iraction of the total is used for feedwater heating-
Therefore, regenerative cycle turbines are of the simplest form, the pressure and
temperature of the steam in the extraction lines varying in accordance with the
load on the turbine and the quantity extracted. This does not measurably affect
the regenerative cycle as its only efrect is to vary the final feedrvater tempera-
ture within moderate limits, q,nd it has already been said that considerable
variation in the final feedwater ternperature dort not seriously aflect the
efficiency of the cycle.
The conditions of extraction of steam are schematically set forth in Fig.
8-12 for an assumed threc-heater cycle. Thermal state of the steam flowing
through the turbine is depicted on a section of the Mollier diagram. Steam
enters the turbine at pressure pl, total temperature t,, and begins im working
e;pansion towards the exhaust end. After passing a group of stages its pressurc
ls reduced to p., its enthalpy to h". At this point a casing opening is provrded so
 REGENERATIVE CYCLE 227
thst a small poftion of the steam flow can be extracted to Heater C. The re-
maining flow continues past another group of stages to point b where more of it
is extracted for use in lleater B. Similarly, after an extraction at point a, the
remaining steam continues to expand until it flows through the exhaust nozzle
with pressure p2, dryness lactor c2, and enthalpy [2. The enthalpies ft", [6, and
[" may be determined from the condition line if the pressures p,, p6, and p" are
knowr. We shall next explain what sets the magnitude of these p.e.rr."".
The heaters are usually shell-and-tube construction, with steam contained
within the shell and water flowing through the tubes. The steam is ionsidered
to be at the saturation t€mperature corresponding to shell pressure and is
everywhere warmer than the water in the tubes. The temperature difrerence,
1lb ol

,r----
l'*""r (1-:wrlh
4t
I

r,l
Heol.r C

Frc. 8-12 Conditions of steam extraction.

steam to water, is least where the water leavcs the heater. This least Al is called
the "terrninal difrerence." To produce a given outgoing water temperature ro,
the turbine sieam pressure must be appropriate to allow lor the terminal difier-
ence, as well as for the fluid lriction loss in the extraction line. (See Fig. g-12.)
Extraction pressure : Saturation pressure at (r" + Ar) + Ap.
. The
-turbine,
condition line, together with calculated extraction v-eights
{method to be shown later) and pressuresr furnishes the enthalpy inlormation
by rneans of which the gross mechanical work delivcred to re [urbine shaft is
estimated. The steam. turbine is so compact a heat engine that radiation and
convection heat loss from its surface is negligible. Therelore, relying on the law
of conservation of energy, we can rvrite the lollowing equation'for mechanical
work done per g of steam flow to the throttle.
W: (h,- n")+ (1 - t")(i. - nr) + (1 - lr," - rar)(hr - LJ *
(1 -lu" - wt - w^)(h" Jpcrg
-,,) (S-8)
The-net energy delivered to the gener&tor = gross energy developed mechsni-
-
cal friction losses. Brown and Drewry give the Iollowing empirical formula for
mechanical losses, including bearing friction, gland resistance, and oil pump
drive.
Frintion : -+ /p normal ratiug (8-91
/Rated kw
tFor ratingr of over 25,000 k-,
! looo
iDcrease the uumerator to SO.
228 YAPOR CYCLES
The following lormula lor gcnerator efficiency is taken from tlte same
8()urce.

: 0.055 Rating
Genera.tor efficiency 0.98 - x Load
(&10)
Rated krv
1000

Generator efficiencies have been increased since Eq 8-10 wss proposed,

principally through the use of hydrogen cooling to reduce windage losses. (See
Fie. A-r5.)
8-5 Design of Regenerative Cycles. The preliminary layout of a pro-
posed regenerative cycle plant includes the selection of principal units of
equipment and their incorporation into a flow diagram, then an estimate of the
magnitude of flows in the different lines. An actual turbine condition liue is
needed for a realistic appraisal of such .., cycle. Several such graphs on the Ls
plane are included in the Appendix. Furthermore, in Chapter 11, we shall ffnd
that the engineer can predict the condition line from general specifications for
the type of turbine.
In actual practice, a working knowledge of this cycle requires familiarity
with many details. One of the first questions to be raised after terminal pres-
sures and temperatures, feedwater temperature, and number of heaters have
been decided is "How much steanr is to be bled to each heater, and what are the
he&ter temperatures to be?"
A regeneratrve hcater resembles a small surlace condenser. The te'rminal
difrerence used depends on how much can be paid for the heater. The economicgl
range for large central station practice is aboutl.To to,l.4"C,Surface heaters with
ihsuperheat zones are sometimes justified if the extraction steem contains a
high superheat. These heaters have zones baffied ofr in the shell to confine the
incoming superheated steam to contact with tubes carrying the warmest \rster.
By this means the outgoing water may be heated to higher than heater satura-
tion temperature. Heaters so modified are more expensive per unit of heat, trans-
fer capacity but are frequentljT economic on account of the extra value of high
temperature heat they recover.
Heaters are seldcm at any great distance from the turbine so that there is
but little pressure drop to the heater. In the case oI long extraction lines, a
calculation should be made for pipe line pressure drop. Calculations of this type
are given in Chapter 14. The pressure loss due to pipe friction and throttling at
the extraction nozzle ca\ be made the subject of an empirical allowance. The
assumed heater terminal temperature difference can be increased by l.7"to2,8"or
lrom 5/o to 7/, pressure drop (Ap, Fig. 8-12) can be allowed.
Aaother point of considerable interest in cycle layout is the disposal of the
condensed extrsction steam. The condensate can be handled by pumps as in
Fig.8-5. Thrs system, indeed, is used to some extent; it has the advantages of
logical cycle layout, eliminatioir of available enerry loss due to flashing oi con-
densate to a lower pressure, and simplification of piping. Its disadvantages are
the cost of.numerous pumps and motors, their wiring and control, and their
electric energy consumption. But principally pumps are objected to because the
operation oI the plant canle tied up by such a small auxiliary, and that the
DESIGN OF REGENERATIVE CYCI,ES 225
requirements of availability and reliability do not warrant taking such risks.
Simpler and more foolprool systems are used; for instauce, those illustrated in
the alternate scher4es (2,) and (b), Fig. 8-5.
Modifications of the regenerative cycle are so numerous that a complete
r6sum6 of them is beyond the possibilities of this ch&pter. Two might be men-
tioned. (1) Eleat which wou\d othervise be wasted is oiten recovered by passilg
the flow from the condeaser hotwell through generator air coolers, oil coolers,
steam jet inter- and after-condcnsers, gland steam condensers, etc., before it
reaches the first regencrative heater. (2) When distilled water is used for feed-
water make-up, evaporators using extracted steam for vaporizing the raw water
are included in the cycle.

Example 1: The probable flovs and thermal performance of a threc-heater regen-

erative cycle having a florv diagrgm such as Fig. 8-5 rvill be determined, \\ith the aid
of turbine expansion line A shotln on thc Appcndix chart. The condensate from each
heater vill be assumed to be at the samc temperature as the outgoing feedrvater, and
to be handled by pumping. Also a.5.6"C temperature difre'rence betEeen outgoing water.
and saturrtiou temper{ture at the cxtraction point in the trrrbine rvill be consideted to
cover both the heater terminal clifrercncc and the effoct oi pipe lriction in the extraction
lines. This turhine has stcam condition of24.6l kg/cm! ab36o.Cexhaustall5.lmo IIgThe
generator ontput at ratcd load (reprcscnted by the expnnslon linr) is 20,000 krv.
Fig. 8-11 is consulted to cletermine the maximum cconomic fecdwrrter temperuture.
The',hrottleptessu!€ is 2,{,6t ks/cm! sb, or 23.s8 kg/em2 ga, for which the tempereture is
found to be r61.?'C. Tho saturation temperature at25.4,irrr,.IIg is 26.r"C. The feed-
water must be heated froo zo.i" to l5t.?', I raDge of r25.o . Jt follows that, for tbree
beaters, the desirable fise of tempersture iu each is approximately 125.6/3 : 41.9.C,
Then the intermediate temperatures are: Between he{tem A and B,26.1 + 4l.g:88',
and betveen heaters B and C, 68 + 4r.g : 109,9. Appll'ing the b.6o difference betrveen
feed$ater tepperature and extraction point srturatioD tcmFerxture, one obtains satum-
tion temperatrucs at the turbine extraction points and, Irom steam tables, the coire-
sponding pressures, Then by thc use of the condition line the total heat in the extmcted
steam rs found at the intersectioo of condition linc and extraction pressrrre. These are
recorded along rvith the pressrrres, the heat of the liquid lr,, and the difrerence,L
- [r.

Pressure
t" Satumtion at hal ht at h-hr
Temperature turbine t" ( J/sl)
fc) at Turbine
Turbine,
( .r/e ) )
Abs
'/e
Throttle 222.O7 24.6t 3r49.9
Extraction C 151.7 151.7+ 5.6:157.3 5.88 28tt4.? 639.6 2215.1
Extractioo B 109.1) 109,0 * 5.6 -115.5 1.7i; 2698.1 460.$ 2237.a
Extraction A 63 {,8 + 5.6: 73.t 0.371 2510.5 28{.6 2234,9
Condenser 26.r 25.4 mlD 20 109.5

The extraction florvs per kg throttle flo\y are designated ?r^, ?rh, z)"
Heat balances for the three heaters arc written thus:*

+For simpliication Al x 4.i868haE been assumed to equel Arr,. This is Dot sirictly tme.
230 VAPOR CYCLES
Ileater Cr (r- l,cxl5l.7 - 100.0 )l.rti8 - D15.r wa
He&t€r B: (l - l,a - r,'b)(I00.9 - 68)4.1868 : 22Sr.8 t b
Ifeater A:1t -wc-ub- ?rsx68 - 26'r)4.1888 :2234.9lr!,
These equations, solved progresBively, give:
1,. =0.0626 ks; rrb:0.08?4kg} t" -0.(},23 ks
Next, a, substitution in Eq 8€ givee the energy converted into work'
E/ - l(31.19.9 2884.7)+(l - 0.0723,(2a8{ 7 - 2698.7)
r(l - 0.0723 - 0.067ax2rr98.7 - 2610.6,
+(r 0.06?4 - 0.0028x25r9'5 - 2280)
- J0.0723g -throttle
t83.I dou
- P€,
4'0E"-
Friction loss - x 7g3.t - z.o J p€r g
/20,ffn
!
looo
IDput to gene.&tor por g st€sm f,or st thloitle : 783.1 - 7 :77A,1 J. .

it'" liue'is I-or an rs00:"p- ,itit.lr.i- Fig. A-rs the gen&ator efficiency
is fouud"*p"o.ioo
to be 97.1/p lot an air-cooled generator, which type will be assumed here.
Energy in electrical output per s flow :??6.1 x 0.9?1 : 745 J - Since 20,000 kw are
equivalent to 7.2 x lor0 J per hr tho tuU thlottle flow is 7.2 x lO10/?45 x l0r : 06643 kg P€r hl'
tr'ull extraction flows are
1,. : 066{3 x :0.0626 8050 kg Por ht
{r\ = 90643 x :0.0674 6514 kg por hr
u.: O6(,1t x 0,0?28 - 6982 kg por hr
Regeneratir,'e cycle themal emciency: ?76.1(3149'9 - 630.6):30.9%.

This is the gross efficiency. Net efEciency would includc consideraiion of euergy to
pumps and other auxiliades.

8-6 Regcnerative Cycle Heat Balance. The sirnpte symmetry of feed-

water regeneration outlined in the two preceding sections is not often obserYed
in an actual plant. for water loss make-up, leed tredtment, and othqr features
not seen in Fig. 8-5 are often introduced. The basic plan of regeneration re-
mains, but thu.simple flow diagrams heretofore described are altered as needed
to accommodati the desired additions. An example of a typical plant flow dia-
gram is shown in lig.8-13. Here the turbine is provided with four points of
extraction, although the c-vcle has but three strictly rcgenerative heaters.
Extraction from point 3 is split, part being used to evaporate raw water for
make-up purposes. The extraction from point 2 is used to heat feedwater for
thermal deaeration (removal o'f dissolved gases, especially oxygen). The
evaporator vapor also goes to the d€aerator. This deaerator employs a contact,
or mixing, type of process so that no {ondensate is separately removed from it.
It not only degasifies the water but also serves as an evaporator condenser and
a regenerative heater.
The heat of the ste&m used for jets in condenser air eiectors is generally
salvaged in an ejector condenser, as is done lo this case. Here the iet steam is
derived lrom an auxiliary steam supply outside ihe main flow plan, but usually
such steam is tak'en from the main steam supply ',ia pressure-reducing valves.
The deaerating heater tank acts as s partial surgc tank, it usually having
REGENERATIVE CYCLE HEAT BALANCE 231
considerable water storage volume. External surge capacity is here provided by
an elevated storage tank (not shown) with valve in the surge line operated by
float control from the deaerator water level. Feedback from the storage tank
enters the system at the condenser hotwell via a valve operated by hotwell
water lcvel.
This is one plan of regenerative flow-a typical one, but not a prototype of
such plants in general, Ior the only generalization that can be made of real flow
diagrams is that no two will be alike. There are many local considerations and
numerous individual engineering ideas that create the variations from plant to
plant.

61250 r

9o
t,90
270
I
2a.96
I
F
I
t7t.l I

32.69 i 5l
2r6 ! i 9
112.

STEAM CONDITIONS
Station Pn&.r. (kg larrp .b, Entlnl,py lJ lgl Ftou lbs[hr\
Throttle 88.9{ 3380.3 320,24o
Extr. point 4 2?.20 3089.5 28,850
Ertr. ooirt 3 9.14 2896.4 27,900
Extr. point,2 3.{l 2725 t 1,200
Gland seal 3t05.8 820
Extr. point 1 0.759 2n24.2 24,50t)
Condenser 0.051? 2S 226,97O
Irc. 8-13 Sample of regenerative cl,ele plant flow diagram.

Examplc 1: Assuming that the dat.1 entered on trig. g-18 represents the result of
a test of the ]Iapor cycle, it vill
nolv be shortn how such information can be worked
iDjg,a,hea! balan-ce and expressed graphirally. All thc separale pieces ol equ;pmeni in
wn,ch heat translers or transformrtions occur must be surveyed by use of the law
of
conservation of energy. Where the data are suficient Ior the purpose, a balance can be
struck, thereby validating the accuracy of testing, for the' ,,unaccounted for,, item
necessary to make an exact balance should be witliin the accuracy of instrumentation
of the test. In some iqstanccs the balance is found by assigning tii rrecisary differense
to one of the items. Itr these cases the t'chievement of an Jxacibalance is noi, ol course,
Proof of acirurrte test proaedure. The following tabulated calcuiailons are recorded in
abbrevEted lorm making it uecessary for the reader to employ p or kDowledge of steaB
232 VAPOR CYCLES
properties in correlsting data from ttre diagrom \dth these computationg. Note divigion
ol the solution into si* sections.
1. Enthalpy of steam and blorvdown leaving the steam g€nerutor is first found;
then by subtracting feedwater enthalpy, the heat absorption is detlrmined.
H€lrt obsorbod in steom gsnor.rior : ll20,2r0 x 3380.3 x 0.239 + 3180 y t38e.3000 X
x 103 - 323,420 x 012.8 x o.Elg : 188,06t,500 kcat per hr. The eathslpy ootEotioa
oxplaitrod ia Ex {, 860 l-3, i3 not appliod hero b6csus€ tho negnitudo of it6 offoot
is of iho rsDe order os r,/r of l% oocuraoy ia stes6 flo- E€asuromeDt, rhotoaa
l% is good for Buctt to€t dst6.
H6at input in coal - 188,681,500/0.825 : 228,680,500 kosl p€i hr.
Combugtion loeses in steam generator = 228,680,s00- l8s,66t,s0o:4o,0lg,000koslp6rh!.
2. Disposition of the cnthalpy delivered to the turbine is next analyzed.
IhoLeard k !.1 p. h"
Ilnthalpy at turbine thtottle :
X2o,24o x 3380.3 x 0.239 : 25?,961
Dxtraction No. 4: 28.850 x 3089.6 x o.?xg - 21,240
ExtractionNo.3:27.900x2896.4x0.239 - 19,256
Extraction No.2:11,200 x 2729 x 0'239 :7, 3
Gland leakofr: 820 x 310i.8 x u.239 : 007
Extraction No. 1: 24,6u) t 2524,2 x 0.239 :14,737
Exhsust: 226,970 x 225s x 0.239 - l22,l8o
185,303

Difierence is gross work delivered to shaft ?2,655

Generator output : 81,150 x 858.9 = 69.86i|

Difference is combined mechanicel-elecl,rical loss 2,782

3. Analysis of the condenser and ejecto! condenser is next. In the eiector condense!
trhe steam (used to activate the iet comDression of noncondensable gas out of the main
condenser) which is exherrsted by the ejector jets is coldensed by absorbing its latent
heat in condensate from the main condenser Beginning at this point the main condet-
sate florv will be rcferred Lo as Feeduatet

nser he at b alattce
C on d,e Ibt rn d k@t pc, h?
Turbine exhaust. . t22,180
Condensate fiom ejector cond. 2l'ro x id,a x 0.2f0 25
CondenMt€ from A: (8m + t1,5oo)37o.0 x 0.239 . . . 2,'n4
Feedwat€r out: 262,560 x r30.6t x 0.2;!0......... 8,{01
Absorbed by condensing wster (difrelence)... . . . . . t10,078

124,475 t ,115

EjecLn cofuden\et hca, balan e Xlrnaa^d bd par Lr

Jet steam: 270 x 1237.8 x 0.rt0: 20n
Feedwater in. . . t4ol
Condensate to main condenser. . 26
Feedwa,t€r out (difference)...... . &58{

8098 8600

4. Heat balances of the three extractior heaters A, B, and C are now tobuLrted.
Data are sufficient for a calculated balance. An "unaccounted for" item ia insert€d where
necessary in order to strike an exact belsnce.
REGENERATIVE CYCLE HEAT BALANCE 233
Ileater A balante Ttnaand bt W n
Extraction steam (xe part 2). . . ..,
Gland st€an.. .. '.
t4,137
....- -,... 00r.
Feedwatcr in'..... .. t'{ot
Condensate out . 2,271
I'eedwater out: 247,300 x 365.14 x 0.209 2t,68
Unaccountad for. . 48

23,800 23,800
Healer B balarue luug@d t al p.r ht
Extraction steam:10,0a0 x 2800.4 x O.23e .... 13,656
Feedw&ter in:3r3,420 x 6?0.3 x 0,23e ......... 43,05S
Condensat€ frcm 2&860 x 970.2 x 0.230....... 0'1c2
Feedwatrcr out: A2A,42O x 721 x 0.230 . . 66,799
Condensate to deserato.: 48,a80 x ?31.6 x 0.239 8;462
Unaecounted for..,, . . l0
a{,%t u,25t
Healzr C balarue Tfururdr.d l&al per hr,
Ilxtraction steam . 21440
Feedwater in. . . 55,?00
Feedwater out:32r,420 x ofl.t x 0.239 70,272
Condensate to B. .. 4,732
Unaccoun[ed for................ 35

77.039 77,030
5. tr'inally, tlte distribution of heat quantities 1t the elaporator r,nd dzaeralor, whicb
&re plsced in this cycle for feed purificetion. is computed.
Bnpor alar lu at balaa,ce lluuaad kcal 9* ht
Extraction Bt€&m:8260 x 2898.4 X 0.239..... 5,701
In make-up: 8800 >< 697 x 0.289.... . ... t,071
Yapor out: e070 x 2728.1 x 0.2:10 . 6,U2
Blowdown: 82O x 60? x 0.230.... 60
Condens&te to deaentor 8260 x 730.4 x OJ30 1,438
Unaccounted for.... . .. 4

0,?70 8,775
Deaoabr h,eat balarce Thovea d ledl pet la
Extraction stdsm (see polt 2) 7,289
Evaporator vapor . 5,24
Evaporator condensate...... 1,438
Condensat€ from B...... .. 8,.162
Feedwater from A. . ........ 2r,626
Feedwater to B............. 4t,063
Uuaccounted for............ t2

41,963 13,953
*This is thstr enthalpy o{ feedwater out of ejector coadeuser because of the flow
legs
ol - 6,1?0 /h. to storage. Enthalpy of this flow = 8,58{,000/262,660 = .84 kool per kg.
Enthalpy ot feedwsier to A = 8,684,000
- 6l70xE4 = 8,4{$,c2O kool per kg.
iState assumed to be dry ald Baturated st !.:5 Lgro,nr ib.
 ?,SII VAPOR CYCLES
6. The flow of he&t enersi in thie plart iE more r€rdily grasped if the resulto sr€
displayed in a heat stre&m, Fig, &14. In the arrangement of such a figure the engin€er
may employ much oiginality aud ingenuity, but he must be careful to respect the
principle of conservation of energy since the ecaled widths of the he&t stream repr€-
sent heat quantitie8.

plmp3

lhrolll
H.ofer C

Heotor B

p
Evap h-e
lossos

oeoerolor

Turbine

E lor cond.

sloroge

Frc. 8-14 fleat bau,nce of typical regenerative cycle.

8-? The Reheating Cycle. An adiabatic working process, such es is

approximated in steam nozzles, engines, and turbines, implies that the mechani-
cal energy which appears has been produced at the expense of the heat in the
steam. Superheated steam will lose its superheat, then become more wet as the
expansion proceeds to lower pressures. It is a matter of record that moisture
in expanding steam is undesirable.
Development of high temperature-high pressure equipment has proceeded
steadily on account of the greater work availability contained in high potential
) steam. Since structural limitations imposed by the metals available for super-
' heatcrs, piBes, etc., limit upper temperatures, and since higher pressur.es mean
also higher saturation temperatures, it is evident that the maximum degree of
superheat possible must ultimately decrease as higher pressures are adopted.
The inevitable efiect of higher pressures is that the saturation line is reached
more quickly in in adiabatic expansion snd more of the turbine stagcs oper&te
' in the relatively undesirable saturated steam region. This explains why reheat-
THE REHEATING CYCLE 235
ing'the steam is sometimes practiced in high-pressure plants. The reheating is
accomplished by constructing the turbine so that all of the steam may l-re
extracted at a suitable point, resuperheated, then readmitted to the remaining
stages for furthcr expansion.
Resuperheating is a feature associated with high steam pressures where
there is insuficiently high initial ste&m temperature to yield an expansion that
will end at the desirable statc B, Fig. 8-15. It will be observed that this diagrarr
is on the Mollier plane and that a number of turbine condition lines are shown.
There is a minimum practical limit of final dryness
e
fa,clor, t2, beyond which the accumulating moisture
droplets in_the steam cause mechanical difficulties,
and there is a minimum exhaust pressure set by the
temperature and quantity of the condensing water
available to the steam condenser. These limits.are
roughly abolt 86ftand38.lmmug otre.They produce a
'^floor" under the permissible cxpansion line, of which
point I is obviously the most desirable, as it has thc c

minimum practieal cxhaust enth&lpy. A turbine rc-

ceiving steam of initial state ,4 would expand it to B
without, any resuperheating. State,4, ab,l9.3kg/cmr 0
and 296'C, is typical of nonreheating plants built in
the 1920's. Secking highor rffirioncies, companies
naturally followed progrcss to higher pressures antl
temperatures when manufacturcrs vcre ready to
supply the equipment. In the same decadc, equip.
ment capa.ble of producing and using stcam at state
C was made availablc. Used without reheat the tur-
bines wouid have produced an cxpansion CD', result- B

ing in maininnancc difficultics bocru-c of ex.clsive D

rnoisture near the exhaust state. The expansion would

have had to be tcrminated at D" b1, incrcasing the
exhaust pressure, resulting in an unfryorablc cnergy
utilization. But by exhaustirg the steam at I) and FrG. 8-15 Reheat vs.
resuperheating preisrrre to IJ, the rcmait- noDreheat turbine condi-
'expansion- at constant
ing to I' allorved frrlt utilizr.r,tion of the trun hnes,:.(1) early non-
rehert;. (?) early reheat
condenser vaeuum. Thus rt, u" ra",, uiut ir* ,rr-
pose or rehear is to take ""nr,,l ,i.:,,i"c"
"i"iilh"'
initial thermal statcs as they brcorne conrmercially li|l3.;ll lii *Ufl:::
treat piecticc.
availablc. In the 1930's metalhirgicr:l irnprovemcnts
extended the possibilities of stearn gcnt,ration to63.3kg/cmrar rd {82'C-typically
state G. This state rgain permitted expansion to an exhaus'" statt' approximat-
ing point B rvithout rchcat. anrl for I time there was littlc intercst in tl,e
rehcat cycle. Rccently ilcreases in evailablc stciun prcssurcs havc outstrippccl
the temperature increascs, and rehcat is again bcing adooted, leading to er-
pansion conditions such as line Il"/.
The high-pressurc, hiqh-tcrnprraturc steam gcnerator, together with extra
cost of turbines, piping, and controls, makcs plapts built to this cycle morc
expensive than for nonreheat. The cyclc does n6t bccomc an economic one
236 VAPOR CYCLES
unless constructed as e boiler-turbine unit of approximately 50,000 kw or more
capacity in[ended to be used as a base load plant.
The principal advantage is a gain ol 4 to 7/o thermal efrciency over an

a
f

L _ _ _ lt-L.-!! ol]!{-JE! t!_olro_!or j!..!_'g!r !.tgnel! !e!._ _ _ j

Frc. 8-16 Flow diagram of l,he leheat cycl€.

equivalent nonreheat cycle. This advantage tends to justify greater initial

expenditures for equipment as the price of fuel advancee.
Doubtless it will already have occurred to the reader that any power plant
of a type that would be using reheating
T
would also employ feedwater heating to a
o
high-temperature level. This indeed is the
T,
case and all reheating vapor cycles also em-
-t ploy regenerative feedwater heating. A
c
combination of the two vapor cycles vould
rt, retain all the advantages ol each and incur
no additional disadvantages beyond those
already mentioned for these cycles.
An example oI the equipment arrange-
r" ment of the reheat cycle is illustrated in
tr
A tltl Fig. 8-f6. The turbine stages must be
rl grouped lor convenience in removing the
entire flow at an appropria*"e intermediate
o K H noint. Formerlv this could be done between
Frc. 8-17 The reheating
" in" high- und lo*-p."r.r." seetions of a
cycle. compound turtrine, but today,s high initial
steam conditions require reheat before the
low-pressure section is reached. Hence a modcrn auangement is to divide the
high-pressure casing by a diaphragm, so converting it to high- and intermedi-
ate-pressure sections with reheat between these. The average higher pressure
of reheating has helped by reducing the required size of reheat piping.
SUPERPOSED POWER UNITS 237
Some eariicr reheat cycles employed live steam reheaters at the turbine to
dispense with reheat at the boilcr and with reheat pipe lines to and from the
turbine. As rcheat temperature when using live steam cannot be much higher
than boilcr saturation temperature, this method has been abandoned in favor of
gas reheating sections in the steam generator or separately fired reheaters. The
latter are sccn in rnarine practice. but not often in stationlry plants.
Steam storage in thc turbine, reheater, and rcheat piping presents a problem
in speed control, lor surplus energy can continue to bc gencratcd in the IP and
LP scctions for sornc tirne after the rnain governor has reacted to a load de-
crease. TLis has possibilitics of producing dangerous overspceding, to correct
which governor-opcratcd intcrccpt valves are installed ahead of the point of
reintroduction of the rchcaterl steam to thc turbines. These are adjusted to come
into action after thc normal spccrl regulltion has bccn excceded. but belore
speed has increased to thc point Iapproxima,tcly 11Oft normal rpm) rvhere an
emergency overspeetl trip l ould rhut dorvu the rvhole unit.
The theorctical perlolrnance ol this cycle is cstablished by studv of the
idcal cycle. Steam enters thc trrrbinc at a condition corrcsponding to point D,
Fig.8-17, and, after an isentropic expansion to ?1s,, is rcheatd(l at constant
pressure to 7n,, after whiclr thc expansion is complcted to thc exhaust state G
for rvlrich the temperaturc is ?,2. Increase of entropv by reheating is As, and
reheat action is the portion l?F.
The heat converted into rvork is thc erea BCDDFG. while that supplied in
the stcam generator is hr + ft" - /r1r, r'herc ft. is thc reheat, i.e., area DFHI.
The thermal efficicncy of the reheat cyclc is given bv thc equation

,,1': h*h.-h,t (8-11)

h*- h h,
in which h,: cu(Tw - ?n,) : [. - h,.
hr: r2h1r, I h1,.

By combining Eqs 8-7 and 8-11, one obtains the emciency of an ideal re-
heating-regenerative cyclc (infinite number of heaters) having no feed heating
extraction until after reheating. It is also assumed that reheating begins at the
saturation line.
hr ] h, - xzhts, - + 43.1 .1 4.tl7nrtn
4.LB|T| Tt lr"
(8-12)
h,* h,- 4.t87?r+ lt43.l
8-8 -Superposed Power Units. power demands are seldom static. Every
porver plaut, whether of public servicc or.industrial type. may not only expeci
to serve a variable load, but one v.hose incidence is eitier in ihc diro"ii,,n Lf a
growing or a diminishing load. Commonly the change is in the direction of
a
growth of load, this being almost ahvays true for the public service plant. The
capacity of an existing power plant may be expanded in a number of ways, viz.:
1. Replacc existing plant with a ne.rv one having adequate capacity.
2.
. Extend. the existing plant by purchasing additional equipment similar to
that already installed.
AII ['E i! J/9,
238 VAPOR CYCLES
3. Modemize the existing equipment, thereby increasing its output and
efficiency.
4. Purchase power from systems having excess capacity.
5. Superpose a high-pressure steam plant on the existing plant.
The superposition mentioned above refe,rs to the thermodynamic position of
the new equipmcnt, rathcr than its physical location. Where an existing plant is
becoming inadequate chiefly through growth of load rather than by natural
depreciation or obsolescence,, superposcd po'v/er may be the economic method
of increasing capacity.
Sometiures plants in need o'f incrcased capacity have modcrate pressure
turbines in excellent condition operating at efficiencies not too inferior to new
equipment. Such plants may be enlarged by a high-pressure, noncondensing

8
a
I
,

F
z

Z
o
d
o
I
I
0
tr'ro. 8-18 Flow diagram of a high-pressure unit superposed on existiDg plant.

addition. It is possible that the superposed unit, can pass sufficient steam into
the original plant header for the old boilers to be discarded. In this way, not
only are the excellent qualities of existing turbincs retained, but also it is possi-
ble to obtain the berreflts of the progress tlrat has occurred in high-pressure
steam generation. Many plant extensions have been secured in this way and
have displayed remarkable economies of operation when compared to the
original units. Not the least ol the factors contributing to the success of super-
position has been the development and standardization of equipment for high
pressurcs and high tcmperatures. Pressures of 56 to 98 kg/cmz and tempi:ratures
to 538"C, are no longcr considered to be unusual or hazardous. Manufacturers
are ready to supply commcrcially tricd and tested equipment in this range.
The capacity of the superposed unit and the throttle pressures required are
arrived at by a coordinated study of load growths, the cycle of the existing
SUPERPOSED POWER IINITS 23C
pladt, and thermodynamic studies of the probable steam expansion in the
superposed unit.
The steam conditions for superposition are shown plotted on the Mollior
diagram in Fig. 8-19. Here point,{. is the established throttle state of an existing
plant. An ideal superposed turbine with throttle siate B rvould liberate 8.4 Joules
of work per g flow. Since turbine expansions
produce some irreversibility, the throttle state
needed is point C, so chosen that line C,4 is rep-
resentative of the possibilities of a rgal turbine
able to produce the same work, pcr q flow,
as the ideal. It is seen that tbe efrect of iintcrnal
friction is to increase pressure and temperature, 3300
but in such a way that the d,egree ol superheat
at C is'less than at B.
The pressurep.., and temperature t-.. are €
assumed to be the highest for which commercial 324 0 f t o-'--
I
.'.c
-.
equipment ls available. The maximum power I
I
':.e{.4.,
capacity would be had in the supcrposcd tur- I

bine were the throttle statc C extended upward : 3roo I

I

until it reached either the limiting pressure or I

temperature as at C'. The state C.", could be

used only if by coincidence state.4 were so Io- 6 3000

cated that a normal turbine expansion C-.,,4.

were possible.
2900
The expansion is wholly in the superheated
steam region, and line C,4 should be approxi- I
mately straight if the superposed turbine is of EIPANSION
the usual multi-staged form. Stage efficiency 26 0o

remains substantially constant in the super-

heat region. The slope of line C.4 is therefore a
function oI the average stage efficiency. The 2700
2615
selection of point C will be illustrated by 6 ?5 6.?5 7,25
example. E TRoPY -J /9 / 'k

Example 1: Steam conditions of l superposed Frc 8-19 Determination of

plaat rvill be estimated basecl on un u".u*"d 3b,000 tbrottle 6team state of a super-
kw €,risting plaDt baviDg po: l5.t kg/cmz a.b, posed plant:
to:254.4"Q. The steam Iato of tbis plsnr is A, Throirle state of odginal
6.6?kg por kw br. An sddir,ional tt,i00 ks is plant.
ws.otodfmm the suporpo.od unit. Tfubines for C, T'hrottle state of super-
this duty oay be aasumod to have svorsgo stag6 posed plant.
ofrci6trcy bstwoon 76 and 8070. ?8yo is used.
Ths eristing plant 6xos th6 exhd,u6t cotrditior of tho rep unit, i.€., l5.l
.lig/cmr et, 254.4"C, 2534.4 Jlg, 170100 kg p6r hr. To yi6td 12,600 kw on this flow rhB
sup€rposed unit musi conv€"t l1*q\36\-106 : 264.8 J p€rq into output. This
l7ul00 103
would be the l€ngth,4B of Fig. 8-19 oxcept^
for mocha.nica,l-et€crric6l loss€a, stlrl th€
€ffoct of ortraction to high-prossuro hearors. If 59lo of the llow w6ro extroctod,
tba Ev€rago flow through ih6 superposod turbin€ mighr b6 ofthe ordot of S1 ta SByo
of its thlottle flcw. A fsctor of0.975 is tius iDtroducod into th€ preliminary 6timst6
240 VAPOR CYCLES
of point A.' Aasurning e moobanioal-€lootricel eflioioacy of g0%, th6 h6st r6l6er.
.4-[l is found
i^B : 264.6/(0.9?5 x 0-001
- 282.7 JIE
:2931.4 + 3217.1 JIA
hB 2132,7
-
Now point C is located by trial es that pressure a,t 3217.1 J from which aD i.senhopic
expansion to ttre l6,t kgrlcln2 line will produce A.[
' :Y - ,Ur.n ,
0.78

At [ : 3217.r - 362.4 - 2854.7 J, aod p = r5.r ks./cm2; s : 6.580 (= s6). On a

Moliier chart it will be secn that at 3217.r J and 6.51i0 entropy, pc = 6l.2kg/cm2 ahand
,c = 4l?"C. These &re the approximete ste&m cenditions requireddt ihe throttle of the
superposed turbrne.

Examplc 2; An extensioi of Ex 1 will show the limit of superposeo power realiza-

ble at this irlant. Assume the same average stage efrciency, atd commerciri limitation
of98.4 kg/oml sb and 510'C. Tbo points.4 snd d from Ex I whon plottod lrB in
Fig. 8-19 d66a6 s aonditioa lin6 that may th6n bo extondod until it r6sch63 tho
th€raodyDBmic ,,coiling" otC'. In ihisca6o tho pressuro ?max ie tbe liEiring foator.
A chart solution Violds
tc, : 478"C lrr,: 3316 ;JlS

ThenJouleronverted into work pert g exhaust flow, employing same assumptionE as

in Ex 1, are
,[= $315 - 203{.4

: 350'3 j-lo3-I-r70100
sDd superposed power = r0$0 hw
3:8 x lo'
It
is possible to increase the capacity of an older plant by a third, at the
Bome time decreasing the over-all steam rate by a third. The new capacity is
obtained at a moderate cost because no additional condensing equipment is
required and the extre high-pressure equipment is rather compact because of
the denee steam in that region.
Control presents a problem which is solved in difrerent ways, depending on
the flow plan. Where the superposed turtrine exhaust is not the entire flow to
the low-pressure section, some of the original boilers will be delivering steam
into the original steam header jointly with the topping unit. Low-pressure
boiler production will be held to the minimum by loading the topping unit fully.
While it is doubtless true that, the old power plants suitable for topping
with a'superposed turbine are becoming fewei, this technique in economic powe.
development msy continue to be applied from time to time in allied fields. A
utility primarily producing steam for district heating cruld generate cheap
kilowett hours if topped. Institutions with 8 heating steam load can produce
part of their electrical power requirements by the installation of a steam tur-
bine, although this, of course, would be topping a heating cycle instead of a
vspor power cycle. Industries olten have similar situations, which brings us to
the topic oi the next eection.
8-9 Industrial Heat-Power Balance. It is in the industrial field that the
a Bubcequently str elact celculation could be carried out, usiug the necessary e*tlgctio[
drts,
INDUSTRIAL HEAT.PO'WER BALANCE 24I
ingenious designer may find the greatest opportunity ol intendzting Lhe heaL
and power nceds, so that these scrvices may be obtained with the minimum
expenditure for fuel or othcr purchascs. An almost rrnlimitcd number of possi-
bilities are open in any project calling for supply ol thesc two forms ol encrgy.
Only a certain fraction of the heat available &t any temperature may be
converted into power by a working expansion. It is as follorvs:

Frartiqn alailabl.e cnergg : L:L=9 (&13)

ht

However, heat originates from the combustion of fuels at very high thermal
Ievels. Although the availability fcaturc may limit the extent to which energy
can be converted into mcchanical porvcr, it is possiblc that the requisite porver
may be developed during thc proccss of providing the heat where a need exists
for both low-temperature hcat and powcr.
In other words, the thermal level of the origin of the energy may be placed
high enough so that the available energy may bc skimmed from the heat and
diverted to power service before the remainder, or less available portion, is
delivered for heat service.
The possibilities opened up by this fact arc numerous and ha.ve led to many
ingenious plant designs. Naturally enough, some of the simpler, but less
efficient mcthods, such as a lo*'-pressure boiler for the supply of heating steam,
and Diesels for power, have been abandoncd in favor of a single, bal&nced hest
and power system. The simplcr systcm might be especially good lor meeting
variable load flexibly, but will usually show higher investncnt costs and lower
efficiencies, due to the nccessity of wasting at least part of the heat from the
engine cooling and exhaust systems.
Whcre it can be satisfaciorily worked out, a balanced heat and power supply
will generally be economical. In this rcspect, industry enjoys an edvantage
over the public service utility, whose plants almost invariably are based upon
the idea of extracting the maximum available fraction oI the heat energy by
use of high pressures, coDdensers, extraction cycles, etc., because there is no
opportunity to use the unquailable lractton of heat, which is abandoned as
heated condensing water. With expensivc installations and skilled operation, it
scarcely expects to skim ofr more than 30/, of the heat Yalue oI the coal as
mechanical work.
The industrial operator is ordinarily not under the same necessity of obtain-
ing the most efficient operation because his rejections of heat f'om the prime
mover can be used. Frequently, however, the heat and power needs do not
coincidc in variability; that is, the maximum porrer demand may occur at an
entirely different hour of the day from tlrat for heat, and ii is not always possi-
ble +"o secure a storage or an averaging cfrect which will allorv heat and power to
be balanced. Furthermore, there sometimes exist seasonal variations with the
result that, altlrough there may be a synchronization of hcat and power demands
at one season of the year, at another season they are out of step. In such cases a
portion of the power may be gencrated by the industry in the course of produc-
ing its -heat needs, and the balance purchased from a utility.
In a simple casc where the right proportion exists betq,een steam and power
?A VAPOR CYCLES
needs, it is often possible to obtain a reasonably satisfactory balBnoe between
steam and power gcneration by the simple expcdicnt of selcciing boiler pressure
snd temperature so that thc requisite power may be produced by operatiag the
prime mover something in the manner of a reducing valve, except that in the
process of pressurc reduction the rcquisite mcchanical encrgy is extracted from
the steam. In some cases it may be advisable to flcat a steam accumulator on
the process }readcr in parallel with thc steam turbine dcsigned for variable back
pressure. This would serve to equalize short-time, out-of-step fluctuations of
heat and power demands. This same objective is usually attained by relief
valves, alternate power sourccs, and prcssurc rcducing valves, but under some
circumstances the eccumulator would be more economical.

Hrot Slo.ogc

{al (b}

Frc. 8-2Q Flow diagrams lor irrdustrial plants. (a) Simple case of proportional heat
and power demand. (b) Examplc of system for industriai heat and power. 1. When
power requirements exceed proecss steam, load is partially shifted to condensing trurbine.
2. When process steam is insufficient, load is shifted to noncondensing turbine and
steam deficiency, if an1, stpplied thnough pressure reducing valve.

The setting of boiler operating conditions is a procedure similar to that of

the superposed cycle. The exhauit state is prescribed by the industrial heat
requirements, and turbine throttle state is enough higher to yield the desired
power.

Examole 1: An industrial plant having equipment connecled as shown in Fig &20

(s) ritl kq per hr of dry aoturated prooesa stesm at 2.ll kg/omt ab plo'auro
uso',1636
Ai thi" ootput oO? turbine hP rvill be ne6dod. Tho onl,iro flow from tho turbino is to
be oxheueted iDto tho procoss mains. fbo st€Bm coDditiono thst should plovoilot tho
boiler outl6t in ordor to ioouto 6 batsDoe of host and povor will bs lnve'tigst€d'
It is obvious that thor6 must b6 s 6ow of 453f.l&7 :8.95 kg st€oE though tho
turbine for eoch hp hr develoPed.
Let Ai = heat to be skimmed from each pound ol steam flow. Then Ah X 7- of
turbiue = output energy. Assume q- : 94%.

Ah : ,.Sd x l0r/8.S5 x IOI x O'04 : 315'l J/e

From tables, entropy of prQcess steam = 7.1157, and'enthalpy = 2108.2 lls

Enthalpy of steam at trhrottle = 2708.2 + 316.1 : :11123.3 4d.
The throttle state is now chosen so that at an enthalpy of 3023.3 J/g tbe en-
.iring turbine orpaDsion will 6nd sith dry slld saturatod stosrn ot ,.ll kg/6mt. TaklnS
into oorside.stion the provailing valuee'of rtogo e6ci6acy (?G807o), tbc oxPoDlioo
COMBINATION CYCLF^S 24a
r.t r6tr rorLGd out oD thc lf,ouldotort.. crdsitrcd in 8.o &8. Atr iDitisl .tot o, 16-{?
k8/sm! aD .od ,93rC .hould b. .houl rlah'^

This elementary case has been prcsented for the purpose oI showing how
such an item as boiler pressure may be selected to help obtain a balance between
power and heat. In practice, an industrial heat power halance is generally a
matter involving more complexity and somc consirlerable amount of compro-
mise. At higher process steam prcssure8 or tcmpcratures, and where power necds
ate larger in relation to process steam, the boiler pressure and superheat will
necessarily be increased. Such increases may leave.the terminal condition im-
practicably high.
An industrial process will lrequently be found to rcquire steam at two or
more pressures. Extraction-type turbines have received considerable applica-
tion in these caees.
Other possibilities for industrial steam cycles are Jyovided in instanccs
where considerable quantities of distilled wster are ernployed. The use of multi-
ple-efrect ev&porators for this service provides the opportunity of utilizing the
exhaust of a back-pressure turbine..
In general, where industry fumishes some process steam requiremente, it
will be good practice to fumish generating equipment sufficient to pass the
process steam, but it may not necessarily be economical to install condensing
equipment beyond this point.if purchased power is lvailable at reasonable
rates,
E-10 Combination Cycles. Modifications of the basrc vapor cycles have
occasionally been used in the interest of greater economy of operation. Thc
reheat and regenerative principles are readily combined, as has treen mentioned.
Certain combinations of vapor cycles with thc gas turbine are technically in-
teresting and may possibly be developed to some extent. A series combination
of two vapor cycles has certain advantages and a limited commercial importance
at present.
'Water vapor has physical properties not altogether desirable at either end
of the expansion range, but ao'other common substance is a better compromise
for both extremes than water vapor. Thus, as the developrnent of vapor cycles
has proceeded, it has been with the steam boiler and prime mover. Nevertheless,
the fact has been constently belore engineers that there were vapors which
werc thermodynamically better suited than steam to one or the other ends of
the expansion range. On the low-pressure side sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons such
as butane, propane, petroleum ether, etc., have been mentioned, while mercury
and diphenyl oxide are attractive in the high-pressure region. In order to realize
better efficienciee in heat power plants the tempereture range TyT2 has to be
incrnased. The increase can be accomplished by the following means, and at
the expense of disadvantages es noted.
1. Increase of degree of superheat.
(a) More investment in superheaters.
(b) Only the heat oI superheat is at the elevated thermal potential.
2. Increase of boiler pressure.
(a) Quickly srrived at point beyond which major pressure inctease was
needed for minor temperature increase.
?4 VAPOR CYCTES
(b) High preseures mean thicker, heavier, and more expensive conatluo-
tion in boilers, PiPing, turbines.
(o) Higher tempeia-tureiat high preszures weaken the mets'l in tensile
gtrength, oggravating the previouely named disadvantage'
8.
-- -ii"o-o"t
Decrease of exhaust Pressure.
of low-pressure end of
i")
'' volumer of eteam made desigo
turbine or engine a compromise between size and possible efrcienoy'
Condenser large and costlY.
(b) Maiatrcnanee 6t tte Uigh vacuum ie troublesome due to air leakage
ond noncondeneable gases in feedwater.
l1re mercury-steam is the only bizc4r rtopor cycLe operated on a commercial
scate ut the pieent time. As excellent resLllte have teen obtgined in actual
operation, it fu judged advieable to dercrihe it.
The adventages of mercury as s vailor cycle fluid are these:
l.It hae moderate vopor preaaure at higher fluid temperature. For exomple,
at 5it8c C its saturation prcesure ie lees than l4.l Lg/cm! ab.
2. The liquid has high d€trsity, a deeirable property in securing seperation
of vapor from tiquid in the boiler, in feeding liquid back to the boiler under
hydroetatic rother than pumping head, snd other advantages.
3. Low gpeciffc enthalpy rogults in moderate jet velocities in the trrrbine-
enobling simple turbinee of few stages to be u8ed.
4. It ie an element, therefore etable. Also it has been found poseible to give
m€r-Gu5/ s chemical trcatment that causes it to apread in a ffln over the wills
of the heating surface with attendant rapid heat-tranefer,
Againq! tlresg advqptages one must coneider the high cost of mercury, the
s-pparyn! limitation of eupply,,its toxic qualities, and its pervesiveness..-Since
the whole boileq not juet the euperheater, operatce at the very high initial tem.
perature, the support and expanaion probleme are more dificult oisolution then
in gteam boilert.
_ Mercuty systema have been built as superpoeed units on existing steam
plsnts whose pleasuree were too high to warrant consideration of suplrposed
steam cyclea. They have also been built as binary vapor cycle planin where
mercury and steam sections were designed and built togethei as e unit. There
lre not plJtl- mlr9lry plants in the United States at present, but enough to
have establiehed their practicability and commeroial- success. Some icent
developmente in mercury vaporization have greafly reduced the ratio of system
cherge to eyetem cirbulation. This is of benefit in reducing the cost of the
initial charge of mercury per megawatt of capacity.
The flow diagram in Fig. &21 may be taken as representative of the
mercury-Bteam cycle in its present stage of development. Here the liquid mer-
cury- f-9ed is under hydrostatic head, but mercury feed pumps have been suc-
cgsfully used where it is lot convenient to arrange the necessary static head.
The boiler is mainly railiant heating surface. T[e high density of mercury
g1$q-nu+ more pressure differential between the bottom and top of the
boiler tlsn in steam equipment. Liquid mercury expande far more then water
when heated and this, coupled with some flashing action as the mercury rising
t Mercury caa reep through ,oilts or ctrck6 tiat vould be iEpereious to wstar or 8tesm.
COMBINATION CYCI,I'S 215
in the furnace tubcs urccts dccrcasing l)r'qs$ule, ciluscs stlong circulation and a
"fogry" rather than a Iiquirl mixture in tlrc uppcr scctions of the hcating sur-
face. Because of thc rcsulting incrcasc of volumc, thc heating surface is suc-
cessfully cooled by a chargc of rnercury that fills only ulnu| lo/o of the internal
volume of the boiler initially.
The saturated mercury vapor flows lrorr the boilcr directly to the turbine,
which is usually a few-stage, simple, impulsc turbine ovcrhung in its casing
from the low-pressure end so that thcrc is no high-plcssurc scal rcquired. Alter
expansign to a high vacuum thc vapor is cxhaustcrl to a "condcnscr-boiler."
This is a compact, high-duty hcat cxchangcr rvhich ivill boil u'atcr rvith heat
transleircd from thc still-hot condcnsing rlcrcury vapor. That this is rcadily
nossihle is shown bv thc oncratins condition of a rcccntly installcd nlant. Thc
rnercury vapor is exhausted at 0.19 kg/cmr ab, while the steam boilerl section

slao m
rbina

i= Condansar-
bgilar

St.dm I
boil.r
crcl. I
L---
tr'rc. 8-21 Elements of a binary vapor power plant

is under 47.8 kg/cmr ab pressure. However, at 0.t9 kg/cmr ab the saturation

tcmperature of mercury is 275.6"C,while the saturation tcmpcrature of watcr
zt 4i.8 kglcm2 is 260"i. This leaves 15.6o tcmPcraturc difference for driving
h€at out of the mcrcury into the water.
The condensed mercury is returned by gravity to the boiler drum. To over-
comc a diffcrencc of 8.1 kg/cmc between the rnercury boilcr drum and thc
condenscr-boiler, thc mercury liquid levet in the lattcrwould not needlo be mucb
over 6.1 m above that in the drum.
The etesm from the boiler is first sent through a superheater located in the
gas passage of the melcury boilcr, thcn delivered to thc plant, steam header
from which, in an industry, process and power steam could be drawn.
A binary vapor cycle power plant requires more investment per kilowatt
cspscity than a Btesm power plant and should be gtven a base loading in order
for its high thermal efficiency to justify the cost. The steam portion of the
plant should be of a high-performance desjgn also. The regeneretive cycle lB
commonly employed.
To illustrate the thermodynamics of the binary vapor without involvement
 246 YAPOR CYCLES
in practical deteils a case will be analyzed, making the following assumptions:
1. The mercury iapor expands from a dry and satursted condition isen-
tropically to the saturation t€mperature of the eteam boiler. In pondensing it
gives up its letent heat only, then is retumed to the boifer.
2. The boiling water is at the temperature of the condensing mercury. (No
temperature difference in the heat exchanger.)
3. Steam expands isentropically from a dry and srturated condition.
4. The regenerative cycle has an infinite number of heaters which heat the
loedwater to the saturation temperature of the steam boiler.
l: The mercury boiler pressure will be taken ati.o3 k8/cmr ab, qualiry dry
and.Examplc-
sstur,rtod, yith.2s4rDo Hg obr as the preseuro in i,ho st€a; ooodenaar In
order
!u lIs6p tho stoenr presur€ a! lor ss possiblo tho marcuFy vslrct
is oxpand€d to s prBsur€

LC_ _ D D
T-
?00 I
1.09 Hg
I
600
I

!00
zzs.t t
.1249 hlo
0o

300
o -----{H
E
6.t c
00

t00
0 02

Entropy, Jo!t.3/.C ot.t249 til O

ftc. 8-22 Ideal mercury-steam vapor cyclc torking betrveen pressures of

7.03k8/cms sb and 2S.4 mm Hg sb8.
of
{1.07 kg/omr ab oortJ6tr}onding tor i.Epersturc of 2g6.7"C/.trd a .oturstod sti8m
Pr.€.uro of 32.13 Lg/cm! sb. Kg fot kg, tho host content of me&ury rapor ia ebout o
tonth th.t of stosm.If th6 ?-r disgraE is to bo dre*a fo, t I D6rcury, oDly o frsotio!
of 6 I of 6toaE is inyolyod. Tho fr&ctionsl p.rt can b€ d€t rmiaed a. iollosr usiaS tri8!.
,A-2, A-3.
' Tracing the isentropic expansion line on the Mollier di*gram for metcury yapor, we
6Dd tho onthslpy at 0.07 kg/cml 6b : 2f3.6 J/g. The hoot of rbe tiquid boiag B2.O J, ,20.0 J
cro lvailsblo for vBtroriziag tho *stor p6r 8 moroury f,orirg. Ths lst trt hGstof-stor.t
33.13 L8/oet ab is l78l.t J ; thoteforo tb. .t€om flovirg pc. g IIs
a.l2t 8. In laying out trhe ?-s diagram, this fractional - 220.g,/U8l.l =
rIsed. The zero.
f'ari of- tbi entropres'musi be
entropy axis for mercury will not coincide with that for 6b;. Ho$ever,
by.virtue of the calculations just made, the entropy of vaporization Clf, is the eamej
herice the f-o cycle for mereury is sup€rimpos€d on'that foi steam.
 VARIABLE LOAD OPERATION ?47
Ileot input : JCDEFI - ha - hc (for mercury).
I{eat input = 366.9 - 32.6 gae.g JlA.
-
Work output = Ates, BCDEFG,but since b-v the assumptionr fiade for the rcgenera-
tiye cycle, BCK : GFH.
Work output = KCDEFH = JCDEFI - JK X KH, where .KII : 0.124 X orr.
Work output : 323.3
- 20S.I x 0.{336 - lo3,O J/s.
Efficiency : rsc,6l32s.3 - @.OVo.

Efficiency of Carnot cycle KD'EH. r11 : fi1.|;fif: oo.sZ.

The difference betrveen Camot and binary vapor cycle efficiencies is to be lound in
tbe arca CD'D. This fact illusrrates the advantage of the steep slope of the mercury
liquid line CD. The efiiciency oI the steam cycle alone rvould -have been equal to
between 236.?.and 26.1rc.
;

,,.":ff-@o,-.!:^t.t-o
By rddir'8 s morouly vspor oyol6 Eorking at z.OJ kg/cm2 th€ efEcioncy of the3l.l3
kg/cnre pbnt hae been inoreas€d (80.0
- 41.tll4t.t : 1'.4yw

In practice the performance would fall short of these very Iavorable results.
The reasons for the discrepancy m&y well be understood by again examining
the assumptions made lor the cycle. It is advisable to superheat the steam.
Between llo and 17" temperature difrerence is used to transler the heat from
condensing mercury to boiling water. The simplicity of the ?-s diagram is
further destroyed if some feedwater heating is performed in the boiler because
of nonregeneration to the saturation temperature: Yet, rvithal, this cycle is of
interest to heat power engineers because of the high thermal efficiency of which
it is capable.
Published data on a 40,000-kw plant placed in service in 1950, which was
designed as a binary cycle'plant, not a topping of an existing unit, give it a
9707x l0' Joules per kw hr over.all heat rate on base load, with oil fuel.this
corresponds to an_over.all efficiency figure of 3.6 x 106/9707 x 103, or 37.1%.
The vapor cyclc eficiency ol this piani is doubtles in excess of 40o/e.
8-11 Variable Load Operation. Turbines are most efficient in their use
of steam when the normal inlet valves are fully open, i.e., whcn theld is no
throttliag oI the steam flow entering. The previous discussions of vapoi cycles
have assumed this condition, as have the turbine contlition lines in the Appen-
dix. In use, these machines are subjected to variablc power output demandi by
their generators and nrust be governed to continue at constant speed. The
governing action* is usrrally a "throttling,, process, a constant enthalpy pres-
sure drop produced by a partially closed valve. Turbines can-also c&rry some
overload if they are arranged for admitting some throttle steam at intermediate
stages. This is not the place to describe turbine details; however, some general
*The goverling &ction of l&rge turbines is sometimes a combination of throttling aad
nozzle cutoui features, Ior which no simpte method cAD predict the parl.-load conrlition
line.
248 VAPOR CYCLE-S
information is necessary background to an understanding of part load operation
of vapor cycles. When operating at part load the plant conditions are these:
l. Throttle steam pressure, condenser vac-
uum, turbinc speed, generator voltage and
!20 0
frequeucy all rcmain constant.
q 2. Ceneratcrl supcrheated steam tempera-
3100 ture will vary, but variation may be neutralized
rvith superheat control.
300 0 3. Rate of flows throughout cycle will de-
crease.
2 900
4. Steam pressure on downstream side o{
govcrnor valve (i.e., the throttled pressure) will
vary approximately in a straight line with
2800
intercept relation to load. Pressures at extrsc-
tion openings similarly vary.
2m0 5. Total steam passed is directly propor-
tional to inlet pressure.
2 500 At part load in a regenerative cycle there
is a general decrcase of p.dssu.ns and feedwster
temperatures. The condition line of the turbine
2500
will be displaced on the Nlollier diagram sub-
stantially along constant enthalpy lines to
2 400
pressures corresponding to the degree of throt-
tling at part load. To estimate the feedwater
2300 temperature an(l flows in a regenerative cycle
at. part load, the displaced condition line is
2210 approximated by estimating a throttled inlet
6.7 7 ?.5 : pressure,
ENIROPY J/s /'K
then paralleling' the full-load line
from that point. The extraction pressures are
Fl{r. 8-23 Part load steam ttr-
binc condition linc.
thcn estimated and enthalpies located on the
condition line. Then heater conditions ale com-
putcd, using appropriate tcrminal difrerences and extraction line losses.
Example 1: The working conditions of Ileater C of the regenerative cycle con-
sidered in the example, Sec 8-5, will be estimated for operation at 14,500-kw output.
The intercepts mentioned in the foregoing item 4 will be assumed to be 5% of ihe lull-
load pressures. The full-load throttle pressure was .61 kg/cmt sb; extra.ction
pre6€ure, 5.88 kg/cma a,b i h€oo€ the fouowins cq!.tioD. sro formod for psrtJoad prossures.

.L :
p{ : o.o5 / %.61 +
Am (0.05 x .Ol} 1.231 + 0.0011692, ks/um' lrb
L
7t"' : o.u x s.88 + '...- (0.95 x 6.s8): 0.m4 + 0.0002791, ks/cmt sb

At lood Z : 14,500 kw, pr'-r8pt ka/cm. ab ard d - 4.s6 ks/om, sb

Fig. 8-23 shows how the part-load expansion line is estimated and the new state of
the extraction to lleater C determined.
Again assuming b.8" difference between saturation tbmperature at casing pressrre
*This assumes that stage efrciencies are Eot edversely affected by part load flows, I
reaeonable assumptioD for par[ )oads in excess of 751o of ratitg, but ole of increasing un-
certaiDty below 607. load.
VARIABLE LOAD OPERATION 21,5
ard feedwater temp€reture out of C, the feedvalcr tcnlrerrture ie 2g4.8 - 10, or
l{ - 6.6 or l{0,4'O. ,oi ir determined .imil.rry to p,c rnd ir found to b. l.3O kg/cnrz.b,
fot f,hich .stnratioD terhpor.tu$ ir 1m.6". Honc. f6Gdwatct toDpotaturc ontoring H.at.r
C i. l(x.a - 6.6 : 10rrc.
Edrsction flow to C st part lo&d = oc' at enthllpy h"' taken from the condit/on
hne st pc'.
Eeater C balancc: (l t o)(6e0.$ - 42t"2al -
rcl,f,?j.T - - 6go.86t -
Extractiou flow to C = 0.000t llg por kgrhror,tle fow.

Heat Rates. For variable load analysis the Heat Rate, HR, is nore uselul
thgn thermal efrciency, even though they are related in a simple manner.

, _ ,.u* 196/HR (8-14)

The unit of HR isJoulcs pcr Lr rrr.The heat inpul to a vapor cycle, or a plant,
typically takes the form shown in Fig.8-24. A no-load or idling input is

IITIIrII II|l
r+++ ll
a .5
\

IITIIII
IIII
f
T
!

'g
ar0
ITII
IIII II +
l#
t
3
I
I I Fffi-t-t-t a_
I
tolo - l(t
5o
2l
lHOUSAtlo toAD - ISOoSAIO xt
tIc, 8-24 Tlpical hest plaqt inpui- Frc 8-25 Heat- and increment-rate curves
output relation. dedved from Fii. 8-24.

required to satisfy friction and radistion losses. As output load -L is produced,

the input increases Bomewhat proportionately .over a r&nge of load increase,
thcn tends to mord than proportional iucrease as the output spproaches the
liurit of which the system is capable. The heat rate curve is derived from these
data by dividing the rate of heat input at any point by the load. The heat rate
curve vill show a minimum value at the most emcient load.
A derivation of the heat rate is used to fix the best division of total lcrd
between two or more pr,oducing units. The increment heat rate,.B, is the addi-
tional heat used to produce the next kw hr of energy. Mathematically it is the
slope of the input-output curve. The E vs ! curve, therefore, can be dnwn by
mathematical or graphical analysis of the input-output characteristic, or by a
step-by-step procedure whereby-.lMl94 inPd is plotted against the mid-
; l:150.0/ER, if IIR ir ia Locl per kw hr,
25O VAPOR CYCLES
point of the increment load chosen. The increment tate cuwe of necessity will
pass through the minimum heat rate. It can be shown' that the most ecohomical
division of load between two producing units occurs when their incremental heat
rstes are equal. For this reason incremental heat rate data are frequently cal-
culated as an aid to syetem load dispatching.

wHlEr$ 7ei

QNNIIIII7,,i
7 /lli
21 stIN\l!z1zi r5

2 27 SiNilUZZII/ ?o
I
?;tlit,
219E,l..i:l ),y{ru IE !

ZZZ,HI 2rl1,, NiiltilE

zVzZE 2zen
''ffi NE
Z2FitrE!! n \\l;
0
1====- --nI ITII
l0o 200 aoo 400 500 400 ,00
7a
,55
Ni
O..r.qr. In plo.r n.l h.ol' r.i., l.dl/ Ir h.

o 500 to00 l5o0 2000

0.cr.... In pl..r n.l n..r r6ra, I Joul../ r, n.

Frc. 8-26 Chart for estipating iustifiable added investment in equipmetrt to efrect,
rcduction in heat rate,

Station incremental rate curves may be constructed for difrerent combina-

tions oI operating boilers and turbines if the equipment increment retes are
available.

o^- : -E R" (8-15)

1-8.
rvhere Er and R6 : turbine and boiler increment rates.
fi. = Ratio rif increment of auxiliary power required to incre-
rhent station load.

, PROBLEMS
1. Plot an ideal Rankine vapor cycle, as specified, to scales of I cm : moKrrrdlcrr,=
0.6 J/g/"K oDtropy.Iniiial rtsta st 14.1 kA/cml sb, 66.80 sul}€rhost. Quantity I Lg. Atmoe-
ph6.io oxhouai. BiDd : {s) tR I &} work don€ per oyol€.
2. A simple steam engine piant has boiler ,eedwater at 06.6"c.. Steam is supplied
to th€ ongino st 7.03 kg/oror sb, 07% dry.Atmo.phorio 6xhsust. 8t668 rst6, 0.3 kg per ihp hr.
1^,87/o. Generalor of 91.51 elficiency is direct connected to the engine. Fiud: (a) 7p;
(b) 7, based on ibp and bhp; (c) 7".
*Steiuberg a,nd Smith, Economy Llad,hrg ol Powet Pli,rlts and, Electr;t Srsrezs, John
Wiley aod Soue, Publishers.
 PROBLEMS zbl
3. Plot a Rankine vapor cycle, as specified, to soales of I cm: 206K and I cm:
0.5 J/gi'K entrcpy. Also to scalo of I o}! : 0.5 kC/c62 snd I om - 0.26 mi. Iritial .tste,
10,6 kg/cmz sb, 27.8" Euperh€al ; exha-l)3t,o.3 kg/crDr st 9270 d.y, l6ed fi-B"C qusority I kg.
l.ind : (a) rR ; (b) work per c.yclo ; (c) 1r.
4. PIot the incomplete expansion Rankine vapor cycle to scales ofl om=0.5 kg/oEr
ond lcl!-0.06 quantity of I kg,Cal,.rlate 176 of this cycto. fDitist stote, b,2?
m3 foI e
kg/cmz ga, dry and sotumtod ; oxhsue pr€€sure, 1.05 kg/cml ab i r€lea3€ st 1.05 kg/cm2 8a.
5. Rcpcat Prob. 4. but lor initial state S.l4 kg/cn, ab,os% dry, sxhsust srt.05 kg/cru2
sb, release st l.4l Lg/cEr ob.
6. A 75-kry turtrine-generator has stcam rate of 12.? kg per krv br. Steam at l2.g
Lg/cm2 g., 55.6'aup€rheet; oxbsust, 50.8 mm Eg obs. Find : rto ofc simple v6pot cyct6
iacorporlrting this unit.
7. Construct a scaled hoat stream setting lorth the resxlts of Ex 3, Sec 8-3. Scale
6 crD = heat input in coal.
8. A steam porver plalt has opemting
i+.s AI
4h=o.9o
conditions a. .lror n rn Frg. 8-8P. Dnr crmino
all flous for r boiler output of 1 k8 per
min and record same on a copy of the flow l c, t/crr'u,
't'0-75
diagram. Calculate the grcss vapor cycle
efliciency and the plant efficiency. Main t5.02 0 I
9t3"c )
oxhaust at 0.21 kg/cmi 6b,90% dry, Nog.
I€ct pip6 line friclion end slstic hesd6.
rrc. 8-8P
9. Construct a scaled heat stream of the energy flows lound in Prob.8. Scale:
6 cm--= heat in coal.
10. Dral a florv diagram of a Rankine vapor cycle steam power plant. Steam engine
drives 150-krv generator of g0% elect cal efllciency. Steam rate,6.7 kgper bhp hr. Stiarn
'pre6auro, 10.55 kglcm, gs, 55.6. 6up€rhesi i exhsuBt to condonser at 15.2 cm Hg ob6. NO
fesd\adter hoating. ![otor-drivon boiler feed pumf,. Find: (s) rR ; tb) Itb j (c) Ic.
11. Find the over-all heat rate and thermnl elficiency of the plant shorvn in Fig.
8-11P. Boiler emciency is 75-76. Steam flow to pump, when generating 350 kw,t tat.l
tSper hr, Working head on pump =U2.8 e.Neglect mechanical losses oI pump.

98.9'
18.3'
a 99.8%
E

0 kg St.dm/BHP/Hr
11.3
M.ch. E l- 89%
Frrrr/,1

t., G.n. €r1.92%

12. Using Eqs 8-9 and 8-10, determine the steam mte of a turbine whose condition
line is assigued from the group given in the Appendix.
13.. A ltanline vapor cycle type power plant has a turbine which operates on the
condition line B, Appendix, wheD geaerator output is 9450 kw. Other ;lant te6t data
are:- Steam generator efficiencl', 0.875; steam flow, 7lg kg per min; auxiliary porver
used,225 krv. Calculate the heat balaDce of this pl&nt and express same as a heai siream
using scale of6 cm=Eeat innut in fuel.
252 VAPOR CYCLES
1,1. Plot the idcai regcnerutive cycle of maximum oflicicncy to scalcs oft cm:
tO.K &lrd I cin : 0.75 J/g/"K sntroPy. Initial strte, 1.1.06 ks/c'r'r2 ub dry and ssturotod:
exhBuJt 0.ll kg/eru2 3h. Colculato .r'6s.
15, C,rrrrp;rro rl:n Ronkine tapur" clclo \'rlh the r.genc13tilp c.tclc of mextmum
ef6ciency or tLc follorving bases. For cach, initiai condition, 28.19 ksl'm, rl),315.6oc,
0. 1-t kg/cnrz a l, exha ust. Firrl : (o) 1a.por (yck t'ffi.i{)L(y : (1,) relat ir. \'olr DD('s of erhaust
6tosm ; (c) ks-m lyork obtained per kg gcnor&tod st(!a,m.
16. Calcuhtc the efficienc,v of an jdeal regeneretive cycle opcrating $ith steam at
31,64 Lg/cnr2 ab, 398.9"C ; oxhoust pressuro 25 4 mm Hs &bs. t1 : 187.8'C. Sketcl' thit
cyckr on ?-, pla,ne.
17. Plot the ideal regencrative cJ'clc on ?-s:1xes to scales of I ct[: {0"}iand I om
= 0.5 J/s/o K cnt ropy for o quantity of I k3,Iniiial pressurc, 42,18 kg/, m2 aL r temPeroture,
537.8'C ; condenscr pressuo,0.0? hg/cm' ab ; rf - 2C4,4"C. I ind lres.
18. Thc florv <.lirgram of ir one-hcrter regenerative cyclc is shosn in Fig.8-18P.
Calculate the neccssrrJ'qlrxntitics anrl tlrrLw a -.crleil hcrri strcam of the plant, based
on t -Lg cocl inpttt. Scrrl. I Jn -= 2;:00 x loa J. AU puuPs sro motor-,lri\. r tnd, comhined,
take 1% of tirc g(lrcrrlTor (,r11t)rll.
2A.l? tE/. c \ =092
21 5.62 t
Erh:0.07 *9/cml.ob
!f o'196
r r. r.gb !-6-
fr;.8-l8P
19. A porver plnnt installatron r(ports turbin( opcrating conditions es Ehown by
Fig. 8-19P. Lcy olrt a florv dirgrarn of & dant that Nould use this unit. ponclensate
plan ns in Fie.8-5(b). o and b to be lorv-pressttrc herters. A-"sume 7% ples-rure drop
in extrrctioD lincs,2,8' hextcr terminri differonccs, rnrl hlTl diagram rvith resulting
tempcrctutes
88.jt €xtr W"""! th
5t a 56 4L2,1.4
d t+ L7 !o3' 7
'l.oZ Lt,B.7
2'o? L6qt'7
69 ginl H9 o.5t ,5 ti|
t'i"1"-'nil"
20. The ru.r)ine ,, ,-u. ,-rn rorroo,i,,g noJosd presgures. hlor
6.62 kg/cm2 abi e, 1.76 kg/cm: ab; d, u.84 kgicm2ab i c,0,ll kg/cm26b; b,
7l.l mm llg ; i., d!).8 inrn Hg. Plot the condition line to scal€ of I cm : 50 J/g &nd
I cm - 0.25 J/gl'K ontmpy. Thcn e.ld an egtimsted con(lition lino fot 70yo of
tho ol.igiDel load and locot€ thoreon the extrection ststeB e', r/', c', cte.
21. Lrl' out the florv tliagraru for a four-healcr regenerttive c1'cle. lurbine to be
emplolerl lus condition line E. Appendix. Couriensate as in Fig.8-5(b). Assume 6.6'
differ('ncc l)ct\rcen fced\rater out of heater and saturation 'temperature at the ex-
trrction prossur.. Also tlke con(lensntc otit of heaters at sxnte temDerDture as feed_
\lrter out. Ilecor(l temperatures ori all flos'lines of the diagram, also presslires at bleed
points.
22, Ernploling dato and results of Prob.21, estimtte the throttle and extraction
flo$s, lrg l)er hr at 94,000-krv load, using Eqs 8-9 and 8-10. Also caJculate thc gross vapor
c1'elc cfficiencl-. Relort results in a manner similar to Ex.mple 1, Sec 8-5.
.|3. Dcsign a t$o-heater regenerutive cycle {or a porvcr plant v'hose turbine condi-
tion'linc is ls-.igned from the Appendix chart. Ileater condensate is handled by traps.
Allo\, 2.SPheater terminal difierence and 7/o pressure loss in extraction lines, Assume
heater coldeDs.1tc cooled to outgoing feedrvater temperature. Report the'design ir'
PROBLEMS 253
approximately the same fashion as used fo! the sample example, Sec 8-5. Draw thg
,flow diagram ard label it with hourly florvs at rated load. Neglect any tnake-up water
supply leotures rvhen drawing tbe florv diagram.
2it. Find the following heat rates for the data of Fig. &7.
(&) Statiotr heat rate, Joules per kw hr.
(b) Vapor cycle heat rate, Joules per brske hp hr.
25. Calculate heat balances for the folloving elemeuts of tr'ig. &7: (a) turbine-
generator; (b) deaerating heater.
26, Each of tbe follorvirig initial states is a possibility in a reheating cycle plant.
Consider that the final quality strould not be less than 86% dry. Exharst pressure-
0,07 kg/cms alr. DeteEtrine tbe rehe&t conditions for maximum utilization of the avail-
rble energy if (1) rehest begius at the satur&tion poirt; (2) reheat is carried to the
original temperature,
(a) I r2,5 kg/cE, 6b, 685.6'C. (b) 66.2 k8/cmr ab r 63r.800 . Work out each case on the
Mollier Chart, ard show results by (no scale) sketch of same.
21. An id,eal reheating cycle, based on lhe Rankine cycle, has initial state 87.9
kglcm2 ab, 398,9'0; rohoat st 28.9 kg/cmr sb to 398.9'C j oxhaust at 25.{ mro Ilg sbs.
Eind the thermol efrciency of this cycle ond compare with that of a Rankine cyole
operatilg between the same tenninal conditions.
28. Plot an idoal rehestinS RonLine oycle to scsles of I cm : 50oc and I cm
: 0.6 J/g/"K 6ntropy. Initisl ststo, 112.6 kg/cm2 sb, 565.6'C. Quantity, I kg. R6h6oi
from saturation tine, auftcieni to produce o 6nal exhauet con{lition of O.07 Lg/cm2
ab, l47o moi6ture. Superimpoao s Rsnkino cycle hoving ssme init;al 3tate snd s&mo
6n6l qua,lity. Celculato thermst efnciencies of these cyclos ; also that if the ffnal steto
ofthe Ilankine cvcle hsd boe! 0,07 kq/cm2 sb.
29, ln a central po$er station having rqheat and regeneration the steam generator
deliv€rE 105,015 Lg stoam per br at !03 kg/cm2 ab and 53?.8'C to tho turbiBe, After paltial
oxF,amion a, flow of t02,552 kg per hr i. r€turnod fbr rehos,ting from 27.83 Lgibmz sb,363.9'C
to 25.52 k8/om2 ab. 53?.6'C,after which it is rosdmitt€d to the turbino for ;ompleto expansion.
Feodwa,tsr is regonoretieoly hes,tod to 230.6"C. I6Ed,04,5ll kw. Boilor blowdown, lg50 kg
p€! hr. Genorstor 66cieacy, 96%. Finu iho h6at rate of the vapor cycle.
30. Assume that the plant shorvn in I'rob.,S.IS is to hulc a suDcrposed rrnit of maxi-
mum capacity added to it. Drarv the forv diagr*m of the complete plant. Superposed
unit stsgo eficienoy - 72o/o ; tJp.arrltral coilings 016 87.9 kg/c6. ab 6nd 5lO'C. Feed to high-
presst're-boiler to remain I48.9"C, Nc\ boilcr ifficienc1", 80/o. 81' rvhat perccnt are the
plant capacity rnd tbcrmal efrcicncy increagcd by thc supcrposition ? Assrrme mech-elec
efficiency of supcrposcd turbinc, 90rr. n2.5 kelc,f so 5to'c
31. A reccnt installation of a superpose(l tur- 112255 ks/ht
hine operates rvith sonditions as sl,oln in Frg. I
3-31P. Estimate thc power that this unit ought l3l5 kS/hr
- (.L)
to be ablc to lurnish. llech-clec elliciency = 0.025-
401210 k9/hr
32. The capacity of a power plant is to be 9"
increased by superposinE a high-pressure addi- l(-06 d 25a.t'c Or,
tion on tho existing17,58 kg/cm2 g& plsnt. Existing 33 ?. r"

turbines are rst.d to tsko 369,678 kg stelm per hr r''" 8-gtp

at 287.8'C. Assume average stage emciency of superposcd turbinc $ill be 76lo; mech-
elec efficiency,0.93. V/hat initial steam conditions rvould stfficc to add 20,000 kw to
the plaDt capacity ?
33. The plant of Ex 1, Sec 8-9, u-"es 283 hp at rr time when process needs are
3674 k8 steam per hr. Drav florv diagram, shoiving horv a pressure reducing valve
rvould be installed to meet process steam lequirementi. Find: (a) r,leight of li1'e steem
through reducing valve per hr; (b) qu&lity of the 2.ll kgsteam in the process mains.
34. The [onextructing condition line of an iDdustrial plant turbine may be cou-
254 YAPOR CYCLES
sider€d ss s lino ioining the follo\ring points on thoMollier Cha .(l) 14.06 kg/cmr ab,d aud
8;(2) 6.98 kg/om, ab,0,9C7 dry; (3) l.03kg/cmreb,0.938dry Indultriol stoam is noedod as fol-
lows:5+1.3 kg por h at 4.92 kg/cm! ga, 2812,3 kgporhr et Btmrxph€ric proesuro. Extraction
pressule of 4.92 kg/cmtgs is maintained by ern irbuilt vslv€ gear. Assume that the action
ol this gear is to throttle the 6team to 4.57 kg/cml 8a befor€ psssing it into th€ iovr-pres-
Bure ssotion of tbe tulbine. I'ind th6 avsilDble shsft ho$opo\iror. rtm : 0,985.
35. The flow plan of an industrial plant is like lig. &20 (b). Doiler pressure,l?,O
kg/cml ab,260rc. BothEnits 100 kw tated capscity.Condenser vscuudt,63.5 mm llgabs.Prccess
main pr63sur€.0'35 kg/cmt gs. FullJoad ccndition lines to b€ bssed on svorsSe stegs erncioncy
of.0.75 in superheated region, 0.70 in satumted region. tr'ind division of Ioad bet$een
urits when l58E kg por hr process steam is required and 165 krv power is needed. Allow
0.90 for mech-elec efficiency.
36. Solve Prob. 35 if the 6team demand had been 90? kg por hr and the porver
demand 115 kw.
37. Assuming that the ansrvers to Prob, 36 are 71 krv, noncondensing, and 44 kw
conde.rsing. Copy the florv diagram and record thereon all florvs, in kg per hr. Assume
2.E1kg/cm2 sb nozzle inlct pressure for rro-]oad condition on condensing turbine.
38. Usi[g the data oI I'ig. 2-14, draw arl industrial florv diagram to meet variable
l,osd oporstion by us6 of sll accumuletor. Pmcoss stosm/ st 2.lt kg/omlab ; boiler Jressure,
2l,l kg/cm! eb. At one manufacturing rate, power and steam are in balanca, but at
ot[er rates unbalcnce may occur in either direction.
39. Find the boiler steam conditioDs that rvould allow an industry, using ?48{
tg p€r hr of stoam st 7.03 kg/em2 ga, dry 6nd ssturstod, to trek6 350 kE fmm this rt6om.
b6fot6 usiDg it for hooiing. Mako aad rocord any nocessary s€surBptiors.
rl0. Mercury va1nr, 98o/o dry, ia expelded frcm 10.55 to 0.08 kg/omr ub.It is then con-
densed, giving up its latent heat to produce dry and satunted steam $hich is allorved
to expand to 25.4mrnHg abs ir 6n ideal r€8enolstivo cycle of maxioum eficiency. Draw
the f-s diagram of the meriury-steam cycle and oompute its efficiency, N{ake the
same assumptions as were. used in the constructiol of Fig. 8-22.r cnr - 40oK ; I oe :
0.075 J/g/'K ontrcpy.
41. Dry and satumted mercury vapo! at 8.lG kg/cmr eb ia oxpsndod in a turbino
to O,l9 k8/omz ob. th6 fouowing steam cyols flnslly ioiects hest at 3g.2oo. Usking th6
aanBe saaumptrons 6$v6!o uBod irl tho o6rg6r*.6i.^ .t aig. 8-22, oxcopt for 16.70 lrmpoloture
difror6ace in condonsor-boilor. computo th6 bin*ry vepor cyclo efhcionoy' Sliotch tho cyole
on ?-3 ar€3,
,t2. tr'ind the wolking conditions of Heater B in rhe example, Sec 8-5, when the
genelator output is 14,500 kw.
43. Find the rvorking conditions oI Heater C of the plant, diagrammed in Fig.8-13,
at 60,000-krv load. Make any necessary assumptions aod record ,justification of same.
,14. Diagram the probable couditiou line (i-s plane) of the turbine, Fig. 8-13, for
60,000-kw load. Assume simple throttling governing.
45.IVork out a heat balance and drnw a heet stream for the vapor cycle shown
in Fig. 8-7.
46, Fiud the heat rates aud the station heat rates of the vapor cycles shol,n by
Figs. 8-7 and 8-13.
47. T$o vapor cycles are to produce jointly, from the generators drivelr by their
prime movers, an output of 8000 kw. Their variable load charaoteristics are described
ag follows:
Outpul, hu 0 2000 4mo 6000 80ao

Input, in million kcal/hr No. 1 21.1. 33.6 53.8 El.2 116.l

{ No.2 30.6 49.6 74.9 105.s 136.1

Determine most ecdnomical divisioo of load by the increment rate method.

PROBLEMS 255
48. Construct curves of sta,tio[ heat mte and increme[t Tate vs. output between
0 aad 40,000-kw load. Steam generato_r- charocteristic is represented by the equation:
Input.Ioulos - I.06X + 4.r4 xlO-rU(!,(9 rrh6.o X ls tho Joules'output. Obtain the iu-
cremcnt rate of the turbine from its characteristic of steam' consumption, ie., 17 =
15875 + 3.?r, kg p6r hr, shere Z is kw load. Throttle steam has 3l?o 4g,'
The increment late of statioD auxrliaries is considered constant &t 0.030 Joule per toul6,
all auxiliaries beiug electrically driveu.

@ E$r
pill 6. Ioput kosl - f.06X + i x lo-txl, -vhoro x i. kosf outpun
. 3170 r/c - ?67.t hosl/Ls.
 CHAPTER 9

ENER.GY F'N-OW NN TT]IE STE,A,'M

POWER. pn-ANlt

9-l The Steam Power Plant, To obtain high-grade engrry from fuel
via the external combustion, or vapor cycle, process takes a considerable ag-
gregation of equipment if the transformation of energy is to be accomplished
as efficiently as possiblc. Something of this was implied by the vapor cycle
studies oI the preceding chapter. A modern power station repr.eserts a targe in-
vestment in, literally, thousands of separate items, yet nearly all function to
transform or transfer energy. Transformations occur when one form is
changcd to another. They are: ,(1) latent chemical energy into heat energy by
oxirlaiion; (2) hcat encrgy into mcchanical work by expansions of a fluid
mc(liun; (3) mcchanical work into electrical energy through the electromag-
nettc action in a generator; (4) electrical energy back to mechanical work in
clcctric urotorsl and, occasionally, (5) electricity to heat for convenience or
accuratc spot hcating. Transfers ol energy are likewise numerous-heat energy
transferred from fluid to fluid in steam generators, in condensers, coolers, and
hcaters; and carried by these fluids frorrr place to place in the plant's pipe and
duct systems; electrical energy transferred by conductors comprising the many
circuits of the electrical system; etc.
l\-hcn one has studied the steam power station via visualization of the fluid
florvs and thcir changes of state, followed by au appreciation of the energy
floq's also involved, he begins lo comprehend the plant. The whole installation
can take on meaning and rationality when it is viewed as a plant for the purpose
of achicving certain energy flows the.t will ultimately produce the upgrading of
a considerable portion of low-grade r4w materia.l into the desirable electrical
output of the public utility system.
Some idea of this can be gained by inspection of Fig. 1-11. Coal which con-
tains elements that oxidize with high heat release during the reaction is fed
into the plani. After preliminary preparation it undergoes this reaction with
oxygen, supplied by air, in the fumace of the steam generator. Here high-
tcmperature energy is produced, but almost immediately transferred to the
rvater which, on account of its confinement, becomes high-pressure ste&m. The
cncrgy flow now rrdes the steam through pipes to the prime mover, a turbine in
fhis casc. In this machine s working expsnsion to low pressure efrects a trans-
m
FI'NCTIONAL RELATIONS 257

formation of some of the heat into highgrade mechanical work available as a

torque at the turbine shaft. Mcst of the remaining heat is transferred by the
condenser to masses of river water which it heats a few degrees.
The turbine came from the hands of its inventors alrcady a highly tlctclopcd
machine, and subsequent improvements have largely been in the pcrfcction of
details and the building of large units at low cost. In the turbine rvc have thc
heart of the steam electric station. The boiler and condenset are heat-transler'
ring deuicee, one operating at the high-temperature enrl of the cyclc, thc othcr'
at the low-temperature endl the turbine, however, is +.|rc heat<rtilizing det;ice.
Boiler and condenser transfer heat energy from onc medirttn to anothcr, hrtt
the turbine transferc energy from one lorm to anothcr-from hcat {g mcchanical
work. The turbine's job ( theoretically, vastly more clifficult antf.the rcsults,
consequently, much less impressive than those of its partners, thc boilcr and thc
condenspr. Ilowever, as has been shown by the contents of the previous chaptcr'
on the vapor cycle, the conditions under which energy transfer is acconrplishcri
in the vapor cycle show that the turbine is actually a highly perlectcd rnachinc.
Next the mechanical torque is transferred directly to thc rotol of thc
electrical generator and used to overcome the drag of electromagnctic attrac-
tion involved in the generator action whereby torque energy is consumcd an,l r
current of electrons appears st an electric poteutial, this representing elcctrical
energy. This form is then reodily transferred long distances, espccially if raisc,l
in potential (voltage) by transformers. This is the main encrg5' strcam, but
there are many secondary enerry flows connected with increasing tltc pcrcentag<'
yield of high-grade energy, motivating essential auxiliaries, etc. In this chapto
we shall examine some ol the technical features ol this energy flow, u'ith spccitl
emphasis on the transfer of heat, since that form predominates in steam pot'cr
plant equipment.
9-2 Functional Relations. We shall endeavor here to ouUine the method
to be used to cover the subject of steam power plant equipment while keeping
the functional relation to tire main energy flow ever in mind.
As the more efficient power cycles came into use, the auxiliary equiprrtnt
required became mote numerous and expensive, and its disposition in thc plaut
more of a problem. Equipment has been developed to the point whcre much of
it is justified on economic grr,unds. The complication attendirrg the Iarge amount
of auxiliary equipment tends to obscure the relationship and relative importance
of the component parts of steam cycle equipment.
Let it be remembered, however, that the whole action of modern clcctric
power production centers around three pieces of equipment: lhe boiler, the
turbine, ar,dthe cozdenser. No mstter how extensive the remainder of equipment,
these three constitute the main power-producing group, and all the rcmaining
mechanical equipment services them. The modern trend is torvards a boiler ol
sufficient capacity to supply the entire steam requirements of one turbine; hence
the boiler-turbine-condenser can be thought of as the central unit of thc power
plant. The design of any one of these involves some consideration of at least one
of the others. They are treated in Chapters 10 and 11. The principal Iactor
tying these three together is the working medium, which is delivered in suc-
cession from boiler t<i turbine to condenser.
In order thet the hea!-absorbing and heat-utilizing functions of the boiler-
258 ENERGY FLOW IN THE STEAI"{ POWER PLANT
turbine-condenser group may be efficiently, safely, and economically pclformed
under the generally prevailing condition of variable load, it is supplied with an
extensive number of auxiliaries; i.e., fecd heaters, pumps, traps, fans, stokers,
etc. When the purpose and action of all these auxiliaries are undcrstoocl, it will
be Iound that thcy naturally classify themselves into two groups: first, those
associated with the flow of the rvorking medium oI the cycle (i.e., water and
_steam) ; second, those associatcd with the combustion of the fucl and the flow
of the resulting gases. Proceeding on this basis, the auxiliary equipment will
assume a position in onc or the other of the two loops shown in Fig. 9-1. We
may call these lhe water and, gas loops, and, by keeping them in mind, find that
the station layout and actiou, as Iar as auxiliary equipment is concerned, are
considerably clarified.

Frc. 9-1 Diagram of thc steam powcr plant, illustrating how the equipment is viewed
as a boiler, pnme mouer, cond.enser group, with go"9 aDd oarer seruice loops.

For the purpose of cxplaining the relation of Chapters 12 and 13 to this one,
let each be thought o{ as dealing with one of the loops diagrammed in this il-
lustration.
9-3 Production of Heat En€rgy, The kinetic molecular nature of rnatter
and the character of heat energy have been alluded to in Chapter 1. While not
essential to the practice of power plant engineering, a picture of the processes
by which the heat energy is created should be of interest. Fuel molecules, say
H2, can exist without combustion in an atmosphere of oxygen at temperatures
below the ignition temperature. What, then, is the circumstance that produces
their union accornpanied by the liberation of free energy? Also, how does this
difrer from the origin of the nuclear energl'which science and engineering are
so actively studyrng?
Cornbustion. Between the two nuclei of hydrogen gas there are both attrac-
tion and repulsion forcer. These vary difrereutly with the distance betweea
nuclei and in such manner that there is one spacing of minimum potential
energy. This is the normal, unexcited, dtomic configuration for the molecule.
The molecular energy then is mainly electronic. If temperature is increased by
gas compression or heat transfer,from an outside source, molecular vibrational
energy begins to appear. Howevbr, the molccule remains stable, although ex-
cited, until the vibrational energy produces atomic motion violent enough to
overcome the force of attraction. There the molecule flies apart in an acfion
 PRODUCTION OF HEAT ENERGY 259
callecl dissociation In the case of hydrogen, free, excited atoms moving at high
speeds are a product of this dissociation. These will collide with other hydrogen
or oxygen molecules, producing a variety of shod-lived products, all of which
by further similar action gb to a final stable end product, HzO.
As molecules of various velocities exist in a saroplc of gas exhibiting a certain
temperaturc, a fcw molecules may dissociate while the remainder remain stable.
Thc energy of the few dissociation products is absorbed .without producing-an
equal amount of active products, and there is no chain reaction. But at some
highcr ternpcrature the dissociation products are sufficlently numerous to pro-
ducc by impact rnore than are consumcd, and a complex chain reaction follows.
The point at qhich this becomes possible is known as t\e tgnition tenxperature-
It is aficctcd by the typc of molecules, the mean free path between them, and
their motion. Externally it is the point where the process of inflammation or
explosion begins.
Electromagnetic radiation is emitted both from the dissociated excited atoms
and the various intermediate reaction products. The region is temporarily
saturated with high-speed collisions ol particles. Electronic encrgy levels are
altered. The electromagnetic waves can be absorbed by the more complex mole-
clles in the vicinity, although diatomic gascs seem to be transpaient to it.
Finally, the end product of .water vapor is reached with liberation of a finite
quantity of energy which is nartly present as high mrjlecular speed (tempera-
ture), the remainder having been dischargcd as infra red or visible light r;dia-
tion. The combustioir of carbon and of hydrocarbmrs is an even more complex
pattern of intermediate reactions than for the single, diatomic gas molecule, H2.
Nuclear Energg. Another source of heat energy is available in the nucleus
of the atom. Unsuspected in 1930, the subject of laboratory exploration in 1940,
it is, a dccade later, undergoing large-scale study which may lead to the nuclear-
energy power plant. The possibility of realizing large quantities of energy lrom
a small mass of atomic "fuel" rvas introduced at the beginning of this book. The
most promising field lies in the eonlrollcd fission oI the heavier, unstable atoms
such as Th232 and U235, or the artificial element plutonium, Pu2s0. Because of
the terrific explosive power of a fast chain reaction in nuclear fissionable
material, the field of atomic energy in this country was, in 1946, brought under
strict governmental control. The Atomic Energy Commissiou was created to
direct and control work in research, production, engineering, and military ap-
plications of nuclear energy. The Commission has power over the dissemination
of information that should be rcstricted in order to preserve national security.
This Commission sueceeded the wartime M'anhattan Engineer District. lt has
continucd the physical developmcnt of production of nuclear materials, licens-
ing of manufaciuring firms to operate government facilities, and other matters
associated with this, the Iatest and most important new field of physical science
and armament. It is clear that private industry cannot enter at will into wide-
spread development of nuclear powbr plants. Only such development as is
fedqrally authorized and licensed by the Commission can be undertaten. In
195, therc were several such official projects under way, the outcome of which
may be the production of kilowatt hours from nuclear energy-
In this conversion of energy it is thought that the nuclear reactor will re-
place the combustion equipment and fumace of the conventional power plant,
2ffi ENERGY FLOW IN THE STEAM POWER PLANT
but the nuclear energy will appear aB heat to be absorbed by some working
fluid and used in conventional prime movers. Thus the first nuclear power plants
might follow a plan somcwhat like that implied in Fig.9-2. The rratural source
of fissionable material is uranium, a rather common element in that it is present
in the earth's crust in about the same proportions as copper and lead. The
natural element is a mixture of U236 and U238. Energy is liberated when a free
neutron strikes the uranium nucleusl however, it is only the U235 that is fis-
sionable and natural uranium contains only one part in 140 of this isotope, the
rcmainder being nonfissionable UB8. As each fissioned nucleus yields more

HETEROGENEOUS REACTOR
Coolont Circulotes
heol
ercho n9et

(!al

ttocloa

Frc. 9-2 Assumed hert-trxoducing end of an atomic-flred power plant. (From Good-
matr, Science and En4ineering ol Nuclear Power, Yol 1, Addison-Wesley Press, Inc.
Cambridge, Mass.)

than one new free neutron, there is a poseibility of a chain resction resulting in
continuous fission, just as when combustion is igrited it is possible to sustain
continuous combustion as long as any fuel remains. The question of whdther
or not the Ua5 and neutrons continue to "burn" or go out depends on the resulte
of a eompetition for free neutrons by: (1) Escape from the reactor; (2) non-
fission capture by Ueas; (3) nonfission capture by impurities. in the reactor;
(4) fission capture by Uxt. If item 4 produces more neutrons than are lost, by
the others, then the chain reaction continues, otherwise it does not.
Fission is accomplished better by neutrons moving more elowly than those
which the fission itself producee. The fast neutrons are slowed Bufrciently by
being passed through a moderator matcrial (carbon, heavy water) and colliding
with moleculee. Hence the uranium neede to be mixed with moderstor or inter-
PRODUCTION OF HEAT ENERGY 261

sDrfsed in a latticed moderator. Reactors are therefore homogeneous or hetero-

g7neous types. A chain reaction will not occur unless the uranium is present in
excess oI a cntfcol moss. The homogeleous reector may be a sphere filled wiih
a solution of uranium salt in water, or with a slurry of moderator and uranium.
A heterogeneous reactor might be a large cube of pure graphite (a pile) with
numerous openings into which containers with purified uranium metal could be
inserted in a quantity to exceed the critical mass. Through other openings would
he inserted adjustable rods of material having the property of high nerttron
absorptivity. Cadmium is such a material. Control of the ratc of cnergy prodnc'
tion is vested in movements of these control rods in or out of thc lrik'.

Slow Neutror BoDbsldEent

Ft'rIoD ltsgEert
u236
Fision Flaglaent
Fast

Uoderator
Slow

235
u EBcapo

Mod€.ator

Slov

u 235

Frc. 9-3 Fission by chain reaction.

Fig. 9-3 shows the chain reaction, as well as the production of a ne'v arti-
ficial element plutonium, Pu23e, which, I'ke U235, is fissionable by slow neutrons,
but which may be chemically separated from Ue38, whereas U235 can be isolated
only by expensive physical processes. In the pile large numbers of the slow
neutrons are absorbed by the U?38, creating a short-lived new element, nep-
tunium, which decays to plutonium.
The reactions sre: )
g-I,Ja * -- aUe ----r 6Npd f
on, -yd
, *NpBc -r erPuae * -rl
It is this "breeding" ol new fissionable material during a fission process that
is largely responsible for the great interest, in atomiu power plants. Present sup-
..?.r represert€ s leutroD, {e" 8D electIo!.
262 ENERGY FLOW IN THE STEAM POWER PLANT
plies and prices of fuels would make it unlikely that nuclear proccsscs would
bc developed to perform the same functions lor many dccades, cxcept for the
likelihood of net gain breeding wherein some fissionablc matcrial is consumed,
heat energy is produced, but mcre new fissionable material is crcatcd than was
consumed. This aspect, obviously, has enormous implications for the future of
civilization.
This whole subject is so complex, so changing, and so restricted on account
of the associated military potentialities of fissionable material that it is deemed
expedient to hold the present treatmcnt to the few generalizations just covered,
plus thc following picturc of the sourcc and nature of the energy.
The fission of a U235 nucleus has been found to liberate about 200 Mev of
energy. The appcarance of cncrgy is nccc-"sary, for tnass disappears in the
process, Thc ffssion products rvhich arc in the 35-57 atomic numbcr range have
less combined mass than the original rtom, anrl sirrca energy + rest ,rrcss niuEt
be the same before and after any changc, thc tliffclcncc appcars {rs energy.
Fission is preponderantly into two lragments ol uncqual rnass. These both bear
strong electrostatic charges which, being nutually repellant, propel the frag-
ments in opposite directions at high velocity. Collisions oI fragmcnts with neigh-
boring molecules then raise the thermal levcl of thc whole region. This is said
to account lor about 170 Mev of fission encrgy, the remainder bcing tire energy
of fast neutrons evaporatcd from the fragmenls, gamma radiation, and other
minor rr.sulis of tho tiolenre of fission.
This energy, wirich raises the thermal level of the regron of fission, was re-
moved and wasted by cooling water in the first atomic plants wherc the
emphasis was on bomb material. Now, with more knowledge of nuclear proc-
esses, and with the accumulation of experience in operating nuclear reactions,
this cooling energy is being Iooked at with a view to its becoming the input of a
heat power plant. The reactor tcmperature for such service must be comparable
rrith that of the high-temperature fluids of modern power pla,nts, i.e., 425- 650'
C, and this will introduce hundreds of difficult problems that scientists and
engineers must solve belore nuclear encrgy can be fed into a steam or gas turbine
power plant.
9-4 Thermal Level. The working process in a heat plant operatqs be-
tween a high-tempcrature source and a low-temperature sink of heat. At thc
low-temperature end tire level is set either by (1) the required exhaust
pressure or (2) by the temperature and quantity of natural water available tor
condensing. Operating conditions of pressure and temperature at the upper
therrrial level are more amenable to selection by designers having certain ends in
view. The value to heat cycles of high inilial pressure and temperature has al-
ready becn assayed.
Selection of ecoriomic operating conditions for the boiler-turbine-condenser
group is the lirst and most important step in st ation design. The working
medium of the vapor cycle will cover a portion of the t€mperature drop avail-
able between the temperature of the combining molocules in the furnace and
that of the circulating water in the condenser. ThB more of this range the de-
signer includes in the vapor cycle, the more efficient the plant will be-also the
more expensive in first cost.
This temperature range is of the order of 1425"C down to 21"C, and it is
THERMAL LEVEL 283
the designer's problem to decide what portion of this range will give him the
most economical installation. Limitations of available metals, necesEary te -
perature di{Ierences, and cost of equiprnent cause the designer to use a srnall
fraction of the available range for the working cycle. The turbine exhaust
pressure is carried as low as the condensing water permits, irn the basis of2.8'
to 5.6"tempcrature difrerence on the lvarm end of the condenser tubes. Boiler
opcrating condi',iols are much more debatable. The trend of steam power plarrt
practice is tos,ards higher pressures and temperatures because of thc advantages
of heat efficicncy of the vapor cycle and of ihe decreased sizc of some of the
cquipment. Standardization of operating couditions at the high-temperature
cnd of the cyclc, although restricting the possible operating conditions to rela-
tively ferv combinations, is neverthelcss economical since industrial "standardi-
zation results in decreased manufacturing costs.
Generally the stcam prcssure at the turbine throttle valve is taken to be
the official plant prcssurc. Boiler dlum steam pressure is, of course, higher be-
cause of friction losscs of pipe lines, valvcs, superheater, connectinpl tubes, and
stcam purifiers, if any. For example, a need for ste&m at 26.4 kg/cmr ga at rhc
turl)ine would rcquirc a boiler prcssure high enough to ovcrcome losscs which
misht be .
" Loss throrrqh l)rlling in(l virives l.;; kE/cme
Lo"<s in supcrhcatcr and conncctions kx/cml
tr.gfi
Allosancc for drl' pipc in ltiler dnrnr rl.l+ kg/cnr2
Totrl 9.6i kg/r.rnr
As the safety valve will not opcn until pressure has risen some 4ft above
operating pressure, the maximum drum pressure is (26.4+2.67) L04 : 30.2kg/cm!
ga. T'he hoiltl constructior, industrv has a lecommcnded pressure standard fol
the construction of porver troilers. These standardized pressures are I 1 .25,12.66,
l4.06,andin incrementi of I .76 kg above this. Hence the boiler design pressure
for the foregoing ease would be 31.64 kg/cm'e ga.
'Ihe pressure-teurperature ranges used for steam power can be grouped as
follou's:
8.6j17.6 kg/cma: ssturutnl steam to S3.3"C suPerhosn,
tt.U-rt., **,"-. ss,tu.atod st64m to 400'0 total.
28.1-;6 2 k8/cmr r .100'C to {t0"C'
56.2-70.3 kgi cm2 r {27'C to .182"C.
70.3-140.6 kg/cm2 ; {49'C to ;{i66C.

Conditions recommended for large 3600-rpm turbogenerstors in the AIEE-

ASME "Preferred Standards" are:
Turbogenefixtor Throttle Pressure Thtollle Tempoolure
Roti,ng (hu) (k|lcrn2 ga) l"ct
11,500 42-2 440
15,000 ;r0.8 482
20,000 r'i$.8 489
30,000 59.8 4A2
40,000 69.8 or 87.9 9182 or 510
60,000 ii9.8 or 87.9 I482 or 5t0
m,000 lol.0 ,;&l
264 ENERGY FLOW IN THE STEAM POWER PLANT
The use of high temperatures, while desirable from the point of energy utili-
zation, poses many problems of mechanical design arising out of thems!
expansion, change of Btructural properties of metals, and thermal growth.
The maximum steam temperature has been increased through the years
until it is now at 538 to 566'C in some of the latest central stations' But
designcrs are finding that increasing difficulties and costs bar the way to much
higher temperatures where the steam pressure is also high. The chief limitation
is the strength of metals at these temperatures. Expensive alloys are introduced
and these often have secondary undesirable characteristics. It should be re-
mernbered that a 538'C temperature corresponds to the beginning of incan-
descence. I\{aterials at, 566'C have a dull red glow.
Creep. "fhe characteristics of metals at ordinary temperatures are well un-
derstood: proportional limits, yield points, ultimate strength, all are Jamiliar
terms. At higher temperatures, before the yield point is reached, there comes a
creep point above which additional stress causes a slou flow, or " creep," ol !'he
metal. Some alloy steels have less creep than plain carbon stcel but are more
expensive. The tensile strength of steels drops rapidly for temperatures above
400', and most metals st 338" are subject to creep. The creep lirnit has ar-
bitrarily been set as that at which the stresses (with factor ol safety of at least
lhree on the yield point) produce a creep per hr of 10-7 times the actual lcngth.
This limit is too high lor some portions'of the plan!, such as bolts for flanges.
Baumann gives the following recommended creep limits. Flange bolts, 10-8;
turbine cylinder, 10-8; parts depending on shrink fits, 10-0; steam piping,
10-?1 superheater tubes, 1O--5 to 10-6. The theory of high-temperature design
seems to be shaping itself intb an acceptance of crecp but with a proportioning
oI parts to Iimit the creep to certain predetermined rates.
Etpansion. Problems introduced by high temperatures are primarily those
of strength of materials but there are secondary problems of only slightly less
importance. The expansion and contraction problem is emphasized by tlte.
higher temperatures. Expansion develops problems in the turbine, steam piping
heaters, and boiler parts. All higir-temperature parts must freely expand anll
contract. The supports of high-tdmperature steam turbines must be spccially
designed to permit longitudinal expansion of the cylinder and still maintain
the bore conccntric rrith the spindle which is supported independently of the
cylinder. The provision for suitable means to care for pipeJine expansion be-
comes very important. For instance, at 53tl' thc cxpansion of chrome-nickel
steel becomes about l/o of the length. Other problems arise through thc te?rd-
ency of metals to stick together at high temperatures. These probletns must
be met through the use of special alloys for the contacting parts Cherrical
stability is another problem since it is known that chernical affinity is more
prrinounced at higher temperatures.
- 9-5 Heat F"low. A power plant, tieing in effect a factory for the processing
of low energy into high grade, conslsts mainly ol equipment for energy flow and
transformation. A large part of this equipment is associated vith the flow of
heat energy in the vapor cycle and in the transfer of heat between different
fluids. Hence the technical aspects oI hgat transfer are of importance to the
power plant engineer, especially the designer. The basic modes of heat transfer
are conduction, conuection, and. radiation.
EDAT FLOW 265
In conduction the heat must difiuse through solid materials or through
stagnant fluids, whereas in convection the heai is carried from one point to
onother by actual movement of the convecting substance. This is commonly
carried out by flow of fluids, for the heat transfer may then be a continuous
pmces6. The nature of radiant heat enerry wiis noted in Chaptet 1.
Heat transfer is a matter of great importance to industry, es well as power
generation. Its physical constants, goveming laws, and use in various and sun-
dry processes have received thorough study from scientists and engineers. The
following notes on heat transfer for the power plant engineer are but a small
facet of heat transfer iheory, so completely has this subject beeir analyzed and
reported.
All three forms of transfer are found in power plant engineering, usually
in combination with each other. The principal heat-transfer calculations are
associated with:
1. Radiation from fucl bed and luminous gases to boiler tubes and water
walls.
2. Convection of heat from the combustion region to the more remote boiler
tubes, economizer tubes, and air-preheater surfaces.
3. Conduction of heat through boiler, economizer, and preheater surfaccs.
4. Conduction of heat through condenser or heater tubes.
5. Conduction and radiation in so-called "heat insulators" such as refrac-
tories and pipe coverings.
The first tlye. of these are met in boiler design. Energy qu&nta are ernitted at
a high thermal potential by the combining molecules of fucl and oxygen, then
parcially *sorbed as direct radiation by various water-cooled surlaces bound-
ing the fiirn:ce. The portion unabsorbed by the envelope is conveyed to the
gas, via absorption by COz, H:O, and thermal diffusion, raising its temperature
to that with which it enters the convection zone. During its passage through
the boiler and its auxiliaries, the gas gradually loses its thermal potential until
it reaches the stack potential. A characteristic of modem boilers is that a large
portion of this heat is given to surfaces which "see" the incandescent region.
The thermal potentials of the absorbing surfaces vary; for instance, that of the
boiler is all at the saturation temperature, that of the superheater is variable
from saturation to superheat temperature, while those of the economizer and
air preheater offer further instance of variable temperatures on both sides of
the conducting surfaces.
Simple Conduction. The transfer of heat by conduction through a flat homo-
genous wall can be determined frcm Fourier's Law:

q: kA?/dkcal Per ht (91)

where .,{ : Wall area norrnal to heat flow, m2 '
&: Coefrcient of conductivity of the wall material, kcal per hr-m-
deg C.
0 : Temperature difrerence between the two outside faces of the wall,
degC.
d = '[VaU thickness, m.
%O ENERGY FLOW IN TEE STEAM POWER PLANT
This equation may be modified to cover cBses of multiple layer flat walls and
curved walls such as are presented by pipe insulation in both single and multi-
ple layer. The coefficient of conductivity is not a true constant, being afrected
by the temperature of the material. This efrect ie not a pronounced one and may
often be neglected if the- range of temper-
atures is not large. A table (9-1) imply-
ing that the conductivity of the materials
listed is a constant. is given. But where
q
Fluid
the temperature effect should be consid-
Solid ered,. the author lurnishes charts of the
variation of conductivity with mean tem-
perature. The material of furnace walls is
Frc. 9-4 Simple conduction and con- to be treeted in this way. If lhe dimensions
Yection. of length were taken as themetreor both :{
and d, then conductivity would have the
dimension kcal per hr-m-deg C.

Si.mple Conuection. This implies a carrying medium of heat capacity tc,

where u is the rate of flow and c the specifi.c heat. Then if the flow is continuous,
through a heat receiver, with entering temperature 11, discharge temperature t2,
the heat, delivered is:
q = ua(h - l,) kcalper hr. (9-2)
where ra : kgper hr.
c : kcal per kg-deg C,
,r, ,e : Fluid temPeratures, degC.
The convection just desbribed is an over-all conception of heat delivery.
Nothing is implied as to the mechanism of loading or unloading the heat. One
of the most, frequently used modes of transfer in or out of the fluid \s surlace
conuectian, whereby heat is transfcrred betwgen moving fluid and a stationary
surface. One finds this in various heat exchangers where heat energy is passed
from one ffuid to another through a separating partition. Usually the surface
is tubular, one fluid flowing inside, the other outside. Such a case involves sur-
face convection on both sides of the partition, and conduction through it; there-
Iore, surface convection between two fluids is actually conduction-convection.
This important case of heat transfer is explained in Sec g-7.
9-6 Conduction. Fourier's Law given in the last section may also be
written
q: U4o kcal per hr ($3)
in which U is a coeff.cient of conductance, ha,ting dimensions of kcal per hr-m8-
deg C. A comparison of Eqs I and 3 shows that U is simply Jt divided by d.
The reciprocal of conductance is resistance. It is the resistance that is addi
tive when the wall through which heat is conducted consists of several layers
of difrering materials. In such a wall,. assuming no contact resistance between
faces of adjacent layers, the over-all conductance is related to the conductances
oI individual layers as follows:
CONDUCTTON 267

1111 1
(e-r)
U Ur' lJz'
-:--J_--+--.t- Ur ' U"
1 d, d.z. dr,. d"
(e-5)
Also
U k,'lcr'kr'
For flat walls the area A, : i1r: ' ' ' -4o; hence
AO
kcal per hr (e-6)
dr, d, d"
;-1-; +9+
k^

In Eq 9-6, d is the difrerence between the average temperatures on the two

oiltside faces of the wall.
'Now if the wall is curvcd, as in a pipe or tube, ,4r a A2 I A^. Usir,g
Fourier's Law in differential form, the following equations. of conduction
through cylindrical rvalls are secured.
2rk0L
s:;;.fr,kcal -
Per hr (sz)

where t, :
12 Inner and outer radii of cylindrical surface.
Z: Axial length of cylinder, m.
The case of doubleJayer cylindrical walls having radii of 11, 12, 13, is covered
by the equation:
2dL kcal per hr (e-8)
ln r2frl ln r,/rz
kr
+ k2

Table $1. CONDUCTMTIES Of' SOME COMMON MATERIAIS

kcsl per hr-m-do8 C
(at moder&te temperatures)
Air (4tmospheric) . o.oD,
Aluminum....... t82.,
Concrete........ 0.1t9
Copper (pure) . 322.1
Copper allol's (condenser tubes) 93.?
Cupro-nickel...... 29.8
Glass (eheet)...... tr.lJ9
Glass wool . 0.037
Hydrogen. , 9.174
Iron (cast)....... .10.9
Iron (\rmught)..... n2.t
Magnesia (powdered) . . . . . . . . . ().(rt
Nitrogen and Ox1'geD . . . . . . . . . . o.tt22
Steel......... 39.7
Water. ...:. 0.5:]
268 ENERCIY FLOW IN THE STEAM POWER PLANI
9-7 Surface Convection, When a solid partition is conveying heat from
thin layer of fluid remains stagnaqt against
one fluid to another, as in Fig. 9-5, a
each face and becomes, in efrect, another conducting layer outside of which
the free stream fluid temperature exists. Although
this film is extremely thin, its resistance to heat
filn fluid flow may be high relative to that of the solid
partition. This is especially true of heat ex-
changers where the wall is metal of good co[-
r2
ductance. Although film conductance is difficult,
to isolate or to predict (being under the control
of several variables sueh as fluid veloqity, via-
cosity, density), its importance to heat transfer
is cousiderable. A basic method of calculating
t, this type of heat transfer is to treat the films
as conducting layers and determine an over-all
o't -ta coeficient of conductance, U.

Oistoscs U: rd. 1

l
(e-0)
FrG, 9-5 Section of corCuct-
ing partitio! bathed by warm h,' l|' h,
and cool fluids. h1 and i2 are film coefficicnts. d/lc is the resist-
ance of thc solid wall.' This is then used with
Eq 9-3 to calculate heat transfer. There may be an uncertainty whetlrer to
use the outside or inside of cylindrical surfaces for the transfer area,4. This
may be resolved by adhering to the usual convention that the transfer surface
is "aken to be that which is in contact with the warmer fluid.
This approach to surface convection appears to be simpler than it actually
is, for the estimatiou of film conductance, h, is difficult and results are not likely
to be closely confirmcd by actual operation.
The thickness of the fluid film and, consequently, the rate at which it trans-
fers heat are afrectcd by the velocity of the fluid stream across the surface. If
this velocity is created solely by density differentials in the fluid due to heat
transfer, its magnitude is usually small and somervhat indeterminate. An ex-
ample is the rise of heated air around a room-heating radiator. This is called
tree conuection, in distinction to lorced conuection, where the fluid velocity is
created by pumps, fans, or other positive meaus, and whose magnitude is con-
trollable. Heat transfer calculations are simpler and more definite for forced
convection. It also happens to be the type in principal use where heat is trans-
ferred to or from fluids in stearn power pla,nt equipment. Furthermore, as be-
trveen convection velocities that would represent turbulent or ufscous stream
flow, power plant equipment almost always {unctions in the turbulent flow
range.
A rational equation, derivable by dimensional analysis, which often appears
in the literature of forced convection heat transfer is
Nu : C Re Pt ($10)
i llat vslh implied, but slao satidactory for thiD-ralled tubmg ol relotively high con-
ductivity. Otherrise we rln r,/rtEft for d rhere r ia thc radius of the choseo traorfer
rurtace, s[d corrcct the [b to tltc r rurfsce.
SURFACE CONVECTION 269
Nu, Re, and Pr are dimensionless parameters representrng certain natural
groupings of physical factors having an efrect on film conductance.
.lVz is the .ly'usseli number, whicb contains the film coefficient ol heat trans-
fer, h.
Eo is the Regrnlils rrumber, a measure of the ratio of inertia to viscous
forces in the fluid.
Pr is the Prsndtl number. ll is a propedy of the fluid and not a function of
the physical conditions of flow.i

: L4. R". :0"1-2.' pt : --2L

N,,
k | k/3600
where C,c,y: Constants which depend on the arrangement oI the heating
surface and the direction of'fluid florv relative to it.
Fluid specific heat, kcal per hr-ms.deg C x 9.81.
D": A characteristic dimension of the fluid conduit, rn"

Film conductance, kcal per hr.m-dcg C.

Fluid conductivity, kcal per hr-m'z.dcg C.
Fluid stream velocity, m/scc .

Fluid density, mass density, kg-sec2/mr.

Fluid viscosity, t kg-sec/m2.

lVhile Eq 9-10 is rationally derived, it must be implemented by experi-
mertally determined constants before being useble. Constents for some ar-
rangements of surface are given in Table 9-2.| 'lYhat the characteristic dimen-
sion D" is snd at what temperature the fluid physical properties are to be
determined depends on the policy of the author of the C, c, y, constants. as he
interpreted his test data. These policies have not been uniform in the different
studies. D" may be an intemal or external tube diameter, a surface dimension,
or an equivalent diameter found as follows:

2" _ n /free flon)

croqs-sqcrioq4_+rea of
1s_rr,
\ penmeter ol thr8 area, /
The temperature for p, k,,c, and p may be the averagc,mixed temperature of
the fluid streams or the dverage fluid film tempereture. It is necessary to
attach these conditions to tabulatibn of the constants.
The physical properties p, k, c, and, p are dependent on fluid temperature,
posing the questior of what temperature is to be used for this evaluation. Srnce
the transfer process occurs through the fluid film, the mean temperature ol this
film should be used. However, this is somewhat uncertain and difficult to
measure. In turbulent flow the film is vry thin, despite its high resistance.
+ Tablee ol Pr vs presaure-temperature for a uumber of fluids have been published.
iThie is a form of d,'namic vi.c(ity. To coivctt o.ltiPoitd i*o hg- eec/ ror,
Elultiply by 10.2 x
lo-t,
tAho in franr. ASMD,\ol,- 59 (October).
270 ENEEGY FLOW IN THE STEAM POWER PLANT
Trble S2. CONSTANTS liOR USE IN EQ 9-10
(For Turbrrlent Flow ond Clean Surfoces)

Arraagement of Tempemturc for

heating surface c x: u D" fluid properties

Longitudinal flow in tubes

and ducts 0.023 0.8 0.4 Dq 9-11 (L * L)/2
Closs flow over tube banks 0.33 0.6 0.33 Average filnr
temperature

Cross flow orer single tube 0.3 0.57 0 Do'r Average film
temperaturc

* D. Outside diameter of tube, m.

=
"fht'r'clotc it is usual.to corsitler tlrc controlling tempersture es that of the main
flutl stream, and if this is a variable the mean temperature is employed.
Iiig. 9-6 gives physical data rcquired to calcul&te the heat tr'ansfer param-
cters for air and stearn. Calculations wherc products of combustion are the
fluids may be made with thc properties of air substituted for flue gas. Data for
02, COr, Ns might have lrccn placed on Fig.9-6, but were not because they
l5 .
lt
ta _-----_Co.dociivll,
!3 - I
E 7
!0 . to
-V1...31t, t-o

It
l 1
I la : 6 ,7
!
:-oi rs r."i ot r
F 5
r.oi rqlcoloo- L 4L
t2 E'
r
9
t I ( = -T
6 L
L I \ *"ry r.! -r i
IL
o t 0 200
I

!,7'r
1'd'p.r.to.. - d.g.t

Frc. 9-6 Thenrrnl properties of air, water, and ste&m

woulcl be relatively valueless in eny calculation of p and B of o composite gss.

These properties of a mixture may not be cslculat€d by the simple arithmetic
of mixing (as suffces for t, c, R, etc.) snd actual tests on a specific mixture
rvould be required in order to determine its p snd ft. An example of calculations
for surface convection heat transfer wili be given ldter, but at this point a dis-
cussion of temperatures in heat transfer is needed. We have used the symbol 0
for temperature difrcrence efrective ii
heat transfer. What determines d wheh
the fluid temperatures sre variable?
MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE 271
9-8 M€an Tempcrature Difrerence. There are some few cases where 0 is
simply the difrerence between two uniform temperatures. Examples are a section
of a building wall or a heat exchanger with condensing vapor on one side and
boiling liquid on the other side of the heating surface. Far more numerous are
the examples of heat transfer where one or both fluids undergo a change of
tempersture while receiving or discharging heat. A few examples:
Boiler. Gas tremperature decreases while water temperature remains approxi-
mately constant.*
Steam C ondenser. Condensing steam temperature is constant everywhcre at
the condenser pressure saturation temperature, while condensing water tcmpera-
ture lises.
Steam Superheater. Steam temperature is increased and gas temperature
decreascd.
Oil Cooler. Oil temperature decreased I water temp€rature increased.
Referring to Fig. 9-7 ior nomenclature and physical arrangement of a heat-
ing surface (total area ,4), the area is seen surrounded by a constant tempera-
ture medium at ,'. The flow through the tube has a temperature designated I,
and it is assumed that t') i so that heat is ab-
sorbed, raising i from t1 to to. The mean value of
t;
0 (= t' - t) will be investigated lor this case.
One rather obvious procedure is to subtract the
average, temperature lrom t'. This arithmetical I ex
d is in some error, for it assumes a uniform ti t rise
if
tcmperature rise inside the tube, whereas the
rate of temperature rise is higher at the inlet surroc€ lroversed
end and becomes smaller as d, decreases, tr'or Frc.9-7 Studv of mean tem-
very small temperature rises, l"- rr, the error perature iifference.
is not large, but becomes increasingly serious
with increasing At. The shape of the temperatrrre riBe curve is readily deter-
mined. The arithmetical mean temperature difrerence is the average ordinate d.
Through elementary area dd there is a heat flow dg that is also the heat
absorbed by the flow ur, experiencing a temperature rise dt.
Now dq : U|d.A, wberc U is an over-all coefficient of conductance, con-
sidered constant over the whole heating surface. Also, dq = wctlt, = 11ss16,,1o,
dt = d.0" il tn is constant. As a result,
UqdA = ucil|, (I)
As has been stated, the true mean temperature difrerence over the entire
area .4. is the average d,. Therefore

u: I f*'ua,t (II)

* It might seem that woler temperature would rise from feed temperature to BaturatioE
temperature, and, oI course, this is true of auy specific mass of 9ater. But oD &ccouEt of
recirculatioo (1G15 fimes around the circuit.for comp]ete ev&poration) the iucoming feed
is mixed with 60 much saturat€d water that ihe mixture tempersture at the tube surface is
Dearly that of saturatioE.
272 ENERGY FLOW IN THE STEAM POWER PLANT
If expression (i) is used to replace both r{ and d.d in (II), we get the follow-
ing result.

6:9ry:__o,rr
ln d**/d,,,r.
(9-r2)

This is usually denoted the "logarithrn:"c" mean tenxperature difierence on ac-

count of the natural logarithm it contains. It can also be written

o:+, (e-13)

'tr - /"
If the t' fluid were inside and the i fluid were flowing over the outside of the
tube, the same equations would have resultcd.
Both t' and t uari.able. Although a derivation for d may follow thc same
principle as above, it becomes con-
ri { ti
I sidcrably more nomplicated. for in
ri
this case one is not entitled to use
lhe d0, = dt relation. The mean tem-

F
Poroll.l flow
,1:?
Colhterflow
perature difierence now irvolvcs four
temperatures. There are two possible
types of flow as illustrated in Fig.
Fr(.9-8 Both flrrids of varying l.cmperr- 9-8, the parallel ar.d. the cutnter-
ture. fou. Counterflow is used where pos-
sible because it places the highest t
and I'together, permitting a larger range of temperature change. In either
case, however, the ar'erage temperature is given by a dolution ,1 tr-t \0,riA
which, as it turns out, is identical with Eq 9-12, but not with Eq 9-13.
Examplc i : The mean remperature difference existing for the cotrvecti{e heat trans-
Ier in a boiler tube b"nk will be calculated assuming that the case is approximated by
the situation showu in Fig. 9-7 inverted, that is, with ,'inside the tubei and t outside.
Boiler preeauro, 10.55 kg/oma ga I gas tomp6r.turc, 982. r'O initially,6nat 287.8.C.
At 10.55 + 1.03 kg/cm2 ab. th6 ssturstior i,ornporBturc is 185.6oC. Thir is ,,.
Tbo g6a tomperuturo , verioB from 982,2.C to 287.8oC.

d,E:982.2 - 185.6: i96.6 t d-i":28?.8 - 185.6 - l0r,2.C

796.6 _ tU2 2
d:-:l3s'c-
tD (7s6.0/102.2)

Examplc 2: Steam flowing through superheater tubes and being superheated teith
heat iransferred from gases flowing over the superheater tube bank ii an approximation
of.the counterflow case of Fig. 9-8. The mean temperature difference wil bi calculated
Ior the following,lats : Boiler st€&m pressuro, 17.58 kg/om2 gs. Finsl si6sm ;emperature,
315.6rc, Gas temperuture belorc superheater, 8l;.6f i after superheater, 057.2rc.
At 17.58 kg/cml gE, saturat€d st€am toap6rsturo is 207.8.C. Th6 t6mporatur6. sr.
ideDtified thus: r'i : 815.6.C. r'o : 8dZ.2.C, ri : 207.9.C, ro g15.6o0.
-
0*- :8rs.6-316.6 - 800rc d,n" : 65?., -20?.8 : .r49.i
su, -=l1e n: l,o'c
o - rnf-M-)
\ 4{e.4 ,,
CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER, PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION 273
It will be noted that in the case of counterflow ii is possible to have a situa-
tion where it is difficult to evaluate d because d-1. is nearly equal to d.... Should
the two be equal, d would be indeterminate. However, for such cases the arith-
metical mean is practically the same as the true mean and can be used as a
substitute. In Ex 2 the arithmetical temperature difrarence is ,175".'
There are cases which resemble, from an over-all viewpoint, the flows illus-
trsted in Fig. 9-8, but which are quite difrerent for a specific increment of the
heating surface. For example, the economizer shown in Fig. 10-26, in general, is
counterflow, that is, the $'ater progresses oppositely to the gas, but actually is
flowing transverse to t{Te gases considered tube by tube. The operational factors
(soot, temperature, etc.) may be sufficiently variable not to warrant finely
drawn calculations of mean temperature difrerence. This is usually true o{ {ases
of heat transfer involving products of combustion, but correction lactors fof the
logarithmic d are in ordei ior shell-and-tube heat exchangers where heat trins-
fer conditions are fsirly uniform and controllable. Charts of these factors are
published by the 1'ubular Exchanger Manufacturers' Association.
9-9 Convection Heat Transfer frorn Proilucts of Combustion. It has
been found that the coefficient of heat transfer in boilers, economizers, and air
preheaters follows approximately a straight line with intercept relation to load.
This is a pure empiricism, based on plots of test results. These empirical rela-
tions are of the general {orm:
U:A+BG (9-14)
where r{ and I are experimentally determined conBtants and G is mass flou.
The ma8s flow is usually given as kg of fluid per hr per m! free area
normal to the flow. It brings in the velocity factor, but is more readily de-
termined than velbcity; also for gas flow through a tube bank the mass flow
may be constant throughout (if tube spacing is), whereas velocity changes from
point to point due to shrinkage cooling.
The constants .4 and.B difrer for the various classes of heat transfer. The
Babcock formula for the U of boiler heating surface has :4,:9.76Q a = o.oot+.1
These were determined for boilers having mainly convection heat transfer (no
wster wslls). Although not applicable to modem steam generators as & whole,
this coefficient may be employed to analyze heat transfer in the purely convec-
tion zbne.
Consider a case of convection between fluids (a) and (b) for the purpose of
relating required heating surface to the desired heating job. It is a counterflow
arrangement, having coefficient of U. Let the temperature of the heat releasing
fluid (a) be t', of heat absorbing fluid (b) be ,. We will introduce a term z, de-
ffned as
zl : t',t ' t:." (9-1g)
t" -' tl
Cbt0b
or (e-16)

in which u is rate of flow and c the specific heat.

*Butr trote that iu Ex. I it would have beea th$82.2+ 7.a) -186.6 or { 10.4", an error ol
some lloPc.
f Valid only Ior trsDs{er ol sensible hcat.
@ in kcal per al-hr.d6g C
t in ko.l/k8.deg C
274 ENERGY FLOW IN THE STEAM POWER PLANT
Since q = UA9 = c"u^(ti - t.'), one will find that, upon Eubstitution of
Eqs 9-12, 15, 16 into this expression, the heating surface is found to be

1. : J4&_ 6
r^e: (9-12)
U(z - l) d-r"
Heat transfer from products of combustion oI coal fires to vatious heat
transfer surfaces such as boiler, superheater, economizer, and air preheater may
not justify exact rational calculations because of ,the continually varying oper-
ating conditioris and their influence on heat transfer. These are mainly:
1. Varying accumulation of scale on the water side.
2. Yarying accumulation of soot on the gas side.
3. Yarying mass flows, G, at difrerent boiler loads and at difrerent percent-
ages of excess air supplied.

However, unless the empirical data available are based on cases very similgr
to the study being undertaken, the designer must revert to the rational methods
otrtained f rorr. Thermodynamics.
9-10 Convective Heat Transfer Between Condensing Steam and
Water. This type of heat transfer has received full study in theory and experi-
ment. The factors that affect the transfer have been individually studied and
evaluated; consequently predictions of heat transfer are on a fairly definite
basis in the steam condenser and water heater field. These factors have been
examined in investigations of vapor fiim resistance, efrect of water velocity in
tubes, ctc. We ehall now devise an equation to assemble the results of such
studies in a relation between heating surface and the various influences on heat
transfer.
The customary arr&ngement of equipment Ior transferring heat lrom a
condensing vapor to water through a dividing surface is to arrange that surface
in tubular form with the water inside the tubes and the vapor outside. This
gives controlled water flriw and is much more efrec-
tive in promoting bigh rates of transler than is the
Sorroc. submerged steam coil arrangement. It furthermore
Ssaroca facilitates prompt and direct delivery of condensate
Srrfoc. to the hotwell. This yields the characteristic ar-
rangement of a bank of tubes expanded or packed
into tube sheets, supplied with water from a water
box which is essentially a water supply header for
Frc. 9-9 Cross section of the tubes. Encompassing the whole is the shell
condenser tube. which confines the vapor to the tubes. 'When prop-
erly supplied with flanges for ingress of steam and
water and egress of condensate and water, we have the basis of both the
condenser and the heater.
Basically we have the case shorul in Fig. 9-7. The tube is carrying water in
turbulent flow and is surrounded by condensing steam. The conditions attend-
ing heat transfer where impure water hss to be used are depicted on the tube
cross section, Fig. 9-9.

* Valid only for traasfer of sezsible leol.

TRANSFER BETWEEN CONDENSING STEAM AND WATER 275
First the heet must .be delivered from the vapor to the outside tube surlace.
This is afrected by the film oI condenaate flowing down the surfoce, the quentity
of noncondensable gas that might be in the film, and sludge or scale on the tube
eurface. If the tube is one of a large number contained in a neat or bsnk, the
efiect of theee variables is difrerent for difierent tube locatione and an average
for the entire bank of tubes is wanted more than experimental results reported
for an isolated tube.
Next, the heat is traneferr€d across the metal of the tube wall by conduc-
tion. This is by far the simplest and most exact to compute of all the component
temperature drops. Also, it consumes but little of the total temperature drop,
even when stcel tubes are used.
Although s water heater will have little or no deposits on the tube interiord,
condenser tubee are subject, to fouling from a number of sources such as silt
or ssnd in the water, organic waste, algae, slime, and Bcale. This interior ac-
cumuletion forms a coating whose heat conductivity is relatively poor. In some
extreme instances, the principal part of the t€mperature difrerence may be
consumed in driving heat through this layer. The magnitude may vary from
very small, e.g., mill scale on an otherwise clean tube, to great, e.g., a condenser
tube badly in need of cleaning. As in the tube itself, the ection is one of con-
duction, with the conductivity of the scale being considered inetead of that of
the metal.
Some {urther temperature difrerence is r€quired to conr,ey the heat from
the inside of the layer o! scale or slime to the water. This component has been
investigated fully in the laboratory and worksble formulae hsve been evolved.
It is by no means a minor part of the resistance to heat tranefer and is afiected
by velocity of the water, viscosity (or temperature) of the water, and diameter
of the tube. The tube diameter entere by virtue of its being a measure of the
thickness of the film of water nert to the tube, relative to the dimensions of the
main body of flow.
Water enters at an inlet temperature r!, and leaves at an outlet temperature
of t., which, of cour€e, is higher than 11. The condensing vapor surrounding the
tubes ie at a saturation temperature of t'.
The over-all mean temperature difrerence d is the sum of several resistances,
each being manifested as an incremental temperature drop. These are:
' 0,, the drop from vapor to tube eurface.
d1, the drop across the tube wall.
d., the drop scross the layer of scale or sediment.
d., the drop from scale to water film.
These have the relationship 0 = 0, t 0r + 0, + d-. But, since e: llA0, or 0 =
q/ua
: -i:- -r-r --t- -r- & t b
u"A" frj fr.+ u"-E
s (e-r8)

Ae Fig. 9-9 shows, g is common to all these tempertture drope, sinee they
are in series; that is, the same amount of heat that enters a given segment of
wsll must emerge from the same segment and heat the water. q/A would, be
common except that the srea of the inner surlace is le88 than the outer; there-
fore the inteneity of heat flow is grtater.
276 ENERGY tr'LOW IN THF] STEAM POWER PLANT
By iaking.,{" as on the outside of the tube,.4" and .4.* at the inside, and zls
as the average,all surfaces may be expressed in terms of the outer surface .4,.
Calling D. the inside diameter of the tube and D, the outside diameter, .d-
and,41 may both be expreesed as a function of .,{, and the diameters. Tlt€tl
Eq 9-18 is redueible to

"o:3-,ll. +--:2' _ +=L+i-l

A"Lu" ' u(D, + D") ' u,D" ' u.D*)
($.rer

This apparently unwieldy formula is, nevertheless, in useful form, and mere
length is not necessarily a handicap. Some of our shortest lormulae are most
difficult to employ because of their inflexibility. The form of Eq 9-19 is useful
to the degree that research and tests supply the values oI the separate U's. It
is in a form such that, as new experimental data become available, they msy
be used to supersede oid data. Also, experimental data m&y be applied directly
instead of being converted into abstract coefficients. For instance, U" wor.rld be
the actual conductance of a layer of scale in kcal per m2 per hr Pci dqg C tem-
perature difrerence. It would be difficult to convert such information, were it
ovailable, into an abstract multiplier such as a "cleanliness coefficient."
A. T. Brown, Sherwood, McAdams, Turner, Partridge, White, and others
hsve contributed informatfon on the various conductances. Their work is not
necessarily final and probably will be repeated and improved on by others as
time goes on.
Ut: Corrductance of the tube is lct./dt where d, is wall thickness. Consult
Table 9-1 for lct.
U.: The amount of scale on thc water side of condenser tubes vories with the
source of the water, season of thc year, and frequency of cleaning. The coefr-
cient is therefore widely variable with a possible lange of 4880-19530 kcal per
mt-hr-dcg C. An average value to use lacking definite local information would
bel4650.The mill scale on new tubes having no fouling has U of about29!50.
I/*: It has been established that this is some function of water velocity.
Sherwood and Turner give:
{/* - DI,.o.r3 (9-20)
Jo.t
in which b :1379; ;@n (9-21)

I/ : Water velocity through tube,m/sec

J : Water fl,uid,ir,y in reciprocal centipoises taker at average w&ter
temperature.
D- : Inside tube diameter, m.
I/": A study of empirical data' showed that the vapor film resistance vs.
heat loading characteristic is well matched by the equr.tion
U":lllgl0/(q/u{")0188 (9-22\
In most design problems the heat to be transferred and the mean tempera-
* A. T. Brown, Combrstion, October 1930.
TRANSFER BETWEEN CONDENSING STEAM AND WATER 277
ture difference available will be known in advance. By substituting q and 0 in
ilq 9-19, we find the required surface ,4,. Another application of this equation
would be the determination of the d required to produce a hest flow of q/A. A
further usefulness of it is the solution lor water velocity necessary to produce
some desired q/A wilh a g*en 0.
The logarithmic mean tempersture difrerence is to be employed for 0. This,
of course, is somewhat of an approximation, sinee the temperature of the con-
densing steam throughout the condenser is not, constant on account of pressure
drops caused by tube resistance.
Eq 9-22 is for relatively gas-free condensate film. Orrok's empirical cquation
for over-all coefrcient of conductance has a term p, designed to allow for con-
siderable air entrainment.
U :3024.8CfKVo' (9-23)

where C : Cleanlinesg coefficient, range 0.5 to 1.0.

I( : Material coefrcient, about 0.97 for copper alloy.

I/ : Water velocity, fps.
p =. Ratio of vapor pressure to the tota; pressure oI the air-vapor
mixture.
Realizing the necessity of establishing heat transfer rates which are possible
of attainment in average commercial operation with efficient condensers. manu'
t,2
lltlrl IITITI! tlrrll
rr!:====i--- rl
t.o tt
ll )tt
|

2=---a rrrrtrttrllIIItr
2Z-TTTTTTTII tltttgmlElllllt
O,E
111II llllllllll
o 0.6 llt ll !t rtrttrtttt !il!Hilffll!!!!l
l0 15 20 30 3!
E

t.mp.rolu.. ol lnl.l ror.r -'C

3700 -,]
!
; trfn ffi
-.,i
3400
a F
traol lrqnstar coattlclanl
lo. 2l.l t int.t ,ot.r.
F
:E 3a0o
Tobl. ot hultipli.13
t
Eo
2500
# t.0
l0
0.96
0€6
il
0.98
0.96
o.tl
0'r I
l
,t
.!
2000
I955 ffil
.60 .75
ffi I
1.00 I.25
$ t.50
lo".3O Cup?o-nic

r.75
v.loclty - m P.. r..
0 6
0.13 0.ra

.t! 250
EwG
. 16 9{O
-.1
-..1

Frc.9-10 Steam turbine condenser hest transler lates. (For various tubes and lvater
velocities.) (Courtesy Stds. Ileat E ckoqe lnstitute-1952'\
278 ENERGY FLOW IN THE STFAM PO\YER PLANT
facturer members of the Heat Exchange Institute have conducted test€ and
arrived at values of over-all conductance which they consider to be maximum
safe design limits. The coemcients used by this association sre Bhown by Fig.
9-10. The coemcient U is in Lcal pcr hn-mr-dcg C, and is such that
U0 : q/A" (&24)
The data are depicted lor2l.l'iDlet water temperature, and are based on
clean, new 1.24 mm(18 BIYG ) Admiralty tubing. Other operating condidiong
may be corrected for with the use of temperature and tubing multipliers. Onei
could judge from the purpose for which these coeftcients are promulgated thrtl
condensere in service could produce higher values of the coefficient.
Very srmllar to the surface condenser is the steam water heatet, referred to
in Chapter 8 as a regenerative or extraction heater. The heat transfer analysis
is practically the same. \\rhereas basically both accomplish the delivery of heat
to a fluid of rising temperature by the action of a condensing vapor delivering
its latent heat ol evaporation while being reduced to the state of condensate,
actually they are distinct for the follorving reasons:
1. The condenser must accommodate practically the entire flow ol the
vapor cyclc as a lorv-prcssure vapor, whereas the heaters &re required to hold
only a srnail fraction of the flow as a vapor. !'urthermorc, the vapor density in
the heaters is higher than in thc condenser, and thus there is a large difrerence
in rncrc phv,sical size of equipment.
t 2. I:lcal transfer in a condenser is seriously complicated by formation of
scale r,nd -.ludge on the transfer surfaces, wheieas there is very little of that in
the heaters.
3. Condensers arc gencrally one- or trvo-pass, rvhile heaters ate never lcss
Lhft'l two-f\css, and may be four- or six-pass.
-1. Contlenser tubes arc copper alloy of high heat conductivity, bui high-
plessure heater tubes may need to be of the stronger (but less conducting) steel.
9-11 Examples of Surface Convection Calculations.
Example 1: The film coeftoient of water flowing inalr.l,nrEODx l.0Smmtube at
1.87 ir/s6c will i')€ celculated from Eq9-10. Water eDters this tulle at 16.6o0 :rnd Ieaves at
20,4"c.
The fluid properties will be evaluated for a tcmperatule of (15.6 + 3s,a)/r, or 22:5'd.
Conductivity lrom Table g-1: viscosity hom Table 14-6 or Fig.9-6. Specific heat,
1.0ko6l p6r kldog C density, 0'I.7 k8/rD1
* -0.533 kcal p6r her.d.t C.
p : 0.95 centipoises, or 0.e0 x lo,t x to-! La..oolnr-
c=1.0X9.8I:9.81.
:p 997.7i9.81 : 10f.7 tg.@r/Er.
D. : {10,1 -2xr.Ei)/rooo-0.O168m.
These properties were computed in order to 6nd the parameters -Iru, I?e, Pr, and thus
to use Eq 9.10.
N&: o.or58r/o.Ess - o.o2oo[.
l?e :0.0t58 x 1.6? x 10l.?10.96 x lo,2 x l0r{ = ?1000.
Pr =0.81 x 3600 x 0.e6 x 10.2 x 11)-5/0.633 : 6,47 .
 EXAMPLES OF SURFACE CONVECTION CALCULATIONS 279
Substitute in Eq g-10 with son8t&nte aelected from Table $.2.
0.0900n :0.or3 t ,70000.E x 6..47c..
,- 6908 Losl per hr-ml.doa C
In Eq S20, L'. is also ihe film coefrcient. It will be cooputed and compred n-ith the
foregoing result.

Frcm Eq e-21, 6: ra7o.z ,J*$}-5"u - rgeo.r

U* : irSO.4 , ,.U, o.lrT 6250 kcal por br+nt-d6g C

Examplc 2:
A convcction steaD superheater is an example of simple heat tranefer
betweeu a gas and a vapor. Herc a problem is devised which will involve an estim&te
of the over-all coefrcient. The surface arralgement is diagrammed in Fig. 9-11, a,nd
some of the data required for a solution are to be found on the 6gure. lte surface
area needed alld tube bank arrangement will be detemined.

STEAM
HEADERS

:ts.erc ln6 19lc# 9

IUBE DATA

20.0? mh lD

o.ooo316 m2
615.6'C

0.079a6

Flc. 9-l l Example of.surface convdction.

,r\s the tube is thin s.alled and ol very high concluctivity compared to the steam
and gas 6]ms, the ctrrvature rvill be neglecied in the equation for over-all conductance.

L:l- 1-L
I' i, 'tr,'ft.
ri'here,il1 is steam film conductance; i2 the g:rs film condtctance.
Steam Fil.m Coelficient. Eq 9-I0: Ifr
= 0.O23neo.sPro.4.
This. is capab)e of simplification, for I,r ip approximately unity lor superheated
steam. Also the pll of tho Reynolds numbcr can bi exchangid for
'G./s.et,
where G"
is tte steam mass foli, kgpermf-eco. With these rnodifical,ions, E"q g_to becomes
ht: 3.7 X t1-iDia.,ht(c./ p)o3
A mass flow must be assumed. High values promote heat trausfer, reduce the number
dl superherter elemcnls in larallel, but also increase fluid frictron which may lead
to undesirabll, high steam pressure drop through the superheater. Not wishing to
introduce friction loss calcrrlations at this point, G" is assumed *lttout tu"tU""'.do
at s00.6. kg por ml-soo, and the st€{.m propeties are asaumed to be tha st f?.6
tS/oDl Ss.
. Thia correrpoode to a velocity
of about t0A, lirDin.
2& ENERGY FLOW IN THE STEAM POWER PLANT
Tte average steam temperatule iB 200'C. From Fig. 9-6, }l - 4 x l0-r, p1 :22 y
l0-?, Dr : 20.07/1000: 0.02007 m.
it:3.? x l0-3 x 0.0r007-!.c x 4 x lo-r x [390.6/22 x lo-?]o.t: t283 kcsl pe! ]t..
mi-deg C, l'ra,nsfer tbis to tho r5.4 mm diamotr€r surfsco n ith tho multiplior 20.07/ 26.4,
m.ku,g ,! : 1014.
Gas Filrn Coefi,cient. Eq 9-10: lf?r = 0.33R€o oPr0 33.
The gas properties are to be those of the average film temperature, and the
characteristic length the outside tube diameter. The gas temperature to'is found with
rrse ol a 0.25koalperkg-deg cspecific heat. rrscsArs = ro. (enthalpy gained by steem).
Since ro" : 2?"; 2 x 0.26 (815.6- t'. 1 : 1aOOli,ll - 2797.5110.239 : 63.8.
t'" : 88src. Average l'l
- 751.8"c.

The free area for gas flow, per element =2.4J *

# : 0.1088 mr .

Steam flow per elemelt

- jgo.6 x o.0o03t6 : 0.0t2]4 ks p€r s6c.
Gas flow prer element : 2 (steam flow) : 0.02468 kg per aec.
Mass flow of gas : 0.2468/0.1088 : 2.268 kg por mz-sec.
Gas film t€mpelature is the average of tube temperature and gas stream tempera-
ture. Preliminary trials having shown that [, is much larger than l,e, the 251.8. to 2610"
drop betr';cen fluids is assumed to take place mainly in the gas film. Tube temperatule
is estimated to be 3t6.c.
Film temperature : {751.8 + 3t6) /9 : 5340 C. From Fig. 9-6 at this tempcnture,
i'z = 4.6 X 10-2, p2 = 38.33 X 10-?. Using air properties as a substitute lor those of
combustion products, P,',o.33 : 0.884.*
Eq 9-10 is nov modified to
h, = O.33D;t}t-lD2G"/(e.8r s1)li 6Prr0 e = o.os,u krD, 0 '|(C!/rr,)0'6Pr,0.8
Substituting the values alreadl' determined, vith D, = tr5.411696
i, : 0.0E41 x 4.6 xl0-2 x (0.025,1f0 1 t2.268/38.ilit x t0-710.. x 0.884
whence ia :43.19 kcal per hr-mt-d€8 C.
Ooer-all Coeficiznt. fhe tube coefficient is approximately k/d.t. From Table S1 lor
steel, & = 30.? kcal per hr"m-dog C. U. : : tl8sz kcst F,er hr-mr-deB C .
ffi.r7r-
Now l/U : l1t0l4 + U14897 + l,{:t.19 whence, A : 41.$t kcol por hr-mr-deg C.
Numb$ and, l,eqth o! Elanents. Assume that this superbeater is to be in s 13610 kg
per hr st€am generator. Superheater transfers t3010 t(3004.41-2797.6)0.2391 : 0.868if'to6
koal p6r hr.
d*- : - 3t6.6 -
816.6 500rc J d-i. : 6ge - 208 - 48fC.
500 - 480
r9_--:r88"C.
' tn (500/480)
.4 - 0.t68 x 10.(41.31x488) : {i.5 rnr.

Number of elemeut" : 13610/3fO0/390.8 x 0.000116

- Sl.
Area per element : 43.5/31 - 1.4 mr.
Element length : t.4/O{?sEO : 17.5 m .
rAuthor used Nat. Buresu of Stde. Table 2.41, b1[t Pt might also be calculated from
,t, &, and cr.
tvaluos in Joules/gram. Multiply lry 0.230 to oo[v6rt to kool/k8,
RADIATION 281
To soou.6 t&i._io sa l.{4 m high pssgaSo will roquirc 8 paE6€ or 2.2 D por
fr6ss. ThiS
srroogpDeotrrould !'robobly b.vE s d.op of 1.4-g.I kg/oE .t6.D prsurc betweeu super-
he.ater ieaders, otrd a draft loss of ?.6 D6water, or less. The major heat flow resistauc€
is on the gas 6ide otr account of the higb nass flow o{ steam aud the low mass ttow
oI gas. Nevertheless, st€am pressute is aimpler and easier to create than draft.
Example 3: Illustrating the use of Eq 9-19, the rate of'heat tran8fer through
lo.lnrlB x 1.2{aD. eopper alloy clean condenser tubes will be determiDed.
Given 0 : 8jl'C I U- = 6836 koal pcr b!-mt. d6g C.
A-esune the D,/(U"D.) term uegligible for clean tubes.
Eq 9-19r r.r =ft"k(t) t e3.7
2xl0.l
(r6.0e+ rs.r)
+ 6836
r0.I
x 16.62 l
1.2.1x l0-l
Arrange as follows for solution:
q q
( A, ) 000500
- ,0'4 ( A")
. This equation may be solved by trial, but less tedious is the graphical solution
given in Fig. 9-12.
Rate of heat transfer, g/r{.v = SgO@ kcsl por hr-m! .

9-12 Radiation. The outstanding exarnplc of this mcthod of tr.ansfcrrirrg

heat is to be lound in thc furnace of the stearn gcncratci of a porver plant. Thcri
the. elcments combining in com.bustion libcratc encrgy iu thc form of intcnsive
radiations in the infra red and visiblc light spectra, accompanied by the pro-

2O,OO0 30,000 aqooo

firca pt r'.-.'
Frc. e-12 solurio, ,- ,(11)
" [f]'*'=
duction of combustion at high temperatures. Although this offers the moet
complex case of radiation in the power plant, there are mairy other situaticns
where the discharge of radiant energy, usually in the infra. red range, takes
place. Sometimes this is aided and abettcd by design (coolers), whereas else-
where it is undesirable and is opposed by whatever means seem i,o be practical,
such as covenng the hot surface of a boiler cesing vith aluminum paint of low
emissivity.
282 ENERGY FLOW IN THE STEAM POWER PLANT
Let us consider the high-level radiations in a furnace. The trend in steam
generator design has been, for several years, to transfer more of the heat ol
eombustion by radiation, less by convection. Many years ago the heat was re-
ceived by the water mainly via convection from heated gases produced in the
fumace. Today large steam generstors are often built with convection surface
a minor part o1 the boiler heating surface. Radiant heating surface accounts for
nearly all the evaporative heat transfer in such units. Even small- snd medium-
sized units are customarily desigrred with a certain amount oI water wall
ranged around the lurnace envelope and radiant transfer may account lor a
third to a half of the total.
The law of radiation expressed by Eq 1-6 is more useful in determining
the heat radiated from hot surlaces to the surrounding air than it is lor radia-
tions from luminous particles through a cloud ol fumace gases. The application
of the Stefan-Boltzmann relation becomes exceedingly complex and difficult to
justify in furnace combustion. However, radiation from pipes, hot walls, etc., is
calculable on the assumption of radiator and receiver of infinite expanse.'
Factors of emissivity are then ascribed to the radiating surface, these really
being for combined wall and ambient atmospheric emissivity. The re-radiating
temperature of the atmosphere should be considered as that outside the layer
next to the wall wherein heat is carried away by convective currents'
Examplc 1: The emissivity of bare brickwork is sometimes quoted as 0.93. The
heat radiatcd from a brick $all at g3'3'c surface temperature to surrounding ,ir at
20.4'c will be compirted. Eq 1-6 includes 0 4'8?4 x tra x loi. These are converted to
a Eingle coemcient. 4.874x0.93x10-8 :463'3x l0r1o..
q= 453.3 x 10-10[(93.3 + 2?3f - (29.4 + 27tt l :43?.0 koal per hr-mr
'We
will now consider the radiant heat transmission in boiler fumaces in
some detail. The possible rate of absorption of heat by a square foot of water-
cooled tube surface is so much more if the heat is implanted radiantly than by
convection that boiler designers have undertaken to utilize this mode of transfer
more and more. The heat quantities involved are diagrammed in Fig. 9,13. Fuel

@
lriIliIrill
0h Surfoc.
03

inplt uL
nat
t
a
Los!a!
H
Rldio'n
oos q .9

Frc. 9-13 Ileat Ilorr in the boiler furnace.

' Not true, of course, but s practicll tne,thod for many cases.
RADIATION 288
is combined rvith oxygcn in combustion, with a possible liberation of 0r, the
higher heating value. Somc oI this, however, is unavailable for raising tempera-
ture, and since radiation dcpends on temperature, we elect to work with the net
heating value, Qr,. If any part,.bf this is unrealized as active heat inside the
fumace, it should be deducted from the net heating value in order to determine
Q., lhe sensible heat actuallg auailable. This sensible heatr can leave the
furnace in one of these ways: (1) Direct net radiation lo the boiler,e efrective
radiant heating surface. (2) Absorption by molecules of fumace gas which are
thereby heated lo lhe lurnace aperture temperature, i.e., !,hal average tempera-
ture posscsscd by the products of combustion leaving the fumace region.
\Ye will designate thc fraction of Q" that is radiantly absorbed as O. Then,
of course, the sensible hcat remaining in the products is 8"(1 - g1), based on
the datum of air temperature entcring the furnace.
Thc abovo is summarized in the equation:

Q. : Q, - Q, kcal pcr Lg fucl orJ per g fucl (S-25)

in rvhich Q" : Available sensible heat kcal pcr kg fuel orJ pcr g fucl.

Qr, : Lorver or net heating value, kcal pcr kg orJ pcr g.

Q' : Heat losses, principaliy radiation and convection lrom setting,

incomplete combustion, and combustible in refuse.
Eadiant energy travels in a straight line. Therefore to transmit it to an
object out of sight of the radiator requires a reflector, such as a lurnace wall, to
deflect the rays ro their bbjective.
It is possible to set up controlled laboratory radiation between simple plane
sulfaces and determine therefrom accurate coefficients to incorporate into radia-
tion equations. Howcver, the radiation gf heat lrom furnace gases, consisting
of nonluminous gases, luminous carbon particlcs in flame, ash globules, etc.,
to the walls and tubes of a steam generator in commercial operation at variable
load, is another matter. Here, empirical data gathered and interpreted from
field tests on similar equipment must still be resorted to however great the de-
signer's urge to return to basic laws of heat transfer.
Radiant heat transfer in fumaces is roughly proportional to the difrerence
in the fourth power of the absolute temperatures of the radiating and receiving
surfaces. The water wall surface is approximately st boiler saturation tempera-
ture, whereas the superheater surface varies from this to somewhat above the
temperature of the steam at the superheater outlet. However, the mean radiatilg
temperature of the furnace gases is usually over l2O0.C. The fourth power of
the receiving surface temperature is.thus eeen to be small compared to the
fciurth power of the transmitting surface temperature; consequently the latter
eontrols the transmittance, and boiler tube temperature does not need to be con-
sidered a variable to be accounted for.
Manufacturers must still rely on methods which are empirical, although
founded on the known laws of radiant heat transmission. There have been some
empirical formulae covering the case of furnace ratiation, oI which the most
widely quoted is the Orrok-Hudson formula:
ru ENERGY FLOW IN TEE STEAM POWER PI,ANT
o: __l_-__ (e_g)
-r + _G6_
. u^{C.

where O : Fraction of the svsilable hest in tho fumarce wh.ich is tranmitted

by radiation. The available heot is to be taken as the sensible
heat actually liberated.
u. = kg of air used'per kg coal.
C. : kg of coal per mr ol equiodant ra.diant surface per hr. This con-
templ&tes the use of the usual bituminous steaming coals. For
other fuels, replace le,6o wirh lcl/55 where C.' is the Lg
contbustiblc per mt per hr.
The chief objection to formulae of this nature is lhat, although they ma^y fit
many c&ses of heat transfer well, there are other cases where the conditions of
heat transfcr are different, and the results computed by formulae become cr-
roncous. For this reason manufacturers of equipment in which radiation iS im-
portant tend to rely mainly on their background of prior knowledge olrtained
through fi.cld tests and manufacturing expcrience. These data may be wulted
into curvcs expressing the effect of the variables involved, and the curves inter-
polated or extrapolated to fit the individual case of each new design. Naturally
such data are mainly of a cohfidential nature, as they become the individual
firm's "stock in trade." Fig. 10-13 is exemplary of this type of informatron.

N$t>+Wffi, a b
" rod-*. a*r)
FIc. 9-14 Arrangement of radiant hert absorbing surfaces.

The design of pulverized coal furnaces endeavors to provide sufficient receiv-

ing surface to absorb enough of the sensible heat }iberated from the coal to cool
thc products ol combustion to a temperature at which the ash will not cause
slagging difficulties. Radiation from small globules of ash may caus,, them to
have a lrozen crust while preserving a molten center. Thus it is possible for ash
to hehave like dry ash even though the exit lurnace gas temperature exceeds the
ash {usion temper&ture. Ordinarily, conservative design woirld noi rely on
this, but would provide sufrcient surface to reduce the gas temperature safely
below fusion temperature; however, in large units it is difficult to provide suf-
ficient water wall surface to freeze the ash completely and the velocity of
furnace gases at the boiler aperture must be kept sufrciently low to minimize
"squashing" of ash globules as they collide with boiler tubes.
"Efiectiue" Surface. Figs. 9-14 and 10-12 show some of the arrangements in
which radiant heat alrsorbing surface is disposed. These illustrate another of
the difficulties which beset the designer following & rational or semirational lonn
RADIATION 285
of radi&tion snalysis. Projected radlant surface is one thing; actual radiant
energy receiving surface may be quite a different area. For example, suppose
the tubes of case (a) Figure 9-14 to be separated and spaced tmmon centers-
The projecteil ol.eas would then be the same, but it is obvious th-at the exposurt
of eome of the rear circumference of the tube to reradiation from the wall Pill
increase the efrective radiant surface. To quantize this action, let 6 be a factor
correcting projected tube area Lo equiualmt absorbing Burfsce. Then
,{' : s6-4, (*.n)
where .4, : Dquiualont rodiant hnaling surfwe.
.{r : Heating surface projected on the plane of the furnace envelope.
o: Slaggrng Isctor.I for clean tubes, 0.0 for tubes in normally satia.
fsctory operating condition.
0: Areg factor previously defined. For arrangementB in Fig. 9-14:
(a) r/2
(a)' with tubes spaced 11, where \ ) di */2, inueased up to 50lo.
(b) */2 ! 6t.
(c) between 0.5r and 0.7r.
(d) 2 up (no general &greement olr extent of radiant penetr&tion). Thi6
case is of relatively srnall coucern to large steam generator design
because of the use of thinner tube banks and the relatively small
aperture which minimizes the tube bank area permitted to "see"
the fuEace.
The nomenclature of furnace radiation just given cannot be said to be iri
common use. Thete has not evolved as yet a widely accepted'single linc of ap-
proach to this problem. For example, the literature contains the lollowing terms
associated with redisnt heating surface.
,4p= Projected area in the plane of the water wall tubes.
BS = Boundary surface of the furnace interior in the plane of the water
wall tubes, or roughly the refractory wall area.
=
.o.B8 Equivalent rodiant surface (/..).
DPRS = Efrective projected radiant surface. This is the BS multiplied by
an "efrectiveness" dependent on tube arrangement.
See Fig. 9-15 for the effectiveness of three tube arrangements.
PC = "Fraction cold." This is {r,zBS.
The object of these various approaches to furnace radiation is the seme-
to relate furnace aperture temperature to water wall surlace and conditions of
combugtion. The emplrical Eq 9-26 does this directly, but could not be con-
sidered. as vglid as other more modern approaches that bring current operating
data to bear on the relation between fumgce temperature and heating surface.
llooe of these date rpill be presented in the next chapter in an analysis of fur'-
Dace rrater walls; however, it will be found that modified radiant heating
surfacee, available heat quantities, etc., as here presented, will also be required.
286 ENERGY FLOW IN THE STEAM POWER PLANT
t6
qi N
\ -rtl -l
!lig_ " I \ Il-T-[
I
ll e
,( \= >.
I

ErE"
5HT?o
883
Ier
{
t(. +ttt v -T_
<) I (
I
HaE6c
EHE tl F
$ill," fT-T] L]
EE5
+T ,lll \ ilx
:Es-
'=i "
Er
+t
rrnT-
-rnItT] tl
\
<\) g
!
llttltt
+
t.0 zo 3l) t! 50 60 70
iAIO OFIUSE SAAq G TO D T8IER
Frs. 9-15 "Effectiveness" factors of bere-tube water waus. (Courtesy Combustion
En4ineein4 - Supe rheater, I nc.\

9-13 Apportionment of Heating Surface. The heat absorption in a

steam-generating unit takes place not only in the boiler, including water walls
and superheater, but also in the economizcr and air preheater i{ t}fey are pro-
vided. A combination of boiler and economizer, or oI boiler, economizer, and air
preheater may, under certain conditions, be more economical for the same heat
absorption than a boiler alone. The fraction of the total heating surface to be
assigned to boiler, economizer, or air preheater should be such as to result in
lowest first cost per unit output. An economic study would naturally include
such factors as,coefficients of heat transfer and annual costs of the sq merre incre-
ments of boiler, economizer, or air heater surface. The temperatures of the flue
gas are indicative of the hea't-absorbing capacity. The following equations have
been developed { for finding the gas temperatures leading to the most econom-
ical apportionment of heating surface.
Let subscripts b, e, and o refer to boiler, economizer, or air heater.

C: Annual charges per sq melrc, ;noenmt of gurface.

U - Eest transfer coefficient for incremental surface kcal per hr-mt-dcg C .

Cr : Annual money saving per kcal of heat recovered per hr.

t Lian Eelaoder, "Dividing Eeating Surlace Amoog Boiler, Economizer, and Air
Eeater," Pouer, M&rch 4, lgil0.
PROBLEMS 81
- Velue of a fuel kcal X hr of eervice ner vr (F28)
Efficiency of steam-generatirig unit
l' : Gas temperatures.
I : Watcr or air temperatures.
i" = Saturation temperature of the steam.
Ofher symbols as used previowly.
To determine the economical temperature of the outgoing gas from the
economizer or air heater when the inlet gas temperature and the inlet water or
air t€mperature are fixed; that is: Given t1, t!, to find l'o.
C"@/(U"@C) : (t'" - t)(t'r - t") /(t! t - t) (s29)
To determine the economical boiler-outlet gas tempersture for a boiler-
economizer, or boiler-air heater combinatron when the temperature of gases out
of the air heater or economizer and the entering air or water temperature- arr
fixed;that is: Given t'., tr, to find ti.
C.6tkb/ (U.6)Ci : U'1- t")/(t'i - t") (940)
To determine the economical temperatures out of boiler and economizet for
a boiler-economizer-air heater combina,tion when the tempersture of gases out
of the air heater and the inlet air and water tempelature are fixed; that is:
Given t'"", t!., ,r", to find t'rc and, t'u.

c_,!l_. _(b - ti
+t""- t". (g31)
C.U" t';. - t* ' t'i^ - ti"
The foregoing equations, together with 9-15 and 9-16, can be used to set up
I series of simultaneous equations which can then be solved for the vdues of the
most economical temperatures. The solution of the simultaneous equstions will
be simple for the first two cases, but will require more ext€neive labor for the
laet.

PROBLEMS
I. Devise a diagram to show rougNy, but quantitatively, tho rate of flow oI
energy in a powcr system (Fig. 1-11) per kw being used by a customer. At apprgpri&te
points oD the diagram indicate the ma,gnitude of each of the foll,owiDg: (a) generator
output; (b) torque at turbine coppliug at 1800 rpm; (c) wast€ heat disnharged
through condenser; (d) weight of coal (bituminous) used per mitr. Daia,: steam
generator thermal efrcieD,cy, 75/a; auxiliary steam, ,y'o ol that gpDer&ted; thermal
efrciency ol vapor cycle, 35%', generator efliciency, 95/6 ; electrical auxili zies we 2/o;
power line eficiency, 93/6.
2: A deuteron is an atomic particle composed of a neutron aud a proton held
together by nuclear binding energy. On the &tomic mass scale the deuterou oass
is 2.0146. Find the binding energy in Mev per deuteroa.
3. Assume that all the energy released in the fission of U46 in 26 g ol aormal
uranium is captured for use. Eow many kr hr should be obtained 25 g of aormal
uranium ?
288 ENERGY FLOW IN THE STEAM POWER PLANT
,+.
A Eee Et€aB po\f,er platrt of 30,m0 kw capacity in one uuit is being considercd.
Aasumiug that the pipe friction loss between boiler drum and turbiue would not exceed
l/o ol the throttle gauge pressure, predict the probable boiler design pressure a.nd
tte degree of superbest to be used.
5. Bolts i! a high-temperature pipe flange which had beguD to lea.k sfter five
y€srE' conti[uou8 service were removed and the length cornpared with installatiotr
records. Stresssd lengths th&t were iDEtalled &t l!0.83mrtr were foundto b€l4o.comBlong.
Detemine whether this is within ihe creep limrt meutioned in text.
6. A flat partition is made in two layers, X and P in cloee
cotrtsct (Fig. 9.6P). Thermocouple measurements are ta,ken
at stations as shown. Material I is known to have k =7.2
kool per hx-rr-deg C Find: (a) /t,; (b) coDtsct re-
sistance m hr-mr-doc C p6r kcsl.
7, A stcsm pipo 2l9.OB mm OD is covered vith 50.8 mm of
Dst€rial fo! *hioh Ic : 3.4?, ovol which js 63.6 mm of
tb. G@ rEat rirl sith & - 2.54. both &'s ia kcal por hr- ml-dog C.
Ootsido .udao6 ol pip6 et 467rc i of covoriDg, 70"C, Lengthof pipo, 4.72 m. Eow muoh
h6.t i. ldt through ia p€r hr f
t. Given Fourier's Law aa qdr = -&.4dd; derive Eq 9-7.
9. A thin, flai loetal wall is bathed with water on one side, air on the other. It is
found thBt 33oo kc6l ate transferred to the water in forced convectiol per mr per
lrr. Mean temperature difrerence, 2?.8'C. The water film conductaDce is estim8ted &t
,,t6!8 kcal lxr hr-mr-deg c M&ke au estimate of the air film conductange.
' lO. Write an equation for q transrnitted by lorced convection under
a mtd of , for the case sbown in Fig. 9-10P.
11. Air at &n a,verage stream temperature of 82"c is flowiDg at
70, E/rnin in a rectangular duct 38 cru x 76 om. Estim&i,€ the coDductaltc€
od tbeair film.
12. Diagram a case of heat ttimsfer from condensing steam to
water flowitrg in a tube. Derive Eq 9-12 for this case, showing all rla &toP
necessary steps.
13. tr'ild the mea,n tenperature difrerence in a stesm coldenser where the absolute
prtssure is o.l2 kg/cE and the condelsitrg w8t€r t€luilal t€mperrturcs sr€ lE.3ec etrd
8l.t.c,
t,L In a two-fluid heatexchanger, opetatitrg couDterflow, otre fluid rises in tempers-
ture fircD 82rC to rrrt; while the other changes from 321rc to 218rc DiagmJ!
the flow8. Calculste the true and aritbmetical mean temperaturt difereuces.
15. Repeat Prob. 14, except make the case one of parallel flow.
16. A lubricating oil cooler of the shell-ard-tube iype has the fotlowing flo*
t€operatures: oil ia, 86'c i out, $.6rc. Water in, t5,8"c; out, 47.8rc. AIIange'
E€nt, counterflow. I'iud the meaa temlera,ture difrerence.
17. The rste ol water discbarge frorr a 5.4 mm copper slloy tube3.o6m lotr8 arrrcrmd-
ed by Etesm sss 01 kg per min. Water terminal temperetures, 18.3"c ald 28.s'C. St€aJ!.
teDlrera,ture, 104.4'c. What coefficient of conductance was developed ?
18. With the use of Fig. 9-10, determine the required surface for & condens€r iI
{3,000 kg steam per hr are io be condeused at 50.8 mm llg sbs, usiDg vet€r si gl.toc
wbioh Eill bo hast€d to 4.4" less tbar st€sla temPelatur€. Stoam quality, 0.8?5 i reot r
vGloaity, 2.44 m/s€c ; lg.l rDm l.r4 lnm Il(untr tubes.
l9.-Determine the over-all U of a condereer from individual predictions of U,, U,
U!, snd U.. Data: 2t,, m6 x r.,i mm tubea; 8.13 b/r€o iBtor ?"C mtdi
tteio alurgs rrter t€mpentun. "tlocity;
PBOBLEMS 280
20. Calculate the frlm coefrcient of stea.m flowing throwh rl8.lDm x t,oz orm tubta
st 10.6{ Lg/ca! gs 23,-'C, st the rst€ of 1290 m,/Efn.
21. Determitre, trith Eq 9-10, the 6lm coefrcient of aooductance ol water in a
!O.8 mn ; 3.18 ED steel tube. Aversge watcr tempersture,llfo; velocity, t.6, tb/ro.
CoEpsr€ nsult wilh a coefrcient csleuloted from Eq 9-20.
22. An assumption of sto"c was made in Ex 2, Sec 9-11. Using the results
computed in thst example, what would the tube temp€rature actually have been?'fVbat
IrorceDt&ge correction does this lead to in 12 and i2 ?
23. Make au mtimate of the over-all conductance, gas to water, of surface con-
vootloo through s 60.E mm X 3.05 tnm ste€l tubo baving an itrt6rior t+stor f,os &t O.8l
Ela.o, with wator\ootorilg et 00"C, loaving d l8l"Croas flo* is tra,Dsvelso st d : 24,4t0
Lg E'sr hr-mt snd ba3 t€rDperstut! oha.rg6 30coc b 2Z{.C. Gss is to b6 considered s6
hoving rome thenual pmporti€. as air.
2{. Employ Eq 9-19 to predicl q/A" of a oondenser heat transfer surface where the
tub-es pro 2r.2 mt! x I.24 IInn ooppor slloy. t,, g2.2.Ci tt, 16.7"C to, 27.A"C. Water velocity,
l.8S rr/.60, Us, 0766 koal f'€I mi.hr-deg C.
25, Find the EIdS and EP.&S of radiant sudaces for tubes on a {urnace wall in
srraDgemeDt (a), Fig. 9-14. There are 20 tubes 88.0 mm dis X 3.05 E long. A8sume a
elag iactor of 0.92.
26. Find the ERS ol a furaace envelope consisting of 3 walls arranged as in Fig.
9-15 (3), one wall refractory, floor refractory, aid roof a tube bank. BS area of walls,
LO.7 Et bach; of floor and roof, t.4 m, each.6 i 0.55r' lor walls; 1.5tr for tube baat.
s = 0.90; D = 78.2 mm; , =178 mm.
27. Solve Ex 9-26, finding EPRS instead of EES.
28, I'ind the "fractior cold" of the furnace of Prob. 9-26.
29. With the Orrok equation, find temperature of gases at furnace exit for a case
of combustion wh€re bituminous coal of Qr = 6255 kcal/kg ie burned on 15:'l
A : F ratio. Air temperature, 26 .1.c ; C fl s.s kgfin EES, Allow for combustionlheot tosses
of koal p€r kg oal. c, of gases
= 0rO kosl por k8-deg C.
30. A steam generator is equipped with air preheaimg auxiliary heating surface.
'00
Fiud the most ecooomical temperature to which to cool the gas leaving preheater,
uring the fotlowing data: ti,, 371'Ci; ,r, 2t.toc Coal, Sl.eZ per krnno ; 0n 7226 kcsl;
C., ts.r! U", tJ Operatior 6000 hr per yr. z (Eq 9-16) = 0.70; over-all t'herual
effioiency, approxime \ely &%.
 CHAPTER IO

STEAM GENERATORS

l0-1 Components. The modern sterm generator is an integrated assembly

ol several essential components. Its function is to convert water into steam at a
predetermined pressure and temperature. This is a physical change of state,
accomplished by transferring heat, prcCuced by combustion of a fuel, into the
water. Commonly it is a constant pressure process. The steam generator is a
pressure vessel into which liquid water is pumped at the operating pressure.'
After the heat has vaporized the liquid, the resulting steam is thon ready either
for delivery to the user or for further heating in a superheater. Heat transfer
and the containment of a fluid pressure are the chief functions of a steam gen-
erator.
A complete unit consists of (1) pressure parts; (2) enclosure, or setting; (3)
combustion equipment;. (4) auxiliaries. It is an unusual purchaser who can, by
examination, determine whether a builder's design is adequate. Since "fired
pressure vessels" are an explosive hazard if insufficiently strong, reliance is
universally placed on requiring the manufacturer to conform with safe conetruc-
tion practices as set forth in some authoritative set of rules. The ASME Con-
etruction Code for Power Boilers is the accepted standard in the United States.
Buyers of boilers automatically obtain the benefit of years of specialized experi-
ence when they insist that their new boiler bear the ASME stamp of conformity.
The pressure parts are (1) the boiler heating surface with attached drums or
shelli for storage of water and steam and (2) the superheater surface, which is -
simply more heating surface through which the steam must pass after leaving
the boiler if a final suporheated state is desired. In reheating cycle plaots an
edditional superheating surface is provided but with this difference-the re-
hester carries steam at much lower pressure than the superheatEr.
The heating surface itself is mainly in the form of seamless steel tubes for
which etandard sizee most frequently seen are between 50.tt mm x 10l.6mE,
outtids dir'leter, vsrying byl2.7 mm iacrtments
Theee tubes are manufactured in standard wall thicknesees, varying by 0. $
in. increments to r-67 mm, then by038 mm. increments to4.57 mm., and by
Iarger increments above that. The maximum allowable .working pressure is
r Subd€quertly the r€ader will see how this pressure is moiutai.aed Iry combtution cgtw
Lto''
zso
COMPONENTS 2SI
governed by a combination of diameter and thickness, expr€ssd in formulae
of the boiler construction code.
Dmms are cylinders with spherical ends, of welded Bteel plate construetion,
except ln designs for very high pressur€s where required wall thickness exceeds
the practical limit of welded construction and forgings are used.
The rate st which heat can be transferred through heating surfacee varies
gretly in praetice, for it is Bfrected by the many lactom bentioned in Chapter
9. The comparative ratee at which surfaces located in difierent parts of a steam
generator can be instrumental in trsnsferring heat enerry from gas to water arc
illuettat€d in fig. 10-[. Thig rhowe a pulverized coal-ffred unit with water-
cooled furnace, superheater, and air preheater.

B 3at
3t
E cet
t sat
t0t50 t

rtoc

tl q

)
t
I

tr\o. 10-1 Typical conditions of temperature eDd heat transfer, ioal per sgm.hr.

The pressure parts are pioperly connected to produce sope desired pattem
of flow of thq water, then provided with euitable inlets, outlets, and,,trim.,,The
weight must be supported by an adequate steel structure. A lumace region for
the combustion of fuel and bumers or stokers to produce that combustion are
essential componente. The whole unit is eurrounded and enclosed lry a eetting.
This is a wall, or casing, suitably shaped, to enclose and direct the flow of com-
bustion gases, to snpport other components (but usually not the pressure parte),
and. to insulate against flow of heat from the interior to the boiler room atmos-
phere. The whole assembly is a steam generator. Although it is often refertd
to as a "boiler," actually only the pressure parts wherein vaporization oocurs
should be so designated.
M2 S|EAM GENERATORS
10-2 Design Criteria. A survey of steam generators may be quite confus-
ing to the uniniliated because of the considerablc variations in shape, size,-and
eriengement of the eBsential components present in this very competitive field.
A purchaser may select his unit from many difrerent designs. Except for
space iequirements, r4ost of them could fit a new installation equally well. The
purchaser of a water-tube boiler is faced with the necessity of choosing between
itraight tube or bent tube, single or multiple drum, header or headerless types.
Favoiable and unfavorable points may be advanced for each of these and in
the final analysis ihe type is adopted which seems to prornise the most advan-
tageous features for the individual installation and, at the same time, provide
for meeting the unfavorable characteristics which will also be present.
The principal objectives for the design oI central station ste&m generators
are set forth as the following desirable characteristics:

1. Iligh efficiency replesented by transfer of the required heat with minimum

loeses. T[is involves-the use of auxiliary heat transler surfaces, well-insulated casings,
efrective baffiing, etc.
2. Iligh avaiiability for service. The tendency to build steam generators of suficient
capacity per unit to serve a turbine generator, unaided by other boilers, emphasizes
the need- for inbuilt ability to remain "on the line" continuously. Ability of the
materials, and especially the joints, to stand the high temperatute service reflects on
this, Also, the digree to which the design was successful in preventing slagging of
tubes by molten aih and the performance of the ash removal system are critical to
availabiiity. Furthermore, the availability of the boiler auxiliaries must be equal to
that of the boiler itself.
3. Ability to deliver clean steam. See stearn puri,fiers, Sec 10-10.
4. Uniformity of superheat, indicated by ability to deliver superheated steant at
ihe specified temperature at lull load, with superheat controlled withiu uarrow Iimits
over a specified Ioad range. Superheat is treated in Sec 10-9.
5, Abitity to accommodate variations in rate of steaming without ulsteadines in
steam pressure, surging <if water levels, developmetrt of localized overheating and other
tratrsient phenomena.

In boiler selection , thermal, hydraulic, and structural factors are to be con-

sidered and duly weighed. Heat transJer is the primary purpose of the boiler'
The theory of heat transfer in boilers has been considered in the preceding chap-
ter. Fig. 10-1 has shown typical disposition of the heating surface of a large
steam generating unit, including data on the temperatures to be found in euch
sn installation. Heat transfer for simple boilers cannot be efrected at such high
rates as lor boilers with auxiliary surface since the average temperature dif-
fcrence, gas to water, may be left higher when there is auxiliary surface to
conserv-e the heat in +,he ga,s leavine the boiler. The higher temperature difrer-

ence permits the use of a smaller boiler to accomplish the required steaming'
Alother way to increase the rate of steaming p€r lqulr' mctrc isto increese
the speed of gas flow past the tubes at the cost of increased draft loes'
Piydcaliactors *iso have some bearing on the selection -of -boiler type and
tletrilsl Eead room and floor space requirements must be fulfilled, especislly
where the equipment eelected is a replacement of obsolete, inadeqlate, or wom-
out boilerg. bonversely, when floor space is at a premium, the boiler designer is
DESIGN CRITERIA 253
able to eupply sny required capscity by extending the boiler and its auxiliary
surfsces vertically.
Where neither head room nor floor space is limited, draft may be an im-
portant factor in eelection of boiler type. In cases where a boiler serviced by
natural draft is to be replaced by a new one, the draft resistance of the new
steam generating unit must be kept carefully within limits if it is intended that
the unit shall continue to operate on natural draft.
The tendency of large boiler design toward use of higher pressures, wster
walls, ash screens, and radiant heat transfer sccentuates the need for a good
hydraulic design. The hyd,raulic circuit of a boiler consists of the path of water
flqw induced by the difrerence between heads of waier and water-sieam mixture.
Steaming tubes and their risers are filled with a mixture of water and steam
which, having a lower density than w&ter alone, is displaced in the direction of
flow by an equal head of water. The higher the steam pressure, the denser the
steam becomes, and the less the difrerence between the density of the steam-
water mixture and the water alone. Consequently, circulation is more difficult to
achieve in high-pres'sure thirn in low-pressure boilers, and it is in the very-high-
pressure boilers that pump circulation has been occasionally employed. Another
factor created by high steam pressure is the incres,sed rate of steaming caused by
decrease of the latent heat. Water must, therefore, be supplied more rapidly to
the tubes, and steam must have easy clearance from the tubes to the steam
drum.
High rates of heat trarsfer require carefully designed hydraulic circuits in
order that the flov wili be ample to prevent premature conversion of all water
in the tube into steam with likelihood of a burnout due to over heating. Also,
the use ol water walls and complicated tube arrangements, sometimes seen in
multiple-drum, lient-tube boilers, makes the hydraulic circuits less obvious and
more difficult to nredict.
Considerable rnterest has been displayed in controlled ciranlation boilers in
the field of the high-capacity high-pressure boiler. Several such boilers are in
operation. This is not the once-through, forced circulation principle in which
flow must be produced by the feed pump fo{cing water through the heating
circuits at a velocity proportional to load. Rather circulation is produced by a
seps,rate pump running at constant speed. Only part of the water pumped ir
evaporated, the remainder is recirculated. The circulation ritio is designed to be
less than for natural circulation boilers. Orifices aie employed to regulate rate
of water flow in difrerent sections of the heating surface. Small-diameter tubes
( 38' I mm
+ ) are practical to use.Circulation is produced by one or more pumps in
parallel, with a spare in reserve. The circulation in high-pressure boileis, where
steam density approaches water density is made smoother and more reliable by
the substitution of controlled for natural circulation.
In spite of the wide variations in designs there are certain requirementa
fundamental to all boilers. The plant designer may turn to these for guidance in
investigating the boileri ofrered for his particular installation, for such require-
ments should be met by any design deserving consideration.
First, there are the conditions governing behavior of the water within the
boiler, Most important, of these is good watnr ctratlati.on, The process of evolu-
,I|1 STEAM GENERATOBS
tion ia boiler development has eliminated types with faulty water cireulation;
yet "tube stawation" is a condition not rmknom in the upper tubea of rome of
ihe most modem, high-capacity boilers. The iliaeqageoufi azr/oce, where the
steam breqLe through the aurface ol water in the drum, should be unr€strict€d'
Priming may be due to faulty design ia this repect
Provision of suitable storage space lor eteam within the boiler is a rcquire'
meat indirectly connect€d with the water conditione. The volume ol etaqrn
storcge should be equal to the demands ol the load serv€d. Engine loads with
their pulsating cutofr will require more Eteam space than turbines to which the
8ame amount of gteam is supplied. Ineufrcient storage spsce has an advetso
efiect on the eteadineas of stesm pressure under variable load.
Another point to which attertion ehould be givea is the bcfling. The path
of the gases through the boiler should be so bafred thst they paes the tubee e
suficient number of times to pue up their heot to the reqttreil ilegtea. Tbts
degree is less when auxiliary heat transfer surfac€a are provided. Praotice has
detcrmined the best bafre arrangement for most stsodard boilers under otdinary
firing conditioru.
Certain features of s boiler should be iavestigat€d with rcspect to the pmsi-
bility of undetermited thermal etrersoe being set up.. Feedwater should dis-
charge into the boiler ae near.the saturetion tempereture as possible. Cold
at
water discharged against the boiler shell tets up contraotior etresses. Joints and
seams should be well protected from the direet sction of flames or hot gaer The
setting of burners should never be made il
auch a woy that the flames may play
directly upon tube surfsces.
To provide for intelligent and eafe operation of the boiler, the engineer
should eee to it that a full complement of leads, gauges, and safety devicee io
provided. Thes€ include blow-ofi, steam lesd, feedwater lead, water gauge
pressure B&uge, superheated steam tbermometer, safety valves and fueible plugr.
the setting of a boiler should provide {or the introduction of hand or meehanical
soot-blowing devicee.
Last, but not leaet, is the necessity of having st aicesstble boiler. This pro-
vision is a tequirement of all boilere which aro expected to be insured so that the
insuring company's inspectors may determine from time to time the state of the
risk. Also accessibility should be provided for maintenance, inspection, and
repair by the regular operating force of the plant. The design should conform to
tfe eSMn goilir ConJruction Oode, but within the limits of the Code there ig
much latitude allowed the designer,
The purchaser ol a steam generator naturally wante his new equipment to
be able to deliver the aeceseary quantity of steam, but will not want to invest in
unneeessary surplus capacity; hence, means for describing the production
capacity are needed. Steam generators are now being rated by the lg pcr hr of
actual steam generating capacity and by ASME units' of evaporation, at the
same time epecifying operating pressures and temperatures.
Another capacity unit of long standing but dwindling ueage is the borier
horsepower. This was defined by the technical eommittee at the Philadelphia
Centennial Exposition in 1E76. At thst time the average engine would operate

* The udt is kB, a thoueaad Btu heet tratrder fooDv6rtod ln Losl oE Joula).
 DESION CRXTERIA 2E
oal!.{ Lgsteam per hp Fr hr. Bcoaulo it wec thougbt decir.ble to havs a
"boiler horsepowel"gupply the steam for an eagine honepower, ebortttl La
par hr of eteam-raieing capacity was s€lected as the udt oi foitei honeporer.
Ou ocoount of the variety of eteao and feedwater conditions met itr practioe, r
bypothetical standard of 15.{,llgsteao per hr generated dry and eJturated at
l@\C fmm feedwst€r at the eame temperature was taken for the purpoee of
deffning a developed boiler horrepower. This operating condition ie nor fa,roil-
iarly referred to as "from aad atlfifC,, The heat traasler represented byti.,*i
kg team gmerated from and att0drC ir f 5.+t x t0ox2llt7:0x!.3SSi per hr,
x lO La{hr.. lVhea tb rctuel hcat tlorfcr pcr h, in r boilcr L dividcd bry
tlliT.O thc quoticot lt r.id to bc thc -Equiirat"nt Erroorrt'rot,' itr urd
pcr rg .tcan g€ncr.red,
diviH by 2252.0.
At the timr of defining the italdard boiler horsepower, the
tg itcao pcr hr pcr q Ec!rc.
overage rate of evaporation in boilerg was l,t 63
9"ppglg thir with thcrvcrage lrraa tetc o[ Gngina it thieoc, it rrer
jrdgrd thnt 0.91 rd of hcetiqg rrrfecc would bc ncOca o gcacr*c rtcem &r
ra coginc lrrrcporcr.Co$qucntly rhir turacc ( I . I d frj firc rubc boilcn) was
adopted ss a rsting for "boiler horsepower.,, The 10:80 ratio of heating suiface
to stoam rate has long been obsolete becauee steam rstes have been reduced to
less,than {5 tg pcr lop h, while cvapcatim retct par q E cG hry! douhlcdaud
tripled. Beeause the normal developed horsepowei began frequenfly to exceed
the rated horsepower, the term ,,per cent of rating,, came into use. ihe modem
high-capacity boilers mey operate at as much as 4OO/o raling, and 200y'o is
common in numerous inetallations. Unlike ratings in other fields, this is not
construed ag an owrloed on the boiler, but rsther is the nonnsl continuolts loBd-
csrrying capacity.
Boiler horsepower and per cent rating are terms whieh have been abandoned
in large steam generator nomsnclature. As water wall, economizer,.and soper-.
heater surfaces increasiogly account lor total heating surface these terms-be-
come meaningless. However, in the field wherc the unit is a steam boiler of
standardized design this nomenclature is etill used. In some small boiler fields
moxtmum developable boiler horsepower is a standard method of rating.
Low-preseure boilere intended for heating use are frequently rat€d in tenne
of the number of squareoarcofequivalent direct radiation (irDR) they will
supply.

-
Examplc l: A boiler with ioor heating eurfaoo yrs found to evsIDrsto tt0 lg
o(ltr,F h..0 ls.o Ll/oot rD and 0,98 dr}less Iactor. The leedwater was at dl.oio.
Tbe variour capecity expressions previously mentioned ldll be detereiued. The 8te&m
aBis-6rr-p@d!to.a cit.h lpf/.trr6? x llt J/Lg I beuce increase of e[thalpy p-roduced
.by the boiler w.as (167- t) l(m ffrfl fO f pcr g cr.lqrt d.
'rtt - l0l"0- b Lft
Rated boiler hp = r1or00r
Developed boiler hp = f,l)xltox t0!6tElx lO.
Petc€ot rsting = rl.!rt6&e
- It.6 b bp.
- fro%.
ASME evaporation units = tDr3a8!x t()| - giBTx lO. Jlhr,

I ActuallY, ttixlor Lcl po br hp-

!06 STEAM GENERATORS
Fsctor of evspor&tion ll8lxloa/rrfixlor: Itl.
E4uivaleut evaporation = E?!o x l.l - !l{}08 t3 Pot bt' f.o|o rod .t lqrc.
The ptant operator should be interested ia lhe efi,ctencg with which stesm
generating equipment performs its duty, for fuel costs are minimum when the
ifr"i"rr"y of this equipment is maximum. There csn be a great range of
efrciency. Many plants can be found which day after day get no more than
fi/o ol lhe potential heat of the fuel into steam whereas othere operate con-
si*ently at bettet lhan 75/o. Steam generator thermal efficiency is usually,
though incorrectly, called "boiler efrciency."
Eu "boiler efrciencu" is rneant the meaane of ability of a boihr m steam
geneiator to trinsler tLe heat giaen it bg the lumace to the uiater anil *team.
But, boiler and combustion equipment are so much a unit that "bdler and
lunnce eficicncg" is more important than boiler efficiency. To most persons in
this field the term "boiler efficiency" cortr,ohes ouer-all thermal efi.ciencg,lhal
is, the percentage oi the higher heating value of the coal which will be in the
steam. Efficiency can slso be designated by Lg er-aporation per Lg coal fired.
The evaporation may be based either on actuol evaporation or on equivalent
evspor&tion "from and at t00'C'l
Example 2: Three methodg of expressiag Eteam generator eftciency will be illue-
trated using, in addition to the data of Ex 1, the hourly coal consumption oI that
boiter. This-is taken to haye been {!l Lg of coal of 28493'6 k J por Lg higher hesting
value.

over-all thermal emciency : *iffiffi. 'u''X

Actusl specific ev&poBtioE = 8?r0,lll3l - t.0il kg p.t kg ool .

Equivalent specific evaporation : 8'6Ex l't : 0 a0 kg Ft kg coal.

An efficiency such as the 75.10[ computed above implies a 24.9o/o wastc oi
potential heat energy. Later in this chapter we shall show how plant teeting
permits the engineer to break down the total loss into components.
Grate eficiency is a term sometimeg employed to describe the efrectiveness
with which the combustion system prevents unburned carbon sifting from the
combusti<.,n region into the refuge. It may be calculated as follows:

Grate EfficiencY : l-C*Q./Qt (lGl)

in which C."1 : Weight of combustible in refuse, kg per lg coal burned.
0": Heating value of the combustible. It is usually assumed
that the comlustible left in ashes is 6xed carbon, for which
Q" : 3382 x l$Jftg.
1o-3 Boiler Types. Mention has already been made of difrerent ways in
which tubular heating surface may be assembled in boiler units. In order to
cover the main variations as concisely as possible, a classification system is
needed. To begin with, we shall eliminate from our description that large seg-
ment of boiler practice which is connected with the production of low-pressure
heating steam. Cast-iron boilers and other forms eminently suitable, durable,
and economical'for gencrating rtcam at Psasurcs up tol.O5lg/crnr gacorutitute I
BOILEB TYPES m7
class of boilen which may well be omitted fron our consideration, for the nature
of thie book implies "porer" boilers, i.e., thoee types which can safely stand
high pressures-7 lglco! ga upnrud.
In the pressure boiler field a primary classification would be according to
contents of the tubular heating gurface-water or gas. The result ia a grouping
into fire-tube and water-tube boilern
Fire-tube boilers are those in which the products of combustion pass through
the tubes and the water lies around the outside of them. This requires that the
tubes be surrounded by a sft.ell so as to confine the water and contain the pres-
sure. The shell thus becomes a support for the heating surface and sometimes for
the combustion equipment. If the required capacity is not above that for which
this principle is practical, the fire-tube boiler has advantages of compactness,
unit construction, portability, and inexpensiveness that are continuing it in use
in spite of certain disadvantages. In most fire-tube boiler construction a nest of
tubes is built into a shell. The tubes are straight and psrallel to each other, and
to the axis of the shell. Yariations are: (1) horizontal or vertical axes; (2) ex-
ternal or internal {urnaces; (3) Iully cylindrical or partially cylindrical shells.
For low design pressure, Bome shells are built as a combination oi cylin-
drical and oval sections, the latter having to be internally stayed to hold their
shape. The building in of a fumace section may also require a variation from
the cylindrical, and again internal staybolts are always much in evidence.
Fire-tube boilers have a relatively large ratio of water content to steaming
capacity; hence fluctuations of steam demand cause only little unsteadiness of
steam pressure or water level. Simple automatic combustion control systems
may be employed, or if the control is manusl the supervision does not have to
be so close and continuous as with water-tube boilers, which can boil dry during
a few minutes of inattention if under manual operation.
Water-tube boilers, which congist of tubes and drums, may be classified as
straight ot bent fitbe.
Straight tube boilers have a parallel group of straight equal-length tubes,
arranged in a uniform pattern and joined at either end to lleoders. These
headers in turn are joined to one or more horizontal drums. According to their
construction, headers may be classified as boc or sectional lypes. Their chief
characteristics are:
Box header. Least expensivel must be intemally stayed against the fluid
pressure; header surface must be perpendicular to tube axis, hence cannot be
vertical, since tubes must be inclined to the horizontal in order to control circu-
lstiru.
Sectional heoder. Suitable for highest pressures; since header surface iB not
a flat shlet, the section can be so cast or forged that although the header is
vertisi'l it has a surface at the tube hole that is normgl to the trrbe axis. Sections
sre made sinuous in order to stagger tubes vertically.
Typical arrangement of the pressure parts of straight tube boilers are ehown
in Ftg. 10-2. The box header is seen to resemble a large, shallow, structural steei
box, whereas the sectional header is a vertical casting or forging of small trans-
verse dimensions, each section accommodating a group of tubes in a vertical
row, the width of the tube benk being determined by the number of rections
stacked side by side.
M8 STEAM GSNM.ATOBS
During aarembly the tuber are inrcrtBd ia bolcs bored to reoeive them, theo
mlled r tightly into the headers. Holee in the headers oppcite the tubes sre
closed by tapered caps driven from the ineide, but sone rowg muat htve ovsl
hand holee so that caps may be paased through them for use.in the circulcr
holes; then the oval ones 8re 6n8lly clos€d with oval capsl havieg tbrbaded
stems so thst they may be eecured from the outside. When cape ole applibd to
the ineide of handholes, the etesm pressure acts to tighteo tl1em. Small initial
leake at tube jointe are generally quickly ended by the formation of s fust
coating.

Ed8. !'{aor

(ho

ll,[
i-
I
l'\*;
.\--
KE
CA
PLATE STEEL

cas
Fro. l0-2 Ee&ting aurface ol Etrsidht tube boil€r8.
Iop. Box headet; longituditrsl drum.
8orron. S€ction8l header, croas dnrm. (Note diagra,ms of header coutmctiou,)
*A procets vhereiu a multiple-roller tool is placed iuide the en{ of tht tubo, .tt r
f,hich, by rihultaaeoua revolviog ald erpeuioa of the rollero agsi$t\he tube relt, the
*all ir alightly plastics,lly deforhed 60 tbst it ic preoed tidtly agaiut the heeder e.tl .Dd
locted iu place. Thir ir superior to weldrag i[ thst rub.equeotly r tube c.a b€ cut .,Dd
removed for replacemeat, leaviag the header uadrmaged. Eowey€r, it dos require thrt
the plaue of the tube hole be uormal to that of the tub€ r,rir.
I The resder *ill see thrt a,n ovel cop of afieieot rirc to oova !,D oyrl hotr tory be
'p.sded through thrt hole.
BOILER TYPES XN
Bent-fuba boiLst ere headerlegs. The drums serve the same function as the
headers. A few, bent-iube boilers are built with one dmm and two or more
cylindricel heeders, but the latter could be eaid to be undersized drums, so that
as o general principle the bent-tube boiler is multiple-drum. The tube holee are
bored directly in the drum wsll8. The drums must be large enough (t.l a dia.
aad up) to have a menho'le in the ends, for the mechanic must get into the drum
to pedorm the tube rolling procedure during assembly. Drilling of the holes
and "rolling in" ol the tubes are mdst practical where the axis of [he tube inter-
eects the dmm surface radially. Hence all rowe of tubes except one muat be
bent. The nature of the bends is best understood by examining drawings of this
type of boiler. The common heating surface arrangements arJ:
Dru.m-and-a-halt. A long upper drum is paralleled by a shorter lower drum
(Fig. 10-8) . The space below the upper and ahead of the lower dmm ie utilized
for a furnace, Water wall r tubes cover the fumace side walls and are connected
to the top drum and to lower headers. A large bank of bent tubes is connected
between the two drums. This is a compact inexpensive design for small.boilers
where a water-cooled fumace is permissible.
Tuo-ilnnn- Two parallel horizontal dmms of equal length but not neces-
sarily equal diameter are set one above the other aud joined by multiple rows
of bent tubes (Fig. 10-7). If the plane of the tube bank is parallel to that of the
drum centerJines, the tubes will have two bends, but m&ny two-drum designe
require three bends per tube.
- Three-iJrum."lwo upper dmms and one lower are arranged so that one upper
drun carries the water level and the other, being lower, really acts as a header.
Circulation tubes connect the upper two drums. A wide latitude of arrangement
ie permitted by the three-dn4n arrangement. Formerly boilers were buiit with
four or more drums, but recent trends are toward one-, two-, or three-drum
designs, even in the largest units.
Purchasing Standarils. Although the number of thermally successful boiler
typet-is almost endless, difierences in construction cost, bulk, repairability, and
the like,-which,are determining factors in competitive selection, have grea y
nsrrowed the field oi choice. Except where unusual conditions p"evuil, the
number of boiler types that ca;, be ofrered in economic competition, based on
broad specifications set forth by the prospective purchaser, is not large. To be
able to write specifications broad enough to invite the competition of several
difrerent boiler types, and at the same time adequately piotect the owner,s
interest, not only on first cost, but in the ,,long pull,,, is a talent not possessed by
the rank and file o{ engineering superintendents or consultants. This is particu-
larly true of the small boiler field where the purchasers are industries, institu-
tions, mercantile establis}ments, and govemment agencies. Here purchase cost
is often the main factor influencing the purchaser. Those unseen inbuilt charac-
teristics which lead to a long, trouble-free life are often difficult to incorporate
into competitive bidding without restiicting the number of competitors. This
poses & particularly dificult problem for public agencies which by law are
required to place their. capital outls,ys on the broadest possible, nonrestrictive
competitive bidding.

r See Sec 10-6.

3OO STEAM GENEBATORS
In the boiler manufacturing business thert is eomc standardisation on smsll-
and medium-capaclty units. Fire-tube designs lend themselvea well to this,
especially the multiple-pass, internal-furnace horizoatal type. This typg haa
rtcently received great impetus through its wide acceptance as a packaged
steam generator for pressuresujE t 7tr LElcolbrnoltburning unit where the
"package" includee everything but fuel oil tanks, making the necessary design
and inJtalation work at the cuetomer's premises pradically nil. A degree re'
moved from this unit are the small water-tube designs, usually dmm-and-a-
half, or two-drum, which are also sometines called packaged units, but witb
le8s c6use, These are elso of standardized designs, and the manufacturer mry
keep a etock o{ the components on haad, btt modifications are possible in eadb
ealC so that difrerent combustion equipment and casing designs nay be ofrered
to guit the owner's desire.
Roughly the limits of the package fire-tube Bteam genelator might be ssid
b bc 17.6 Lg/.ot .!d 9072 Ig $crn Pcr b, wf,ile tb of, the rranArdizott
wrtcr-tubc Eb sl could bc placcd et 17.6 lg/cot and 2:!680 Lg pcr tt
A boiler for a capacity of 'f536O lg per hr would be claesified by manuf,ac-

than 28.l.Lglcmt. Mct trrgctoltccfi,ouUbcbuih for mP than 28.1 Lglcar opcr-

Cofridtoi Enghee.i,r8-Stlperhedter, httr.

lt
I
a
a

:a-Ew

Frc. 1G.3 $picel sttiDg of s! EBJI boiler;.end ebove, tbc boiler itrll.
REPRESENTATIVE FIRE.TUBE BOILERS 3OI
ating pr€lsurc. and thcy would bc tailor.madc tofitthc rurtomcrt necdr.It canbe
sssumed that the customer for such a unit would have retained adequate
technical counsel to guide him in specifying his needs and evaluating the ofrer-
ings. This counsel is equally important for the purchaser of a small boiler, but
unfortunately manjr purchasers of small units prefer to substitute the uncertain
economy of purchasing a standardized unit, without any in-place testing to
determine whether it fulfrlls claims made for it, for the cost of professional ad-
vice.
l0-4 Representative Fire-tube Boilers.'I.hc tnorc irIIx)fiant reprcsenta-
tives of this fickl arc thc holizontal rctuur tubuhr (tIRT) boiler, the horizontal
two-pass or cconomic boiler, thc locoruotivc tv1r, thc rounrl upriglrt typc, and
the horizontal multilrass or rnodificd Scotch rnarinc typc The first and last of
these are chosen lor furthcr rlcscrintion.

ii

i
'-J

I a
Contl\Btion Encinccti^s.Stp( ln atlt, ln
Frc. 10-4 "Ecoaomic" type boiler.

The HRT boiler is characterized by sinrplicity antl cheapness. As thc

furnace is external to thc shcll. ahlost any kinrl ol combustion cquipurent can
be accommodated. The pressure parts consist of a long cyliu(lt.ical slrell l.ith
flat end sireets which are bored to rcceive longitudinal tubes. The boiler itself is
usually suspended from overhead girders and a brick setting built around it as
ehown in Fig. 10-3. The tubes themsclvcs act to stay the cnd sheets, but where
in the upper part therc are no tubes, the manufacturer must add stay braces to
risist deforr.ration of thc cnds by steam pressure. The rvater lcvel is carried high
in the shell, rvell above the highest tube. Thc furnacc gascs florv horizontally in
contact rvith the lower Lalf of the shell, thcn rcvcr.sc rlircction anrl pass baek
througl- the fire tubes, finally lcaving at tlrc flont or firilg cnd, whore a trvlin-
drical metal extension of the shell servcs to guide thcru into the surokcpipc or
N2 STEAM GENERATORS
breeching. He&ting surlece is partly the shell and partly the tubes. A longer
journey through tubes is provided in a modiflcation illuetrated in Fig. 10-4. This
two-pass arrangement is often called an "economio" boiler, probably because
lower final gas temperatures sre achieved iu two-pass boilert compared to
IIRT's ol the same over-all length.
The package oil'burner, fire-tube boiler ie shown ir Fig. 10-5. The shell ie
horizontal and supported by brackets from a Btructural steel base. All other
equipment is mounted on the same base or on the shell itself, so that the entire
unit may be built in the manufasturer's shops. It is also tested and adjustcd
there, including capacity and efrciency runs, and is shipped as a single unit to

fl

?tdcn.l, Ut&.i,, Co

Frc. 10*5 Unit stearn generator. This fire-tube, internal-furnoce type is frequently
called a "Package Boiler."

the customer, who, after preparing a simple foundation, is ready to receiye it

and has a complete working steam plant shortly after the unit is delivered. This
is ia agreeable contrast to the customary water-tube construction, where the
boiler is, so to speak, built on the customer's foundation, then auxiliaries and
accessories added roundabout on previously prepared bases or mountings. Were
it not that the fire-tube design has limitations of pressure and capaoity, it
would loom up more importantly in the medium and large boiler field.
Inside the ehell the water level is carried fairly high. Tubes extend from
front to back and a large flue, at or near the geometric center, has the oil burner
attsched to it. By partitioning built into the reversing ga8 pa8sage8, front and
REPRESENTATWE WATER.TI'BE BOILERS irc8
reqr, the tubes are Eeparated into groups which in BuccoBeion carry the gas from
back to front and vice versa. Considering the lerge central flue as one pass,
these boilers are built as two-, three-, and four-pass uaits. A four-pass unit ie
illustrated.
Gas velocities are kept high, thus pmmoting rapid heBt transfer. Multi-
passing keeps gas in the tubes long enough to transfer most of its heat. Eighty
percent over-all efficiency is a common manufacturer's guarantee. The high
velooity and numerous turns require more drsft thsn in almdst any other beiler,
eo tfrat fan power is disproportionately high. Draft loases of5ltolO2 m.E wat6
rre incurred in these units.
The combustion equipment consists of a high-quality oil burner set in a
small refractory chamber attached to the boiler'front at the main flue. The small
combustion space completely gasifi.es the oil,.but combustion continues through
the large flue. Absence of ash simplifies the installation. Complete combustion
is achieved if the equipment is in proper sdjustment. All necessary draft is
created by the unit's lan and, as there need be no smoke, only a simple vent
pipe to atmosphere ie needed to dispose of the products of combuetion. Oil
pumps, combu8tion control, and operational safeguards are part of the stendard
unit, but feedwater pump must be installed separately by the purchaser.
10-5 Represcntative Water-tube Boilere. Straight-tube B oiler. Straight-
tube boilere have.advantages in ease of access to tubes for cleaning or removal.
Since all tubes are the eame length, the stocking ol spare tubes is simplified.'
Acceee to tube ends is more readily obtained through hesders than drums.
Eowever, straight-tube boilers in small- antl medium-cized units, where the
boiler tubeo are the principal heating surface, tcnd to be more expensive per eq
mctrc of hcating surhcdbccaurc of thc cnet of thc hcadcrr thcmdve.
?he heating surface of a strgight-rube boiler was shown in Fig. 10-2, in
both long-drum and cross-drum arrangements. A cross-drum boiler is also shown
in Fig. 10-6,1 with setting arranged for firing by coal stoker. This is a sectional
header boiler, with an added feature of a water-cooled rear lurnace wall. The
boiler tubes are inclined about 15o to secure the necessary hydraulic circulation.
T\.rbe flowe are derived from, and delivered to, the two headers. The rear or
rupply header is connected to the bottom of the drum; the front header is con-
nected slightly sbove the normsl water level by means of horizontal circulation
tubes extending from the top of the header to the drum. This setting is "brick-
set," with sheet eteel casing. and transverse baffiing. Here the bafles are a
combination of refractory ba,rriers and alloy steel sheet. These direct the gas
flov crosswise of the iubes, with three paeses over the tube surface before the
outlet is reached. Refractory tiles are laid on the rear wall tubes and on the
circulation tubes. The forrner are part of the bafre system and also create a
cinder pocket in the rear. The upper tiles, with insulation covering, form the
t Ei@pt for pbDt remotely located, thir ades[t8ge ir motr theoreticsl then real. Usu-
rlly s replsceDeot tubo cao be quictly obtsined froa the malufacturer. Ako, tubes may
be reooved aod tube holes t€Eporsrily plugged. Welding repain are now possibld,
tII the reader *ill c.rrefully compare the. trro partr of this iltustr8tion (elgo Fie. 1G7),
he cou leam how to visu8lire the iateraal oolatructioD of a boiler ia three dimearima l-ry
typicd iat .ectiood dravia8s, which ore tbe usual lorm i! ?hich thi! iulormation ir
eveileble.
ilX STEAM GENIrraa-T0RS
rool of the boiler. A drain and blow-ofi connection i8 requircd from each of
the lower rear header and lower wsll header.
Bent-tube Boiler. There are more bent-tube than straight-tube boilert sold.
This is probably because purchase costs tend to be a little lower and many con-
tracts are let on a strictly competitive baeie. There are more variatione of
heoting surface arrangement available to the designer. This is of assistance in
arranging the elements of a steam generator which may have superheaters,
water walls, and economizers in addition to evaporative surface. Also there is
more latitude in baffie arrangement than in straight-tube designs. T\rbes are
more difrcult of access for cleaning and rerqoval, especially if the steam drum
hae internal fittings for steam purification, for these must be removed before
access is had to the tube ends.

tr'rc. 10-6 C'ro.'s-drum. strright tub,.'boiler. (Courtesy Springfrcld, Boiler Co.)

A boiler typical of small- and medium-sized bent-tube steam generators is

sho*'n ir Fig. 10-7. This consists ol a two-dmm boiler, water walls, and euper-
heater. The setiing is arranged for pulverized coal firing.
The evaporating surface of this unit is composed of water walls on four eideg
and the rool r o{ the furnace, and two banks of bent tubes extending between the
two drume. Refrsctory baffies direct the products of combustion upward through
the tube bank facing the furnace, then down over the superheater tubes, and
finally in a three-pass tr&nsverse flow over th,: large rear bank of tubes. Tbe
water wall and front tube bank ieceive much heat by radiation, and eome by
convection. Superheater and rear bank tubes are mainly dependent on convec-
tion heat tranefer. The maior portion of steam produced is generated in the vall,
t Floqr is the ash pit rrith 8creetr oJ ash-.oolilg tubes.
 REPNESENTATIVE WATER.TUBE BOILERS 305

....\

I t,
il
ll

il
ti

li

,ry,
I l_

I
Ftc. l0-7 Cutarvay and flat section viervs of a trvo-dnrm, beBt-tube stetm fenoritor
( Courtesy C ombutiot E n gin e in y S u perh eal'e r, I nc.\
e
3OO STEAM GENERATORS
roof, and front bank tubes. Upper water wall hcaders, and superheater headers,
are suspended from the structural steel frame ol the setting. Wall areas which
remaiir comparatively cool because of the overlay of water tubes are built of
large; flat, refractory tiles backed by heat insulation, such as mineral wool.
Other wall areas in the setting are firebrick with insulation. The outside surlace
is then paneled with thin sheet-meral casing which makes it comparatively air-
tight and which may receive finish painting.
'Iwo bent-tube designs that have very successfully competed in the emall
boiler field are those shown in Fig. 10-8. The Riley Type RO boiler is a two-
drum ddsign with four water wall headers, ull headers and drums being parallel
to the axis of'the boiler. Furnace wall tubes cross over to the opposite top
neader, thus forming roof cooling. Circulation tubes conneci the hiadere with
the drums. The Keeler Type CPhas one long upper drum and a half lower

Bilev Stokc? Cotp. E. Kcztd Co,

Equal-drum type Drrrm-and-a-half type
Frc. 10-8 Longitudinal two-drum water tube boilers.
drum. There are two lower water wall headers. Drums and headers are parallel
to thc boiler axis. Part of the steam drum is exposed to furnace temperature,
but thcre are few circulating tubes required.
Large steam generators are built to the purchaser's specification and are so
involved with other heat transfer surface that boiler tube banks are often a
minor portion of the whole unit. Examples of such units are given, but tney
danuot be said to be "typical," because of the vast opoortunity for individual
difrcrcnces in this field.
10-6 Water Walls. The evaporative capacity of a weter-tube boiler can
be greatly extendcd, and at the same time a protection against high temperature
can be afrorded the furnace walls, by partially shiclding the rvalls with vertical
tubes connected into thc general circulation of the bqiler.
This system of furnace cooling tubes is a water wqll. Typical of the circula-
tory connections to it are those shown in Fig. 10-11, in which the nonheating,
circulating tubes arc emphasized. As these are outside the furnace, they exprnd
WATER WALLS U7
difierently from the wall tubes. Problems of uniform delivery and thermal
expansion are met by multiple small-sized circul&torB and expansion loops.
Water enters the wall tubes at the lower headers and rises by virtue of heat
transfer, producing a mixture of steam and water in the tubes which is lese
dense than the water in the downcomer circulators. As these tubes receiye
direct radiant energy from combustion, the rate of heat trsnsfer is very high,
of the order 203435.271246 kcal/mt h.

> I
rtei

I
ouSt

9UPaiitrYE B

g
Fottd Wheele? Corp.

Fro, 10-9 Large two-drurn steam generator.

' Water walls, although originally associated with pulverized coal, now arb
also used with stoker- and oil-fired boilers. \Ihen pulverized coal was intro'
duced, refractory walls were standard, but pulverized coal could be bumed by
lO% to 20% excess air, whereas 50r, $ as considered good in the existing stoker-
fired furnaces. The first results of the higher iurnace temperatures were destmc-
tiou of refractories snd slagging of wall6 and tubes. The fumace temperatur€
308 STEAM GENERATORS
was above the sottening point of the ash and padicles of it flying sbout in a
sticky or molten state adhered to the first cool surfacc they touched. Unless the
advantages gained from the reduction of flue-gas loss rvere to be sacrificed, rur-
nace designs had to be cbanged. This led to the introduction of wster-cooled
furnaces in which the combustion space was partially or completely surrounded
by iubes carrying water rvhich, by absorbing radiant heat directly as soon as it

dr

Bobaock t wtco,
Itc. I0l0 Steam getreBtor reted at or lO9 kr/oro2 ri
o.g5x tO6 kg por h! cnd 666rc.
Evaporative surface, 2oct E; superheater, lo6l mi j*"n.-ir"iiiii'ilf'
y::,:rglrgd Jrom the combining molecules of fuel and oxygen, prevented the
dg.tructively high furnace temperature. A waiei screen, consisting
1:t1,:i:i1".f
or a nearly honzontal row of tubes screening the ash pit lrom the iurnace,
-"ufrlier,t ie"
often installed to cool the ash. Ash dropping"to the pii toses
raaiant
enerry to the tubes as it passes between them so that it is not sticky
whel it
finally settles in
the ash pit.
WATER WALI"S 3OO

I'he construction of a fumece wall shielded wholly or partially by water

walls may best be covered by showing typical horizontal sections through such
walls. This is done in Fig. 10-12. The reader might well ask why there is such a
variety of construction. The answer seems to be that furnace design is a com-
flex of factors oppositely dictating a need for
high and low temperatures. Variable load im- -
poses a major difficulty, for a design that miglrt
be superior st full rate of combustion could ouer-
cool the furnace at lesser loads and produce in-
complete combustion and smoke. Sometimes onc
wall is plain relractory to maintain furnace tern-
perature, whereas other walls are fully shieldcd.
In other cases all walls are partially shielded by
tubes spaced widely on centers, or sometimes set
a little distance ofr the wall. Again, in other de-
signs, the tubes are half buried in the wall. The
only generalization that can be made is that a
compact high-temperature furnace is possible with
full shielding of the walls and good combustion if
the steam generator does not have to operate at
widely variable load. Rut the engineer should be
cautious about accepting a heavily water-cooled
fumace in a plant which may expect to operate
at rather light loads, for he will find it impossible FIG. 10-11 Circulation pat-
to obtain smokeless operation at the light loads tern in water walls'
unless some of the excess water wall area is
shielded by shrouding the tubes with plastic refractory. A rough indication
of tbe extent of furnace cooling is provided by "fraction cold," which is the
projected water-cooled area in the furnace envelope divided by the envelope
alea.
Steam generator heating surface design, circulation design, expansion de-
sign, etc., are, of course, equipment manufacturers' problems outside the discus-

Moldad
Co3l r!froclory
lar
Blo lock
niitotion
Slooket lonk!l
iniulollon

A. Holl rod r ont lubes-

High l.mp.
coSl rat roc I otY
gloal lc B. Holl rodiont lubes'molde d til€3
.d",ro"
rafroc
Plortic l.
.:1...i.:
6loct
ln!{lotion
Moenario
C. Eoiley slod woll 0. Tongent tub.! -llol lilca blo.t
Fig. 10-12 Typical furnace wall sections.
3IO STEAM GENERATORS
sion of this book, except as some vital engineering feature of intcrnal design is
occasionally considered, because misunderstanding or ignorance of these prob-
lems would be detrimental to the power plant engineer. It witl be observed that
heat transfer is often considered by the author to have this character.
Radiant heat transmission has been covered in Chapter 9. As has been
pointed out, conditions in a boiler fumace render theoretical analysis extremely
difficult. Manufacturcrs rtly strongly on experience data, and those who have
been in the business a long time have accumulated much valuable data from
both field tests of their product and their own factory research projccts. A
good estimate ol water wall heat absorption is necessary if the unit is to func-

1470
t 35o
5o 250
t230
L
I I I50
l t\l\ It!o I

I -H- l0
E
to!o E
050
tttl ::
rrT_
+
9!0 9!O i\
ni 5o
r50 650 lr
at5
02a6al0 t30 250 350 aso slo 150 250 3sO 450 s4O
lO3 AvoIl.bt. h.ol 103 Aroilobl. h..l
Ei5 -hlltOOo tg !6r p.r h. IOOO r. G.r/ hr p.r 61 A5 loool cor /hr o.r nrgpns

Frc. 10-13 Heat absorptiou by watcr walls.

A-Fostcr 'Wheeler Corp. data.
B-Babcock &'lVilcox Co. data (Bulletin 3-407).
C*Combustion Engr.-Superheater lrc. data (Cornbustion).
Note: These curves reDresent experience d&ta lor conveotional types
of bare tube water wall furnaces.
ERs-Eflective radiant surface, /., (Equation 9-2i).
BS-Boundary surface or furnace envelope.
EPR$-Effective proiected radiant surface. (See trig. g-ti.)
"Available heat" is sensible heat aciually liberated. (See Equation g-5.)
Chart A based on l6.0tu datum; Chart B on to.?.C datum.

tion_ satisfactorily as to: (l) freedom from slagging difrculties resulting from
too high a furnace exit temperature for the fly ash involved; (2) avoidance of
undcrcooling at part loads; and (3) adequacy of follow-on convection heating
surlace to accomplish its share of required total kcal of heat transfer. Hence i
brief excursion into furnaie heat transfer is desirable.
Fig. 10-13 shows water wall experience curves of three leading manulac-
tur€rs of steam generators..Tfre. data are to be understood to be but a sampling
of information of this character which companies have amassed. It will be seen
Iurthermore that there are difrerent and individual ideas of how test data should
be plotted in order to achieve corrclation and for definite trends to be discerned.
Example 1: The division of available heat between radiant and conyection surface
will be illustmted bv the assumptiol of a r ater rvali fumace for a steam generator
of 16.75x 106 kcsl por hr hrst tr.ader. The cver-all effciency is assumed at 0.8b. Other
WATER WAI,LS 311
asgu-optioDs are: Air-fuel ratio, 11.4; pulverized coal firing with coal of Qr zOsa -
lcolAgrol =?3&7 Lo.ULa;
Slagging factor, 0.95; radiation plus incomplete combustion
losses, 1.5%, A rectangular furyrace l.7D
X X a.lE {.rn
high is taken, aud for
simplicity is assumed to be covercd on all six sides rvith rruter rall of the type shown
irr trt. fGuD"pith t8.0 nr!
tub.. ip.o6d to 16!.4 mE oa o.Dt r..I'lri. lpo.ing irornit
S luhoson oa.hot tro.ido rolLEd,16 on scoh of tho otho! .ido ,all+ih. rcof, sDd
thc [o..
In tbi. q.rapl., tb6 d.t
ol tri8. lGl:lA ot .Dptoy.d.
The projected radiant heating surface,.4r, is calculated.
Proj. area (side rvall tubes) = (36 + 22) x2x6.2x 0.0ttg - 4!.6mt.
Proj. area (top and bottom) = g.? x 26 x 2 x. O.O6tg - 16.6 Et.
. Total .4, - 60 mr.
To use Fig. 10-13A it will be necessary to crlculate availabie heat, gas flow, and
efrective radiant surface, .4..* The notation of Chapter I will be employed without
redefinition. It nould appear irom comments in Chapter I thet s = 1.2;\s a reasonable
assumption for this type of wall.

From Eo 9-?, ,4. = 00 X 1.2 1x2

0.95 - lur.4 mi.

From Eq 9-25, Q.: 13a7 (1 - 0.015) : ?266 Lool.

Gas per tg coal : 11.4 t 1 - ash : 12.3 Lg if ash is 10/p.
Available heat per kg gas : 7260/12,t - 600 Loil.
Coal consumed : 16,75 x 10./p.86 x ?084) - 268r kg por hr.
Gos flow :258I x 12.3 - 3t746 Lg por hr,
ttz,d :
-ERS Der 10fi)k sa - O.l ' lo00 l!14 : s.0{ -,
" i 3t.76

Entering Fig. 10-13A with .Efis = 3,64 ond ovsilsblo hcot of 690 kosl the furnace
exit tempemture is found to be rl32'C Thi. i. b6sod @ 16.0rc datum of combustion
air. Were combustion &ir preheated, the enthalpy of preheat would have been sdded
to 8".
From the furnace exit temperature the heat transfer to water walls could bc
calculated, as could'the necess&ry tralsfer duty of the conyection zone.

Example 2: The same case will be analyzed successively by the data of Rgs.
B and C. Previous calculated results are employed rvhere necessary. Area of the
furnace envelope, AS: 5.2 (3.7+4.t) x2+2x 9.?x4.1-lt2 ml. Reduoe by0.06
faotot for alag 6foot. Avsilsblo. b€ot por sq Dotro 8,3 : 258r x 7266/ (ll2 x 0.06) :
175058 kcsl pct hr.Antering tr'ig. B with l?6.90 x 108 kcel, slrd .?ulvcri6d cosl plaotice,"
th6 fumsco orit t€mpeEturo is d€tormirod to bo 1000'C. Einoc tho dattrm of onthslpy fo.
Fig. B is 26.76C, s ompemtur€ of I088oC should b6 uecd to oompslothis .e6ult with moth-
ods basod otr l5.6oC dethm.
To use Fig. C it is necessary to reduce BS sudaces to EP&S. From tr'ig.9-16,
with tubri spacing ratrio of 88.9/152,4, ih6 ..IDment efiectiven€€s'! is found to b6 0.835.
EPRS : rt2 X 0.935 X 0.95 : 09.6 mr.
Available heal, : 2581 x ?256J99,5 - 188656 kcsl per hr per mt EPis. Entering
Fig. C with r88.7,the limits of experience sre koal.rediant hert ab€orption per
{t+i+**}
* If different tube arrangements occupied difiereot walls, then A, : >saAe.
SI2 STEAM GENERATORS
per mt .UPRS. Sensibh hest in the ga8 st exit fmm the furD8c€ : (186050 - {Li'.t+1})
x 8e.6/31?{6 l(o.l t,o!
- {it:} ks.
AaeuminggO 0,tO -
a,: {#l}/o.rs: {r?**fc
For & datum of l6.8lc, tbis \i,ould place the fumace exit tEmperaturc in the raDge
el8 - ll7fc. The higher value rvorrld probably go with long fleme burners or
stokers; the lower, with short flame bumer.
Example 3: A solution of the same case by Eq 9-26 is presented for comparative
purposes.
Using data as previously determined,

O : , ]+-: : 0.515, fraction of Q. absorbed radiantly.

. I l.4 V258t /t07.4
00

Then sensible heat left in gas st fumace exit = (1 - 0.515) X 72.,8 /12.?- 28/.5
koEl por kA.
kit tempemture + 284.6/.26: llleo.
= 16.6

These examples imply that, although the physics of heat trsnsfer from a
Iuminous cloud to water-cooled tubes is quite involved, practical solutions
have been 'evolved that are fairly reliable.
1O-7 fnstallation. The installation of a Bteem generator in a boiler room
mav range from the exceedingly simpte to the extremely complex. The extremes
are:
Simple. A. truly packaged unit such as a 150-hp oil burning fire-tube boiler
is r,:coived via railroad car fully assembled and pretested at factory. It is
haldled in one piece and slid on its own base into place on a flat foundation.
When covered with heat insulation, joined to water, steam, blqwdown, flue gas
vent, and oil supply lines, and supplied with electrical service and ignition gas,
it is reatly to use.
C omplet A 45360 kg per hr power plant steam generator consisting of two-
drum boiler, superheatcr, watcr walls, setting, trim, combustion equipment, and
control equipment is received complctely disassembled. One drum of this unit
mav weigh as much as the entire boiler of the first example. There can be over
a thousand separate pieces to be received, inventoried, arrd finally used during
the erection of such a boiler which is, in a sense, built in place on the owner's
foundations. The foundations themselves are complicated by special provisions
for ash disposal, air passages, and footings for carrying heary concentrated
loads. In some cases thc manufaqturer's contract includes erection; in others
an independent contractor eretts, or the purchaser's {orces do so. The job may
consume upwards to a year's time, and the unit may finally be tested for com-
pliance with guarantees as much as a year and a half after the manufacturer
shipped the principal items (drums, tubes; and headers) from his factory.
ilte setting of a boiler may be thought of as all that material contributing
to the encasement of the heating surface and furnace region. Sometimes it is
built as a solid brick wall with inner courses of refractory material, but more
often nowadays it is a combination of refractory tiles on the inner surface
backed up by layers cf heat insulation with a sheet-metal exterior caslng. The
combustion equipment, reflecting arches, and other parts of the steam gener&tor
 FIIRNACE 313
moy be built into, or be supported by, a brick setting, but the thinner, insulated
aetting is not used for the mounting of any but light equipment. Combustion
equipment is separately supported from the foundation. The baffeg which are
btilt against, or acroea the tube banks to guide the gas flow are also part of
the setting, ss are ash pits, soot hoppers, etc.
A major problem in the design of setting and Bupport of pressure parts oI
large boilers ia thennal erpanrton. Tubes, bafies, tile walls end other psrts at-
tain difrerent operating remperatures and proceed to difrerent linear expansions,
sll of which requires special attention in both design and installation in order
to preserve tight joints, avoid cracked walls, overstrained tubes, etc.
fglly inetalled ateam generator will have its weight adequately supported
rith-A allowance for thermal expansion. It will be completely encased with a
gas-tight wall capable of retarding the flow of heat from the hot interior to
a suftcient degree. This wall will, however, be pierced with numerous openings
for observation ports, lancing ports, Boot blowers, draft gauge leads, etc. The
ingtallstion will have provided a furnace region and bumers or stokers, and
a way of controlling gas flow through to a discharge conduit, called the uptake.
The complete installation includes disposal of waste products, viz., ash, cinder,
sool, aDd the proper introduction of combuetion air. Numerous' accessories,
either required or desirable, complete the inetallation These are either for
instnrmentation or gre accessories collectively known as boiler trim.*
10-E Furnace. A fumace is a chamber for combustion. In addition it
provides euppor[ snd enclosure for the combustion equipment-burners or
stokem. It suuoun,ls the region where the combustiou reaction takes place,
confining and isolating it so that it remains a controlled. albeit highly dynamic,
activity.
There are many inter€Bting, puzzling, and difrcult problems in the field of
firmace design. Many of the questions that arise have already beer answered
by scieatific testing and by experience, but some points are still met by the
liberal allowance method-
The design of a furnace cannot be carried out independently of other equip-
ment, for its success will require coordination of several important lactors,
adong which may be mentioned:
1. Type of combustion equipment.
2. Character of the fuel used, especially its ash content.
3. Draft equipment employed.
4. Alr supply and degee of preheating.
5. Boiler and its bafling arrangement.
Prrsuning that suffcient dats on theee fsctors are at hand, the furnace de-
signer has to s6lve next a number of maior problems before arriving at a
satisfactory result. What physical sr'ze ie required for a particular installation
in order to.provide sufficient furnace volume? What is the best possible shope
that.will still satisfactorily accommdste boilers, stokers, burners, aah equip-
ment, etc.? What uall type do the local conditions indicate? Will thie type
give satisfactory combustion over the lull range of variable boiler load ex-
pected? Will the wall eelectsd be satiafactory frcm the maintenance stend-

r8ee Sec l0-!0.

314 STEAM GENER.A,TOBS
point, and will it be eufrciently cool on the atmospherio side? The correct
answer to these and other questions that will arise during the couree of furnace
dedign sre important, ror the 6rst cost ie no smgll item and alterations are
expensive in themselves, as well as removing f.rom active service the whole
deam generating unit.
In lormer years, especially when steaming equipment had been etandardized
Ior a time, and before pulverized coal firing had inspired the remarkable
progress in combustion, furnaces were customarily deeigned on the basis of
certain volumetric requirements per boiler horsepower or certsin rates oi
combustion per mtof etoker surface coupled with experience-approved furnace
height to be allowed above the grates. Now furnace volumes have come to be
based on a unit of heat liberation called the heat release rote. This is taken
to be the higher heating value of the fuel, expected to be burned per hour
in the fumace, divided by the aotive lumace volume. To obtain a furnace
volume by this factor, the potential hourly heat liberation is divided by
some acceptable heat relesse rate. This release rate ie not deducible from
theory, but fortunately there are available data on rates existing in successful
designs, i.e., those which have not experienced operating difrculties attributed
to undersized furnaces. Ey6ry time s new steam generator is placed in operation,
gnother item is added to the accumulated heat release data.
It has been found possible to group these data under the influential factors
of (l) type of combustion equipment and (2) fusion temperature o{ the ash.
One such compilation is furnished in Table 10-1.

Table l0-1. FURNACE HEAT RELEASE RATES

ld ?!B EI
DosroN YAr,uns-trcar, PrE
Pulverized coal Below ll{fc Above
Ash fusion temp. .. rlarc ltl6 l3l8cc
Solid refractory... .... Never 111260 188500
Air-cooled refractory .. loG8oo t'35m 165?50
'Wster-cooled bottom .. l4raoo t'fi7"r0 l?8(m
'Water
walle. ....... l567Jo 105800 20?m0

Lump coal*
Stoker firing Very large t 207000-81 t6m t
Stoker firing Large plan 178000-207000
Stoker firiug Small plant. . l3it60o-rr2600

O'rl or gas. . .. 2t260044!000

. Release per mctrr gr&t6 .ulfeoc v.ries from 94860(Lt355fi)0 Losl per br.
I Raoge lor lump coal given to cover various raaks of coal and wall rypes. Low raut
coalg take the lower release volue. Water.cooled walls permit the higher releas€ value!.
The application of heat release data will be shown for s case where it is
ueed to determine fumace height.
Examplc l:
The dimeneions of a furDace of a steam generator, mted at 1876 x lo.
koit of hest tr&lsfer,&re assumed to be detcrmined horizontally by the shape of the
pressure psrts aud to be {.6 rn x 1.5n. The rcquired height inside this furnace will
bo estiroated, arsumirg wat€r-cooled wals, The coal bas ash fusioo temperature of
 FIIRNACE 315
r204rc. The thermal efficiency is assumea to ln W%. Pulverized coal flring. The fuel
must be potentially capable of liberatitrg 1876 X
lO./0.8 =
2348?600 Lcal per hr.
From Table 10:1 a heat rele&se rate of te6800.kost per nt per hr is selected as
appropriate to this case. l'hen furaace volume =
234s?6oo/tg58oo =Ig.7 mr.
Required fumace height = tru.14.6 x 4.6: 5.9 m.

The type of boiler greatly influences the fumace shape. The firing equipment
itself may partially dictate',he furnace shape. A stoker frequently fixes the
horizmtal lumace dimensions. Pulverized coal burners, on the gther hand,
allow the designer more latitude in the placement and number of combustion
units; hence thd furnace shape is more adjustable to other influences.
Thc shape should promote turbulence as much as possible. Needed turbu-
lence n,ay result from proper combination of furnace shape, burner placement,
and burner design. Furnace shapes are still further affected by the necessity
of ash disposal and by arches needed to promote ignition and to )relp buin the
volatiles
There are divergent ideas of how fuel burners should be located in the
furnace, but in general they should be aimed away from the opening leading
into the boiler tube banks (called the furnace aperture) and away from the
possibility of a direct impingement on the heating surface. The highly luminous
phase of the flame should not occupy a large part of the furnace volume. Gas
turbulence resulting from design or placement of burners is much.sought for
as. an aid to complete combustion.
The suspended ash particles (fly-ash) of pulverized coal and spreader stoi<er
furnaces may become critical to operation. The gas velocity in the furnrLce
should be made low enough to permit coarser particles of fuel to ,,hover,,,tl us
promoting completeness of combustion and eflectiveness of radiant heat trarts-
fer. A low ga,s velocity through the boiler aperture will minimize the driving
of partly solidified ash particles against boiler tubes. Also, the tubes at the
boiler entrance should be spaced on sufficiently wide centers to delay bridging
of such ash or slag as may stick.
The character of the furnace wBlls is en important factor in maintaining
continuous ignition and complete cornbustion, especially in furnaces unequipped
with arches. Two opposed considerations intrude themselves at this point. The
walls should be as hot as possible, so that combustion will be complete and
heat transfer to water rapid. The walls should be as cool as possible for struc-
tural strength and minimum maintenance. A judicious use of solid refractory
sections in water-ce'oled fumaces or of special refractory-covered water-walls
has helped, but the high-capacity, watei-jacketed furnace is not extremely
flexible in carrying varirible lodd.
Many types of fr,rnace walls are in use today. A primary classification of
them would be ae follbws:
1. Solid, Masonry.---"fht8 type rsnges from a single homogeneous refractory section
to one contaiuiug special iusulation sandwiched between refractory and casing. This
used to be & commolr tlpe for sma[ 6team generating urits. As the furnace iide of
the refractory will ordinrrily be incandescent, it is important to pr6vitle a section
which will be satisfactorily tight agzinst heat leaks. Most designers wid either specifl,
the wall section or check the mruufacturer's ffgures on temperaturc gredient, problemi
of this Dature afford a chaoce lor dir€ct sssault by theory and computation.
316 STEAM GENERATORS
2, Air*ooled Mo.sonry 'Walb.-Ar., air-cooled wall consists of a thin refr&ctory
section backed by an air space through which ciroulate cooling air cunents. Thd air
is positively circulated by the ft rna"" dralt since it is desirable to use the heated air
foi combustion. Obviously, an excellent feature of this constructiolt is that the hest
flow whicb cools the refraciories is again retumed to the fumace. The cool wal[ front-
ing the air space is the furnace casing. The refractory section must be independently
zulported by a steel or cast-iron skeleton from which the bricks (which are of special
shapes) are huug. Many ingenious methods of doing this have appeared, and a number
of successful types sre on the market, They are patented, and in the main thig is the
field of the proprietary wall.
3. Pafiidty Water-cooled Walls.-This typo of wall is adaptable to a wide variety
of firing conditidns. It is usually a solid type wi+,h & podion of the surlace covered by
water iubes. Proper balance betrreen the water-cooled aDd refmctory sections will
allow high-capacity filing of fuel with low excess air by keeping the furnace temperatule
Eufficiently under the ash melting temperature. The refractory sections act as a
stabilizer to temperature, aiding in ignition and hampe ng. overcooling. ?artially
water-cooled rralls are in common use lor both stoker and burner-fired boilers. The
itrner surfsco of rofrsotory iil6 rlsy b6 60.8 to 101.6 mrtr thiok, wi0h lol.e arn to !t4 mm
heat ias[lBtiotr in blocl form beokiag it up, Suoh o wstl oould b€ ruad bsk of tho water
tub€s, Bsr6 rolls would roquiro s thicket bliok s6ction.
4. 'lV ater-jonketed, Furnace.-'fhe combustiou region is completely surrouaded by
heat absorbing surface. As e type, the water-jacketed furnace is suitable lor pulverized
coal firing, employing highly preheated air, and serving a fairly steady load.

Materials which resist change of shape, weight, or physical properties at

high temperatures are known aB relractorin{- Materials chiefly used are fire-
clay, silica, kaolin, diaspore, alumina, and certain products of the electric
furnace. These are mostly used in the form of bricks. A flre brick is built pri-
marily to withstand high temperatures and secondarily to have heat insulating
value. Uhfortunately, since high refractory quality is incompatible with low
conductivity, a wall to withstand extremely high furnace-side temperatures is
built of more than one material. High-temperature refractories are built into
the furnace side to sufficient thickness that their cool side temperature is within
the maximum temperature limit of less refractory but more highly insulating
wall materials.
Fire-clay bricks are preferred because of their low cost whenever they will
give satisfactory service. I'ire-clay brick are classified for temperature duty on
the basis of the pyrometric cone scale, high-temperature brick being those
possessing a pyrometric cone rating equivelent to about 1677"C, and low-duty
must show refractoriness at not less than 1580"C. Extremely high-temperature
service sometimes requires a material more refractory than fire-clay Some
of .these "super-refractories" &re suitable for temperatures 166'C higher than
for the best 6te-elay.
In addition to resisting fusion, furnace refractories should not spall under
rapid fluctuations of temperature, should resist erosion from ash-laden gases
and the fluxing action of slag, and hold up well in structural strength as its
temperature approaches the fusion temperature. The standard size of fire and
insulaiing brick is 228.6 mm x 114.3 mm x 63.5 mm.
Because of variations of temperature and the material comprising the
fumace walls, the expansion of materials in the walls tpontinually tends to oper
FURNACE 317
up crscks in.the bricLwork. Experienced bricklayers .have various nethode of
bondiag their brickwork together so that a minimum of oir iafrltration will
seep through the furnace walle.
I'tow of heot through a wall of speciffed compoeition may be calculated
lrom the principleg of heat tr*nefer. Ttis rs doue for the purpose of determining
temperatures tt cdtical points in the wall (as where the material changee in
e oulti-layer wall), for an egtimate of the outside eurface temperature and
for calculation of heat loss through speciffc sections of a et€am generator eetting.
However, the frequently irregular ahepe of the whole setting orterior is such
ae to discourage heat losa computations on a wrll-by-wall bseis. Instead the
over-all radiation losE eetablished by mrmerous heat balance t€€ts csn be
studied and generalized. The radiation chart of Fig. 10-41 is often uged. Thert
one notes that radiation loss, as e percentage ol heat input, ia expressed as a
function of load and. woll cooltng.
Hest, flows through a vall by conduction and is discharged from the outer
surface by radiatioo and convection, mainly radiation. Whilo the radiation
efiect is readily evaluated by the Stefan-Boltzmann law, direot analysis of
convection is elusive because it ie afiected by ambient air deneity, condition
of the wall, eurface poeition , ryhether horizontal or vertical) , and proximity of
obetructions to naturally rieing, heet€d air currents. The efiect of convection
ciu be included in a rough way by applying a convection lactor as a multiplier
of the radiation. Also tLere have been published charts for determining the
convection loeses.
Tenrperatures occurring in this instance of heat transfer are shown !n Fig.
10-14. The temperature oi the fumece atmosphere is designated tt. The hot
face of the wall ie tr; the cold face, t"; and the ambi-
ent air atmosphere is t.. The intermediate face con-
,.ffi
tacts of multiple hyers are congidered lo be t', (',

.,% I
etc.
The t€rm "furnace temperature" haa been used
looeely in power plant nomenclature to meaa several q
different temperatures. Probably it cannot be exactly
defiaed because of the dynamic energy conditidns to
be found in the otdinary furnace. The temperature of
the flame will be one thing, the temperature of the
refractsriee another, and the temperature of the
products of combustion another. The only tempera- Fro. 1o.14 Eeat .traD'-
ture which one msl' predict with eome degree. of fer through multiple layer
certainty is that of the gases enteriug the convection 6t wall,-
zone. We know the flame temperature to be much
higher, ana we suspect that there may be a conside-1able diflerence be-
tieen'refractory temperature and gas temperature. Ordinarily, optical the-r-
momet€rs used with lurnaces give readings of wall temperatures, since the
flamee---under good corirbustion conditiong-are fairly transparent to the radia-
tion from the walls.
The temperature tr is often assumed equal to t1 for bare refractory wellr,
but is much.lo,iver when walls are shielded with water wall tubee. The ambient
air iemperature tn is not token close to the walls where there are rising air cur-
 3I8 STEAM GENERATORS
rents, but outside this disturbed region. The cold face temperature lo is naturally
adjusted by heat transfer so that the rate o{ heat discharge lrom the outside wall
equals the rate of conduction through the wall. That is, qa = qq, where:

as = CF"A(T.a - ?.r) Lcal per hr (10-2)

A
tcal per hr (1c3)
d1 . d'. d"
r"
in which the t's are as described in Fig. 10-14, and
,{ : \{all area, normal to direction of heat flow, mr.
C : Coefrcient of radiation; dependent on outside surface
Piain trick wall, {04.r x 10-10
Asbestos mill board,l6s.7 x 10-10
Trowel-finished insulating cemetrt, 427., X 10-10
Aluminum paint,3l3.t X 10-10
Black paint, glossy,3se.?X 10-10
Black paint, rough,loT.l X 10-ro
,F'o : Convection factor. Average value about 1.5.
d = Thickness of layers of homogeneous composition (4).
/c : Heat conductivity of ma,terials in homogeneous layor.+
The heat transferred through a wall can only be as much as that which iB
discharged from the cool surface. Since the thermal conductiyities of wall
materials vary somewhat with their mean temperature, the analysis of thermal
conditions in a fumace wall generally becomes a trial-and-€rror problem.
Often the temperature to must be repeatedly assumed until the calculated
qB equals the calculated qs.
Examplc 2: As an illustratiou of the computation of heat transfer through a
specified furnace wall section, it will be assumed ihat d1 of Fig. 10-1,1 is 4 in. of
refractory tile with thermal properties of average fire-clay, that d, is 5 in. of block
insulation composed of mineral fiber. The outside surface ia sheet-metal cased aud
painted aluminum. Because of vater wall shielding, bot face temperatrure is only
l50O'F. Ambient air is 80" I.'lvith these data the outside surface temperature to will
be determined; also the face temp€rature l'. An area .,1 of 1 sq ft is assumed.
The sheet-metal casing is thin, with a & value so large that its d//c is negligible.
As a preliminary estimate, ,lrr is assumed 8.5; &r, .55. Theu equating q. = go

I : ll.0 x llj-ro x 1.5(?. - 54s) : ;;+;9

'Wheu
-
(4/8.5) + (5/0.55)
io is assumed = !Co", q* = 176, q. = 136 Btu per hr.
This having revealed q11 ) q6, the assirmptiotr of outside wall tempemture needo
decreasing.
Upon assuming to = 175, q* = 127, qc : 139.
d,s the two g's are now in approximate balance, it will be well to re-estimate the
iSee Figs. lG15 aEd l&16 lor typical materials.
FURNACE 3T9
conductivity velues before another ttiol. tr'or this purpose &88ume q = 138 Btu pe! hr.
Considering Eq 1O-2 applied to the tile layer alone, tas = $ff, rvhence r' = 1'lil5'.
The mean tempemture of the tile layer is (1500 + 1435\/2 = 1467' F. Neglecl,ing
contact resistance, the meaa .^nperature of the block insulation is Ga35 * 175)/2 =
805" I'. For these temperatur€s, &, = 9.0 and &: : 0.M As these nerv ['s will raise
the rute of heat flow, an assumption of t" = 19O is made, in the view of the previous

0.2
0 .2'

0-240

0.2 o0

t60
0 o

0.040

0.0{ 0

0
0 t00 0 900

M.on l.hp.rotuf. ol intuloljon_D'g C

Cttrue Sentice li,nrit ]Ialerial

Hot tace, .C
t .1371 Molded calcined brick of diatomaceoug sil-
ica.
.......1003 Molded colcined brick of diatomaceoug sil-
ica'
....... 87f Natursl diatomaceous silica brick (Cellite).
4 ....... 082 Plastic adhesive insulaiio[ of mineral vool
base'
b ... t038 Molded block of diatomaceotrs silica bonded
with asbestos fiber.
6 ....... 3t6 M6lded block ol magnesium carbooate and
binder. (857a magnesia.)
7 .. ... 8, Molded block of mineral fiber.
'8 .. ... ... 698 Mineral wool sectional blaaket insulation.
Frc. 10-15 Conductivity of heat insulation often used in boiler settings.

14.00
IIT I II IIII]= l. Silicon carbide. Upper limit,
tli0 IT loaer.
It ,= -J--=--
ITTIITI
II =IIIIIT
-aI
I Kaolin (aLOSiO:). Upper limit,
t100 I- IT TTTIIII r538.C.
t2.50 E --.,i
- T-l E IIIII E 3. Fused silica brick. Upper limit.
u!71"c.
iE 2.50 I! 4. Red brick, hard burned. Uppcr'
!E 2.00
I
IT
rt limit, 871r.
I.50 I
1=i-14)-t Average fireclay. Upp er IiDlit.
I 4=--2=,=44
4! .a----a t121"C.
100 L I 6. Rcd brick, so{t. Upper limit,
.50 =
ta !
6 ?60"c.
7 -t Castable reflactory coDcrete (cal-
0 rI !II
300 500 700 '
r
ll00 l30o
cinecl reflactory m&{erial.) Upper
900 1500
I 650
limit, t4r7"C.
8. ,Insulatins firebrick (porous fireclay
M.on l.mp.roto.. ot
relractory). Upper limit, l4fioc
I'rc. 10-16 Conductivity cl relractory materials
3N STEAM GENERATORS
celculetiotrB. Now qr
= 153.5, qq
= 158. Nthough these are Dot exactly balanced,
further aritbmetical adjustment is not justi6ed by the [ature of the underlying data.
A heat flow of 150 Btu per hr and an out8ide fece temperature of 190 are probably
withia 10y', of the real quantities, if the wall were aciually built and its hot face
t€mperature were 1500' F.
A recheck of ,' 6hows that it remains about the same as previously calculated. Since'
the block iusulation specified is capable of EtaBdiDg 1800' F, its hot face temperature is
sufficieotly low. The casing temperature of 1.90" F is rather high for opemtor comfort.
It could be decreased by increasing the thictness d2, or by adding a layer of blanket
insulation, i.e., d" at ks,
l0-9 Superheat. Superheated gteam is vapor whose tnmperature has been
increased above that of its boiling point. To accomplish this the steam produced
in a boiler is led through a superheater, consisting ol tubular heatiug surface
exposed to the gases gf combustion.
Superheeting is d means for raising the thermal level of water higher than
is possible by the use of steam pressure alone. In view of the limitation of
8aturstion temperature of water{i.c.300.2oc.t88 kgroDt sb),it ir obvious that the
currently used t€rnpcratur€s of ,127-538.C cannot bc achicvcd without
superhea,ting.
'The thermodynamic advantagee of high temperature were implied by the
text of Chapter 8, especially where studies of enerry, made availsble by work-

Wldc Ycrl.ty ot ,tcrdotd .hop.t

eo3.. furno.. bulldlng probl.rnr

coatobla rafTlclc ar .ra Polrtad

lnto lormt th. t. a oa aolr<?ala

sp..lsl .hop.. st. d..lgn.d ond

ord.?Gd or n..d.d ,rotn bslld.r

,lortl. .4rr..1.., racy b. poend- taho3ftil7 nro.Lt bond' btl'tt,

.d l c ahar. ln tlncl loactlon nroy bo orod fcr tott"'
'octlni
Frc. 10-17 Refractories (Courtcsy Pot er.)
 SUPERIIEAT ?2I
ing expansions, were considered. The improved periormance of all steam prime
movere obtained by using initially superheated steam is almost axiomatic, so
frequently has it been cited. For example, the steam rates of engines and tur-
bines are improved by superheating as indicated in Table 10-2.
The rate of heat transfer through superheating surlace has aheady been
ehown to be dependent on steam and gas flow rates. The steam velocity is
dependent on what pressure decrease can be allowed between the inlet and
outlet headers. More pressure difrerence is acceptable on high-pressure than
low-pressure boilers. Although the high steam velocity is beneficial to heat

Table 10-2. RANGE OF STEAM R.{TES-KG PER IIP-HR

Type o{ Prime Mover

Saturut€d 55 6" ut"
Steam Superheat Superhe"lrt

Noncondensing engine, throttle governed. . 18.6-20.2 9.0-17,0 t.l-15.7

Noncondensingengine, automatic. .... .. l2-l-lt.t 8.1-r 5.7 7.2J1.6
Simple Corliss engine. noncondensing ..... r t.tr 5.? 8.1-13.5 6.7-lr.t
Compound Corliss engine. noncondensing t.0-rr.G 0.7-l1.2 6.&9.9
C.ompound engine, condensing.. ....... 6,t-9.0 4.5-9.0 4.0-7.8
Noncondensing turbine.... . . . 1t.2.82.6 9.0-m, 8.r Jt.o
C,ondensing turhine, small. e.Gl{.8 8.7-13.5 6,&11.,
Condensingturbine, large..... ......... {.6.8.r 4.0-6.7 3.14-6.4

transfer, the gas film has more effcct on the over-all coefficient, as a previous
example has demonstrated. Also high mass flow, G", tends to reduce number of
superheater elements in parallel and to require greater length per element. The
efrect of this is more lolds per element between the two headers and greater
dralt loss. For example,whereT kg/cmrper3O.5m of element might he allowable
in a high-pressure unit, a low-pressure design might not be desirable with over
0.7tg/cmr per 30.5 4 Flow velocities are of thc magnitude of l2l9-30,1g
m/min, with hcat transfer coefficicnts of 24.4.?3.2kcal!m, hr dcg C.
Tulrcs of 25.4 to 50.8 mm diamctcr arc gcnerally ured, althougih lbrmcrly
many supcrhcatcrs wcrc built of larger diamctcr tubing with cxternal fins to irr
crcasc hcating surfacc.
Although separately ffred superheaters have made an appearance in marine
units, the superheater is enelosed in the boiler setting in stationary practice.
This creates the need to design the boiler itself so that its setting will provide
sufficient room for the superheater and a means of supportiug the glements.
There is little difficulty in arranging standard boilers to receive a super.heater
for 3 7.8'to 93.3'C supcrhcat, butthe eup€rheater spac€ needs for high temperature
units have considerable efrect on boiler and setting arrangement.
Example 1: A cotrvection superheater is composed of 12 elements in parallel, each
consisting of 1y2 in. X 0.105 i!. tubing,64 ft long. Gas temperature = 1850' F. Enter-
ing steam has 0.985 quality at 250 psig. Superheated steam has 600' F at 235 psig.
The superheater transfer eo€mrient t/ rvill be estimated, assuming evaporation of 9-55'
lb per lb fuel and 18 lb gas per lb fuel. Steam flow 15,000 lb per hr.
Thrs will be considered as a case of counterflow heat transfer, explained in Cbapter 9.
The eqlation (l
= q/AO will be used. To fnd d, ihe ges temperature drop over thc
3N STEAM GENERATORS
s.ryerhe&ter must be found. Assume c, of gas€s = .25 Btu per lb-deg, Equating heat
release of gases to he&t absorption of steam:
18 X 0.25(1850 - r',") : 9.55(1318.5 - 1189.4)
t'.:1576'tr'; 0.r":1576 - 406:1170"F; d,.':1850 - 600:1250'F
l2P -rlrl70:
0 = (0* - la)/tn4)v; 0: 1220'F
dro' ln +t+8
c = 15,000(1318.5 - 1189.4) : 1,938,000 Btu per hr
Lr,.g A : 12 X 64 X (area per lineat ft at l| in. diometer)
A = t2 X 64 X 0.338 : 260 eq ft
U : 1,938,000/(260 X 1220) : 6.1/Btu per hr-ft'deg F
/l8o. Steam mass flow G - : 38 lb per sec-ft'

Steam velocity = G X
""'Xffim
, : 78.6 lps for the average specifie volume, which ia
2.07 cu ft per lb.
The location of superheating surface creates the classification of conuection,
mdi&nt, and. interdeck types. Convection superheaters are those which receive
heat trsnsfer entirely by convection repre-
sented by the relation e = U.4d. Radiant
superheaters are located on fumace walls
where heat is implanted on them by direct
radiation from luminous products of combus-
tion. Interdeck superheaters are primarily
convective but also receive Bome radiant heat
as they are screened from the furnace by only
s few rows of tubes. Headcrs.are located so
that header-tube joints are removed from di-
a T rect heating action, usually by placing them
outside the setting. .A.s convenient hqider loca-
tions are found near the top of the setting,
Frc. 10-18 Interdeck location of Buperheater tubes are not ordinarily drainable.
superheater in a sectioual-header However, the drainable feature is not impor-
boiler. tant for superheaters expected to be in con-
tinuous operation. Radiant superheaters are
not employed so frequently as the convection type and not often outside the
central station field. lYhen installed they resemble water walls in appearance
and are connected between upper and lower headers, without looping. Con-
vection and interdeck superheaters are multiple loop to gain length sufficient
to transler the requisite heat.
'fhc per-sq mctrc cost of supcrhcat surfacc is higher than boilcr surfaccl also,
the cort pcr hcal tiansfcrred. Superheated vapor does not wet the tube surface,
so that the interior film convection coefficient is relatively small. T\rbe walls
therefore operate at higher average temperatures than boiler tubes and srt
required to be of alloy steel.
The heat tiansier conditions vary with load. Assuming that air-fuel ratios
snd thermsl efrciency remain relatively constant, then, as load is decreased,
 SUPERHEAT g2a
g&s ruass flow decreases proportionately. But fflm coefficients vary as 8ome
lxrwer of G less than l; hence rste of heat transfer decreasea more rapidly than
steam flow and lewer degrees superheat are
produced by the convection type. On the other
hand, air-fuel ratios remaining constant, the
Iumace temperature does not very propor-
tionately with load-it falls more slowly. Ra-
diant heat transfer follows roughly the fourth
power law and therefore decreases more
slowly than the steam flow. As a result, the
steam rcceives more superheat than at higher
loads. Typically, then, the all-radiant super-
heater has a falling-withJoad temperature
characteristic; the convection, a rising-with-
load; and the interdeck is likely to show both
trends at difrerent load ranges.
I'he typical rising temperature chsracter-
irtic of the convection Buperheater is accepted
t[tilffi
without correction unless the temperatures are
quite high and close control is required lor Ftc. lG19 Echematic diagra,m
the safef and efrciency of the steam using of. locstio! of both convection
equipment. Suppose a turbine is designed to and radiaot superheaten in a
beut-tube boiler.
take steam at 510'C: Thie turbine should
not be supplied with steam hotter than 5lOol0 for euch designs are criticol to
small excess of temperature. Hence. s choice is faced of either uncotrtrolled

Elie Cr.! I7on v'6.k\

Fro. rO.20 Pendsnt multiple-loop superheater in first pass of a threednrnr borlur.
32A STEAM GENERAMRS
Bup€rhest with maximum temperaturc at slO"C and temperature deficiency at
part loads, or acceptance of I surPlus superheating capgcity cancelled by de-
6up€rhe&t or other form of control. This is illustrated in Fig' 10-22.

t93
I- --I--I
t75
-IIIII
- -- --I-II
I'I'-I
r- - -r-r--
--- III
r!0 - ------ -l

t25
-
-
a --
l6i I EIII
@tr@ =
--III-
-E--- -.1
I r

100
IKI,]
l:il --l I
I
II--
---I
II--
I-
l-t
II
- Lttl
f5 ffi:- - -t! FAO
St PEiBEAt

50
-
E@
EI ffit'tmEEtrdN
-44.-.)
Erd I

I
aii
- 1-
L_ l
tr
ilrr
25 r-- I-II
r- I-r--
- -I o.13.3-13.8% cO o to ao ao ao roo

0 - - -
I--T--1
20 ao 60
5 O1

to
-+-
t00
owrarta corYacrol
trtll aY-rr3! oi oa-
trrriril^tal co*ti4 l.gltD
PERCEII1 OF RAIEO lDaarro foa olarit! tD!]atao toi
FUL! LOAO CAPACIIT ttt rI $n5ltl Lo ol rttlt rltrtur to ol
tr'ro, 1G21 Performance of combtnation Frc. 10-22 Superheat characteristics of
superheater, (Courtcsy Foster llheeler conventional convection superheate.,
CorP '\

The conventional convection Euperheater with no control can produce reted

superheat only at full load. At other loads the ste&m temperature is less and
the prime mover efrciency sufrers correspondingly, With temperature control
the superheater is made sufficienUy large to produce tbe 5l0"C-at the lower end
oJlfr"i.ra range over wbich contiol iJto be exercised. This is asiumed to be

i;

GAS Ey-t SS lwll{ FURIIACE

Frc. 10-23 Superheat control without desuperheat.

SUPERIIEAT 325
0O/o load, in Fig. 10-?2. At higher loads the surplus temperature is generated,
thcn cancelled by controlled deeuperheal, or the rate of heat transfer through
the superheater is controlled by methods which will receive brief mention later.
Radiant and convection superheaters in series connection have opposing tem-
perature characterietics that tend to cancel the variation of final superheat.
'When
used in series the final superheat is produced in the conveition zone.
There are many methods in use for controlling final steam temperature. AB
these are frequently rather complicated, they will merely be summarized here
and only a few illustrated.
1. Follow the sup€rhester with a water spray dezuperheatet oper&ted by a tem-
perature rcgulator. This method, ouce widely used, is not greetly Iavortd at pres€Dt on
large units.
2. Gas by-passing. This method is emptoyed for regulating coDvection Euperheatere.
It is lecessary to employ an oversized superheater, one rrhich will
give the required superheat at the lowest sp€cified load. At higher
loads tbe by-pass is opeued, allowing some of the gas to flow
around rather than over the zuperheeter. Although the gas passing
the superheater is hotter, its volume is less, hence the compensa-
tion. Sometimes used with spray desuperheater lor fine control.
3. Combine coDyection and radiaat types in series as has
already been mentioned, or place an intcrdeck type Bo as to
receiye the proper proportions of radiant and convectiol energy.
Neither ol these methods is adequate to Inaintailr unifomr tem-
perature over a load range, but the va atior rrill be substantially
lees thau for either type alone. May be combined with gas by-
pa.esing.
4. Other methods emplopng a combination of radiaft end
convection srperheaters with twiu furnaces which may be dif-
fereutially fired are said to have given excellent rezults over a
wide rauge of superheat coutrol.
5. By-pass a varying portion of the rteam, at an iutermedia,te
poiDt iu the sup€rheater, through a tubular desuperheater cooled
by boiler water or 8team.
6. Control moisturc qualiw oI 6team ente ng superheater by
condeDser control using boiler feedwater as the heat absorber.
The superheater inlet header contains circulating tubes for the
feedwater. Ftc. 1G24
7. Furnace exit temperature adjustment. The decreasing sqq- Spray type de-
vection coemcient could be offset by higher mean t€mp€mture superheater -with
-ele-
difrerence, thereby holding degree of sup€rheat more nearly con- tempertture
staDt. In large, water-rvalled pulverized coal furnaces baving ment and spray
tangential burners, the bumers are sometimes designed to be regulator. (Cour-
adjustable so as to tilt the flame in the vertical plane. A downli'ard tesy Notthern
flame tilt increases the heat absorptiotr by water walls and de- Equipmetut DiDi-
creaseg fumace exit tempemture. Conversely, at lower loads sa sion Continental
up-tilt of the flame reduces lurnace heat absorptiou, i1r"ro""" Poundry & Moch.
temperature oI gases leaving furnace, and thereby fumishes the Co.
needed extra, temperature difrelence at the superheater.
Eiamplc 2: The superheat charac-teristic of a steam generator is reDresented by
, =rt8.3 + ,/tlr6,where I is superheat temperstrtre, ' O, aud & is the steaB flow, Lg
per hr.StarDDre!8ue=r2.86 k8/@t.b. gprsy d€.uperheating can be used to mailteiu
326 STEAM GENERATORS
con6tatrt tempersturc over & raDge of flow. The d€Eup€rheat action required to main-
tsin coustant temperature b€tween mo{ aDd rrrr0 kg per hr flow will norv be inves-
tigated. At 08o4kg flow,, = rt8.8 + {tm4rELa6= !01.r'ro. Thie is the temperature at
the lower end of the proposed flow range; hetlce it is the temperatule that can be
lnaintained by desuperheating.
Assuming spray water available at 08:s! c, the quantity required for a desuper-
heated florv of u&{0 kg per hr is determined by successive approximations. Let lr340
- ,L be the water sprayed in the desuperheater. Tbe temperature of the , La leaving.
the superheater is somewhat less than given by2rs.t+ 1r9{o/Blf5, say 34r' C. At this
temperuture h = 3ll7 J petg. The mixture leaving the desuperheater &t!0r.7'C has
h = 8@l J per g The desuperheater ha€ a heat balance as follows:
8[?xtor,+ ( ng& - ,)3srx ro.=80gtix l(px n3a0
L: rooal LS per hr
At this flow, t =118.3+ 10043/8106 =s6r.8, .o. A recalculstion using this tempera-
ture gives ,L = l0t86 ; hence spray leater = tt6l kS Iror hr
10-10 Boiler Accessories and Trim. The steam boiler consists basically
of heating surface and shell or drums. These are enclosed in a setting. Then
the "trim" is added, this consisting of valves and piping essential to the safe
operation of the boiler. These are supplied with the boiler when a complete or
"turn key" installation is purchased. On the other hand, the purchaser fre-
quently buys a bare boiler, then assembles the setting and trim himself. The
minimum trim is usually the following:
l. tr'eed*eter entrance. A stop valve and a check valve, rvith thc lormer installed
nearest the boiler.
2. Blow-ofi (water), including special valves not vulnerable to dirt in the water.
3. Safety valves (steam) to prevent rise of steam pressure above a predetermined
limit.
4. Weter column, with gauge glass, high- and low-water alarms, etc. The primary
purpose of a water column is to inform the boiler otr'€mtor where the rvater level is in
his boiler. As this level should be niaintained within s few -m, or less, of a zorzol
uater ktre, the display of water level need orly cover a heightoffioto a6otnm., centered
about ihis normal line.
5. Stop-and-check valve. This is mounted on the main steam outlet and to it is
connected the steam pipe line.
6. Steam vent. A small outlet on the top drum notmally closed by a valve, which
may be opened when it is desired to hold atmospheric pressure in the boiler, as during
initial boiling out.
7. Steam pressure gauge vith siphon, cock, and inspector'e test cock.
8. Various special openings, in accordance with pulchaser's requiremeuts, for the
accommodation of feedwater control elements, reagent feed, wate! sampling, eto,
Boiler accessorics are low-water ssfeguards, soot blower, steam purifier,
economizer. Low water level is, of course, an invitation to disaster. It is not
as hazardous as overpressure in that, although low water can be detrimental to
the boilcr, it is not so liable to cause an explosion that will rvreck the premises,
at least lor water tube types. But it can cause partial or complctc ruination of
the boiler by ovcrheating; hence alarms and automatic saicguards a're fre-
quently provided by cautious owners. Some of these are: (1) the low-high water
darm u'histles usually placed in water columns; (2) float-operated, low-water
BOILER ACCESSORIES AND TRIM 327

't;fi1.,

?
I
\- E
r::. E'
&
I

I
rUaES l
I . .i..,1
rf Water Column. E rd BlrW

o
RotstinS elemonr .oot bloe.r.

o
ndatlry .!d rsts .ttng d.@.nt rooa blow.r.
Ito. lG25 Eome boiler suxilisrie8.
328 STEAM GENERATORS
cutoffs for stopping electric motors driving fuel feeders; (3) fusible plugs of
low melting temperature alloy placed in the boiler shell below the minimum
safe waterline. In spite of well-engineered safeguards, one reads occaBional
reports of boilers being ruinously overheated becauee of failure oI preve-ntative
,ouint"rrun." of automatic salety equipment or through operator indifierence
and carelessness.
Soot Blowers. The heating surfaces of boilers, especially coal-fired, water-
tube boilers, have a tendency to become coat€d with debris of combustion, i.e.,
soot, cinder, fly ash. This loosely adhering layer is a definite impediment to the
transfer of Leat and should be removed after it has built up sufficiently to result
in a significant'increase in flue gas temperature' The conventional method ie
to blasi the deposits from thc heating surface with jets of steam from a hand
lance inserted through setting openings or by one or more permanently mounted
pro-
"soot blowers." The usual form for the smaller boilers is a dead-end tube
jecting through the setting and extending into the tube bank. A number of
smalllateral nozzles are provided and the external head is arranged so that
high-pressure steam can be admitted to the tube and at the same time the tube
rolated around its axis. Externally then the device incorporates a turning
mechanism (manual or motorized), a valve, and the packing gland necessary
between fixed stcam supply and rotating tube. Steam jets clean sopt from heat-
ing surface in their vicinity, but the action is limited in extent in a close array
.rr-"h ur u tube bank; hence several elements may be needed to clean a boiler
adequately. It is not uncommon to see 8 to 16 units in a Iarge boiler. Theee
*orid bo iedious to operate manually, and, sirice they must not all be operatcd
simultaneously,' the operating heads are electric-motor-powered and operated
by remote control on an automatic sequential basis. On some boilers the
automatic draft system controls have to be positioned for abnormally high
draft before bcginning the soot blowing operation; otherwise the release of
steam into the setting may blow soot and smoke into the boiler room.
lVhcn not i( use, the soot blower tube of the system described would be
dry, uncooled, and sublect to gas temperatures. Even.with alloy tubes the
tleierioration is relatively rapid on units norm*lly experiencing high gas tem-
peratures. Retractable elements, though more expensive initially, Iave the
advantage of protection from high temperature when not in use. Also, using
only twJtraveling nozzles, the jet size can be larger without excessive steam
drain, and the projected blast distBnce greater' The eroding action of blower
jets on boiler tubes, sometimes seen with the fixed rotary type, is said to be
much less with the retractable type. Principal disadvantages are (1) clearances
required around outside of setting and (2) more difrcult steam packing lob
(tr&vel as well as rotation). In spite of the cost of compressed air, some re-
tractablcs have been operated on air to reduce boiler water m*ke-up, and
blower packing gland maintenance.
Soot- bloweis should be operated frequently enough to keep the tubes clean.
Instead of a once-a-shift or twice-a-shift rule-of-thumb routine, the operating
eneineer should observe the flue gas temperature drop, estimate the quantity of
stim per blow, and calcrrlate the frequency on an economic basis. Obviously if
*Thir would plsce too heavy s stesm &ai! on boiler; aleo, draft systetu are uoable
to cope *ith e!t!a voluEe of wet fl. ue gs6.
BOILER AND TB,IM 325
the temperature drops after blowing, the int,enal might well bo decreaeed,
whereas if only- l2uwere observed, it could represent a net loss becauee the
value of thc steam used was more thgn that of the increment of flue gas heat.
Staarn Purifiers. Geners,ted 6team miqht be unsuitable for some usea by
virtue of its quality or ita lack ol purtty. Quality is the neasure of amount of
entraiued moisture carried by the steam, whereas purity is the absence of solid
or dissolved matter in the wet steam. Impurity is measlqed as parts per million
(ppm) of foreign matter in steam, by weight. It is piesent in steam mainly
because the generated steam entrained droplets of boiler water containing solid
or dissolved matter. After passing through a superheater the impurity is al-
together solid dust particles. If the steam is to be used in saturated state for
heating or process, its quality is not critical. Also, in plants of this type the rate
of boiler blowdown tro steam generation can be, and usually is, maintained
sufficiently high that the concentrations of dissolved matter in boiler water
remain fairly low and wet steam is not iherefore highly charged with ppm of
solids. However, the use of high-pressure, highly superheated steam in modern
power plants does require very pure steam. The c&rryover of solid matter
becomes a source of operating difficulties in superheater and turbine.
Typically in boilers without special purifying apparatus, 98.5/o quality is
guaranteed, whereas for power service W.5/o has been considered necess&ry.
But in the latest power stations operating on boiler water concentrations like
2000 ppm, the steam ought not to contain over l2o of 1/, of such water if the
impurity content of the steam flow is to be limited to I ppm. This is practically
impossible to secure unless steam purifiers are inserted in boiler drums. The
obtaining of clean steam from boiling water can be considered in three steps.
1. Primary separation of the steam from the circulating water-at the dis-
engagement surface.
2. Washing of the steam with fresh arid relatively clean Ieedwater. After
washing, the quality may be approximately the same, but the ppm are low
because feedwater pprn are but a small fraction of boiler water concentrations.
3. Removal of excess moisture in a steam "drier" by multiple baffies, screens,
etc.
All boilers must have primary separation. As has [een mentioned, tiris is a
funetion of the drum size and tube arrangement and is sufficient for most genera-
tion where saturated steam is the final product. Power boilers have driers, even
if it is no more than a simple dry pipe. The steam washer is increasingly re-
quired on today's large power boilers. Weshers and driers are required to be
built into the steam drum above the water level.
Economizers. The boiler economizer is a feedwater heater deriving heat
from gaseous products of combustion discharged from the boiler. It always
consists of tubular heating surface, frequently arranged as shown in Fig. 10-26,
but sometimes being inside a bent tube boiler casing and being similar in ap-
pearance to one of the rear banks of tubes. The significant difrerence between
economizer and evaporation surface is that there is no steam generation in the
economizer, only water heating; also, there is no recirculation path.
Economizer tubes are steel-smooth tubes in some designs, fin-covered in
others. Locatiou is dependent on gas flow design of the boiler, external auxil-
iaries, and avgilable boiler room space. The degign of the ecorromizer is con-
380 STEAM GENERAMRS
cemed with providing sufrcient heating surlace to reduce the gBB temperoture
to the required degrte. The problem is primarily convective heat transfer with
eecondary problems of gas-eide cleaning (soot blowers), accessibility, interior
corrosion,' exterior corrosion due to vapor condensation out of the low tem-
perature gas at light loads, anci draft loss from friction between gas and tubes.
The equations ol heat transfer by convection between the fluids, both of
which vary in temperature, have been developed in Chapter 9. The typical
empirical equation for over-all conductance (9-14) has often been implemented
with constants derived from plots of test deta. For example, Maynz gave, for

t;

\\\\\\
x x
\\\\\
\\\\\\ !
lq
)E
c !
ti

-Uc. 10-26 Schemalic economizer

A = sq a water heating surface
dc = sq m free area for gas flow at any horizoDtal section such as,YX.
Tube bank , tubes wide by y tubes deep.

smooth tube economizers, A:1.22*and, B = 0.00075. Kreisinger reported./. =

r0.7r+ B = 0.00095 for longitudinally fianed tubes having two diametrically
opposite ffns. The extra heating efrect ol circumferentially 6nned tubee is
so dependent on fin spacing and depth that no general velues of ,{ and B
are quoted.
The relationship between heating surface and temperatures show:r by Eq
9-I7 is capable of resolving the conditions of economizer performance into re-
quired heating surface, provided that z were determinable either from estimates
of the temperatures involved or from empirical data, such as the following
(for plain tubes) :
z : +.+sff,- o.ro (1Ga)

where p: Ra,tio of *ater to gas florv, by weight.

ws
z : Temper4ture ratio (r', - t'"'l/Q" - t).
It has been seen that high gas velocity, represented by large mass flow,
G, is an aid to heat transfer since the principal resistance is in the gas film.
* Usually solved by &dequete feedwater deaeration (Chapter 13).
koal pormr hrdeg C
1 kggDor kg- d6s C
BOILER ACCESSORIES AND TRIM $1
However, gas velocity produces fluid friction rvhich is manifested externally as
a draft loss* in the economizer..The ordinary measurement of draft loss is by
" mm of water," referring, of course, to the displacerncnt iu a U-tube manom-
eter. Draft losses in economizers rise sharply with gas velocity, approximately
as the square of G; therefor.e there is a practical limit to incrcase of the con-
ductance by employment of high mass flow. If it were attempted to reducc
economizer size and cost by designing for high.G, the draft loss through it,
as well as the cost of providing the draft, might become uneconomically iarge.
It appears that lhe heat transfer conditions selested for an economizer shoukl
involve some attempt at cconomic balance among the several factors involved.
Although the introduction of these economical factors is not practicable here,
the economizer problem may bc illustrated if certain assumptions replace lhe
involved economic analysis. Thus we find that an assumption oI mass flow
simplifies the situalion so that an illustrative example can be shown.
Example 1: Assuming that it is desired to operate a boiler with high gas exit tem-
perature, say 30s'C, the operating conditions of an economizer desiqned to reduce the
fioal temperature to t1t'g rvill be investigoted. The follorving data rre to be used (see
Fig. !0-26 lor nomenclature).
f'r:399'C; {.:274P A; L: 9e"C; ce:0.25, c- - 1.0kool per k6-degg;
G : 2{967 L8 per hr- rBr
wJW*:2.o.
By heat bslance: 0.25]tls( sca
- 2?1) = 1.0If*0" - 00).
,Since I4lIIr* i.0: ," : tot'c.
is siven r,s
d*,:399- l0l:2a8'c; d.":274- ss : t?i"c; 0^-/0,r^:1.26,
z = At'/At = (see - 224)/(l0l - ee):2.0.
U : 1.22 + 0.00075 X 267: 4.00 if plain tubes.
. IorF,tran assumed lBl$
ir, by
k8 steam per hr boiler the requied economizer heating surlace
!17:
- : _:__--
1l
rx I'l{ ln 1.36
: 2;6 mr
(2.0 - l )(4.00)
(lVith finned tubes having U = 6.95; d : 16.t m, )

Example 2: The aEangement of the heating surface for the economizer of Ex I is

prircipally the determination ol q g, C, and D of Fig. t0.26. Assume 6o.E mm X 3 mm
tubes on 1OO mm centers ho zontally.
Water velocity through the tubes is relatively unimportant to hert transfer for rlrt,
l)rincipal resistance is in the gas film. Lorv tvater velocities make for mrny more trrbes
in parallel carrying the floN and promote r more pr.lcticahle ecolomtzcr shape to s hiclr
to attach the gas conduits. C and D must be chosen rvith tegard to the assumed m:rss
florv G, while y involves additioaally the \erting surlace, :1.
/ \ lI
Free arca ft r gas flo$ : l^D - r(o,osO) : Il'. C ll . \ +ll* G.
\ ,/
Approrimately, C = 0.1(e f 1) oI r :10C
- 1.

tDralt is fully treeted in Chapter 12.

532 STEAM GENERATORS
Subetituting V./W. = 2, G =z*xn, and aasumiug a ehape of D : 3C, o is then
crlculated to be 8 tube8. Ag the water velocity required to csrry r8r{{ ka per hr
through eight 60.8 Etrlx 3:ntD tubes in pamllel isO.6t arl.o,r:at.practical v.trrc CXD
ie louDd to be o.el !! x2.?m. To sllow for the fact thrt thc tubo lrrangeEont i. 8t g-
g.nd, C X D riU be tatcn ae tp X3m.
Eeeting eurfaco per row - 8 X0.06r'X 3 : 3.?7 mt.

!: A/1.7? : 275/3.71 = 73 tows.

It is obvious, from the foregoing, why manufacturers frequently use finned econe
Eizer tubeo. The nominal heatiDg ourface required is decreased; consequently, the
number of rows of tubes, the size, &nd the cost of the ecoDomizer are lar more favor-
able. As wae deGrmined in Ex 1,.{ = 164 m! lor longitudinalty finned tubes.8, D,

Fipally, it might be desirabre to test for gas frictiou lose. A:r empirical equatioa for
draft loss on plain tubes (approximately co[ect lor longitudinal 6!s, but Dot for
circuDferential) is:
Ap : S.55 X 10j@ in. water (1G5)
gor C :24l],67.,Ap: 1.4 in IIzO, e r€asooable figure if forced draft is employed, uot
so for Datursl dralt.

10-11 Combustion Equipment. At the outset of ttrir chapter we men-

tioned combustion equipment as a component of the stean generator. Since the
source of heat is the combustion of a fuel, a working unit must have whatever
cquipment is necessary to receive the fuel and air, proportioned to each other
8nd to the boiler steam demand, mix, ignite, and perform any other special
combustion duties, such as.distillation of volatile from coal prior to ignition.
Fluid fuels are handled by burzers,'solid h*mp fuels, by sfokers. In boiler plants
hand firing on grstes is practicaLly unheard of nowadays in new plants, al-
though there are many small industrial and institutional plants still in service
with hand firing. The numbers are fewer each year, and hand firing will eventu-
ally disappcar.
Since so many difrerent principles are used in combustion equipment, Table
10-2 has been prepared to summarize the more important currently manufac-
tured types of stokers and burners. Several of these will be described and
illustrated.
Although the nature of fuels end the theory ol combustion are treated ex-
teneively in Chapter 5, a brief Burnmary of the requirements of combustion
is pertinent to an understanding of the cornbustion equipment of a steam boiler.
The fuels are mainly bituminous coal, fuel oil, and natural gas, mentioned in
order of importance. All are composed of hydrocarbons, and coal hss, as well,
much fixed carbon and little sulfur. To bum these fuels to the desired end
products, CO2 rnd H2O, requires air in euficient proportions, I good mixing of
fuel and air, snd a turbulence or relative motion between {uel and air. The
combustion equipmen+" must fulfill these requirementB and, in addition, be
capable of close regulation of rate of firing the fuel, for boilers ordinanly
olerate on variable load. Coal-ffring equipment must also have a means for
holding and discharging the ssh residue.
Burners and stokerc are mechanisme of great ingenuity and meohanicql de-
COI\{BUSTION EQUIPMENT 33i}
Table 1G3. OOMMON COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT FOR STITAM BOILER.S

Multiplo jet'
Gas Faa rDix
Pre-mix Multiple burner
Pressur€ atomiring. Replaceable tip
Wide range tip
}'luid
fuela oil Steom atonrizingt Outside mix
(Burners) Rol,ery cup' Inside mix
Wick
Voporizcr Hot irhtc
Short flame
Pulverized coal' Long flamc
Cruehed and
High turbulence
{ Tangential
lurnoce (
6nely sized
cosl Mechanical
Overthrol' -f Dump gr:rte
Spreaderr flnrlerthron' I Tnrveling grate
stoker Air jct
Lump Jct throw
coBl Overfeed jet
Sted,m
(Stokers) C,onveyor' f Traveling grate N&turll dralt
stoker lChain grate Forccd rlraft

'Jndetfeed
rr."r,o.,"r"",o.r.{i,}*ii"{3"*t"r;r.{3::lX:E:lU"
Sloping rcto{'-Multiple retoft, la.ge c&pscity.

' Descdbed in t xt.

tail. They are reduced to successful forms by their manufacturers chiefly
through experimental development cif prototypes {ollorved by minor job-by-job
improvements or refinements. In Buryeying the equipment currently available in
this field, the reader Bhould not become engrossed in mechanical details.to the
extent of overlooking the manner in which each lulfills the basic requtrements
necessary to any successful installation, which are:
1. Thorough mixing of fuel and air.
2. Optimum fuel-air ratios leading to most complete combustion possible
msintained over full load range.
3. Ready and accurate response of rate of fuel feed to loarl demand (usually
aa reflected in boiler etcam pressure) .r
4. Continuous and reliable ignition of fuel.
5. Practical distillation of volatile componcnts ol coal lollowcd by adcquate
action covered in Items 1 and 4 above. \
6. Adequate control over point of formation and accumulation of ash, $hen
cosl is thi) fuel.
Natural gas is used ae a boiler fuel in gas well regions where the fuel is
relstively cheap and coal sourceB comparatively distant. The transportation
of natural gas overlsnd to supply cities with domestic and ildustrial heat has
made the gas in the well more vsluable and the gas-fired Bteam gener&tor more
diffrcult to jusiify in comparison with coal, on fuel cost alone. Cleanliness and
t Eere the author implies combustiou coutrol systems deaigted to maittaio tearly
corstant steam pres3ure in the bdiler, a complex subiect rcle8sted to Sec 12-16.
334 STEAM GENERATORS
convenience in use are other criteria of selection, but more decisive in small
plants than in central porver staiions.
Transportation costs add less to the deiivery price of oil than gas; also luel
oil may be stored in tanks at a reasonable cost, whereas gas cannot. Hence al-
though fuel oil is usually more costly than coal per kg of steam generated,
many operators select fuel oil burners rather than stokers because of the
simplicity and cleanliness of storing and transporting the fuel from storage to
bumer. Also, many have decided on installations that can be readily switched
from coal to oil and vice versa as a safeguard against interruptions arising from
shortages created by strikes, bad weather,'etc.
Most of the stcam gcnerated in the United States is produced Irom coal fuel.
In small plants the horizontal retort underfeed stoker has been an old standby
but is a poor competitor, at present, to the spreader stoker. Pulverized coal is
successful in small plants, but costs favor stokers up to approximately 2268O kg
per hr rate of steam gencration per boiler. Above 45360 hg per hr the majority
of new units are pulverized coal-fired. In the past the multiple-retort underfeed
stoker was widely employed fdr large boilers, but this author has not seen eny

OVERFEED UNOERFEED BURNEN

U,,,\
cofF:'i- 4 fl lL

/t fit^ ,1,
l

R grd
c L
EEE oirttt totton Econbuirion ffillrtr
frG. 10-27 Comparison of combustion principles.

recent evidence that they are of importance in the new plant field. Spreaders
and pulverized coal seem to have taken over the large boiler field. Spreader
stokers are now receiving the greatest interest and sales efrorts of any stoker
type. The spreader is also very popular with small boiler operators; hence it
may be said currently to be the leading type.
lO-12 Spreader Stoker. The principle of spreader stoking is the sprin-
kling of coal, evenly and thinly, over a grate which forms the floor of the furnace.
Desirable spreader coal consists of a mixture of fine particles and small lumirs
up to3l.8 mm gcreen eize. Air ia fed up through the grates from wind bores
located below. The thin luel bed ofrers but little teeistance and the coal is
quickly consumed. Only the lumps reach the grstas, for the fine partrcle8 bum
in suspension riding on the column of gas and flame rieing from the grates.
Turbulence, which is quite important in this stoker, is secured by over-6rt
air or rteam lets.
A r.atural result of suspension buming of small fuel particles is the entrain-
ment of ash irr the products of combustion. There is enough of this from spreader
otokers to create a nuisance if discharged from chimneys. Also many ol the
gas-borne parbicles contain carbon which should be trrpped and returned to
SPREADER STOKER $,
the furnace lor burning. Thus one dees a disadvantage of these stokers-a duSt
collector is almost a, necessary auxiliary.
A spreader stoker consists of (l) hoppers and feeders, (2) distributors, and
(3) gratcs. The hopper receives the supply of coal. Underncath the hopper is a
feeder to mcasure out the coal in accordance rvith treecl ancl drop it onto the
rotating distributor.* The Cistributor then impels the coal into thc furnace.
Because thc coal is a mixture of fine and coarse picccs it caa be lrunchcrl into
the furnace so as to descend fairlv uniformly ovcr the grai.cs, rvith thc hcavier
pieces, of course, fadhcst floru thc distributor'. 'fhis gorrld not bc achicvcrl il
the coal u'cre all onc size Although thcsc stokers arc not critical to coal com-
position (as arc many), thc author lras found them to be Iairly sensitivc to coal

l
I

I
I

,.., 'l .t', l

,'.r ,!
dr [!.rP!]d P6r CONITOIS

Frc. 10-28 Spreader stoker setting, with detail of feeder

sizing and percentage size distribution. The range of transverse distribul,ion

limits thc width of lurnace that can be served bv a singlc distribu,tor; hence
this stoker usually has two or more fccdcr-lroppcr'-clistrilruIop ,r11.. It is rvell
to cmploy trvo units, evei in a small boiler, on account oI the method of rc-
moving ash. \\'hen, upon a ferv hours of olreration, an accurrnrlation of ash is
present on the grates, one feeder is shut dorvn. Aftel the secLion of grates in
front of it is burned clean ol coal, that section's ash is durnpcd. Then fire is
raked onto the clean grates from the acijacerrt u.orking section, and a nerv llre
quickly established. After that, the othcr grate sections can be cleaned one by
onc. The wind box under the grates is, of course, zonrl so tltat draft can be
removed lrom the section to be cleaned. As ltroportioning of air to fucl is ac-
complished by var-ving the air plenum in this r ind box, ash must not be allowed
to collcct thickly and interpcse & temporary high draft rcsistance. Largc
spreader stokers have continuous ash cleaning by the usc oi cndless-belt travel-
* Itl the path of a jet for noomechanical distributors.
336 STEAM GENERATORS
ing grates. The leeders are always set in the lront wall, and the grates move to-
wa4tl the front wall for ash discharge. Such spreadcr stokers are less likely to
have uncven coal distribution on the grates with defective coal sizing than are
the dump grate stokers.
The coal leeder is the mechanical heart of the stoker. It is here that the
automatic combustion control is applied; also hcre the manulacturers differ
considerably in equipment detail. Feeders may be reciprocating rams, endless
belts, spiral worms, etc. They are customarily operated from the same line-
shaft as the distributors rvith thc variable specd device controlling combustion
rate locatcd between line shalt and feeder.
The mechanical type distributor is a rotor rvith vanes or paddles, anglcd 3o
as to throw some coal diagonally as well as straight ahead. The i'otor is
Iineshaft-driven, whilc the lineshaft itsclf is usually motor-clriven. l\Iotor-to-
lineshaft conncction has a speed adjustmcnt whereby the rotor speccl nray be
varied to obtain proper coal throw.
Spreader stokcls have quick response to load change, bcing molc' Iikc
burners in this respr.ct than othcr Etoker types because thcre is only a srnall
amount of fr rl on the gratcs at any timc. Thc pou'er requitcd is also coDtpara-
tively small, not ol'er i hp pcr tonnc per hr fircd. Typically 50t)0 to 8750 kcal
furnacc heat release and 675000 to 1350000t kcal/m'? h grate sulface ir possible.
Disadvantages include nced for distribute<i coal sizirrg, dust collection
prcviously noted, and low-load limitations.t
This is a stokcr that can, in emergency, be hand-fired to at lcast 50ft of its
rat3d capacity in small- and medium-sized uuits having dump grates. (Not
true of other stokers.)
10-13 Conveyor Stoker. This stokcr consisls of an endless grate which
continuously receivcs coal at its "front" end and carries it into the furnacc sup-
ported on the links, or bars, composing thc grate surface. On most typesl the
fuel bed remains undisturbed on the grates, the ash being discharged over the
rear end.
C hairu grate slokers have longitudinal links or bars so connected by trans-
verse pins as to becomc a continuous flat chain of the width of the furnace. The
chain is supportcd at the front and rear by multiple sprockets and intermedi-
ately by tracks or skid plates. The front sprocket drives, and the grate i'. in
efrect shoved into the furnace.
The grates ravcl slowly,i.c.,say 300mm/urin, withspeed varied for combustion
control. I'or example, in a drive rvhcre a steadily reciprocating pawl engaged
a ratchet wheel on the sprocket shaft, combustion control could be introduced
by regulating whether the pawl picked rrp one, two, three, etc., ratchet teeth
per throw.
Traueling grate stolters are similar in action to the chain grate type, difrer-
+ Iligher lor continuous ash dischmge. .
t Reference is to combustion difrculties, say belo* 251o rating. There is r tendcncy to
smoke ercessively; also, firemen are likeiy to lose the fire due to extremc thinness ol firel
bed and uqeven fuel distributior.
I Ia the "compensating feed" types thele 3re altermrte traveling and stttionary sectio[s,
the efrect of rvhich is to disturb thc {uel bed aod to compect it as combustion proceeds.
The drag of the statio[ary sections causes the whole fuel bed to move more storvly toward
the rear oI the. stoker.
CONVEYOR STOKEB 3il7
ing only in mcthod of supporting the grate. Strong transvcrse bare are carried
at their cnds by continuous chains which travcl around the supporting frame.
These support bars carry transverse cast-iron grates, but there is no connection
betwcen adjaccnt gratcs save through the bars and chains which carry tirem.
Traveling stokers are set in the furnace with the working surfacc of the
grates horizontal or nearly so. At the fced cnd the stoker projects lrom the
fumace sufficiently to accommodate the loading hopper and drive mechanism.
Air is supplied to the region between the working and returning grates.
Combustion on any stoker may be considcred to be composed of three
stagcs; viz., distillatidn (coking), ignition, and combustion of fixed carbon.
Ignition cannot be continued satisfactorily on the conveyor stoker solely by
heat conrluction from lump to lump bccause thc arca for ignition is relatively
small due to thc thin fucl bcd. Ratc of propagation of thc ignition line is liable

Overltre
I lt
2
Ac/,urtable
"fuel gofe t

) BI
t:
Zoned jlenum J
Ash
l-rc. 10-29 Principle of the conveyo! stoker.

to bc slorver than the rdtc of travel of the stoker, thereby tending to shunt the
burning section of the fuel bcd rearward on the stoker. Consequently, furnaces
for thcsc stokers arc built $'ith ignition arches so arranged as to reflcct heat
from thc incandescent region to the surfacc of the incoming coal.
Good distillation of the volatilc matter in the coal must be followed by
equally good combustion of that volatile. The ignition arch constrains the gas
to the hottcst portion of the furnace where it will be burned if over-fire air is
arimitted.to this region. This is gencrally done by letting the over-fire air in
through opcnings in the arch, so disposed as to promote turbulence in thc
burning volatilc. Thc rnain part of thc combustion air is supplied from below
tirc wolking grate. To coutrol this air supply cffectively (i.e., vary the plcnum
rlong thc length of thc stoiicr ir accordance with the combustion needs) the
plenun chambcr shoukl bc zoncd rvith cross partitions so that air may bc fur-
nislrcrl rs and l'hcre nccded.
The luel bed is thin, though not so thin as in spreader stokers' Forced draft
convcyor stohcrs have ipproximatcly 150 mm thick grcen fucl bcd i tho6c fcw
338 S'TEAI,I GENF]R.{1'0RS
built for natural draft rnust opcrate with thinner bcds and lower rates of com.
bustion per squarc metrc ofgrate surfacc. f'orccd draft stokers can develop
810000-1350000 kcal per hr permz grate surface, with drive powcr ol 3'5 hp per
tonne per hr. 'fhey will burn fine scrrcnings, anthracilc, lignite, and special
coals or sizings not readily handlcd by othcr stokcrs. Bituminous coal can be
uscd if it is frec burning, i.c., noncaking, but as caking coals are the maitr
steaming coab of this countiy this is a rather serious limitation. Because olthe
requirrd ignition archel, thc furnacc will be more costly thao for other stokers.
l0-14 Underleed Stoker. fliis tyl)c ol stokcl is lrriurarily a l olltrlrzatio[
retort to *tich may bc attachcd overfeed grate sections rvhere tuuch of the

Frc. l(l:]0 Singlo-rctorl lnrlt'rloo,l -.toker

coli.(l I)r'orhlci, is LLrrrcrl. llt,sli cotl i," supplic,l flc,ln bclorv under pl'cssule,
clusing tlic coll alrcariy in tlrc r(torl to ri,sc. passing in srrccession througL
zonr,: of rlistillrrlion, iuritiorr. urrrl rornirustion. Air is srrpplirrrl along the sidcs
oi tLc r.tort"! arr,l lrclott' l lr(, olcl lcc(! scctions.
Unrlclfccrl stohcrs lrrll into tlo tn.rin groups, lhe single letorl aud the
muLtiple retort.sloAe,s. ,\r is seon lrorl Fig. 10-30, t,hc singkr retort stoker con-
sisl; of l trouglr-slialrcri rctort to which coai js cleli\rrcd b1' a rcciluocrting
,a?r,. A sy,,ttcD) of auliliu:'1' rlistlibuting lrushcrs opclatiDg sirnu lt aneousl-l nitlr
the urain rrDr push thc coll longitudinallv into the rct{)rt anrl prcvcnt all of it
lrom rising near tl)c frorlir corl. This stokcr is not conflnccl to thc usc of free-
llrrrring coals -qincc thc cvcr'-upwatrI niotiou of the fucl lrcci supplies a hcaring
tctiorr ulricli l'ill lrlcrk up llrc r'tusts lhich fonrr rlrrling tLc volatilizltion ol
cr-rking coals. Air fronr thc tuyercs pcnctratcs thc lucl bcd. nlixing tholoughly
 U\DERFEED STOKER $9
rr'ith the el'olvcd gascs after which the combustiblo mixturc passes thr.ough thc
bcd of incandcsccnt carbon in orr.ler to reach thc furnacc region. This accounts
for the ability of this stoker to burn a wide varicty of free-burning nncl coking
coals smokelessly. Iine coals rvhich might lack too tiqlrtly untler thc rarrr action]
anthracite, and coals with.relatively low ash Iusiorr temperatures are not suited
to the unclcrfced stoker.
Thc fucl bcrl surface lruilds up to a natural angle of rcpose of the buruing
carbon. Ash appcars at thc surface from rvhiclr it movcs to the ash plrtcs. Since
the main purpose of the retort is volatilization, thc coal-burning capacity may

I::
F+:E

STOXER

++=

ffi
E
tr+!
a*-
ffi

Fr; 10-3Multiple-retort rrndcrleecl stoker. (Cotrrtosr. 1,otrer.)

be increascd by providing side ovcrlced gr&tes to supl)ort tl)c cokc during

cornbustion. The thick fuel bcds over the tuyercs require that the underfeeii
stoker be supplietl rvitli forced draft.
On account ot' the thick fuel bed, windbox air pressnres ale ueccssariiy high:
5l to 127 mm water. This is rc8ectcd in considerable forced draft fan power;
also it bars any natural draft undcrfeed stoker dcsign. Stokcr drive takes
about 5 hp per tonne of coal per hr ifthc ram is rnotor-driven through gearing
and a crankshaft.r However, some uoits arc direct-driven by a steam piston.
Combustion control is introduced into the stokcr rlrive eithcr by varying the ram
stroke or by changing the rate oi lecipiocritiou, usLtrlll' thc lirtter'. Ou ruotor'-
driven units this means an on-olf control; rln stcrrru cfiindcrs, a throtiling.of
tlre steaDr supply. Air-hrcl ratio is adju-.ted by variation of air plenuin rrt thc
* Exclusive of any fao power.
340 . STEAM GENERATORS
tuyercs. Smokelcss operotion is possible &t very light load. Furnace shape can
be sinrple. Because of noncxposurc ol stoker mcclranisn.r to thc furnace, it can
be uscd with all-refractory furna,ces under conditions that would endanger
other types.
Some horizontal-retort stokers have stationary side gratcs; howcver, only
in s:nall capacities, for the agitated sidc overfccd gratcs arc capable of burning
murh more cokcd coal, thus realizing thc maximum distillation action in the
retort. The lnrger stokcrs sometimcs ha,vc t$'in rctorts si(lc by sidc.
Until the advent of spreader stokcrs.thc horizontal retort undcrfccd was the
mainstay in industrial anrl institutional phnts burning lrituminous coal. It has
morc heat lag and, thcrefore, lcss scnsitivc conirol lcsponsc; hovevcr, it is
icss cxpclsivc and rrclfornrs bcttcr ol;er a rvirlc loarl rangc.
Ihis principle of coal firing is applicable to very small units. eyen dwellinf
heating units where ratings as low as 22.7 kg coal per hr are seen.Thc smellunitr
have a pot-like retort which is tcrerv-fed with coal. The retort is surrounded
by dead plates on which ash accumulates. Air-supplying tuyeres are set in the
rim and side of the retort. Control is on-ofr and drive is electric. In such stokers
the retort, feed, drum, control, and air fan are designed and sold as a single
unit,
Increase of capacity in an underfecd cannot be obtaincd sirnpiy by buikling
Iargcr, single-rctort stokers. A limitation in retort size exists by virtue of ina-
bility of obtaining even air distribution from the sides of rvidc rctolts. In thc
past, sloping nultiplc-retort stokcrs, such ls thc onc picturctl in Fig. 10-31,
s'erc installcd under largc boilcrs. Ovclfeed scctions arc extcnsions of thc rctort,
and in gencral the coal florv is flom front to back of the furnace.
10:15 Coal Burners. Finely dividcd coal can bc burncd with certain ad-
vantages that rcsult in cconomic, flexible opcration of large steam gencrators.
Tlrc mcthod ol preparation of pvlueri.zed cool and systcms of transportation arc
givcn in Chaptcr 12. Hcte rve are concerncd with the final picce of apnaratus in
a pulvcrized coai systom-thc burner-becausc it is built into anrl becrtmcs part
of the boiler furnacc. It may be assumed that nrcthods and cquipmcnt capable

OAL S

PLAN OF FIJFNACE,
TANGENTIAL FIRI NG

a TURNACE

'cYc
BURNER
NIE
TURaULENT aUR ER FuaN

Fro. 10-32 Comtrustion systems using coal burners.

COAL BURNERS 34I
of preparing a stream of pulverizcd €oal and air, regulated in quantity to the
boiler dcmand, are currcntly well developed and commercially available.
One manufacturcr lists thc follorving functions of a successful burncr. The
coal and air necd to be handlcrl so that (1t thcrc is stal-rility of ignition; (2)
with eflective adjustmcnt for control of point of ignition and resulting flame
shape; (3) completc combustion; (41 hcat uniformly dcvclopcd in thc flamc
(no superhot spots); antl (51 a(lcquate protcction against overheating, internal
fircs, and exccssivc al,r|rsi\c ucar.
Coal floated on a portion of the air supply (primary air) comes to the burner
in one strcatn, $'hilc thc rcmaining, or scc<ndary, air is anothcr strcatn. Both
ducts attsch to thc burncr, flon rshich the operator expects to gct a uniform,
stablc flame with practically no ircornplctc combustion products. \Iany designs
of burncrs arc availablc wlrich fulfill thc requiremcnts rather pcrfectly on as
littlc as 10ft exccss air-a ra,ther remarkablc accomplishment which rel.rresents
the rcsult of thrcc dccadcs of intensive dcvclopment of this form of combustion
in ccntral powcr stations.
Ignition is produced by radiation and flame propagation from fuel already
burning in the furnace. Distillation quickly follows because of the high tem-
perature and small size of coal particles (60-70/o through a 76 htcroD screen).
Ignition point is a function of the velocity of the primary stream and the rate
at which it fans out and slows down after leaving the burner tip. Flame shape is
controllable by the adjustments of secondary air swirl vanes and other control
adjustments incorporated into the burners.
Pulverized coal burners are frequeniJy classifed as long-flame, short-flame
(or turbulent), and tangential burners. The principal diffcrences are in the
methods used for, and rapidity of, air-Iucl mixing, i.e., in turbulence. In the
long-flame system, the firing is dou,nward in the furnace and, sincc thcre is,
therefore, a considerable length of flame travel permissiblc beforc cornbustion
is complete, the burner itsell is not required to make an intensive mixturc.
Turbulent burners *re usually set into furnace rvalls and launch thc flamc
horizontally intc the furnace. Full and complete mixing is requircd tq bc corn-
pleted at tlre burner. The flame is short and intensely hol.. Tangential bumers
are sct in the furnace corners and directed tangentially to an imaginary circle
in the center of the furnace. The swirling action produces such a turbulent
furnace atrnosphere that high turbulence at the bumer itself is unnecessary.
This type of burner is sometimes coastructed with tips that can be angled
through a srnall vertical arc so as to raise or lcwer the position of the turbulent
combustion region in the furnace. This, in connection with a water-cooled
furnace, gives some control over temperature of gases at the furnace aperture
and is an assistance in maintaining constant superheated steam temperature
as the load varies.
Control of combustion in pulverized coal furnaces is secured by placing coal
feeders under the combustion control system. Air-fuel ratio is controlled by
secondary air plenum, through dampers or fan control.
Cyclone Bunter. Two disadvantages of pulverized coal are: (1) cost of
pulverization and (2) entrainmeri ol 60-7O/o of the ash as "fly ash," requiring
expensive dust collectors in the gas circuit. In an endeavor to avoid these com-
plications there has recently been developed a system of burning crushed, not
342 STEAM GENERATORS
pulverized, coat lh,nortex suspension. Coal is crushcd to 6.4 mm maximum size
and blorrn into a cylindrtcal "cycLone furnace." Air adrnitted tangentialiy at
somc 762mm watcrplenum crcates a stlong !-ortex, high)y turbulent. Extremely
high heat libcraiions and the rrse ol prcheatcd air causc high tcmperatures in,
the cyclonc. 'Ihe luel is quickly consunled, and filreraied ash lorms & moltcn
film florving over the inncr wall ol thc cylindcr. Orving to thc inclination of thc
furnace, the molten ash floivs tg an appropriate disposal system. Scrubbing of
ash particles over the nolten ash film rcsults in capture by adhcsion. Rctluc-
tion of fly ash to 10-20% ol the total ash is vouchsafed by tests or the flue gas.
The use of a pulverized coal burncr involycs first establishirrg thc flarnc.
This is done by an auxiliary gas or oil burner. These -.hould be engiteercd with
the samc care and safcguards as any othcr burner. \1rhcn thc pilot flame-is rvcll
established, thc coal pulverizer or {ccdcr is startcd, and ignition of the coal
stream is prompt. Although not a difficult operatioD, the lighting-ofl of coal

I
't6-

A. Lrng flrnrr: brrnrt.r'. slrelf lypo ',ffi

,i

!
ii

-t' C. Tang,lnii&l bunrer

CE

B. Short flame burner'

FIG. l0-lll Exlmplcs of prrlverizcrl coll lrurners
GAS AND OIL BURNERS g4B
burners needs 1o be competently and carefully handled by experienced person-
nel, for should the setting take in a considerable quantity of unburned coal
dust, and ignition occur before the setting had been thorougly purged, a damag_
ing cxplosion might rcsult. After a burner is in operation, it'i" rnier automatic
combustion control and operators need only
attend to occasional sccondary adjustments
to prcvcnt pulsations, unnecessary air, etc.
10-16 Gas and Oil Burners. Oil
Bwner. The function of a fuel oil burner
is to receivc a supply of fuel, mcter it in
accordancc with the boiler load, and cond!
tion it for thorough rnixing with air. Oil
lnrrncrs are somctirucs usetl rvith large sta-
tion boilcrs, but rnore lrcquently rvith thc
stnellcr boilcrs of industrial, comrncrcial.
and institutional heating plants. In thc
smaller capacities thcy and their air suppi1..
ignition, and control are incorporated into
an intcgratcd oil bt.rlner unil. Scveral man-
ufacturcrs harc developed highly reliablc
automatic units suitable for porver boilers
of 50-500 hp. A largc number of Iight oil Frr:. 10-3.1 Turbulent pulverized
units suitable for dwelling heating plants coal burncr casing.
have becn ltarlieted.
The main tliffercnce in oil burners is thc method of preparing the luel for
close rrixing rvith air. This can be done by vaporizing or'by- atomizing. Vapor-
izing docs not appear in the powcr field. Atomizing can be accomplish"a tfi UV
mixing thc oil rvith a steam jet; (e) by forcing it through a smail orifice under
high pressure; and {3) by centrifuging it. The equipment is known as steam
atomizer, prcssure atomizer, and rotary cup atomizer, and examples are given
in Figs. 10-35. That thc atomizing action is highly successful is -demonstiated
by the rvillingncss of most manufacturers to guarantee ll% CO2 minimum in
the products of combustion of thcir units. This represents low &cess air. say

oit

oir nozzle

(!, rY.r,tna.L.rrt_ tdt

riS
.r . .t /i 5, ...n ,,a.1 ,.r. ../

A. Steam pressure B. Oil pressure C. Rotary cup

Frc. 10-35 Oil burner atomizers.
U STF,AM GENEBA'TORS
lO-25%. ahe following fsctors are inetrumental in determining which of the
maay designs of oil burnere are suit€d to some contemplated installation.
1. Wi[ the fuel be the fluid, easily atomized, refined "light" oil, or is e
cheaper viscous oil to be used? Most medium and large plsnts burn the heavy
oil (;'black," Bunker C,.No. 6) for economy's sake, for it is as good a fuel in
hest units and much cheaper in price.
2. Assuming a widely variable load, is the steam generator to be under
continuous supirvision of operators who can etart fires, change tips, etc., or is
it to be fully automatic?
In smalLr plants light furnace oil is often bumed for convenience, ease of
procurement, eic. The equipment is simpler than for hgevy oil, which has to be
ieated to 65.6-82.2rc in oider to make it suftciently fluid to atomize perfectly.
The pressure atomizing type is better adapted to light oils than to the heavy,
residueladen fuels, especially in the smaller eapacity units. The principle of
atomization consists of forcing the oil through a small orifice, or orifices, at
from10.5-24.6 Lg/cm'prcrsurc.Oitr ladcn with carbon'fonning residue and tars
often carbonizeit the hot tip, thus plugging the small ori6.ce' Steam iet and
rotery cu? atomizers give less operating trouble where heary oil is used.
Mechanical atomizing generally seeks to produce a conical mist of oil
through which the air for combustion can be whipped. For this reason the tips
are de.-signed to whirl the oil before releasing it through the orifice. Load control
-"y, oi.orrr", be secured byrange varying the prcssure of the oil back of the tip'
However, in simple tips the of oil delivery over which good atomization
is possibie is Iimited to about 1.5:1, that is, maximum delivery ls 1.5 titneg
mini,num rate of combustion where oil is still satisfactorily atomized. In such
installations wide-range firing is met by having total load carried by several
burncrs set in the sa-e frrnrce, some of *hich may be turned ofr at part load,
or by changing burner tips from time to time. Manufacturers have striven for
wide-range pressure atomizing designs by various ingenious methods, including
"orifice,
variable constant flow, etc. An example oi the latter is shown 'in Fi6
10-358. Oil is supplied with high vorticity just inside the orifice.'Ihe rate of
inflow to the tip is-constant and greatly in excess of the maximum rate of com-
bustion. Quaniity sprayed is governed by adjusting control. valve in return
line, thus varying piessure at the tip. Howcver, the vorticity is practically the
same over a wide ianee of flow through the tip and good atomization is there-
fore secured over a much greater load range, say 4:1.
Steam atomizers are relatively insensitive to oil viscosity and have wide
range characteristics, i.e.,6:1. They are simple in form and readily controlled,
butihere are two distinct disadvantages. One is the cost of the steam used
(O.1.0.8 kg stcam per kg oil) ; the other the impossibility of rnaking a cold start
in a dead-boiler piant. teiiher of these is important in certral statiou oil burn-
ing practice, for on large units the steam consumption is near the low vslue
mJniion"d. i, -oru uri more residue oils from catalytic cracking are.placed
in the heary oil market, the large oil-fired borler operation tends toward steam
iet atomizaiion. The maximum cspacities per tip are also favorable'
Finally there are the rotary cup burners which have been- developed for
smsll- 8ni medium-sized troilers. These are more complicated mechanically
than preseure etomizers. However, they (1) use low oil pressure; (2) have no
GAS AND OIL BURNERS U5
sm&ll orifices to plug up; (3) are more economital to operate than steam
atornizcrs; and (4) are basically wide range (10:1) and readily controlled for
variable load. As will be sccn in Fig. 10-35C, the principal element is a hori-
zontel, Blightly conical, rotating cup ruining at 3000-4000 rpm. Oil delivered
through the hollorv shaft is picked up on the inside surface and moved to the
rim of the cup, where the centrifugal force that has been imparted to it flings
it into thc air strcam in a finely atomized mist. A primary air fan supplies some
air immediately at the rim in order to drive the oil into the fumace and start
thc combustion. Sccondary air is admitted to complcte the combustion. This
type of oil burner has become relatively important recently due to the rvide-
spread usc of Scotch type package stcam generators, and No.6 fuel oil, a
combination which is quite efrcctively fircd by rotary cup buqcrs.

,[or.ble Vane!
At! Air

eL-
$p
FI6dbIo
t\rol Eo3s

I
Ftc. 10-36 Furnace wall mounting of pressure atomizing bumer.

As the purchasers of these steam generators usually want a completely suto-

matic unit. even to the point of intermittent supervision for labor-saving
re&sons, a complete unit will be described in some detail. Generally no sma oil
bumer is expected to go much below 20-30/" full delivery and maintain efficient,
smokeless combustion. Thus there hsve arisen the following systems of opera-
tion.
1. Oz-of. Wheu or the fuel is steadily deliveted at the maximum rate of combus-
tion until steam pressure or water temperature limits are reached; theu the uDit is
completely stopped until a uew cycle of operation is called for by diminishing tem-
perature or prcssure.
2. High-low. Two lates of combustion are provided: one about 30/o capacily., one
rated capacity. As long as load fluctuates above low-fire point, the pressure will be
maintaiued by a series of high-low-fire opentious of variable duration. Below the low-
firr poiDt the unit goes into on-ofi operation.
3. Mod,ulati,ng. This system has a low-fire point as in high-low, but &bove that the
fuel is varied irr quantity delivered to suit the steam demand. This is Bimilar to the
control of coal furnaces aDd gives smoother operatiou with less thermal siraiD trom
alternately high- aud low-temperature conditions.
It rvill be seen that in'all three of the foregoing systems it is possible to
op€rate in such a manner ss to require repeated shutdowns and starts (herein-
346 STEAM GENERATORS
after called cycles) of the flame. If the reignition is not properly done, a serious
Iurnace explosion can be produced; hence automatic units are necessarily en-
cumbered by much salety and precautionary equipment.
The burner unit should determine that the boiler is not low in rvater, that
the oil is sufficiently warm for spraying, and that the setting is pulgcd of any
inflammable gas. Then it must light off a pilot gas flame and tcst thc rtpcration
to be certain tliat thc ignition spark was followed by a pilot flarne. \Ylrcn this
has been verificd, the oil spray is started by opening the solcnoirl lallc lnd a
photoelectric cell flame scanner put into operation. If the cell sccs no oil fltrnc
in a certain number of seconds, it operates to shut dorvn the unit. s hic)r rrsLrally
has to be hand-checked before it will recycle. After a short tinrc on lorv firc
(dctcrmined by,the low-fire relay holding the modulating vaive et tnitritlum
opening) thc lorv-fire rclay permits t\e modulating valvc to open, and cotnllts-
tion ratc is taken over by a "pressure-trol" elemcnt operating tht6ugh a vtlve

A! long os lood is obovs lo',f

fire point, flome modulol.. When lood d.ops below low
lo meel voriobl. lood fire point, sieompressu.e
lihit lYvilch shuts!nrt down
lo
lvol
whensteom presslre I
I hosd.opp€d below---t
conlroll'mit,n€w I
rod
cycl. con b. inilidl€d
Pir
@ rn
-Fome
EE
rirner molor

-croirom
0 50 too r50

Fi{I. 10-;i7 Examplc of proghm control, automatic oil burncr rvith modulating control
and safety rgnition.

modulating motor. Air florv proportioning is taken lrom the same linkage. As
long as the steam dcmand rernains above that corresponding to the low-fire
point, thc burncr rvill "float" under the combustion control described. Should
load thcn drtindlc below that point a short period of operation on ninimum
rnodulating valve position will raise steatn pressure, causing a pressure limit
control to shut clown the unit. Later, rvhen pressure has dropped belorv thc preset
differential, a ncw cycle of operations will be initiated by closure of contacts in
the linrit control. This program of operations is set forth in chronological se-
quence in Fig. 10-37. The timing scquence during ignition can be obtained from
a cam driven by a synchronous motor. A schematic diagram of a typical ar-
rangement of equipment and controls for a modulating type rotary cup burner
is given by Fig. 10-38.
Gas Bulners. Gas is the only fuel which is originally in suitable physical
condition for usc in a burner. However, as with other burrier fuels, thc gas sup-
ply must be regulated to the load, air in proper proportion admitted, and the
two thoroughly mixed. The intermingling of a fuel gas and air is comparatively
easy since both are in the gaseous stote. A common method for boiler practice
OPERATION AND PERFORMANCE 347
is to divide the gas stream iuto many small filaments by a system of manifolds
snd nozzles located in the burner. This system produces gas streams of small
enough dimension that surrounding air readily mixes with them. The mixture is
launched into the fumace through I nest of short mixing tubes of refractory
material and burning is in short-flame form. There are also other systems of
gaB combustion, but naturel gas is not often used for steam generation because
of cost. Its convenience is unexcelled, and the boiler plant is considerably
simplified compared to oil or coal. In certain businesses and industry these
cousiderations mey outweigh fuel cost, and gas, if available, may be used. In

EE
!E :iE
storlart
conloclort o droll fon
R.lroclory- lln.d,
dlrtc i-ov.n ry pr

aacondory olr
prar!ura
Solanoid oil
Modulo tin9

\>
Pri oa,l
olr

,ua l

Frc. 10-38 Equipment connections on fully-automatic oil burner having modulating

contrcl above the low-fire point and on-off below. Note: Each circuit represents a cable
consisting of the requited number of conductors.

Buch cases the puchaser is usually looking for a fully automatic plant, and
equipment similar to that of Fig. 10-38 is readily modified to control and safe-
guard gas bumers.
10-17 Operation and Performance. The operation of a modern steam
generator is a job for trained, inteltigent personnel. Gone are the black gangs
of former years, so called from their general appearance after spending a shift
passing and firing coal by hand. \Vith stokers, burners, and automatic control,
operations have become mainly supervisory in nature, although hand loading of
a coal-handling system, and hand removal of ash are frequently to be found in
smaller plsnts, including those oI recent design and modern equipment. Fully
mechanized plants are not always financially justifiable. In the larger and in
many of the smaller plants, operations are divided into shifts, for coatinuous
348 STEAM GENERATORS
production is the rule. In some of the smaller plants it is the practice'to bank
ffres overnight.
As was said, operation is mainly supervisory. Since loads are usually varia-
ble, operation consists not only in ascertaining that the equipment is following
the load and functioning norrnally, but also in making second-a,ry adjustments
which reffne the thermal efficiency beyond the normal abilities of the usual com-
plement of automatic equipment. Automatic equipment must be watched
through instruments or periodic inspections, Ioad shifts between multiple units
made, critical points for pressure, temperature, etc., inspecied from time to time
and other precautionary actions taken. In most plants, especiallv central
stations, part oi supervisiou is "taking the log," i.e., the record of flows, pres-
sures, material quantities, and other physical data. These are supplemented by
samples of coal, water, etc., for testing in the plant laboratory. Performance of
the plant ss a whole, or parts of it, are computed at intervals from such data.
Then there is always a certain amount of maintenance and repair, this being as
true of a boiler room as any other part of a power station. The larger the instal-
lation, the more the need for division of operational duties between specialized
groups such as operations, tests, plant improvement, meintenance, repair, etc.
Professional engineers are needed for rnany of these duties; others can be
performed by nonprolessional technicians with special training, but there are not
many jobs for common labor in the modern boiler room.
Among the duties of professional nature are the testing of steam generators
and related equipment for performance. Although this often means "thermal"
performance, such is not slways the case. For example, the performance of a
duet collector is not a m&tter of thermal efrciency. However, the maior operat-
ing expense is fuel, so that the efficiency with which it is converted into steam
or kw hr is of prime importance to operations. Performance tests are conducted
initially to determine whether rales guarantees are met, subsequently to test
whether a plant is performing as well as can be expected, to isolate faulty per-
formance, and to check on changes designed to improve performance. Teste of
Bteam gener&tors and firing equipment are smong the most necessary and
complex of all such tests.
ln a previous gection of this chapter the meaning of "efrciency" as applied
to steam generatore was defined. Although it is of interest and impiortance to
know, for example, that the efrciency was 76.5%, whst is often wanted is a
breakdown ol the 23.5/o lossee so that each may be individually considered for
normal range, possibility of decrease by making operating changes, better main-
tensnce, etc.
The most widely accepted subdivision oI losses is that of the ASME Test
Code in which the losses are segregated seven ways as follows: (a) Raising the
dry chimney gas from atmospheric temperature to flue gas temperature; (b)
boiling ofr the moisture in the Iuel, and superheating to flue gas tempereture;
(c) forrning water vapor from free Hz in the fuel and superheating it to flue gas
temperature; (d) failure to realize the full heat of formation of carbon and
oxygen, as indicated by the presence of some CO in the products; (e) loss of
potential heating value repreeented by the presence of unconsumed combustible
(f) heat transler from the setting to the ambient *tmosphere
in tire aeh refuee;
by the process primarily of radiation, with some secondary induced convection;
OPER.A,TION AND PERFORMANCE 349
(g) a miscellaneous group of relatively small magnitude, frequently not directly
measurable. It is designated "unaccounted-for-loss" and consists of the euper-
heat taken on by the humidity in the air ueed for combustion, eeneible heat in
ashes, free carbon floating in the gaseous producta of combuation, and some
other small iteme.
When tcsts Bhow thst one of these losses hss become e*cessive, thea a
browlaige of the eources of the loss enables the operstor to look intelligently
for his difrculty smong the many items which constitute the total boiler loes.
Table 10-4 ie a r6sum6 of the more common caums of thermal loss associated
with steam generators.
Large power and heating plante are invariably designed and constmcted
with allowances for testing, consisting of instmmentation, with provision for
Table lG,4. CAUSES OI' IIEAT LOSS IN STEAM GENERATORS
A. Loss due to moisture in coal.
a, Excessive wetting down of coal before firiug.
b. Eigh moisture absorption by coal in yard storage.
B. Loss due to moi€ture formed by combustiolof hydrogen. Irreducible for any spe-
cific fuel. This loss is larger lor oil and gas fuels than lor coal.
C. Loss due to heat carried away in dry chimney gas.
a. Iligh excess air as revealed in low CO, content of fluc gas.
b. Eigh flue gas temperature.
I. Dirty heating surfaces.
2. Poor water circulation. Scale ou water side.
3. Deail gas pockets. Leaky or iuefrective bames.
4. Gas velocity too high.
D. Loss due to incomplete combustion.
a. Insufrcient air supply,
b. Fuel bed in poor condition.
c. Utrdercooling of furtrace a,i low ratilgs.
d. Improper setting of boilers.
E. Loss due to combustible ir ashpit.
&. Grate or stoker not proportioDed to kind of fuel used.
b. Too high rate of combustion attempt€d.
c. Grates dumped or fuel bed sliced too frequently.
d. tr'urnace tcm;erature is above lurion temperature of ash.
F. Loes from radiation aud convection frou boiler and settiag.
a. Boiler dmms uinsulated-
b. Wall of settiug too thin or of poor quality.
c. Fumace refractories iu need of repoit or re.newal.
G. Loss due to moisture in the air.
s. Moisture-laden air as from steam jet,
b. Iligh excess air on days of high humidity. This loss is emall and lrequently in-
cluded with several other small losses, uaually rmaccounted for, 6uOh ss Eoot
or cinder ia the chimney gas, heat in ashes, etc.

checking instruments, openings for taking samples, etc. The author, however,
hsg visited several small plsnts which were assembled with apparently no
t}ought ol any future tests, for when such tests were wanted piping alterations,
bteeching openingr, etc., were requiled, and tbe cost was far more than had they
360 STEAM GENEBATORS
been included in the original design. Although not describing ia detail tire neces-
eary provisions for testing, Fig. 10-39 ie intended to summarize the minimum
requirements. Prior to an important test for which the engineer professionally
guarantees the reeults, instruments should receive calibration, limits of accuracy
be investigated, and general procedure methods be agreed on by parties in-
volved. Thie subject ie very adequately covered in the ASME Test Coile lor
Stationary Steam Generating Uarlls snd will not be repeated here.
A boiler test for efrciency is of questionable accuracy unless conducted for
several houre at the rate of steaming for which the test is being made. Thie is
not only to insure that thermal equilibrium is reached, but also to reduce the
efiect of tolerances in measurement of fuel consumed. For example, with under-
feed stokers t\ere is olways a large mass of coal in the stoker, with no way to

0rit !tor lon

Slcom
colorilnahr la lo hond
A.l1., no
Flu! 90. laad ot coa l
durioe ta!,
o lt. eo! I
I Tcool
Sool!! in -l
conva ying
lonpla poiol Th.inocoupla! ar!la ln J
(ollcrnol! l,
th!rrnonaltr!)
,-

Go I
!o
!g t

\," rd
,*l
Orrol
opPoro rilch \
Strom
nti nafat m pl o

t- ducl '--+ ,,/ o !h pit

-- ---la-r 4i]':.1r:i'
_..2

Frc. 1G39 Loca,tion of boiler test poiuts.

be certain that it contains the same quantity at the end of the test a8 at the
beginning. But if the range of variation were, say, 4.54 kg, then the possible
average error in measurement of coal burned would be 45.4kgper hr on a 10-hr
test, but 454 Lg per hr lor a l-hr test.
Considering that each load point takes several hours to test, and that numer-
ous readings and samples are taken, the reader may see that a full-dress steam
generator test is an undertaking pf Iarge magnitude. After the test the data are
rendered by calculation into a heat balance, load curves, or any other form of
report desired. An example of graphical display of performance data is given
by fig. 10-40, and a typical rendition ol a load test into a heat balance is
given in the next section.
10-18 Heat Balance oI a Steam Generator. It is quite important to con-
duct a test at a steady rate of steam generation and fuel feed. To achieve the
highest possible efrciency, small manual adjustments of the fuel-air ratio set by
 HEAT BAL,ANCE OT A STEAM GENERATOR 36I
automatic control may be necessary, Repeated checke ol f,ue gas compooition
teat the vglue of theae adjustmente. Steady output can be miintained if the
unit-is part of a eystem containing other unite which may be caused to carry
all the variable part of system troad. An isolated unit should be provided witl
an atmospheric diecharge linehaving a conveniently located hani valve. Then
lt€am mgy be wasted at variable rate during the test in order to compensate
for variable denand on the plant and thereby hold boiler steaming rate con-
stant.
- The ASME Code provides a "loug" and "short" forn of report. The long
fonn liste 154 iteme and leads to s complete breakdown of the hest losses, applil
-re-
cable not only to boilers, but to complete generatom having superheaterq
heaters, economizer, and air preheater. Except for acceptance teets on centrsl
station units, the short form is usually adequat€ for all purposes. It is the test
we propose to illustrate herc.
I
Ov...ll .rtici.^cy IIITI'T
E
t6 I lt r=!!tIr
azz a llllrrs
.9
!o I II!I La I IITIIIT
450
Sl.oa l.mp.r.tur It
400
I II z=-
!50 I tt
az !rr
trr
300 at lll
s fmol !d. t.mp.rotqr.
230

200 II
t50 TT
tl
IT
to0
s t0o
50 t2
E
o to
I 0 25 !o ,! to0
P.rc.nr mot|nruh loqd
Frc. 10-40 Sample performance of large steam generator

The shori-form heat balance consists of eight items, the sum of which must
be the higher heating value of the fuel. Theseltems are, first, lhe heat uselully
absarbed by the unit, followed by the seven losms described in the prwiou-s
section. We shall list these in the ASME order:
1. lleat absorbed by unit.
2. Ileat loss due to dry gas.
3. Ileat loss due to moisture in fuel-
4. Ileat loss due to II2O from combustion of E2.
5. Eeat loss due to carbon monoxide.
6. Ileat loss due to combustible iu refuse.
7. Ileat loss due to radiation (ircluCing convecti(,,/ ) from setritrg.
8. UDaccounted for.
Totsl = 0b the higher heatilg value ol fuel as ircd.
W2 STEAM GENERAMRI}
The firet 6ve of ihe loeees are calculable from flue gas analysis. temperaturte,
rcfuse analysis, and fuel analysis. It is usually not troublesome to find or make
stations for getting these deta. There are two methods of procedure for jointly
determining the other items, depending on which one is found by the difrerence
between Or and the eum of the other seven items.
Inprt-outryt Methoil. P"ate of Bteam generation ie determhed by steam
flow met€r or feedwater mcasurement. Time of test and weight of luel ueed
during that time are ke{t. Then the heat absorbed, per kgfuel, is calcul*ted ard
items 7 and 8 found by Cifrerence.* This method requires a test of several houn
in order to produce reliable fuel data. Resulk are subject to the tolerance ol
the steam flow meter, the best of which are not guaranteed to closer than i 1%.
Feedwater measurement by weight or volumetric means is quite accurate, but
plant anangemeDte are frequently such that feedwater weighing is impossible.
evertheless, this method is to be recommended, for it is the mbre direct route
efficiency, considered as an output-input relationship.
Heat Bal.ante Method. Tbe steam gener&tor rs brought up to a stable uni-
forrn operating condition by several hours' preliminary operation, and the
same data taken as for the input-output method, except th&t rate of steam
generation and fuel quantity are not measured.l This, of course, eliminates
timing as an element of the test. Extra care is taken to accumulate any data
ihat might have a bearing on accurate estimstion of items 7 end 8. The average
of reariings for one or more hours' operatioa is then used to calculate all the
losses, and item I is found by difference.
It is always preferable to calculete the results by both methods wherever the
data sufrce. Of course they should agree within. the limits of flow meter sc-
curacy &nd setting heat loss calculation, but it is a proficient engineer indeed
who can repeatedly achieve such results.
An "unaccounted for" item is frequently inserted in manufacturers' proposals
a8 a basis for arriving at efficiency when employing the heat balance method.
However, most of the "unaccounted for" can be cloaely gstimated, and often
totals less than the lft to 2/o allowance seen in forrnal proposals. Radiation
and convectron losses are commonly estimated from the ABAI chart, Fig. 10-
41. Another method is to measure the Burface temperature and area of the
outside of the setting, in sections; also to measure the ambient atmospheric
temperature, then calculate radiation and convection from eome reliable hest
transfer data.f
Examplc 1: This is to exemplify the test d&t& &ud calculations{ for hegt balance
of a water-tube boiler fired by a' spreader stoker employing bitumiuous aoal. The lrect
balawe basie rrill be used. Item Dumbers are those of the short-forxo code, with any
Don-pertitrent iteEs omitt€d.

.Itero 7 ean te sepErsted frora iteo 8 by estimating "settitrg locs." See Fi8. 10-41.
f Where fly-aeh is apprecisble, meaeuremeata of coal frred and refuse produced per
hour, as well as a aampling oI the fly-ash, may be required. Plant coal acaleg ere gufB-
cieDtly accurate for thie coal meaauremeLt siace the reight is used to detar6ile c8Ibo!
lo6s, Dot total heat itrput.
I Eeilman, "Surface Heat Troasmission," ?rons. ,{8M.9, Vol. 51.
lTte reasoDr for several of tbe foros of cslculatiott have appeored ia Chapter 6.
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354 STEAM GENERATORS
tEan DaTl
1, Stea,m prmlre in boilor drun, l13/ht.b............ &t
.1. WEter taoposture entering boiler, " C . 10le
Steem quality, percent dry.....,... 98.5
8. ei" t"-Jpu*iul;d r*,-a d,u*,
; d. . . ,t:t
".uiJ,
Temperature at combustion &fu inteke, o. ... o
rt,
8. Temperature of fuel,' c. .... r8,
9. Gas tempersture lesving boiler,' o... . . . . . . . . ,63.0
14. Enthalpy of sfeom, kcst psr kg cat a
16. Enthalpy of feed,toter, koal per kg . . . . . role
16. Eeat absorbed per Lg ( t oel ) tt€aJ! M.1
17. Combustible cout€nt of refuse sample m.27o by analysie. Dry refuse
per Lg as-fircd fuel, ta (Eq tG6) . . . . . . . 0.11
,8, He&tirlg valw ol refu6€, kcsukg , sll?.a x 0.2@. . . . . l6.ao
19. Actual woter evaporeted, tg pcr hr. aa re

Flw gos alulyeia, percant bU wlutu

2$26. COz, L2.7; Oa 7.0; CO, 0; Ni, 8O.3.

rUEL DATA

,r. Ile&ting value ss fired, kcslkg 76

Ulti.malz arwtyds aa fi,red, percenl fu ueighJ
28. IJA;2.5; 31. 46h,9.0; 34. C,73.6t 36. IIz,4.7i 36. Or,8.6;
37. Nr, 1.0; 'it. g, 0.6.

EEAT BALANCE
koal pet
Itc l*t Pqcnl
66. Eeat abeorbed by unit (by difierence) . . . 81.1
67. Ileat loss due to dry gas.... 80[ 11.1
68. Ee&t lo6s due to moieture in fuel. . . . . . l? 0.2
69. Heat lose due to HzO from free Hz. . . 3e( 4.0
60. Eeat loes due to carbon monoxide 0 0
61. Eeat loBs due to combustible in refuse...... ... . . IflI 2.5
69. Eea,t loes due to radiation and convection . . . . . . . !8 0.8
63. Unaccounted for (from manufacturers' allovanco) 0.3

12'5 100.0

Fcrmuloz anl, Calculaliou Used, lot Heol Balance

Dry reluse pe!Lse$fired fuel, E : m-A*#**,u"" (1G6)

I : 9,0/(100 - 20'2) = s.11 1*

R-l
" : I100
Carbon burned per kg a.e-fired tuet, C' - 14,600
=Q^:"
(! 0-7 )

c' .1r x r0.!

Wheace - =!3s
100 - tu7.0 = 0.102 kg
ASME CODE 355
D4r ga-s per hg ae-fired fuel,

Lr
," =
x r2.7
[s*t##ra]k,.i,l. !
+ 8X7.0+7(80.3+0)
8
s (rG8)

Ila. :
t 3(12.7 + 0) ]f",, +{ " o.o*l + ! x o.ooo

= 0.t6 La
Itam 57 - WapAT (1Ge)
c, given as 0.24 in the Code; A? : item item 7. I-
Ilence item 57 14.2a x .Z(t6r.0-
- €06.76 Lo.r. lt.t) :
Ileot to vaporize and superheat moiature in coal :
(006r- it€m 0.46 X item 9) k6t p.! lry HO
8 + (1G10)
Since there are 0.025 kg moisture as fired,
Item 58 = 0.025(606.6 -l&t+ 0.46 Xs63.0) =I7,0 Lo.l
Item 59 - I (it€m 35) X (Eq 1Gl0) (1Gl1)
Item 60 : 664e (CO X C)/(COz * CO) Lcol 0G12)
Item 61 : Item l7 X itcm 18 (rG13)
Item 61 = 0.11 X 1040 : I80 kool.
Item 62. Surface erea of eetting is &pproximately 09.68br
Estimat€d average tempe.sturc, 6t.lPc.
Since Eq 1G2 is avoiLable, it is employed to find setting he&t loss, using C : {55.t
I. - 1.5.
gB = a5 5.7 x L! x 69.6 ( Sa# - !00') : t6!m kc.l p.r lrr
Eetimetc luel per hr, assuming efficiency - 80/e.
F\el : stixm senerc* * *1* : €ts x6de* =.6orlgpsrhr
Then radiation loss : ,66m i/ {80.{ : 68 loal pcr L8 fuel.

PROBLEMS
(s.t. = pster tube)
1. Make a logical classification, in outline form, oi some assigned steam generetor.
2. The op€rstor of a 17.68 kg/omr ga yot€r tubo boiler naods o rcpho.mont tub€,
76.2 mm die., of roamle.s low osrbon stoel. Wh.t tall thicknols should he g6t : Comult
ASME Powor Boilor Codo for tbickaosr tormula6,
3.The IIRT boiler shell,Fig.l03, is 5.79 rl lon8, l.06mdia. The tol.6mm x 2.87 nrrn
tubor sr€ on. I 2? mm c6nt6rJines vertically, 133 mm horiz.lntolty, in ataggored arnrngom6nl.
fJoiting ralle touch tho rholf ot the ho.irontsl disrnet r. trin(l .q m6tro hosting surfaoG
and rst6d bo hp.
4. A boiler similar to tbat of Fig. 10-6 has a bank of 132 tubes, each 70.2 mm x 3
m strd 12 Est€r wsutub€6,.each ?8.9 mmx4.s mThe heat transfer capacity is eaid to bc
3856 kg per hr iftom and &tl0o"c." llrhat percent rating is implied ?
5. A fuel of Q6 = 6888 kcsukg$as burned in the fumace of a ,23 mr rr'&ter tube
boiler which was generatingflgS kgst€am p€r hr at 14.06 k8/omt ab,d strd o, fromtog'c
feed, dt a time when fuel con8umption was 612k8 per hr. (a) I'ind koal rating and
percent ratinE. (b) Calculate over-all thernul efliciency.
6. MeasuremeDts of a cross-drum, box header hoiler are:4.9 m bctwcen hesders:
:156 STEAM GENERATORS
l0l.6Em !ub€.. bonk 20 tubos eido. S tub€s i prosdr.€, 16.l kgloml .b:o.otdry-
deop
!a6 feotor ; fccd, 8t.29C; fuin6,oe oad. ohiDnoy tomporstutoa, 964t snd 298"C. DuriDg
a &.hr tort oD this boilo.67l6 L8 of ,376 kc.l oo8l woto blrraod, ptoduoinS etoam at eD
ov668o rato of 14909 k8 p6r ha trlad (s) the thotnal G6oi6noy i (b) tbo ov€r-au coofrciont
of hoet tr.Drfon
?. A me w.t. boiler produces l46tm kg per hr Eteam at 94.0 kg,/omt gs' 390Pc
2329
from feed at u7'c.
What is its koolratilg ?
8. A simple w.t. boiler of 1858 m! heating surface is offered by a salesman for
installatiou ia a steam plant where 30287 kc oi d and s steam are to be produced at
t3.8s tg/omt gsfroD 00pc feed$ster. Using tbe Babcoch formula verify whether this aree
i8 adequat€ by assuming mass flow !,4119 !g pot h Po" 6r pcr hr per sq ft, Jumsce and
chimDey l€mpersturcs of 9829C a,nd 2:N2eC.
9.-A boiler like I'ig. no wall cooling) has 10l.6mmxom long tubee iu
10-6 (except
a balk 22 wide x lodeep,withroz.r u horircntal spacing.Transverse bafies divide the
tube surface itrto thrce equal gas passes. Steam,f2.3 kg/oE 8s,d ands:S.ttrc feedwater.
Fuil: coal at Q, = 2alo io.l usitrg 19 ka &ir pet Lg coal. (a) Use the Babcock formula
to 6nd the over-all, heat transler coemcieut. (b) Assume that when burning 34@rg
coal per hr the furlace tempemture will be rolo'c. Then find probable temperature
of gases leaving the setting, also the rate of stearn geueration, Bg per hr.
lO. Alr oil-frred steam boiler generates 58gI kgi steam per hr at 2l.l k8roer.b, 343rc
when the luel is bumed at 4tl Vh . Feedlveter, l{o'C . Fuel oil,p0' API al 16.6/16.6. Cal-
culate thermal efficiency and equivalent evaporation per Lg oil. Coneult index for fuel
oil references.
. 11. A 260 mt v.t. boiler i8 rsted at tl66 Ls ste$m p€r hl st ? tg/qDt gs, 0.911
drpess factor. Fe€dwat€r, to7"c. kpreEs the cap&city as (a) uoat,(b) bo hp, (c)
percent rating, (d) equivalent evaporation.
12. Bepeai Prob. 10-11 except that the stesm generated i8 6804 k8 per hr at lc6
fsroEl
-'13. S.,
Testing of a etokei-fired bgiler revealed tb8t, duriug a period when 2oGa LSof
3,too c;t were bumed, tefuse accumulated in the eshpit to the extent of 2,6 L9'
ko3l
althougb the coal as fired coDtaitred only 10.0y'a ash by analysis. DetermiDe the grst€
emcieucy of this stoker. (No fly-ash.)
14. .f brge steam generator equipped with superheater and economizer received
fe€dwrter at l4loc . After a temperature rise to 168'c in th€ ecotromizer the \f,8ter
entered the boiler aad was evaporated at 45.7kgroD! ab! 9?% dry. It th€n psss€s through
the Euperheater, em;rging atasrc,447 kg/omt ab. wlut p€lEent of totsl h€at tr,Bsfer
did erch of the surface€ mentioled oontnbute?
15. The boiler outlet steem of a large rmit is 99% dry at 105-6 k8/oEt ob. Feed'
wat€r, 116.0. Supcrheat r outlet state i8 98.4 LSrclDr sb 538"c . The uait slso iucludee a
ater.m reheater, the inlet 8Dd outlet states of whicb are 0.t L8/oD! 8b, ,49"c 8Dd 7.0 ha,
oot.b,3?frc;p€ctively. Compute the percent&ge of totsl heat tr8ri8fer contibut€d
by of the heatitrg Burfsce.
- each slcment heat
16. tr'ind the rele&se iate in the stoker-fi!€d fumace sbown diagrammatically
in vertical section in Fig. l&16P. The energy release is sumcient to getrerate 0t(x kg
per hr d and s 6team at 7.okg/oert a6 froD roorcre€d 8t al over-all thermal eficiemy
of 0.7Eo.
17. Given that the fum&ce in Fig. 1G16P has 4O/o "fructriot cold" in wat'er walls
of a type for which D = 0,6n. Assume cleal walls and uo incompl€te combustion. If,
&t the rate of firing mentioned in Prob. 10-16, the A;F ratio were 13, what would the
furnace outlet bmferature be, as predicted by Eq 9-26. Coal. as 6red, has Qn = ?6m
kosULg'QL = 7m bdEs,lly'o eah. cD = o'20 k sl pot L8-dob c; stDo6phere'L?'c.
rb.-Siive Prob. fGl, by'use of tr'ig. lGl3B, sssunrng that tbe combustiou equip
ment ia a aprtader stoket.
 PROBLEMS 357

O.6li

6 ,2
3 .85
wldtn
I
lo
2.3m
t Side wol6r
6 uo llr
Dopth t,
i 6'.75n lto ff'
2.2 s..95 r.l
Frc. l0-l8P Frc. lO-l9P

19. The furnace of s certain large boiler is diagrammed in Fig, 10-19P. d. of tube
bouk-r.0hx rm. Side walls crlch sbielded by?6.2!o4x3rD tuh6J ou to2 mmcen tcr s. Frout wrll
rtfractory, Bridge wall, refractory covered tubes, havinl At = s.7 rD!. Fuel coDsutop.
tioo, q!68 kg pe! hr good bitumiuous coal; A:I' = 12. Preheated ail at gg.gr.{. QL =
tlt6 k .l. Assume cn = O.2,1 Loal p.r tS-d.3 C mean between t6.0PC and ot.rc ; 026
betweengE.tc sDd t', tr'ind the temperature of the gases et the fumace ap€rture, t" C,
uaing Eq 9-26:
a), A fumsce l.6rax {.!mxi mbigh hao all vertical walis shielded by tubes arranged
as in Fig.lGl2A. Totra ar€ ?6.2 Erro.lira,oalzT.Sroocc1trrs. Thetop of tire furoace ofrns
iDto a tubobsnk for;fuch ! csa betaken as t
- n Fumace bottom is an ash scree.a layer of
70.2am tube! on 117.8 rDmcclters, a =r. The ooaibble hest released
=rgt406 Lcol per[1
poro! furIscc yolume. Combuetion air flow =?16 Lfper min et 16.0.C, prehealid to
la0' C. glsg fsctor = 0.m. Fuel coDsumption, {62 fu coal per hr, pulverized. With tho
aid of Fig. 10-13A, d€termine the temperature of gases liaving ihe fumace and the
Lcsl h€si tran f.t by radiation. Record &ny necessary assumptiou of data.
21. Solve Prob. 1G20 by the use of Fig. 1G1BC.
22. Taking Q1 oI the coal burned ia Prob. 1G.21 aB ,t6t kool, det€rmino the hsst
release rrte in the furDace Detrtioned, What does this suggest as a minimum asLh fiuion
t€Bpereture for coal purchasidg specificatioue?
23. Estimste the required fumace wlume for a pulverized<oat-frred strcam gener-
stror vherel!?6 x to. tost per hr h€lt trsDEfet at &y'o aber,Il&l eEciency is the expect€d
th€nnal p€rformance. Boiler bss wster walls. Ash fueiou temper&ture, lroa" c.
Z, Specify the insulation thicknese Ior a fumace wall composed of !gt.6raa fire
clrl brick, iuulatirm #5, Fig.lGl5,srd abcet-metd c.sing with glossy blacL point. Ato-
cpheric teEpersturc, 29.4'C; furDace wdl fece,064.4rc .The insulation is to b€ euftcieBt
to hold ca.hg terDl,erature to 66.0q0 ,
25. Find the Lorl pr hr-mr heat loss through a funuce wall lrom 08r.2. O hot
facc tempersture to ts.fc smbient, temperature. The wall r composed oI iil.o mm
fireclry brick, tta.! DE die,tomaccous 6ilic8 brick, rrd ro!: nn red brick,
26. A waler<ooled fumace wall such as Fi8. 1O-IiA has L": nuctstablo rtfrE-
ctory coactotr,60.8!!l mineral fiber block iuulation, aad 6o.t oE mi[er8l wool bl!,!]et
itEtrlrtion; slt cowrrd by a atel caaing pinted alumilum. Wbst is the ceeitl8 t€mpe-
trture wlctr the taDpelBture of the inner gurface ir ZO0"C? Neglect ire,gUlrrities'due fo
hlbe pclets rDd rlr.eo t2.:ric, sDbi€[t talDpor8fittr.
?. One well of
e pulverized coel fums;. is bere refractory b8vilg lfxqc fsce
t€npersture. the,2t.6mE of fulrd .ilicr llfrrrtory ia brcled up hy .o DiE of
358 STEAM GENERATORS
insulrturg ire brick, thern by etr.0 oo of mineral wool blanket over which is a metel
casing peinbd dull black. The casing temJ,erature is 0o"c. Find the heat leakege thro-
ugh tbis wall, kcel per ot hr.
28. In Fig. 10-14, assume t! = 8a8.sPC, rs =32,2.C, dl = 60.8 rDm.teflactory 6re cl8y
tile, dr = 101.6 mmcf block insulation (#7, Fig. fG.l5). The caeing i8 metal, pointed
aluminum. Find O, 1", tr.
29. A co[vectioD supetheater with tub€ elements 38.1 t[r[ x t.? mm x 6 m loDg i8 to
be placed iu s boiler settiu8 where it will be oble to suprhest stesm of 21 6 kg/omt
ea, 98% dry, to 20o'c when C. = 106 Lg stesrn per soc-mr . Coelficient of cotrductaDce
erpected to be realized is ?3 kcot per mr hr <ieg C' W JW . = I .8 ; c. = 0.25. Find reqrr.
iled ti. Civetr 21880 k8perbrr&t of stpam flow, bow meDy eleme[ts should the super-
herter hsve ?
30. Prediet an over-all coefticient of convection for heat ttalrsfer in & superheater
employing 4.t ED x 2.? mdtubes. Pressure,l7.6 tgloor gs; average steam temperatur€,
26o"c,velocity,2l34 mpm. Average ges temperature,482"c. Mass flow of 88s, 43022 k8
Por hr-mi.
31, The temper&ture characteristic of a certain convection superheater rises from
3?l"C er 272ro ro 4rtrc * 5{432 kg per hr Eteam flow through it. Prcssute, at kg/cBr
.b. Spr&y water, 9r.3'c. What constant superheat can be maintained by desuperheat
control for a delivery range of ,216 to 5{432 kq per hr? What pafi of the 4q2 kg
florv will be evaporated spray water? By $hat percent does thb regulated steam volume
at 51432 k8 per hr flow difrer from the superheater discharge volume ?
32. Diagram the follorving s]'stcms of superhc:rt regulation, including method of
control: (a) contact Nater spra]'; (b) initial condensrtion.
33. In a proposed counterflow steel tube ecsnomizer the Ws/Wn ratio iB to be
1.5. ri : 3l6"c ; tt= a2.2"c.It is desired to proportion the economizer so that At is
5{.4'C. Find the necessary sq m heating surface per tl54 kg per hr feedrvater, Gos
mass flow, 58563 kg por hr ml.
34. Design and sketch a counterflo\r'ecoDomizer composed ol68.s m- dia. longitutii-
nally finned tubes. rr =26.r.c; ,i : s7r.i"c; t'o = 176.7"c; lrys/w- = 1.72. Maximum
allorvable draft loss 8&0mm. Feedwater flow,l;lo trg per hr. Assume rectengular duc'
D = 4C. Tubes on I t,t.l DE centers.
35. Determine r, g, (:, D(Fig.10-27) for an economiz€r with 38.r6ln dis. tubes, longi-
tudinallv 6nned. ti = gzt.t C; t, = 21.1'9. It is desired to reduce the gas tempercture
lo 292.2"c. A:F ratio 16:1; evaporaticn,9.5 kg per kg coal. Allorvable dmft loss,5o,E
Em, Evspotation of boiler, ceol xg per hr. Tube spacing, 63.5 mm; D = 3C.
36. Assume that the test covered in Ex 1, Sec 10-18, was to provide data fol the
input-output method. In addition to the datn of the example the test produced infor-
iration to shorv that the,corl consumptio( \'as 442 kg per hr. Formulate the new heat
balance, omitting any cqlculations that \rould duplicate those in the example.
37. Calculatc a b<iiler heat balance from these data:
Coal analysis: Coal No. 11, Table 5-4.
Refuse anall'sis: 20le combustible (no fly-ash).
Flue gas anall'sis: CO2, 10.48; CO,0.28; Oz,9O0; N:,80.24.
Atmosphcric l chperatufe,2l.lrc ; flue gas temperature, 239.2"c.
Assume that items 7 and 8 total 0O5Q1.
38, Calcullte a lroiler heat balance from these data:
Coal analysis: Q,60.74; 82,4.00; S, 1.32; O2, 8.24; N2, 1.15; IlzO, 12.85;
ash, 11.70. 8r, oZS: kcat per kg.
Fiue gas analysis: COr, 12; CO, l; Or,7; Nr,80.
Atmospheric temperature, 2l,l"o; flue gas temperatule, 26o"c.
Heat transferred to steim per kg coal, 4620.
Refuse in pit pc.tonnc coal trurnetl42.2 kg, free of combustible.Fly.ash sampling
showed 2516 combustible in it. l'he generating unit has capacity of 29484
Lg p€r hr, rvas te6ted at a load of 236s0 ka per hr. Two of tbe furnace side
\ra s are watercooled.
 CHAPTER II
STtsAM PR,[N[E MOVE,R.S

ll-l Prime Mover Types. A machine which originates mechanical mo-

tion using some natural foice is a prime moaer. All heat engines are prime
movers, as are hydraulic turbines. An electric .motor would not meet the speci-
fication. Steam-using prime movers are the engine and the turhine. The engine's
piston fumishes a'wall against which the bombardment of the closely packed,
highly kinetic steam molecules build up a force-a working force because,
unlike the cylinder which receives force of the Eame magnitude, the piston
moves, so allowing the steam force to aecomplish mechanical work. The efrect
on the eteam is to cool it (reduced molecular velocity) and expand it to greater
volumes and lower pressures. In the turbine the random kinetic energy we call
heat is first partially orgenized in the fomr of o stesm jet, alter which the con-
version to torqrle energy is a problem of mechanics, met by the use of bladed
wheels which deflect and slow the jet, thereby receiving a torque force. Nozzles
are the elements of a turbine in which the jets are formed. These are quite
simple; almost any'oriffce could serve as a nozzle of sorts, but for realization
of maximum kinetic jet energy the nozzle shape must be that dictated by
thermodynamic principles of isentropic flow. To organize the heat energy and
so transform it to unidirectional energy of a jet the pressure at the nozzle exit
must be less than at the inlet. A molecule moving through the nozzle towards
the lower pressure will have fewer unfavorable collisions with its neighbors
then one tryrng to travel oppositely. In this manner the molecules o{ the steam
&re set into motion downstream. Under a fcw Lg per squarc cm pressure
difrerence the steam discharges from the nozzle as a high-velocity jet.
Although the molecular action whereby these two prim€ movers cre&te mo-
tion is quite different, the statistics of the molecular assemblage are the same.
Steam is reriuired to be available at a pressure in excess of the final or exhaust
pressure. The working process is adiabatic and ideally isentropic. For similar
termin&l pressure states the percentage organization of pressure energy into
mechanical work is approximately the same. This may surprise some, for so
much emphasis has been placed on the high efficiency of the large condensing
turbines that it may have been supposed that turbine action is thermodynam-
ically superior to engine action. Such is not the case; rather, the compactness
of the turbine in large sizes, especi*lly when in condensing operation at high
vacuum, i8 the reason for its preempting certain fields.
359
360 STEAM PRIME MOVERE
The engine is essentially a pressue machine; the turbine, a f,ow machine.
The reciprocating parts oI engines limit their speed to a comparatively low
value, but turbine enerry is obtained Irom a number of smsll forces working at
high velocity. Smaller dimensions and freedom from vibration give the turbine
an advantage in first cost, space, and ioundation requirements' The turbine's
superiority over the engine in compactness of large-sized units, and the Diesel
engine's superiority in fuel consumption and quick-starting ability, are lactors
which would have eliminated the steam engine had it not been for certain ad-
vantages possessed by the latter which are not matters 6f thermal efficiency or
ffrst cost.
When exhaust steam at or above stmospherie pressure has commercial value
the steam engine comes into a range where it performs to advantage compared
to the turbine. Lowering of the therrnodynamic efrciency due to steam leakage
past blade clesrances is the cause of poor turbine perlormance in the high-
pnessure rsnge. On the other hand that range is well suited to the engine in
which clearance can be sealed with packing and rings, and for the further reason
, that the reciprocating engine has no trouble in handling the volumes
of high-
pressure Bt€am. But in the low-pressure range the engine's inability to haldle
low-density steam through the ports rapidly enough to be efficient without
being uuduly large is a disadvantage. The efficiency of the steam turbine,
however, is excellent. The long blades hsve comparatively low clearance losses
and can handle large volumes of steam because of the high steam velocity and
the proportionately large area that can be devoted to exhaust steam flow.
The less it has of this uneconomical low-pressure range, the more able the steam
engine is to compete with the turbine. In sizes larger than 1000 hp the inher-
ently low speed of the engine begins to afrect unfavorably the cost of the
electrical part of the installstioir. Serving highly variable loads, as industrial
loads are likely to be, the engine shows good economy over a wide range of
load. In *mming up this compaisan ol the two tgpes ol prtme mouers it is
eddent that the aduantages cited lor the engine uill not be of rnommt in
central-station practice but should be caretully wei,ghed lor each inilustri.al
yroject.
l1-2 Steam Engine Applications. The operating engineer's field ls stud-
ded with small power plants in which the motive power is the steam engine.
Many of these are old installations, but still quite serviceable to their owners.
Some mechanically drive the machinery of a factory, while others are direct-
connected to geneiators. The steam engine is irlso found as an ar*iliary sorrce
it
of power, either because can be direct-connected to equipment requiring
relatively slow speed, such as 300 rpm or less, or becauee it can be fumished as
a reversible drive, or to render the driven equipment less lulnerable to power
interruptions from outside sources.
The two principal uses for new steam engines in stationary service seem
to be:
1. Auxiliary power service. Small, upright, single-cylinder engines, with
eimple valve. Thlrmal efrciency rather poor, but frequently unimportant be-
ceuse 'exhaust heat is salvaged.
2. The larger engine embodying modern refinemente of methanical and
thermodynamic nature, ueually direct-connected to an electric generator and
 ETEAM ENGINE APPLICATTOI\IB 361
aerving ae the independent power souroe of many an iadustry, likewise meny
on institution or business.
It could be noted in passing that the steam engine is also an important
modern prime moyer in marine service, and msny new installations are male
in ore-carriers, tugs, Ierries, etc. Such units are available in sizes up to 5100 hp.
Because it is more efrcient in its use of stegm than the older dual-flow en-
$nea, the unoflous is the type on which attention is focused when the reciprocat-
ing engine is considered as a principal power unit. Engines of this category are
built ae single-cylinder horizontals and as multicylinder verticals. As the
unaflow is iaherently long, the horizontal form must be chosen unless an un-

t:

Sk9.net Enslne Co.

Fra. 11-1 ltree*ylinder, vertical, 750.kw unaflow €ngine-geDerator po\Etr unit-

usual amount of headroom is available in the engine :room. The horizontal

single-cylinder engine is likely to be the choice up to 455 hp; above that the
vertical multi-cylinder units prevail.
Most engine power plant applibations fall in the steam pressure range 8.8-
2 I . I kg/cmt ga with up to 3 I 5'C eteam t€mp€rature. Sales of new equipment are
principally to those industries and institutions which need low-pressure steam
I
not only for cold weather space heating, but also for round-the-year processing
- ol vrjous sorts. The types of industries which frequently lall into this category
'' 8rc textite manufacturing, woodworking mills, paper mills, and chemical in-
dustriee Hospitals, schools, prisons, hotels exemplify the institutions.
Not all power plant worf, involves new prime movers. Steam engines possess
Sd, STEAM PBIME MOVENS
a demonstrat€d ability to witheta,ndr the years if properly maintained and
lubricated.
The power plant consultant may be retained by an industry which hae out-
grown its belt-andJineshaft eystem of power tranEmission, but whose engire ie
mechanically good, fafuly efficient, and apparently serviceable for many more
years. These eugines are usually found to be large, slow-speed horizsnt6l en-
gines, euch as the Corliss, with belt drive taken from the rim of a large flywheel.
In some of theee cases the owaer's interests are best served by a new plant;
however, factory electrifrcation can often
be accomplished and thd expense of a
new engine avoided by the "installation
SHE AV of a generator and control panel. As
dlow-speed generators are unduly or-
pensive, a Y-belt drive from the flywheel
GEN
rim to a small-diameter generator sheave,
as in Fig. 11-2, may be the economical,
practical way to electrify. The small
FLYWHEEL PIT
crown placed on .the flywheel rim to
make-the na! r9]t
Frc. 11-2 Generator drive from ,ro*- Jy true. needs to be
cut off, in order th-at-th-e multiple strands
spebd engine nv"U*t. Olttrt* a
c^hosen to-give equal gnp of b€lts on oJ a ehort-center, Y-belt drive can run on
flywheel ard shiave. the flywheel without crowding.
Industrial use of the steam engine is
associated with noncondensing operation, often at exhaust pressures of several
kg/cm' gauge inorder to supply sleam to some manufacturing process. Frovided
that the engine, incorporatcs a means for adjustment of the degree of cgmpres-
sion, the same unit can be operated alternately condensing and noncondensing.
This is desirable when the demand for process or heating steam is irregular
and high-efficiency condcnsing operation is employed when exhaust steam is
not in dernand. Under these variable conditions the engine can usually show
better steam economy than the turbine.
Installation. It will be as"umcd that the common mechanical features of
the steam engine, i.e., its kinematics, valve types, and customary configuration,
are already knol.n to the reader. A bare engine, oncd selccted and purchased,
needs a rvell-engineered installation, including provisions for lubrication, drips
and drains, moisture separation, and testing. The foundation masst needs to
be rathcr heary for single-cylinder, horizontal cngines.
The steam pipc lead from boiler or steam header should be sized for lower
average steam speeds than are.used with turbines on account of the pulsating
steam flow to an engine. A well-anchored steam lead, with velocity not over
610m/minf onthe average, should not vibrate, but might for certain configura-
tions, especially where the lead is long. Receiver tanks located near the engine
throttle are sometimes necessary to eliminate line vibration. Moisture in the
*The result of absence of high temperatures and sharp pressure waves. TempeEtures
are more uoilorm tha! in LC. engines. Speeds are slow. Erosion and unbalsuce are un-
likely to occur.
t Soe Seo 4-7.
* Somewhat higher speeds Rre pmcti.al with multi-cylinrler cngine5.
STEAM ENGINE APPLICATIONS ' 363
ste-rm line sholld be prevented, if possible, by good heat insulation. and by
taking the lead from the top of the main stesm header. However, a separstor
ought to be installed near the engine to catch water that might accidintally
get into- the line while operaiing, and to remove condensation when warming
up the line. A gate valve should be installed, in addition to the throt e; a drip
Iine is needed to drain the condensation from the pressure side of the throttle
valve before a start.
Much water of condensation is formed when first admitting steam to a coltl
engine. Cylinder drains are provided for releasing this water before the throttle
is sufficiently opened to reyolve the engine. The valves in these drain lines are
of the "snifter" type which are spring loaded for closure and can be opened
either manually or by abnormally high cylinder pressure caused by accumulat-
ing water when in operation. Snifter valves will not protect a piston or cylinder

HYaioS?A
v irat{T IEAOEi
LUB'ICA OF
SIE T UTE

EX I

Ftc. 113 Equipment and piping for steam e[gine installation.

head.from damagr when a large slug oI water appears and the engine is up to
speed, but are safeguards for lesser cases of water knock. The engineer should
not overlook the need to provide drains Irom low spots in the exhaust line when
laying out an engine installation.
Irubrtr-ation. The rubbing and sliding surfaces in a steam engine are numer_
ous- Lub^rication is therelore highly important-and somewhat iomplex. Lubri-
cation of a steam engine is divided into (1) cylinder and valve lubiication and
(2) bearing lubricstion. The smaller engines can receive lubrication of all parts
in contact with steam by oiling the steam entering the engine with the common
hydrostatic lubricator attachment. This is a simple sfstem but subject to
operational fluctuations and hence is not used on modem main powei units.
Instead a lorce-feed oiler with mechanical drive from the engine crosshead is
used to feed oil to the valve, cylinder walls, and piston rods. "As it comes into
contact with hot steam this oil is heated and thinned; therefore, it is a heary-
bodied oil with high viscosity at atmospheric temperature. Besi lubrication-is
achieved by a compounded oil with good emulsifying properties. On the other
hand, bearing lubrication is by striight, mineral oi'which will not readily
864 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
emulsify, for, whether splash syst€m or force feed is used, the bearing lubricant
can be salvaged and reua€d if it s€parat€s readily from water. On some of the
older engines the bearing lubrication will be found to consiet principally of
gravity-fed oil. These "all-losr" systems are msinly sight-feed oil cups, oae
for each point of lubrication. Minimum oil consumption requires careful ad-
iu*ment of feed to least ne€d plus uee of a medium heavy-body mineral oil
having exceptionally good persistence-of-film property.
Practically all the oil injected into the Bteam sppear€ in the exhaust. There
are relatively few uees of exhaust steam that catr accept this contamination.
An oil separator to cetch and divert the emulsified oil particles is needed if the
exhaust Etream has further usage. By sparing use of cylinder lubrication snd a
good separator on the exhaust line, the steam is fit for most purposes, although
its condensate may need further oil cleansing before becoming a safe boiler
feedwater. Oil separators may work on the principle of gravity separation, if
epace for large reservoirs is available, or by centrifugal action provided by
cyclones or bafEes. The condensate can further be filtered through sand or
charcoal, diatomite, or other materials which absorb oil. It is possible to re-
duce oil content of filtered water to the limit of erroi of usual analytical
methods, a contamination of less than 0.1 ppm.
Goaerning. There have been twb systems of steam engine goveming for
constant speed: the constant cutofr, variable iulet pressure called throttting
gouerning; and tho constant inlet pressure-variable cutofr method called culof
goaenti,ng. Nowadays new engines, lerge and small, are equipped with cutoff
goveming eiDce this system is more efficient. Governore are of the centriiugal
type. They are ettached to the flywheel and revolve at fl1'wheel speed. Valve
drives are taken from shaft-mounted eccentrics (or their kinematic equivalente).
Mechanical Deta s. Theae, being problems of the engine manufacturer, are
mentioned here only in summary. All etesm engines are double-acting and
mostly single-cylinder if of the horizontal type. Principal difrerences lie in
the design of ualaes for admitting and releasing steam snd the mechsnicgl
valve gear which produces the vslve motion. Mechanicsl vadations are great
in number, but we shall consider these to be intemal features of the engine
and avoid descriptions. Yalvee are usually sliding piston type on the smaller
enginee used for euxiliary drive, and either drop-piston or double-beat poppet
types on the larger engines used for generator drive. Modem valves are zoz-
releastng, and the cylinder flow may be classified aa counterflow or unaf,ou.
Releasing-type valve gear such as the Corliss, although very efrcient in eliminat-
ing wire drawing, are confined to uee on relstively slow-speed engines, say
up to 125 rpm, whereas the trmil has been to higher apeeds, i.e., up to 300 rpm.
Although it is s more oostly type to build, the unaflow engine is the most
efrcient. Since thermal eficiency afrects ennusl fuel costs, it is often the de-
ciding factor in selection. For this reaeon the unaflow has come to the fore as
a ruain power unit where engines are warranted.
1l-3 Steam Engine Capacity and Performance. Stesm ie admitted to
the engine cylinder at throttle pressure dtring the firet part of the working
stroke, then cut off by closure of the steam valve. The steam eo trapped in the
cylinder expands adiabatically to the release pressure, then is exhaust€d from
the cylinder during part of the retum etroke. Compression is practiced in st€am
STEAi\{ ENGINE CAPACITY AND PERFORMANCE 365
engiFeB to cushion the shock ol incoming high-pressure steam. Thie cycle, de-
picted in Fig. f1-4, is the Rankine engine cycle. The Rankine vapor cycle of
Chapter 8 was the thermodynarric cycle of a unit quantity of the working
fluid, but this engine Rankine cycle is
the cylinder stesm p-2 relstion during r'.u r Lr! ct.3n tlror',
one revolution of the crankshaft. The
expansion is irolytropic. It hae been
found that the form of this expansion is
approximately hyperbolic, i.e., pu : C,
if the steam is initially saturated or mly
slightly euperheated. If originally highly
superheated, then z I I and values must
be determined frorn the isentropic lines
of stcam expansions. Thermod,grnnvic trrc. 11-4 Rankine engine cycle.
Properties ol Stearn (Keenan and Keyes)
cherts isentropic exponents for steam expansions.
Steam eugines always have small pipe taps.into the clearance space so that,
an engtnn inilicator may be attached for the purpose of testing. The indicator
would altemately be applied to both head and crank ends with resulting dia-
grams as pidtured in Fig. 11-5. Reference ehould be made to thie figure for
the iollowing nomenclatute and relations.
:
c Fractional clearance, u"/(u. - t").
D: Cylinder bore (also ta.ken to be piston diameter in capacity calcula.
tions), cm.
D' = Piston rod diameter, cm.
Z: Piston stroke (: 2 cranks), cm.
jV : Revolutions per minute of double-acting engine.
,l : Number of cyliudere.
PD : Pieton displacement : 0.7854 (lt - Dt2)L, ca'.
?r, p = Throttle and exhaust pressures, tg/cm' ab.
p-l = Ideal mealx efrectiye pressure.

P..p : Indicated mean effective pressure.

fi - Appa,rent ratio of expansion, kt"- u^)/(va - r.). (R = Reciprocal
fractional stroke at cutoff.)
R= r/(l * c'rc) (11-l)
r= R^atio of expansion, u"/r,g.
Efrective pressure is the difrerence between the fluid pressure acting against
the pieton on the working stroke and the pressure at the same point on the.
rel,urn stroke. Efrective pressure varies. Its average is lhe rnean efiectiue
pregflre.
Fig. 11-5 shows head end and crank end indicator diagrams. The indicator
366 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
will also place an atmosphere line on the card, but the zero pressure and volupe.
sxes must be drawn in by hand, using barometric pressure and clearance data.
The ideal conuentional cgcle, assuming no clearance, wire-drawing, or fluid
friction, has also been added to this figure. This cycle is useful as a standard
of comparison and is necessary in order to defiie diagram /octor which will be
introduced subseque4tly. The mean efrective pressure of the conventional cycle
is given by the following equation, assuming hyperbolic expansion.

p^': p'llEl
'L r - p, (11-2)
-l
l\Iean efrective pressure of the indicateo cycre is calculated by obtaining the
area graphically, then dividing by
P,

I
its length to get the average height.
I This height, intcrpreted as kg/cmr
I !! with the usc of thc indicator spring
I t: oonstant, ls plhep,
I ht Uficiencies. When in operation
I
I
the engine draws heat energy from
p2 L the boiler in the form of high-pres-
sure Bteam, expands it to the exhaust
P.D pressure, then dumps the hest of the
trto. 11-5 Indicator diagram with super- exhaust This reiected heat is the
imposed conventional cycle. Tajn loss, but there are others which,
nitude,
them. The
more interesring ro engineers #tl,llflJj.:l,itt*H",tfrulif;
=e energy losses of a st'eam engine are:
1. Exhaust.
2. Initiel condensation.
3. Incomplete expansion.
4. Wiredrawing.
5. Friction and windage.
6. Radiation and convection.
The unaflow engine was developed to reduce iuitial condensation loss---one
of the largest-and all of its advantages result from its one-way flow of steam
as opposed to the counterflow of other engines. The gain shown by it over
counterflow engines iq better the more the expansion, i.e., the more the difierence
in temperature of inlet and exhaust steam.
Incomplete expansion will be minimized if the engine is properly chosdn
lor the work it is to perform. Engines may carry large overloads continuously,
trut should not unless fuel cobt is of no importance because large incomplete-
expansion losses are brought about by moving cutofr up toward full stroke.
Normal cngine load for moderg,te speed noncondensing engines with cutofr
govcrning might be bascd on an apparent expansion ratio of 4. In general, the
greater pr - p2, the larger this should be.
Wiredrawing is avoided by the use of properly proportioned steam passageB
and by using quick-acting valves. Leakage past valves is a serious loss, es-
pecially after the engine has been in service sevcral years and the valves have
become worn. High steam pressures accentuate this loss.
STEAM ENGINE CAPACITY AND PERFORMANCE 367
Friction and windage can account for between 5/o and' 15/o of the in-
dicoted horsepower. Radiation and convection from the cylinder are minor
items if the original insulation is maintained in good condition. The efficiency
of an ideal steam engine is the same as for the simple vapor cycle, Eqs 8-3 and
8-4. The actusl thermal efficiency equations are the same as Eqs 8-5 and 8-6,
but with heat of the liquid at exhaust pressure used for /rs.
The term "engine efficiency" is frequently applied both to engine and turbine
prime movers to denote perfection of thermodynamic and mechanical design.
If er is the ideal quantity of energy made available by the possibility of ex-
panding a fluid between specified initial and final states, whereas the sctusl
energy produced by a prime mover operating between these terminal conditions
ir e, then we define engine efictency as
h: e/ei (11-3)
The engine efficiency of steam engines or turbines operating on the Rankine
cycle is the ratio of 1 to ?e; hence
tt":2648/iw(h - hru' (114)

1" will have an "indicated" or "brake" basis, depending on the basis of ttt, the
steam rate.'Where the unit is direct-connected to a generator and tested steam
rate has had to be left as kg per kw hr, the over-all or combtn'ed engine efficiency
IB

4-:g1gg / (uy(h - haDr (rt-5)

In both Eqs 11-4 and 11-5, h, is the result of za isentropie expansion
to exhaust prtssup.
The steam rate of an engine decreases with increasing load to the point
of maximum efficiency, after which it increases because of excessive incomplete
expansion losses. The steam consumption rises with inprease of load. This
characteristic generally plots against load as a straight'line with g-intercept,
known as the Wtllons line- The thermal efrciency curve is an inverted reflection
of the steam rate curve.
Pouer Capactty. A steam engine expected to have a certain mean effective
presaure will develop intemal power which we will designate illp since engine
indicators provide the only means to measure it. After the deduction of energy
for mechanical friction, flywheel windage, and auxiliaries, the power develops
a working rotating torque available at the shaft. This is sometimes measurable
by dynamometers, especially the Prony brake; therefore shaft power is com-
monly designated bhp. Eq 6-11 is equally valid for stesm as for internal com-
bustion engines. The equation for indicated horsepower is
tp = p^.,LNn2A/449702 hp (11-6)

or, if p-., is diflerent on two ends,

ihp = 2(.4p-.r)trlVz / 4a97o2 hp (11-64)

where 24 : sum of \4'1o' - p"1for head aml cra,nk ends, sqcrn. Other sym-
bols as previously defined.
' ir snd rh st6 in ioulor p€r 8.om. 26{E .od 3500 ohsaSo to ti32.4 ancl 869.9 t€sPoctively
if & snd ,h sro in kcsl/kA.
368 STEAM PRIME MOYERS
Indicators end dynamometerr are sesociat€d with power capacity of in-
stalled engines. Occasionally it becomes desirable to estimote the power that
some avsilable engine would develop were it installed in a prospective ptr-
chaser'e plant. There is much trafrc in used steam engines. As long as the manu-
fscturer'B decign preseure and epeed are not exceeded, engines can be employed
on a variety of steam terminal conditions.* llnlike turbines, they are not
adversely afrected by use on steam at a pressure diflerent from that for which
they were designed. To decide upon the power capacity of an engine of know:r
bore and stroke, an estimate of mean efrective pressure is rcquired. The value
of p-.o is afrected by the shape of the cycle. This shape is primarily the result
of the valve gear employed and the engine spced. However, the efrective
pressure of the conventional standard of comparison is independent of mechan-
ical detail and p.1 is calculable lrom p1, p2 and r. The ratio of p."n to p6,
called. d,iagrom factor, is therefore characteristic for an engine type.
Table 11-1. ENGINE FACTORS
PIETON SPEEDA OT ENOINES
200-350 rym
High-speed simple automatic
l!3.137 m per min
80-125 rpm
Iow+peed releasing gear.
{ 229-152 m per min
100-300 rpm
Uraflowg
{ 274-183 m per min
DIAEBAU !.AqTORS
Eigh*peed, sintple automatic. 0.70.0.85
Iaw+peed, releasiug geat... ..... .... 0.804.90
Unaflowa
Full compression, eondensing....... 0.75{.85
tr'ull compression, nonconde;ing. . . . . : . 0.70-0.80
Controlled compression, condensing. . . . . 0.854.m
Controlled compression, noncondensing. . 0.8G.0.85

Exsmplc I : The power cspacity of e 30.5 cE.x 6lcE. single.cylinder Corliss engine,
wheu employed on 8.8 Lg/c6t 8s Eetutated liesm i8 to be eEtiEsted. Atmoepheric
exhaust. Rele8Ee pressure, sbout 1.4 kg/om! go.,Speed,100 rpm. Piston rod, 3.8om-, no
tail rod. Clesrsnce, 4.0%.
Table 11-1 furaishes mep data. Diagram factor will be assumed at 0.85.'With the
usual assuuptiou for satum[ed steam expansiotr,

pbob = p.vc; r : rt"/ca : 'pb/p. - s.8312,41 = 4.O2

p-"" = 0,85p,", - oss[ o.sa (]jt#*) -,.{B] : 4.00\/cmr

>l =if?f..o + (so.,| - 3.8t)l: 1460 omr

ihp : ,l.OgxOlxl4r,0xl0Oxl : 8o.a hp

us102
+ Ergines designed for. condensing aewice caDnot be ahilteri to loDcoDdeD8ilg ulle6s
there are apecial provieions for adjustment of cle*aaee apsc. o thot overcompre*ion vill
lot occur.
STEAM ENGINE CAPACITY AND PERFORMANCE 389
This engine would be capable of about 7! shalt hp. The apparent ratio of expanaion is:
R:4.O2/(r + 0.04 - 4.02 X 0.04) : 4.56
This corresponds to a cutofi of 1/4.56, or 22Vo ol sttoke.
The shaft speed may be limited by range of governor adjrrstment, as well
as by ma mnm sale rotaLiye speeds ol tbe frywbed. Conveationd practice in
steam engine speed is shown in Table 11-1. Direct-connected a-c generators
impose a speed requirement based on lrequency of the alternating current. The
formula for speed in terms of the frequency f in cps a.nd the number of electrical
poles 7l, is
N: tzOl/nrym (11-7)
The frequency is ordinarill, 60 cps; the number of poles, usually one of the
following: 24, 26, 28, 30, 36, 48, 60.
Engine Tests. Field testing of steam engines may have several objectives,
but prinrarily testing is to (1) determine the effect of valve aciion or (2) investi-
gate the magnitude of output nnd efficiency.

2.5 789t0 I12 +l

04

x.
6 0.0 +2
F 0
-2
0.0 -6
2
E 0-0

, 0.0
I 8.0
0t02030405 60 ?0 30 90 100
ercenl ol roled c oP q.il,
Frc. 11-6 Typical sleam rrles for sirrple, nontondensing. high-speed engine-alter-
[ator set,s. Based on dr1, ssturated steam at 8.8 kg/otnl ga, mospheric erlraust. Steam
rate corrections for other conditions: 1.ts% por 5"C superh€at; r%per 0.1 kg/cm. back
prcssure: see inscl, for throttle pressure.

Valvt, rrctjon alTects th(. shirl)c ol' 1lri, in,licator catd. Correct mcchanical
st.tting of tlrt, r'ah t,.r is o1lcn pos.ihlt'tblorrgh a tljll-anrl-trrot process. takittg
indicator calrls hctr.,'ccn 0irch ruljir,.tl'rclt so rs to lotc thc effect. An enginc
expcrt" is airlc to so intctptr:t tirc c:i:rls )tc tah.;s ftorn an operating cugi:rt'
that he can cffc:ct the settings ol thc r':rh'c gcar linkrtgc sufficient to get thc
c1'cle cvcnts of thc adnrission. cutoff, rclcrst. iiu,l cotlDtcssion colrectly tirnerl.
and the power production proparll. riividct{ betrvccn hcad and crank end of thc
cylindcr. Also, Ieakage and lulricrrtion d.'fects in thc vah'e gcar are detegtablc
* Years ago expert stcaln cnqine rncchrlnics were frir)l' nurnerollr. due lo the latge mttn_
bers ol engines in use. ncreasing usc of I.C. engiDcs, turbirres, and eleetric mot6rs has
sharply restricted the field. Outside of lhe service dep.rtments of the few active enginc
builders, there are relatively few_practicrng mnster mechanics, most of these being "old
timers." In consequence. the prolessionally Ilained nrcchanical engin€er. having mistered
lhe under)ying principles of Linenralies xnd slesm poiilr as part of hisr tr3ining, is morc
tequently called in on plant eagine problerrrs.
370 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
throirgh engine indicating. Steam engine speede are low enough that the, ordinary
cyclic indicator which drews a p-u diagram is adequate. The p-t indicators so
necessary for the higher speed I.C. engines might have to be used il a takeofi
for stroke motion can not be obtained. Many engines have exposed crossheadsl
manufacturers of fully enclosed engines usually provide a built-in indical,or
drive.
Output and efficiency testing involves dynamometers or generators to
absorb power, ss well as measurement oI steam conditions and flow. Flywheel
Prony brakes can be built on the spot, using wooden brake blocks, but can
absorb power for brief intervals only, unless the flywheel rim is constructed
with intemal flanges so as to retain cooling water. Frequently the engine will
be direct-connected to an electric generator; then amperes, volts, and power
factor give the generator output. Electrical losses in such cases are not always
separable from the mechanical.

t00
9
0
fT-rTrfl]_rl 0 0

I f fTT_Ttl
9o I
0 00
I
't,_
Ee 70
t F \
't/ 00

-E50
6

\ x H 30

5
{r
;
:;30
E.o E
! l/'
o^
rT
H
rle -t
0 200
E

i;zo 2
I
IfT l0
l0
0
I

0
// ll l 0

P..c.6l .ot.d loqd

Frc. 11-7 Performauce oI simple, counter-flow 22 hp.steam engine, ? kglornr sb'satu-

mted steam; 508 mm IIg condenser vacuum.

The variable load performance of an engine is readily displayed as a graph

of all other quantities plotted against output (bhp, kw, or percent rated load).
The rated. power of an engine is not always obvious. It has not been customaly
to placard an engine with a horsepower rating. One arbitrary r.ating is the
power at 25/o cltofr. A better method for engines yith cutofr goveming is to
take a series of net brake load and speed readings, as dynamometer torque is
increased. Eq 6-11 shows that the power of an engine is proportional to 7i[;
therefore that dynamometer load at which this product is greatest is maximum,
po\rer. A dynamometer load, ol a/i of this maximum is a reasonable rateil load
point since it allows 25/o overload capacity and occurs before a serious re-
duction of rpm due to the governer characteristic. Fig. 11-7 represents the
results of a test on a dynamometer-loaded 17.8 cm x 25.4 cm slide valve
engine taking Baturated steam 8t approxim*tely 7 kg/cmt ab and exhaueting to a
condenscr at 508 mm Hg vacuum. Steam consumption was obtained by
 UNAT.LOW ENGINE 371
x'eighing condensate. Calculation of points for the three-quartere rat€d load
are the subject of the next example.
Examplc 2: A rz.8 cm x 25.4 cD, single-cylinder, simple steem eDgine, r&tfd at
22.2 bhp and 280 rpm, gave the following test dats. DyDamometer artlr, gI.4 cmi tare,
13.7 kg; 31.8 mm piston rod.
Duratiou of test 15 min; average throttle preEsureJ 6.39 kg/cm! gs aver&ge vacuum,
520,7 tutn Hg. i,arometer, 7b9.9mm. Steam quality by open throttling calorimeter witb
average tempcrature readrng, tod.?oc. Speed, 280.5 rpm; gross dynamometer load,
60k9. Avcrage HE cards,3.t29lg/oEtmop; CII cards, 2.422 kg/cDr mep. Condensate
collected, 83.2 k8. Principal items of performance will be computed.
Prcs&tres. Throttle 6.33f 1.03-?.36kq/cm. sb; condenser,752.0 2t2.2 rrl'tr.. IJg.
-s2o.7 -
Eathalpies: Throttle strcam, i1 :689.s + 0.47 (100.7
- o0.s) : 042.8 kcsl po! kg
(since lLr equale euthatpy in celorimeter).
Ideal iu after isentropic expanrion to2g2.2 mm
- 526.5 kcal por ka
h m : ?O.a kcat/kg,
al, 2s2.2

Panet (F4 tl{A) ihp: [3.l2sxtz.Er+ 2,422 (tt 8r - s.lE2)] E/4x '*#
: 21.5 hp.
@q &11) bhp :2i(8o - 13.7) x sl.4 *ffi = ,u., no.
Percent rating : (18.5122.21x. lN : 74.2%.
SLan Rqte: Iloudy consumption : s3.z x 60/t6 : J32.8 kg.
ub = $:t9-8/16.5 : 20,2 kA-
Effcienciet: a. = bhp/ihp = 76.8%.
tl. : 8s2.11120.2(642.8 - 70.4)l : 5.5% bssed on bhp.

, t. : 832.a[n.2(u2.8 - 626.5)l = 27.1/a lE,,fcd oa bhp.

Spe€d reguletion : (Nzsn - Nt1x,n)/Nrooq.: (280.5
- 2W\ /BO : O.ZV7.

ll-4 Unaflow Engine. Th'e steam rate of engines for main power service
is an important factor in purchasing deci-
sions. Although the slow-speed, multiple-
expansion engines of an earlier day had the
necess&ry good economy, they were too
bulky, healy, and costly to survive the
competition of other prime movers. Then
the unaflow engine with steam-jacketed
cylinder appeared, with s steam rate a,s
good or better than that of a triple expan-
sion engine, and in addition was reasonably
simple mechanically-and not cumber-
some. As this engine type has survived
i";;.;; ,",.
c3mq.etit!9n, in neias rario'"aule
details of its construclion will be presented.
"*
'];i"":Ell,1:J,."Tl[::
The object of the unaflow principle is the elimination ol initie,l coltlensation
loss. In the counterflow steam engine the relatrrely cold expanded steam washes
372 STEAM PRIME MOVER"S
the clinder walls during the return stroke, cooling them to such an extent that
a portion of the cycle's edmission steam is condensed in hesting up cold ports
and walle. The higher the ratio of expansion used,.the more there is of this
condeneation. It is also aggravated by condensing operation. A counterflow
engine such as the Corliss, Fig. 1l-8, with its four valves, elimiurtes valve-and-

E0o

t9 700
0.35 t9 9o
t! 600

l7 5OO.a
4oo

F
5

5 .7 9 3oo d
E
,oo
7
3 t00
, .rn.r., / t 0
0 100 200 300 400 op
G.n.rolo, lood-lt
Fro, 11-9 Performauce of 500-kw vedical unaflow etrgine-g€nerator, Based on dry
B&tureted stea,n atl4.lk8/cE! g6. St€am ret4 corrections for Bup€theat:0.?2% por 6.C.

port initial condensation of the simple slide-valve engine, but sufrers it on the
wdlls &nd cylinder heads.
Ia the unaflow engine the steam enters the cylinder through admission ports
at the ends.,After expansion it is exhausted through center ports as they sre
uncovered by thc piston. High expansion ratios can be used without much
initial condensation, and favorable steam rates can be obtained. 'Ihe cylinder

fs
&

Ski'Iner Etlelne Co-

Frc. U-I0 Controlled compressiol unaflow engine.

of an engine having al} exhanst valving done by the pistorr is shown in Fig.
11-11. Compression begins as soon as the piston has covered the central ports
and a loug compression stroke ensues. This is designated lull comgresrion ar.d
tends to produce overly high compression pressures at admission unleel (l)
the engine is operated condensing, (2) high throttle steam pressure is employed,
or (3) very large clearance space is built into the engine. Fig. 1l-12 will explain
this.Thttttle pressureieassumedtobes.S Lg/ooi g..Small clearances are desirablc,
UNAFLOW ENGINE 373
but, if as littlc as 5/o is employed, compression is satisfactory only if operating
condensing. Thc other exhaust cases in o result in overcompression. It is noted
in b that an increase of clearancc to 15% cures this difficulty, but lesves com-
pression inadequate in condensing operation. This explains the reason for
auxiliary clearance pockcts that ca be opened and closed manually in order
to accommodate the engine to different exhaust pressures. The valve should be
spring-loaded so as to yield and safeguard the engine against excessive com-
pression should vacuum accidentally be lost when the engine is arranged for
low-clearance operation.
Another disadvantrge of full compression is the smaller diagram factor
created by the absorption of energy for the compression.r An engine manufsc-
turer has developed a controlled com-
pression unaflow which is adaptable
to either of the exhaust conditions
without alteration of clearance. As
shown in c, back pressure and non-
condensing operations do not result in
overcompression if the point of com-
pression is delayed Ior about f{ of the
retum stroke. This action is accom- Frc. ii-l1 Full-compression unaflow
plished at the expense of eome me- engine cylinder.
chanical complication, for auxiliary
exhaust valves must be added to creste the delay. These rnust be linkage-
drivtn since they have to be closed on the working stroke, and open only
on the return. A small increase ol initial condensation is to be expected over
the full compression type; however, diagram factor, adaptability to v&ry-
ing exhaust pressure, and coet 8re all favorable. The compression delay is not
needed for condensing operation, and the euxiliary valves automatically remain
lOe 8.! ro! 8.C t 10.
E,I
r0'0 r0.0 10.0

5. 5.0

95% 95% 95%

I
E

q. full c!6pr.3.lon 5% ct.o.o6c. b. Fult comp..33lon O.loy..l comp.e.sion

l5'A cl.oronc. 5% cl.o.on c.
Frc. ll-12 . Study unaflow cngine compression. Assumed ports covered at 5/6 ol
-of
retum stloke. Bsck-pressure, o.g5 kg/cm! ge condeasing, o.Bi kg/omr ga. (UypeiUolic
coupression assumed.)

.- *-Not sigEificoot for coademiug operation on account of the slorv rise oI pressure duriag
tlie ffrst 2/3 of tbe stroke.
374 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
olosed as long as the vacuum is adequate to prevent overcompression. It will
be noted that the engine shown in Fig. lf-10 is s controlled compression una-
flow.
11-5 St€am Turbine Applications. This most versatile piime mover is
capable of an almost endless variety of applications. It is a practical power
source when built in as small a size as 5 hp or as large as 100,000. It is relatively
quiet and smooth in operation. Its compactness is unexcelled in the high-
capacity region, and it can be operatcd at rotative speeds which permit direct
connection of gencrators of econornic dcsign. Yet the turbine is not without
disadvantages. It is nonrevcrsible. Stcam rates are high unless in condensing
operation. It sufiers in eficiency if used on any terminal steam conditions other
than those for witich it was designed. Unlike the I.C. engine it is not a complete
power plant, but must be associated with a steam generator.
These disadvantages, notwithstanding, the turbine can be ranked as the
principal prime mover on the basis bf currently installed capacity in stationary
power plants.
Here, as elseu,here in this book, there is an assumption of reatler knowledge
of.fundamentals of the turbine, principally the character bf stcam florv rvhereby
heat energy is transformed into kinetic energy in the nozzles, rviih subsr:qucnt
transfer to shaft torque by mcans of
the turbine blades. The elements of a
turbine will be recalled by Fig. 11-13.
While avoiding involvernent in the
internal mechanical construction of
turbines, we shall investigate meth-
ods of evaluating the physical state
of the working medium during the
course oI its travels through the tur-
bine.
The principal parts of steam tur-
bines are these:
Frc. 11-13 Elements of the stcam turbine. l. Rotor, This is the main moviug
element of a turbine. In impulse tur-
bines it is a shaft on which are mouutcd wheels carrying the blades. The rotor
of a reaction turbine is a drum. It will be stepped or tapered so as to increase
in diameter toward thd low-pressure end.
2. Casing. This is the principal stationary element, often called lhe cyltnder.
It surrounds the rotor and holds, internally, any nozzlcs, blades, and dia-
phragms that may be necessary to control the path and physical state of the
expanding steam. The bearings, auxiliaries, and stcam lines are attached to
the casing or are an integral part of it. It also is shaped to become the main
frame and support of the assembled turbine. Routing the steam flow through
two or more cylinders is compounding.
3. Bearings. The mai;r bearings of a single cylinder turbine are two in
number, placed outboard of the shaJt seal. Most journals rurr in plain babbitted
learings. Some small turbines are ring-oile4 ftom reservoirs, others follow largc
tutbine practicc with pressure oiling systems. Thrust is carried by separate
thrrrst bearings (plain or ball). Where large end thrusts are produced, as in
STEAM TURBINE APPLICATIONS S7i
the case of reaction turbined, they are mirinly neutralized by eteam-loaded
balancc plates on the rotor.
4. Shalt Seats. Whr:re the shaft emerges from the casing it needs sealing-
to prevent steam outflow at the high-pressure end and Bir inflow at [he vacuum
end. On small noncondensing turbines this is accomplished by mechanical
sealing rings; howevcr. thcsc are not too practical if the shaft diameter is large.
Labyrinth glands with stcam lcak-ofr at the high-pressure end and steam or
water sealing at the condenser end are employed on all large turbines. Multi-
stage impulse turliines must also be internally sealed between the shaft and
diaphragms.
5. Stearn C ontrol. Flow of the stesm through a stationary turbine is usually
regulated so as to produce constant rotative speed in the presence of variable
power demand. This is always the case where the power is used for electric
generation. Control rs exercised by varying the quantity and pressure of the
steam flovring through the turbine. If quantity control could be had alone, it
would be employed, but the turbine has fixed-size nozzles and pressure control
is the most practical method of varying quantity. In large turbines power is
varied with minimum throttling by subdividing the first-stage nozzles into
groups which come into action in sequence as load is increased. However, be-
yond the first stage the entire nozzle group is always in action, and pressure &s
well as quantity is variable when power is changed.
In a typical installation the steam line leading to the turbine will contain
one or morc gate valves for the purpose of isolating the turbine. from the steam
header. These are lully opened when preparing to start the turbine. Next in

I ,t
STRAIGHT C ONDENSING TANDEM COMPOUND - REGENERATIVE

{
BACK PRESSURE
'l J
ilf TANDEM COMPOUND- DOUBLE FLOW
fi I
SINGLE AUTOMATIC
EXTRACTION

I
MECHAN ICAL DRIVE REHEAT- REGENERATIVE
I'rc. 11-14 Some types of turbines. Among types nol illustrated are: cross-compound,
steeple-compound, mixed-pressure, and double autolnatic extraction.
576 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
Eequence is the turbine throttle valve. This is manually operated and gsed to
regulate the rate ol starting the turbine. When the turbine is warmed and up
to speed, this valve' is left fu.lly open.
Arr emergency trip valve may either be built into the throttle valve or
become a separate unit lollowing it. 1'his is tripped shut if tlte turbine over-
speeds because of governor defect. It can also be connected to act on other
emergencies such as water in extraction lines, generator undervoltage, loss of
oil pressure, etc. Following the emergency valve the steam florvs through the
govcrnor valve and into the first-stage nozzles, after which it expansively flows
through the turbine without further control except for two cases: (1) constant-
pressure extraction turbines whrch har.e automatically regulated internal valves
in the path of the steam flow at the extraction point; (2) the dilution of
partiatly expanded steam with high-pressure steam by-passed from the throttle
to intermediate stagc points. This by-pass is under governor control and is a
method of carryrng load over and above that power produced by full un-
throttled expansion.
6. Oil System. Oil is required for lubricating the bcarings. Most turbines use
the same oil pressure system for both bearing lubricatioq and governor sen'o-
mechanism operation. An integral oil pump, driven irom the main shaft.
provides the pressure for oil rclays and govemor vah'c-operating cylinders. The
Table l1-2. CLASSIflCATION Of STEAM TURBINES
A. Bg Size and Appli-cation.
l. Anxiliary Bervice, direct-con lected, uall capacity,
2. Mechanicsl drive, genred and direct<onnected. Ststrdard umts available in rangc
10- 1616 hp.
3. Iqdustrial 1nwer. Usually impulse turbines witrh gear drive to generator in the
Bmaller sir€s. Usual range f00-5000 kw.
4. Ceuiral etation power; 200G200,m0 kw. Impul* and reactiou; direct drive to
geueaator.
a. Smaller capacities, single cylinder, 1800 rpm.
b. I"rrgcr capacities, 10,000-{i0,000 kw, usually single cylinder,3600 rpm.
c. Extreme sizes 100,ffD-2f[,000 kw, multi-cylinder, 360C rpm.
B. By Stean. rtlou-
1. Impulse, impulse-reoction, and reaction-bladin1.
2. Single stage (sm:rllor capacities) and multi-stage.
3. Re-entry. Partial multi-stage advnntages without added mechanioal complica-
tion.
,1. Subdivided steam flow in multiple cylinders in parallel or in tandem.
C. By Degree of Erpurcion.
1. Straight expansion, condensing and non-condensing.
2. Ilack pressure. Exhaust to heating or plocess ste&m mains at gauge pressure.
3. Bleeder. Steam extracted for feedwater heating. .
4. Automatic extractioo. Sieam exiraoted at controlled pressure for process use.
5. Low pressure. Condensing lrrrbine receiviug steam from prior prime mover, say
steam cngine.
6, Supcrposed. fligh-pressure turbine exhaustiog at throttle pressure o{ original
plant (Sec 8-8).
* Largc high-preasurc uoits ofton do Dot hsve such a valve, but haye a maaua! over-
ridc on thc gov.rnor system for u6o in startiDg.
STEAM TUBBINE APPLICATIONS 377
Bsme oil, when reduced Eomewhat in pressure, serves lor circulating to the
bearings. An oil reservoir, oil filter, and oil coolel are included in this system.
Sometimes a eeparately driven emergency oil pump is provided, for should the
main orl rupply fail on a large turbine, the bearings would bc ruined beforc
the rotor came to rest, cven though the fault werc immcdiately detected and
the emergency valve tripped. This is because of the enormous store of energy in
the massive rotor turning at 1800 or 3600 rpm.
Turbincs may all havc the aforcmentioncd cornponcnts, yet vary in scvcral
ways othcr than size. A classification of steam turbincs is thcreforo rlcsirable.
This is introrluccd by Table 11-2 and implemcnted in part Lv Fig. 1l-14.
Pouer Rating. Mechanical drive turbines are ratcd in hor-.epowcr; tullrine-
generator units, in kilowatts. Therc is no internal powcr comparablc to thc
indicatcd horsepower of engines, although the product of torque and rotor -"pecd
is internal power. The nominal rating is a declared powcr capacity cxpcctcd to
be the maximum load. The capabi\ty of a turbinc is thc uranufactttrcr's
guaranteed maximum continuous output for a clean turbine, opcrating under
specified throttle and exhaust conditions, with.full extraction at any r-,pcnings,
if provided. The diflerence between cal,abilii.y- ai,ti rating is cgnsidcred to bc
overload capacity. Maximum efficiency usually occurs ncar thc rating lroint
since methods used to secure nraximum capability generally interfere rvith
smooth streamline flow of steam in the turbine. In many cases the rating point
occurs with full first-stage admission, overload being carried by by-passing
throttle steam to downstream stages. This, however, is not always the casc anrl
some turbines have full first-stage admissions aL &-90/. of lating.
A common practice has been to design for a turbine capability of 1251
nominal rating and to provide a generator that will absorb rated power at 0.8o
power factor. By raising porver factor to unrty, the gencrator will absorb thc
full turbine capability. Recent experiences in tl,e central station field, rvhere
new installations are usually large, hydrogen-cooled generators, indicate that
average operaiing power factors are about 0.85 and that generator capacities
can be raised in emergencies by increasing the cooling gas pressure. It is seen
from the preferred standards.for large,3600-rpm turbogenerators (Table 11-3)
thst the overload allowance ia l0/o and the normal power factor 0.85.'
Standarilized Units. Where a line of equipment has prospective sales in
difrerent sizes and with variations of operating conditions, an etrdless succession
of new "tailor-made" designs are possible, each difrering in details from thc
others and incurring much individual design, rnolding patterns, performance
estimates, etc. After years of manufacturing experience, interested parties often
formulate standards to (1) reduce first cost to the purchasers, (2) reduce
number of parts sizes to be stocked, and (3) reduce time interval between
contract and delivery.
In the turbogeneratnr field the smaller sizes (up to 7500 kw) have been
defined for Bome time in the standards of the NEMA. More recently a iornt
AIEE-ASME committee has promulgated preferred standards for large 3600-
rpm,60-cycle condensing steam turbine generators, specifying not only a seri,:s
+As ihe Itrteruttioosl Electro-technic&l Commission employs turbitre capability as the
R.tiDg, this differetrce should be remembered wheo comparing U.8. data with hteraation^l
st .trdads.
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378
THERMAL EFFICIENCY 370
of ratings, but the appropriate steam conditrons to accompany them. These
standards, which are set forth in Table 11-3, are not compulsory on the pur-
chaser, but it is believed that the average owner's best interests sre served by
placing orders in conformance with the expressed preferences.
11-6 Thermal Efrciency. Before examrning the origin of energy losses
vithin the turbine, let us look at the over-all efiectiveness of the turbine as a
machine for converting heat enerry into work. As a thermal prime mover, its
efrciency is the useful vork energy appearing as shaft power presented as a
percentage of the heat energy chargeable. Deterrninatiol of +,hese quantities
might be made on the basi6 of a pounC flow ol steam into the turbine, in kcal per
hour, or in quantities per kw hr of generator output.
High-pressure steam is sent in through the throttle valve of the turbine.
From it comes torque enerry at the shaft, exhaust stcam, extracted steam,
mechanical friction, and radiation. Naturally the extracted steam is all useful;
also part of the exhaust heat is recoverable as heat of the liquid in boiler feed-
water. Consequently the heat energ"v to be charged against the turbine is some-
thing less than the full enthalpy of the throttle.steam.
The nonextractirig turbine can be considered as a full-expansion machine.
There is no condition of operation analogous to the incomplet'e expansion in
steam engin€s. Since the turbine is a steady-flow devrce, it has no cycle to
compare with the eugine cycle of the reciprocating engine. When the turbine is
viewed as part of a vapor cycle power plant, it, of course, contributes to the
over-all fluid cycle. This was amply shown in Chapter 8, where much of the
thermal action in the turbine has previously bccn presented.
The over-all thermal efficiency of a steam turbine is W/JQ, where W is
shaft work in kg.m and Q is kcai ol heat energy chargeable. This actually leads
to several expressions for thermal efficiency, as lollows:
Ideal frictionless expansion:
b- h"
(11-6)
" h,- ltr,
Thermal efficieucy, complete ?xpansion :

: 632.+.
(11-e)
't' x 41'' ,a1
Thermal efficiency, with extraction ut^, wt6, etc., a.nd net exhaust u2, all per hp
hr of shaft power:
632.4*
(11-10)
ufu-2wth-wrha,
where 2wth: w'.h.* u,rht * ..u,^h^.
In Eq 8, [, is the ideal exhaust enthalpy, and fu - [2 is an isentropic Ah.
In Eq 9, u is the steam rate kg per hp hr, based on throttle flow and shaft power.
Actual steam rates are established by timed tests during which delivered power
snd steam consumption are measured. It is also possible to predict steam rate
in advance with conslderable accuracy, ss will be subsequently shown.
Eqs 9 and 10 could be altered to become combined thermal snd electrical
r
4, i2, lfa , , otc. il} koslrlg.
380 STEAM PRIMI] MOYERS
emciency (of direct-connected units) by basing u on kw hr output of the gen-
erator and srrbstitutingS59.9 ior632.4
859.9
Thus: 1': rr&r tu)t
(11-eA)
-
Stearl rdte is a term which, for comparative tests, applies essentially to the
nonextracthg turbine. It is of little value in comparing perforrnance of regen-
erative cycle turbines.
Extraotion for feedwater regenerative purposes will not displace the turbine
condition line much from its nonextracting position in the Mollier plane, but it
will appreciably afrect the steam rate.
Heat rate mear;s lo a regenerative or extraction turbine what steam rate does
to a complete expansion turbine.
As will be seen in the following equation, heat rate represents the kcal
chargeable to the turbine irer unit of useful output, i.e., per hp hr or per kw hr.
The heat rates of turbogerrerator units are expressed in kcal per kw hr available
at the generator terminsls. The turbine heat rate ie:

HR,:4fi,$=:!+=!d_3-q
Output iu hp or kw
(u_11)

where Ilr : Ileat content of steam zupplied on the boiler side of the throttle
valve and strainer, in kcal per hr.
Qa: Heat added to steam by reheating, equal to the increase in
heat content from the point at which the steam leaves the
turbine to be rehea,ted to the point 8,t which the reheated steam
reenters the turbine casing, in kcal per hr.
I/r = Heat content of feedwatar leaving the highest temperature
heater, in kcal per hr,
Hc : Heat content oI condensate at the temperature actually pre-
vailing in the co:rdenser hotwell during the test, in kcat per hr.
Ils: Heat content of water at the temperature.of th6 boiling point
corresponding to the absolute pressure preViiling at the turbine
exhaust flango, in kcal per hr.
The terms of this equation are not specific enthalpies; rather th'ey represent
certain tul products. Heat rate calculation is now illustrated by example.
Example 1: The heat rate of the turbine in the regenerative cycle displayed by
Fig. 8-13 will be determined. As this is not a reheating plant, Q" = 0.

Hr : x (3380.3 x 0.239*) : 258.?16 x lO. kcsl po? hr.

320236

Ilr: 32341r x (912.8 x 0.239*) :70.555 x lot kcslper hl.

Hc: 2525efi x 33.3 : 8.410 x 106 kcsl p6r hr.
I'or I/r; ro : flow at turbine exhaust flange - 252560 - (8r7 + 24494)
= 22?r4e ks por h i =ar or 0.0612 kg/c_, ,o ,J%.230
: ll!:ll L6.r/ks.
t fu, fu in kcal kg
. r JI8 : 0.24s ke4lrk8
THERMAL EFFICIENSY 38I
IIr : WAg x 138.63 x O.2Ag : 7.6A1 x lO. kosl po! hr.
IlEr: lo{26e.7,6 + 0- (70.68{t - 8.410) - 7 .6b)Ft,gfi : 2320.? kosl por ke hr..
Note: Combiued efficietrcy is, therefore,8sg.g!z326.i - 0.37.
Although turbines do not have "indicated horsepower," they develop an
hternal power sufrciently in excess of the shaft power to care for mechanical
losses consisting of bearing and sealiug gland friction, and drive to auxiliaries
such as oil pump, governor, etc. Eq 8-9, which vras given for mechanical losses,
spplies mainly to medium or lsrge turbines. It indicates an order of 0.5/o to
lft for mechanical loss, but this may be expected to be from l/o to 5/o in small
ttrhines.
g2

s 28.t
_
2A,l -
9
g
ro
-t
I .!3+-

z ,l/// L+
.,/
,,. -.< 1 e0 90 100,
9

.16 -S1
,4 .ll, ql la6O'C 3i
..-
dtu 7 \91-- E
t0 20 30
RATEO I.OAO
a0 50 80
S

fo
FF l -H

I_TI r+-l-T-r-
_I Tr-1
gH
g9

# I

97
9a
---L_L-.1
I frt-r-u
-T-r--t
C. B.
253.2

Wand and P,
fT-T-]
II. l<ao@hon

}'ull libes 1800 !pm, dotted lioes 3600 rpm. Based on 168,7"c a\perheat,'4lo leaving losr,
1257a mechanical loss. electdcol efficiencies as shown.
Frc. 11-15 Overall engine e6ciencies of large conde.nsing turbo-generators Ior various
throttle gauge pressures.

The thermodynsmic losses are led back into the steam flow so that enthalpy
difrerences become the intemally developed power. Eq 8-8 reflects this assump-
tion. After mechanical losses are subtracted the remainder is shaft power.
Engtne Eficiency. Turbines, like engines, have an efficiency performance
basically described by Eq l1-3. Although it may seern improper to so describe a
turbine characteristic, the weight of common usage sanctions "engine efficrency"
*The enthalpies of the ol?l k8 flor to Etorsge aDd tlre nzkg of auxiliarJr steam
might have been included io the equatior for IlRa; however, both ore of the order of 0.170
of compensating nsture.
^nd
39 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
to describe the efrectiveness B'ith which the steam turbine utilizes the available
enerry supplied to it. It has received other appellations, but we shall employ
engine efficiency here.
Engine eficiency is to be associated with nonextracting turbine performance,
but since it measures intemal {riction and turbulence, and since regenerqtive
turbines extract only a minor part of the steam flow, nonextracting engine
efrciencies are also closely indicative of regenerative tutbine efrciencies, pro-
vided the bled steam has been allowed for in turbine design. Engine efrciencies
take these forms:
Internal Dngine Eficiencg,1"1. This takes into account the fluid friction of
steam and leaving loss.'

80
tl
70
3500 rpm 3 s.rr.d . qr-
multi.ho. t0.5 t!/cm' Il L

3500 rph I c..r.d .

T a
multitr.o. 2l kq/Gn' a.-
360
: t)
.50 4
s,
tlE00 rpm hu(i5tr9.
;r0 10.5 kg/.m2 9a
,1
:30 L1800 rDm m!(i.ta!. alg/cm2ga

20

I
2
IIIIII I
I
10
!0 20
Il I 100 200 {00
ll IIIII T
Rat.d Sn.t HoB.pow.r
Frc. 11-16 Approximate brake engine rcfficiency &t rated output for nou+ondensing

Brake Engine Eficiencg,,1.6. Smaller than 1"r, because it includes mechanical

Iosses. This represenis the fraction of available enerry that is delivered at the
coupling.
C ombined Engine Efi.ciency, ?*. This is also called "over-all engine ef-
ficiency." It is appliceble to turbine-generator combinatious and includes
generator-exciter mechanical and electrical losses.
Eqs 11-4 and 1l-5 apply to thp turbine field as well ss the engine. They
indicate a relation between steam rate and operating conditions. Engine
efficiencies are valuable statistically for typically 1" depends primarily on size
and secondarily on rpm and terminal conditions. Statistical studies of it have
* Ki.oetic enerry oI oteam due to its slrsolute velocity le&viag the last row of blodes.
TEERMAL EFFICIENCY $a
been undertaken. Some of the resulte are included here ae chsrte. Fig. ll-15
shows- efficiencies of the form for large condensing steam turbinis. The
"7*
variations possible in noncondensing turbines (variat--ion in back pressurg
speed, expansion ratio, size, etc.) render it difficult to present all eugine eftJ
ciencies on a single chart. Figure 1l-16 has been asiembled from various
aources aB an indication of engine efficiencies obtaining in the noncondensing
field- from 10 to 4040 hp. These are 7"5,s and are far less exact than those givei
for large condensing units. The efficjencies of Fig. ll-17 are for f,rge,
noncondensing and back pressure turbines. Being plottcd as eteam "7"1s
flow rath-er
than- kw load, a-preliminary estimat€ of 7" ls usuatty neceeeary to implement
predictions based on this figure.

!rttltl
IIltllt llllll!!!:!tllrrllII!
--rllllllIlrrrtrrtrrr III
III
eaz rtI!tIl
6
lIlllrI
ra0 a',taa)z
attaal/ TIlT
#::!
TIT

# irltrrrIl
trtt!tItIItI
TfT]TIT :s
Co.r.ction
IIIII
.lfl.l.nc, tor
III
tr. rolio olh.r thqn lO
'!n rtrrtrl
rtlrtll it 'Iurbin..llici.n.y or E
6
llt
\\tI st!!.l ri/nrtIt
III
rlrltll
ttrfltt H
-rT I
tor Throtrl. Pr..3- - -
\\\
\\
t1326.? m3/i.
III
n r IIT
; IlltIIttttlllr Erh Pr.r.. 2
tOeeO.t
zorr.s #rr.
,5 ?{
trtil
ttttl tlttttr O M.choni<ol lors..
u

I
I

rlttt tIItttt
0
72
tIIIIlt t000 t5
O El.crric ot

20000
los...

25000
rrlrf a

rrrrr
==III
Tn'or(l vobfr. Fr.w cu m e.r nr n.r Sf@r,.,_
Fro. 11-17 Engine efiiciency of large noncondmsing turbines. (Courtesy G. B. Warren
and P. fi- Xnowltotl.\

Examplc 2: The steam rate will be estimat€d for a 360iX-tpm condensing steam
turbine of 20,000 kw rated calacity! to be operated between 69,g kg/cE sa, 482.roo
throttle s[ate aDd 38,1 mto. IIg exh4uEt.
From tr'ig. 11-15 4- (unconected) : 0-765. (Also generator eftciency = 0.983).
482.2"Ci8 2O?.26C superheat ot 60.8 kg/oet 8s. CorectioD fsctor for superhest i8 0.90.
CoBected 4." : 0.76510.99 : 0.773. l.r : 0.77310.983 : 0.?86.
4
Using Eq &9, mechanical loss - : 0.896Eo
6.ooo
! looo

: qa+@ :
?.i 0.786 , 0.798 (required for rai but not for o,u)

Available energy for expansion from 60.tkg/cm! gs; 482.2rc.to gs.t Ialq Eg :gto., ko.l,
trg(From Mollier Chart).
$team rates: t,r = 859.91(0.?73 x 310.2) : 3.68 kgi
uu = 032.a/(O786'x 310.r):2.6s kg.
384 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
Examplc 3: Ar estimat€ of the stean rtquired for a '15&'hp mechanical drive
tlurline wiff now be made, using Fig.11-16. Steajm conditions u.6L8/oota, dryaid eati-
rated; back pressure,0.f6 L8/oEt 8.. Sp€ed860orpE. Select ?.!- 0.@.Availoble heat.en'ergy
between l?.0 Lglomr jo ardo.tl6 Lg/cat sA is {ar.3 Jrs (Mollier Cb&rt) . tratim&tpd ste&m
rste ,6{8/ ( o,ss x {r.3 ) =0.01 Lg per hp hr. Eetimated stestn consuDptiOD =466xg-el
= {l7! tg pet hr.
tsxample'{.: The steam rates sbown in Fig. 11-17 are intended to apply to large
uoncondensiug turbines with considerable back pressure, Assume that it iE desired to
determine the engine efficiency for a proposed 10,000-kw; superposed, 3600-rpm turbine
takiDg BteaE at@,8 ta/ottt 8q482.g"c,aud exheusting tol?,0kgroE2Ss.Theengineemciency
rvithout mechanical or elecr cal losses can be detemineC from thc figure, after which
it rvould be dirninished lor the effect of these losses.
Available hest energy = ta,a.2 qa . (Ifollier Cbart.) Or &ccoult of the ab-
scissa used in Fig. 11-17, it will be necessary to estimate f. in advance, later verifying
it by the solutiotr. We will assume ?e = 0.76.
i& : ,1W/(0.76x341.2 ) :18.76kc per kw hr.
Steam flow : 10,000 XlS.?6 = 187,600 Lg per hr.

Throttle staa.n florv volume = l3r;Ooo y-91!9I!9E- : 7620 D! per hr.

Now using the figure, ?€i : 0.810 (uncorected).
C.orrection for pressure ntio, !t'! (: 3.26), is 0.026.
Corrected r1a : 0.810 - 0.026 = 0.784.

trIech.rnjcal loss : : r.26570.

nz,
\m
From Fig. 1l-15, generator efficie4cv : 0.98.

,- : o.?8{ x l. --l-^. X 098 = 0.752'

+ 0.01265 '
lnternal Efliciency. A statement of the causes of internal inefficiency will
introduce this topic. These internal thennodynamic losses.are: t
1. Leakage past shaft gland packings, dummy pistons, diaphragms, and
blade tips.
2. Fluid friction against blades and wheels.
3. Leaving loss (residual kinetic energy) and throttling losses in exha;rit
passage6.
4. Unstable thermal equilibrium in nozzle flow (supersaturation) .
5. Irreversible collisions of water droplets in wet steam.
These actions are present even 8t designed load when flows are normal.
Thcy are reducible by dcsign, -though at a cost. Their elimination is therefore
limiied by financial and other lactors. The largest heat loss of all, the latelt
heat rcmaining in thc exhaust steam, is not reducible beyond the limits set by
the Second Law and the tcmperature of the available sink of heat (natural
waters or the atmosphcre) .
* Had this not been nurrly the assumed 076, atrother origiDa.l arsuutptioD ald verifyiag
solution would have been in order.
t lt will be noted that lrcat leakage through the casiDg i8 Eot aD item. There is so little
surlace exposed compa.red to the heai flow thiough o tu$ine thet, iDsulsted, or u[iDsulsted,
this leakage is ncgligible. Turbine casinge are relotively eaay to insul.te sstiDat hest 1(168,
TIIERMAL EFFICIENCY 385
At part load there are also introduced:
6. Aggravated fluid turbulence due to nonstreomline flows in the blade
pa88ageE.
7. Throttling at the control valves.
These internal thermal losses are reab-
sorbed by the steam as heat energy. In any
single stage of a turbine (which consists of
stationary steam nozzles followed by a row of
rotating blades) the steam action is visualized -
aa an isentropic rlxpansion followed by a rc- 6o
heat at constant pressure. Since the greater f R.h.ol
part of the stage heat loss is returned at the '
low pressure, it is considered that the rehcat t
action is represented by BB', tr'ig. 1l-18. This
shows why entropy increases in a nonideal Entropy
turbine stage and leads to condition lines of / r! rlola of lf.orn a^larrng slog.
multi-stage turbines seen in Appendix Fig. A-13. 8' r! rlol. d !r.om l.oving 3to9a
Stage eficiency measures this irreversiblc en- ,8 ,! on rdaol ravaa,iblr qxponrro,
tropy-increasing action. It is defined as the
fiaction of isentropic stage heat release that Frc. t1-18 Assumed steam
action in a turbine stage.
is transferred to the rotor as mechanical work.
Employing the nomenclature of Fig. 1l-18,
Stage efficiency, l" : (Ire
- ha')/(h^ - hs) (11-12)
If the efrciencies of all stages oI a turbine wele known, then, beginning at
the throttle 6tate, one might trace the expansions and reheats stage by stage,
on the Mollier plane, and predict the form of the turbine condition line. Since
these lines were seen to be of use in several of the examples of Chapter 8, we
now investigate a method for constructing them.'
Many factors influence the stage efficiency. For simplicity, these are reduced
to four items in this analysis. These are: (a,) nozzle efrciency; (b) blade eff-
ciency; (c) rotation and leakage lossesl and (d) moisture efiect. As the velocity
loss due to friction in a nozzle is frequently abott 3/o and as it is a kinetic
energy loss, the nozzle efficiency is taken as (1-0.03e) = 9a/o.l "lhe blade effi-
ciency is mainly affected by the relative steam and blade speeds. As those
who have studied the kinetics of steam flow in curved blading know, the highest
utilization of the available energ'y occurs at a certain optimum value of the
ratio of lineal blade speed to steam jet speed. In symbols, blade velocity ratio,
R -- u/V-
The curves in Fig. 11-19 show how blade efficiency varies with velocity ratio
and what the best ratio is for difrerent types of blading. The value of .R
employed by a turbine manufacturer is usually a compromise between the
highest stage efficiency and the cost of the turbine. Small turbines with few
Etages must operate with less than optimum B's in order to prodgce shaft
.They are also deterrnined by testilg o turbine for state oI the eteam st y&rious
statioaa along the casitrg.
t This is a rough approximstioB. Turbitre terfis preseot data showing velocity coefficient
veriatioD6 from 0.S dowarvard to 0.90 or eveo less.
386 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
Table l1-4. BLADING VEIOCITY RATIOS

Type of Blading Theoretical Used in Practice

Simple impulse. , . o.{t

Pressure compound . . 0.47 0.40 to 0.45
Velocity compound, two rows. 0.23 0.19 to 0.22
Velocity compound, thrce rowe 0.16 0.12
Re,action'... 0.60 to 0.80

* Added by author.

spccds in a usable range. As the turbine size increases, the savings from more
cficient use of steam amount to more in comparison with the cost of the tur-
bine and it is possible to build for
to0
IIITTIIIIIITIInlIIII higher internal efficiencies. Church'
oo ITITIITITII'Z-TII'-
gives .B values shown in Table 11-4.
llllttlzaDiarlrttrll
aaaaar,azaat ltl lltrl Rotational losses which consist
aaaaT/a L t JraI lI I rllll of disk friction and blade windage
E
aaaf a7/t_aliLrrrr ltllt have been found by experiment to
I aal(f/aLLalaIIlllII
7/ -rI-I vary with the cube of the speed. It
6
I is also apparent that blade height
! 50
I tt,a,ia) I A,Pm3$rc cohpqrnd.d
TYP€ OF N6
and percentage of the wheel periph-
40 ,/l/'laa low porlr or v!ry h'gh
l( Soin 03 A,for smoll blod.s. -
tttr,aaa E.Veloclb, cornpornd!d,-tm-roi ery occupied by nozzles are influ-
.9
lIIII ential on rotational loss. Except for
llTrrlt
llr/ttrrt
C. V.locry coipoundod,-thr.!
,small turbines, rotational loss is
20 II'TIIII
small, and it may be neglected above
r0 I,lrIIIIIIITTIIIIIIIIT
lfllrrtttrttrttttrlrtr 1010, hp. Direct calculation of both
o TIIIIIIIIIITIIITIIlll leakage and rotational loss requires
0.r o.2 0.3 0.4 o.s 06 0J 0.8 0.9 r.o detailed knowledge of intemal con-
v.locrly.olio R (,u/vo)
struction and dimensions of a tur-
Frc. 11-19 Relation between velocity bine which is outside the scope of
ratio and blade efficiency. this book. Combined rotational and
leakage Iosses may be assumed at
lrom 2/o tro 5/o. Slage efficiency would thcreiore be:

,s : 0.94 X Blade effieiency - 27o to 5/6 rotation and

leakage allowance (11-13)

The foregoing discussion relates to

efficiencies at the most economical
load point. Fluid friction consumes a larger portion of the available heat at
other loads. The low value for rotation and leakage should be assigned to
large, many-stage turbines, the high to small turbines, or very-high-pressure
stages.
Motsture Eflect. Friction and reheating in turbine stages increase steam
entropy and influence the condition line on the Mollier plane. As soon as the
expanding Bteem becomes saturated, the efficiency of the stages through which
the wet steam passes is decreased by the presence of moistura of condensation
rE. F. Churcb, Etean Tutbiae4 MoGrsv-Ilill, Ner York
THERMAI, EFFICIENCY 387
in the steam. In addition to this, the moisturc hag a detrimental mechsnical
efrect on the blades.
The result of its action is the erosion of the backs of the entrance edge
of the blades,, especially nenr the blade tips where the moisture content and
blede velocity are maximum.
Erosion of the blades is not usually serious until the moietue content ap-
prosches l0%. Any design contemplating expansion of st€am to l0/o ot l5/o
moisture must give careful attention to this factor, s,nd even then s cercain
amount of erosion ie to be expected on the last row or two of blades.
An explanation of the eroding action gives a clue to the regson for the
decrease of efliciency in the saturated Bt€am stage. In the ruperheated steam
Btages the heat drop is all converted into kinetic enerry with the exception of
that part sbnorbed in blade friction and
given back to the steam as a rehest at lower
temperature. But upon the steam becoming
saturated, eome of the kinetic enerry is ab- tr/r|latfiEf
sorbed in accelerating the droplets of StloE
condensation which have appeared; these
droplets, however, are still being acceler-
ated when the eteam leaves the blade end
have not attained the same velocity as the
steam. Reference to Fig. 11-20 will show
what takes place. The steam and droplets
of water leave the ststionary blade with
absolute velocities 7" and 7. respectively.
The inlet edge of the moving blade is de- Fro. 11-20 Origin of moisture
signed so that the steam vill glide smoothly collision.
upon it; that is, it is at the same angle as the
relative steam velocity V-. The blade speed u is the eame whether steam or
water is considered. However, the relative velocity of the water I/* is at an
cntirely different angle from.Y- because Y- is smaller than I/. for reasons
already noted. As can be seen frcm the figure, the direction of Y- is such that
the drops of water strike the back of the entrance edge of the following blade.
Hence, a negative impulse is applied to the blades. Thue the presence of mois-
ture in the expanding stesm further decresses the net kinetic energy delivered
by the steam to the blades. The efrect of the moisture, in addition to its mechan-
ical action on the blades, is the conversion of some of the kinetic enerry.
formed by heat drop, into heat at a lower temperature, and consequently at a
lower availability. Extemally, the efrect is msnifest€d by the decrease of stage
efficiency previously referred to. The supersaturated condition which existe for
a fleeting instant during part of the rapid adiabatic expansion of wet steam
further subtracts from stage effciency.
An empirical equation for the morsture penalty for s stage is given by
A?.: (l - r) { Ah1/8490. (11-14)

in which (1 - z) = Initial moisture content.

Ahi - Jsentrop'c heat releose, in Joulcs/g.
r Factor - tlt3.3ir Afi ie ia kortllg.
388 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
It is beyond the intent ol this chapter to enter into detailed analysis of
shge emciency, for such more properly belongs to steam turbine design. But
if we assume that the stage efrciency in the superheated steam region is known,
then the condition line can be found by breaking up the total heat drop into
blocks of from 10 to 30 kcal each and applying the stage efficiency as a teheat
iactor. In the use of Eq 1l-14 to determine moisture pen-
36so alty ior a grozp of stages, the euccessive Ahr's ad-opted
should be approximately equal. After the saturation line is
passed, the stage efficiency should be decreased for increase
in moisture. In this way points on the condition line may
be found and the line drawn. Whether the turbine is
33cc straight condensing or regenerative should have little
ellect, but the condition line of a turbine with constant-
32oo pressure extraction gear could not be thus predicted.*
Examplc 5: A large regenerative-type steam turbine is to
3!00 operate bitween 88.0 Lg/oma ebrdl0"C, sld 70mm Hg termi[al
states. Stage anangemeDt is: Trvo-row, velocity-compounded
3000 sta ge.xha ustiDs at62.rkg/omt ab, iollowed hv many pressure-com-
pounded stages. lt will be shown how the steam condition line
can be estimated. Leaving loss and exhaust hood friction will be
2JO0 neglected.
I
To obtain first stage efficiency seleci, from Fig. 11-19 at =
2000 0.20 a blade efficiency of 0.74. Leakage end rotation loss = 0.05.

&= 0.94 x 0.74_- 0.05 = 0.6a5 (Eq 11-13)

2700
Heat avpilable to first stage between 88.3 tg/@' .b &Bd
IgTLgroDl.b = 3414.0 -8261.8 = rar.t J Por I (s = C process,
2600 Mollier Cha .)
Enthalpy alter fiIst stage = 3rla-6- 0.645 x 102.6 = 3309.6
.r pcr g. Employing thiE calculat€d result, the first-stsge
2500
action is plotted- as'obi, fig. 11-21. The efrcieucy of dry steem
florv in tie pressure-compounded stages rvill be obtailed, using
2(00 R = 0.45, a;d lekage-roration loss of 0.03.7" = 0.94 x 0.90 -
003 = 0.s16. This rvrll prevarl es far as the saturarion line, giv-
ing a constantr slopei to ihe condition line. To determine this
a?o ?.40 ilope, assume { ioJo,rles available heat drop. From point c, this
) /s/'c
extends to 2869.6 joul.. at 9.8 k8/oral6b. A point d on the coDditiou
line rnav pow bc located at0.oL8/o6! sb,aDd ii=390e'o - 460X
Frc. 1l-21 Predic- 0.816 ( = 2942,4 ioules ) . Extend cd lo e ot the saturation line,
tion ,.rf Conditiou n'hich will be reached at approximately 2il5.l j oulee,
Line. (Mollier plaue.) Smaller blocks of available heat must nori be ernployed to
extend the line into the saturated steam rcgion because of the
need to introduce the variable moisture loss. Assumel0oioule incremente;then from Eq
1l-14, A1r = 0*100/3{90 = 0.029. Thon for section el, z" = 0.810 - 002c = 0 789-

* Calculation methods for iadustrisl type extrectio! turbiEes are to be fouud itr PoDe'
Pldnl Enqiheein!, as follows:
Automatic controlleiL extracion: Jart.-Apr. 1945.
l ncontroLl*d exlractior: Apr. 1947.
t it i" i" approximation within the limits of accuracy of thig problen' Actually
coastant-stage"" i" not represented by s straight liDe otr sccouDt oi lonparqllelism
of the pressure "ffi"i"a"y
lioes ol the Mollie. Chart.
 THERMAL EFFICIENCY 389
Following the same procedure as for previous steps, point / is located at r, = ,0!6.4
Joulo.and ,= 0.978. Tben for section 19, rp =0316
- [ (1 - 0.978) + roo/s$] = 0.766.
Fig. 11-21 rvill shorv horv the condition line rvas completed using this procedure. The
6nal block of available heat units must be adiusted to ierminate at the desired back
pressur€, 70 mm. Hg in this case.
The final enthalpy is2342.3 Jouler. It would baye been eomewhat lower aud tbe
eDergy conversion correspondingly greater if the exhaust D8ssages hsd large flow
&rea and the last stage were designed to reduced residurl velocity to thlt needed for
flow through ihe exhaust hood.
Condition line end point can also be estimated by the use of special charts,
experience factors, etc. Or a heat balance can be set up, with all items predicted
save end point, which is then found by difference. The items requiring considera-
tion might be:
l. Generator output, 6ay ilt equivalent beat unit6 pe! hr.
2. Cenerator losses, including exciter.
3. Turbine mechanical losses. Bearing friction, auxiliaiy driye, etc.
4. Radiation and conveation lrom casing. Neglfgibly small,
5. Extlaction flom first bleed poiDt.
6, Extnction from second bleed point, etc.
r/. Used for gland seals, if origiu is on turhioe side of poiat of measuremert of
throttle steam flow-
8. Leaving loss. y2my2 at exhaust flatge.
9. Heat content (enthalpy) at turbine end point (by differenco).
10. Enlhalpy in throttle steam = sum
It would seem that the end point of an operating turbine might readily l_re
determinerl by direct test, such as measurement of pressure and quality at
the exhaust flange. Pressure is readily measured
there, as is quality for noncondensing and back
pr
pr,rssure turbines. But high-vacuum cxhaust
steam cannot be sampled directly for quality;
therefore enthalpy must be established by in-
direct means such as a condenser heat balance
or experimental determinations of all items in
i,he foregoing heat balance seve the ninth. An
experimental cond€nser heat balance is simple c 6hw
in conjecture, but exacting in execution because
of (1) Iarge flows of condensing water involved P
and (2) side flows, mainly involved with steam
jet air ejectors.
Increasing the number of stages in a turbinc
is beneficial to efficiency, but increases the ini-
tial cost. Main prime movers in central power
stations operate with capacity factors tending
to favor efrciency above initial cost and, hence, Enlropy
represent designs in which the total expansion Frc, 11-22 Prcssure con.,'er-
is divided into many stages.* The nonparallelism gence.
* 1G20 st&ges for stiaight impulse.
2G30 stages for impulbe (2-row frst-stage)-reacl,ion.
tlo or rDore gtages for strsight reactioo.
390 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
of const&nt pressure lines on the Mollier plane prevents the sum of thc avail-
able heat of all stages being exactly equal to the aveilable heat between ter-
minal conditions. 'fhis is illustrated by Fig. 1l-22, wherein the convorgence
of the pressure lines is exaggerated to show that for a staged tuibine the sum
of etage available heats, AIt + Arlb + Aft.", is more than the over-Bll heet
available, Ah"-c. The measure of this efrect is called Reheat Factor.
Reheat Factor = Sum of individual stage isentropic heat relesses
Over-all isentropic heat release
Reheat factor ranges between 1.000 snd 1.065 and is dependent mainly ou
extent of multistaging. The higher the reheat factor, the less the increase of
entropy of the condition line and more of the available heet is converted into
work, Alt*.
Internal engine efficiency measures the portion of the energy supplied, and
ideally available for transformation, that was actually converted into internal
work, i.e., steam forces acting on the moving blades.
Internal Engine EfEciency : dh-/Ah,<
The average, or over-all, stage efficiency moy be described in terms of the
two preceding factors, for it is equal to Lh*/(Ah^ f Ah6 * A7r.). Hence:
Inteq4-9olrgil9'li$siency
over-all sta6'e r fEciency -

I ,llirl., naa.d dlr..L..lt a-.tu t Aaa.l.. .l ....n.t rr t rLe t.mI. t a..r.rh!rr.Jr-ata ..r.r,.
a.llnlr.a l, lt l.r r.r.. ..a n..d t . @La Er.d 0..r1-&.. l..a d.ir. Lr.. .l{r ..lLi .. tuku tlro
.t .a r. d..a... n..r.iil.r rn L.a t r !.i.m..n r.l o.r. l. ahtqhd rr..a-tr.r.l r.l.il.i.hlr.t.ll 1..a.
-

III
,'-'

a ,rLr E&. ..a ir.lxrk.rl,,.r.-l I t-ah r.dir lh. rr..n.r 5rt- 6 ar..a,r..F..l!. .1... L
.r.rdr| ,.h. -rrt a.!tu a-.. O..drl n dl, a.dn a.r.m t.o .t o-.Hr- t4.tr bi.a J -rU-
Frc. U-23 Some bagic govemor armngemeuts. (Courtesy Poroee)
GOVERNING STEAM TURBINES 397
ll-7 Governing Steam Turbines. The electric power system is devised
of elements automatically responsive to variable load. (See Fig. 2-8.) One
of theee is the prtne tnouer gouernor. The steam turbine output is controlled
by its govemor, which, for stationary power plants, functions to control speed
tg nearly constant value. The speed responsive element used is either a centrifu-
gal weight or hydraulic impeller. These must necessarily produce some speed
regulation. However, modifications may be added which permit manual or
sutomatic resetting to any required constant speed.
The governing 8yst€m acts to translate slight speed changes, resulting from
load variation, into steam control. The nature of such control is lundamentally
a throttling process. Its efrect on the condition line was described in Sec 8-11.

Lin. 2
,-

S9..d

Snoll /r.,\t

o.oln ro

oil
I

olt

Cen*al E,echic Co.

l'IG. 11-24 Simple hydraulic relay speed governor.

392 STEAM PRIME I\{OVERS
The constant enthalpy throttling there rnentioned is productive of losses of
availeble energy, which losses may be partially decreased by substituting fop
the single governor valves sholvn in Figs. 11-13 and 11-23 a more complex
arrangement that reduces some of the throttling in the first turbine stage.
Steam control can be accomplished by one of the following:
L. Throttiing by a single inlet ualue. Constant enthalpy action. Suitable
for small turbines, even up to several hundred horsepower.
2. V arying the number ol fi.rst-stage inlet rwzzles in action, oy uhich o y
the last one openerl, is throttled, at any tin7e. Of course, there are irreversible
actions between the first and the second stages (which take full entry)'that
place the condition line somcrvhere near where it would have been for simple
inlet valve control. More efficient than (1) and frequently used for medium
and large turbines having velocity-compounded first stage.

ir-
Volvc lit, Volva
!€ol

olve tom
a!l
--Tii-
Po
cyli
oa2la blo Norr l.
croupt

Allit Cholne.' Mre,. Co,

Fro. 11-25 Multiple-admission steam chest.

3. Varying duration ol tull-pressure pufls (blasts), ol uhich there are

seueral per second,- "fhis is practiced on turbines having
full pedphersl admis-
sion to the first stage, mainly straight reaction types.
4. By-passing. Additional blade torque may be developed beyond that
existing at lull, unthrottled flow by admitting some throttle steam downstream,
i.e., by secondary and tertiary valves by-passing some high energy steam
around the first stage and following high-pressure stages. This live stqam
"peps up" the partially spent steam admitted through the primary velve. Blade
thrust in the downstream stages is increBsed but with greater intemal turbulence
and some loss of elficiency.
5. Manual control.'fhe nozzle chest of I turbine controlled as in item 1
may be divided into sections, with entrance to nozzle groups from each section
controlled by a hand valve. At light loads the operator closes one or more of
these hand valves, thereby reducing the total amount of throttliug.
Hydraulic reiay action predominates in governor systems. The fluid is
lubricating oil, with both govemor and lubrication systems supplied from the
same oil pump. Note that the hydraulic gcrvernor impeller is separate from this
(Fig. 1f-38). The supply to lubricate the turbine and generator is reduced to
GOVERNING STEAM TURBINES 393
a much lower pressure than is used by the govemor servomechanism system.
The need lor,the speed changer has been mentioned. As is seen in Fig. 11-23,
a speed changcr is a bias of some sort applied io the governor system. It
usually takes thc form of (1) an adjustment of a spring tension or (2) a
modification of the mechanical linkage connecting govemor element with the
pilot valve. If this adjustment is made by a reversible motor, then it could be
sccomplished while the turbine was running, and from a remote control point.
Thus by controlling the motor to run briefly in one direction, the governor
speed could be raised, while opposite rotation of the speed changer urotor
would lower turbine speed. This is needed, not only for paralleling units, but
also for controlling the division of load between a-c gener&tors operating in
parallel.
The typical regulation oI a centrifugal-govemor-controlled steam turbine is
sho*n by the drooping characteristic, Fig. 11-26. A turbogenerator may have
this charscteristic rather flat, but limited by governor hunting, the fault in-

1635
II s ll!t&iftllltirlat'nnitll
36
362 II 5
-- - -::::_<{xIIt

roo
:q 36
a
36
IlIl ItrlIl
IIt
36rO
ItIIil
360
illIIIIr
50@
! a'
to.ooo 15000
Kilorolt.
Frc. 11-26 Govemor cha lacteristics,

duced by overeensitivity. The speed regulation would be (Sr - Sz) 1S:. Any
desired speed could be produced by operating the speed changer, the efrect of
which ia to shift the regulation characteristic nearly parallel to itself up or
down.
Parallel Operat:ton ol Turbo-alternators. This, of course, implies two or
more units which can, by electrical switches, be connected to a common trus.
Now d-c generators can be paralleled on a bus after matching polarity and
voltage, and load can be divided between them at will through adjustment of
the shunt fields. A-c generators must also have a match of frequency and phase
rotation'before it is safe to connect the incoming maehine. Frequency being
proportional to shaft rpm, control resides in the govemors and speed changer.
Furthermore, when paralleled, the division of load between such machirqes can-
not be accomplished by variation oI excitation, which only causes more reactive
current to circulate between machines. Load division id accomplished by speed
changer adjustment. The machines must continue to operate in synchronism,
but the one receiving an "increasing speed" signal irom the speed changer will
pick up more lesd lrom the others. ff we lave a unit .A operating in a system
at 8800 rpm and carrying 10,000 kw (see figure), then a shift of the regulstion
394 STEAM PRIME MOYEES
characteristic to d' would necessitate that unit producing 11,400 kw if etill
operating at 3600 rpm. The division of load between turbo-altemstors is the
subject of the next example.
Example 1: Consider two equipolar alt€mators. ,4, 10,000 kw,0.8/a regulation;
A, 15,000 kw, 0.6/6 regulation. These operate in parallel to carry r system load oI
20,000 krv. Initially they are dividing the load at 3605 rpm as follows: .4, 8400 kw;
B, 11,600 kw. Let it be required to determiue the adiustment Beeded so that 8 will
carry 12p00 krv at 3610 rpm, and A the balance of the 20,000-kw system load. Ttre
adjustments will be expressed irt terms of the new no-load speeds.
The chamcteristic curves .A and B are drawn to the prescdt'ed regulation, as
shown in Fig. 11-26, it being their slope that is desired, not any particulsr positioD
on the speedJoad plane. New characteristic B' is now passed througb coordiDates
12,000 kw,3610 rym, parallel to B. Since.A must produce 8000 kw, also at 3610 rpm,
Iine .4' is passed through that point, parallel to /. By extending .4', 8' to the loload
axis, the new no-load speeds are determined to be: for unit .{,3633 rpm; 8,3627.5 rpm.
A speed indicator index plate could be marked with a scale of no-load speeds produced
at each setting.
An emergency gouernor ar\\ch is, in fact, an "overspeed trip valve" is an
essential accessory for all turbines, large and small. The trip device is usually
a rotating eccentric weight on the governor shaft, held out of contact with a
stationary trigger by a carefully calibrated spring. \Yhen for some reason there
is a failure of the normal speed responsive governor, the speed may suddenly
begin to increase, but then the higher centrifugal force will cause this trip
weight to overcome its spring tension and move into contact with the trigger.
The trigger action then $leases a stop valye which is normally cocked open

I
F H

''!
I ;

Dlliot co.
Frc. ll-27 Industrial turbines in a paper mill. 2000-kw back pressure turbines with
controlled extractior.
 U
(,
il
E
U
j
395
396 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
against a Bpring force. This action may be inbuilt in a special throttle valve, or
it may be a separate valve in series' with the throttle and governor.
To permit speed adjustment, the sctusl noJoad speed of .a turbine should
be adjustable betweer, 95% and lo5/o of rated noJoad speed. Within this range
the overspeed trip should be inoperative. The governing of the turbine should
be made sufficiently quick-acting to hold speed rise below the trip point on any
sudden loss of load.
Pressure responsive govemors are occasionally used, some instences beiug:
1. Throttle. governors on turbinee drivrng pumps-for speed variation of
unit to produce constent pump discharge pressure or excess pre88ure, as acrogg
an independently regulated valve ia the pump line.
2. Throttle governors on turbines required to exhaust at constant back
precsure. For speed control, unit must be operated in parallel with other syn-
chronous generstorc. Load control not possible independent of exhaust line
florv.
3. D:.lraction governors on bleeder turbines for automaticelly regulated
prcssure extraction.
Ll-E Part-load Pcrtormence. Throttling of incoming steam affects the
work delivered to thc shaft in two ways-a reduction of rate of flow and a
decrease of energy conversion per kg Bteam. Hence a small amount of throttling
can effect a considerable change in power output. When the pressure st the
outlet of the first stage nozzlee ie less than the critical nozzle pressure, flow is
determined by the fixed nozzle throat area and by the heat release in expaneion
to the critical pressure. With atraight throttling control,
wt'o! (6h')-tt2 : wrut(Ah)-'tz (11-15)
In this relation (which is lbunded on conetant nozzle throat area) r,trr' i8
the throttled flow irlto the norzle at part load, u1 is specific volume rt the

nd€t Hig l!

d tlou
P.olor

Curli!
I R.ocl loo
itoC!t
rto9! Govarnot
,rnd
control tlond
Erhooat to cond!n!ar
AUtt Clnolm... Mror. Co.

Frc. 11-29 Longitudin&l section of 60,000-kw rea4iion steam tutbin€.

PART-LOAD PERFORMANCE 397
nozzle throet, Bnd Arr the iseatropic heat release from nozzle inlet to throat.
Throat pressure is readily determined if ffrst-stage nozzles are divergent,
for p, = 0.55pr, or 0.58p1, depending orr whether steam is superheated or
saturated. When the first stage is composed of reaction blading, which is al-
ways convergent nozzling, the calculation of reduced flow might be based on
the "law of constant volumes," which is: The volume of steam flow into the first
row of blading remains constant ov€r mderate varistions of initial gteam
state.'
Examplc l: The derease of output caused by initialty thottling stesm to the
turbine of Ex 1, Sec 8-11, to t& t.3/o6! sb, will be investigsted,
By paralleling the full-toad line 1as was done in Fig.&23), begiDrina Btlt qr.klr.ot
ah i I lc,l iodct the eud point atpart loa d is determircd to be tUt ioslr. Srncgrhe full-loed
end point is rrlg.6iool.i, ihrottling has caused a decrease of energy oonversion to
(3u0.|-2e1r)/ (sr{0,*2fle .61 = 0.9&3 of the full-losd smoust.
To find the percentage flow, solve Eq 11-15 for ur'lur. Using Mollier Chart, and
noting that tluo&t pressures are pt = 0.55 X t&al =ttrakdoot .bi p;
=0.66 x = rt
Io.orlg/oEt .b A[ = 81401-- 2re!.0 = I6g.6iool.r;Arl,= gtlo](- 2ge&6 = l66.8.iout . ut at
rtlakg/@r .b,2r0.4"q= 0.ltalrol; r.,r' &trc.otlgroo! .b,rn?"c =o.r{au 01
Lh' 0.r&r.r m6i-
an 0.rl{tl6 {id;- - 0.751
Net worl delivered to sha{t is reduced to 0.963 x 0.754 ot 0.727 of fult load.t
Generator output would be sinilarly curtailed
In multiple-valve goveming, the flow will be reduced in direct proportion to
the number of valves remaining open, plus the throttled flow through the one
valve to be partially open.
The Willans line, described for steam engines, is a chhracteristic also of
Bteam turbines. Test data yield streight lines on the Steam conx.tmption ts
Load plarr.e for full expansion turbines, and nearly straight lines for ordinary
regenerative cycle turbines. For obvious reasons no conelation is to be expected
of data taken from industrial extraction turbines. Any straight line is defined if
two points on it are known. We will now show hov to predict e Willans line
by calculating two special points on it.
Engine efrciency, rated load, and steam conditions can be employed to de-
termine steam consumption Lt rateiJ load,. The consumption al nn-loail is
estimated from a no-load factor g, whose unit is Lcal per hr. A6tually g is no-
load steam flow multiplied by A[" - s between throttle ind exhaust steem condi-
trons. This means it represents' available enerry consumd to idle the turoo-
alternator. When g calculated from tests is plotted agsinst rated capacity,
which is assumed to be the principal factor afrecting it, the date are not too
well correlat€d, indicatrng that other factors than turbine eize affect it. Averag-
*The atteratiori of Etesn 8ow caused by varratiotr of initial ateaa state, for bot[
divergent and cotrvergetrt frrst-stage norzlitrB, as here described for governiog actiou, ie
also valid ior puposea of estim&trng change of tulbogenerator rating occasioned by changee
of pla.trt steam presaurc or superhest.
t Reader dll note that the psri lo&d line of Fig. &23 wa! coDstructed by meaos of
the empiricol turbine rulee of that sectiotr lor an assumed l4,60Gkt load, and that, ro
good agreement, this ir 0,n5 of full load (20,m0 kw).
398 STEAM PRIME MOYERS
ing of test data dnd consultations with manufacturers led to Fig. 11-30. The
following example predicts a Willans line from preliminary turbine information.
Examplc 2: The Willans line and its equation will be determined for 4. 2000-kw
siraight condensirg, 3600-rpm geered, multi-st&g€ turbiue. p, 21.00 kflloDtgq, rlllc
6UPCI- hest, Ps 6&0 Dl6 Hg.

Dated. load point. From Eq 8-10, electrical efficiency = 0.936.

Turbine power = 20t10/ (..q36 X 0.7056') = 2905bhp.
tr'ig. 11-16 shows an 176, of 0.75 at 2005 hp.
Over-all Ai" - c =(!084.r- ,l4d)o.rao = re..3 k6ULs.
Work available at shaft = 294.3X 0.75 = f68.t kcsl/kg steam,
Rated load steam flow, BD = zs06 x aa.U10E),2= 10,020 tg per hr.
No-laad, point. No-load factor for 2000-kw unit, * = r04,loo kod per hr.
Noload stenD) flow, OA, = UB,too/rrAS = elo tg per hr.
These two points are plotted as shown in Fig. 11-31, and connected by a stmight
line.,{8. Slope of this line is (BD - OA)/CD: 6 Lg per kw br. It is therefore repre-
Bented by the equation: lF = gl0 + 5.L kg per hrl where , i kw of geirerator
load.
6
20

t0
2

I
.0
.6
'g
E I

5- 7'

2 .E

2 3a I 8
IO
Roted Copo.ily - tw

Frc. 11-30 Steam turbine oo-load factor.

This line is probably a fair representation of actual perlormance of 6uch a

turbine above 25/o load, but the noload point is an imaginary one obtained
by.projecting the ffnite load plot to the axis. There have been very Iew no-load
steam consumption tests of turbines (probably because they rarely operate
belosl 25/o rating), but those thet are madg on turbines with near-optimum
velooity ratio .8 indicate a higher no-load steam flow (by 5O/o) than is implied
by the Willans line.
Characteristic performance curves which may be derived from either the
predicted or measured Willaas lint are those of steartu rate ar,d therrnal
eficiency.
'1 lnanric !p4 p6gq = 1365 e6tta
PART.LOAD PERT'ORMANCE 390
Example 3: The lVillans line of Ex 2 fumishes information eumcient to predict
stBarr mte and over-all efiiciency. For irtstance, at 1500 kw, steam consumption
+. 5 x 1500-=-8410 Lg per hr. Steam rate, 1,r = 8410 /1800 = 5.6 & per kw hr.
= gl0
Tbe combined efliciency may be calculated also.

?" = t6(B&i4#*To2ee.r - 0.22

Other loads beiog similarly chosen for calculations, the steam rate and effciency cuwes
catr be plotted.

- 15
-30
c c
!
E: I
3i Ert9 Y a -.
- - to a20
.g
.9
slcom rotc
UIES o l0
3: ;
9

t
E E 0oit.d line indicotcs proboblc
! lo!,!-lood stcom llow
l/)o 0 D
0 500 t000 1500 2000 250r

Frc. 11-31 Willans line and derived performauce,

The small turbogeuerator unit of this example probably would not have any
overload valves, but to show the efrect oI by-passing some steam around the
first stages to secure tvbine capability beyond rating, the dotted overload
extensions are drawn on Fig. 11-31. For a 25/o overload the steam rate will be
approximately 5ft higher than for straight unthrottled flow without by-passing.
The point C then would be at 1.25 x 2000, or 2b00 kw. Its ordinate would be

t opanad
\
EE
\ -i
2
Ez
/. !E
3

Lood

Srnglsvolv. govsrnhg v th Multipl. votv. govoroing V;tv.r

Itonuol shul-off on hotf of op€n io saqu.nc. ot 2.3,ond4.
fir3l ltog. no22las rfilh sooa ovartop on one onolhaa

Fto. 11-32 Variable loari perlormancc rvith grouped nozzles.

'factor for colverting J,/r to kosl/kg.

1()O STEAM PRIME MOVERS
found as follows: tar at 2000 kw = 6.,16 kgper kw hr. Steam coneumption at
2500 kw = 6.r{6 x I.05 x 2500 = 1{,3E0 tg per hr. The dotted line BC is an
approximahon unly.
The analysis of Ex 2 and 3 implies a single govemor valve system. If part
of the first-stage nozzles could be closed off by a hand vaLve for low loads, the
Willans line would be afrected as shown in Fig. ll-32. A largc turbine governed
by multiple inlet valves has these arranged with overlap, that is, the next onc
starts to lift before the last one is completely open. This produces a scalloped
Bteam rate curve and a Willans line that is really a series of lines with breaks
at the points of successive valve openings. Howcvcr, unless the line is plotted
to very large scsle, the breaks are not distinguishahlc, and the line appears
straight throughout the normal t6ad range.

]-

Etiott Co.

Frc. ll-33 Condensing turbine design suitablo for 500-5000 kw

The Willans line has lost much of its formcr significance under the modem
practice of considering heat rates in regenerative opcration rather than straight
condensing steam rates. It remains, however, a facile tool for rapid estimating
purposes.
As load on a turbine decreases, the exhaust pressure extends through the
casiag toward the inlet end, until, at no-losd, nearly the entire expansion occurs
in the first-stage nozzles'and the rernainder of the stages are idling in steam
nearly of exhaust or condenser pressure.
l1-9 Mechanical-drive Turbines, Several manufa,cturers build standard
lines of small turbines designed for direct connection to auxiliaries guch as
draft fans, pumps, pulverizers, and designed to be used to power miscellaneous
industrial equipment. These are always impulse turbines, mainly single-wheel,
 MECHANICAL-DRM TITRBINES 4101

although the blading may be velocity cornpounded in Curtis or re-entry ar-

rangement. The power range is about 5-1520 bhp in the single-wheel units, but
ratings of several thousand horsepower are built into multi-stage units. Turbines
sre sometimes selected to drive auxiliaries in lieu of motors because of the
benefit to station heat balance of the exhaust steam. The turbine drive is more
readily adapted to variable speed control than is the motor; also, it is safer
in locations where there is some expectation of explosive gases in the atmos-
phere.
The single-stage units are generally operated at atmospheric or back pressure,
with the exhaust steam used to heat leedwater or in an industrial process. The

a
l
d
I

Frc. 11-34 Single-wheel re-entry turbines with details ol blading. Frequently seen
for the smaller mechanical drives.

steam rates therefore are quite high and such units would be expensive to operate
if their exhaust heat were thrown away. These turbines compare with engines
for auxiliary drive as follows:
Mechanical Driue Turbi,nes Steam Enqiws
Eigher rotative speed is useful for direct Low rotative speed may be an advantage
comection to centrifugal pumps, fans, etc. in some a,pplicatiots. Lower st€am rate.
Otl-free character of exhaust steam. Less Valve gear can be adapted to reversible
lubrication aud maiutenance. More com- oper&tiou. Usually quieter itl operstio!.
psct.
Mechaaical drive turbines sre cheracterized by short rigid ehafts and large
blade clearances which enable them to be started quickly. They have speet
govemors and overspeed trips as standard equipment. The speed govemor may
be topped by a pressure-responsive element. lVhen this is done, the tnit operatei
4O2 STEAM PRIME MOVE}IS
at variable speed up to thc limit set by the speed govemor. Yariable speed
governing may also be introduced in connection with combustion control.
The lubrication systems sre simple. Reservoir and ring oiling ie common,
although some have circulating oil systems. Mechanical steam seals are stand-
ard. Governors can be supplied for almost any desired speed, but 1800 and
3600 rpm are quite common. lVhere driven equipment is of low speed, the
geared turbine will provide more economical power than will a direct-connected,
low-speed machine. Double helical gears are quiet and have balanced end
thrust. Reduction ratios up to 10: I are possitrle, so if the turbine were to operate
at the efficient speeds of 6000-8000 rpm, the drive eould be as low as 600-
800 rpm.

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fx;. 1l-35 Single-automatic-extraction condensiug turbine ald section at extmction
gear.

'11-lO Turbine Installation and Operation. Basically the layout and

installation of a steam turbine unit consist of thc work connected with (1)
foundation; (2) stean.r connection from high-pressure header; (3) exhaust con-
nection; (4) extraction stcam piping; (5) auxiliary piping (drip and drain,
gland, oil); (6) leads to remote instruments and controls; and (7) electrical
circuits for the generator and exciter.
Small turbines atrd thcir driven equipment are customarily mounted on a
rigid cast or wcHed bedplate which itsclf must he properly supported by a
foundation' of thc power plant engineer's design. This can be a solid concretc
block typc for noncondensing units, as well as for small condensing turbines
with side cxhaust. Large turtrines havc lore and aft supports at thc bearings with
the main casing bridging between as a cylindrical beam. Thcse supports are in
the form of brackets or pedestals and are carried on prepared foundations de'
signcd against specified allowable deflection under load. Condensing turbines
usually cxhaust downward and therclore requirc an open form of foundation,
for spacc must bc available immediatcly below the turbo-alternator for such
itoms as conrlcnst-r extraction steam piping, generato4 coolcr, conduits for
gcncrator clt'ctrical lead,:, etc
* See Sr:c 4-7.
TURBINE INSTALLATION AND OPEBATION 403

The high-pressure steam lead must h,: installed with attehtion to the need
of adequate, yet flexible support, thermal expansion, and the drain of couden-
sate, the latter especially when warming up the pipe system preperatory to a
stsrt. The most darqgging thirrg t"htt can happen to a turbine is to receive a
elug of \4'ster along with the steam when the blades are rapidly moving. A
steam separator should be located in the supply line close to the turbine and
any inverted expansion bendg receive special drainage during warm-ups.
Auxiliary drive turbinee of less than 25 hp may dispense with the separator if

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Fro. 1i-36 Examples of main steam leaCs to large turbines.

their lead is taken from the top of the header and if an upstreem drain line is
provided at the throttle valve. The configuration of piping necessary to connect
the auxiliary to a source of steam, together rvith the small size of such piping, is
usually adequate to absorb thermal expansion without imposing a stress on the
turbine to which it is connccted. But the large turbine with its short steam lead,
large and thick-welled, ought to be installed wi'th special long-radius bends to
absorb expansion. Typical steam lesds from headers above or below the turbine
room floor are shown in Fie. 11-36.
The bleeder piping is of relatively srnall size, usually having sufrcient bends
4O4 STEAM PRIME IIOVERS
between turbine and heater to absorb expension. Thcrc may be no'cxhaust
piping as such, for the condenser inlet flangc is frcqucntly boltcd tlircctly to thc
turbine exhaust flange. Sometimcs a flexiblc cxpansion joint is irrscltetl at that
point-all depending on the method used to sqrport thc condenscr rvcight. Small
piping, some of which may be supplicd by thc turbinc manulacturer, will con-
sist of:
I. Condensate drains from casing, steam chcst, ctc.
2. Oil piping for lubrication and governing systen. Therc is a certain amount
of high-frequency vibration in a large steam turbinel hencc, care is necded in
the layout of the oil piping. A broken high-pressure oil line could start an oil
fire. Welding is frequently used for joints; also a guartl pipe is used over the oil
line.
3. Gland piping for leak-ofr steam of high-pressure gland and lor supplying
water or low-pressure steam to exhaust-end gland.
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Frc. fl-37 Trrrbine gauges and coutrole.

TURBINE INSTALLATION AND OPT]RATION 405
4. Pressure lines to instruments lor steam and oil pressures. Much of this
may be supplied by the manufacturer as an integral part of the'turbine. If the
plant design requires some of these pressure readings on a separate turbine con-
trol panel, then extension lines are needed.
Operating Superuision. Fig. 1f-37 illustrates the rmplement of gauges and
controls used with a large compound turbine. Smaller turbines will haye fewer
of these, the ultimate in simplicity being the small, mechanical drive turbine
with throttle valve, casing and throttle drain, antl steam supply pressure gauge.
The starting ol a noncondensing turbine is done by slowly opening the
throttle valve until sufficient steam is striking the blades to overcomd static
friction. Then the shaft starts to rotate and the throttle should be adjusted so
that a slow speed (200-500 rpm) will be maintained until pipe lines, casing, and
rotor are thoroughly waimed up. But even before this is done the steam line
should be thoroughly drarned of condensate, the oil supply checked in the reser-
voir, and the drircn machine inspected for "ready" condition. The driven
machine should be staded in unloaded condition if possible. On small machines
with an oil relay in the governing system, and no auxiliary oil pump that can
be previously started, the operator will need to hold the governor valve opeu
against its spring force until the shaft-driven oil pump can produce sufficient oil
pressure on the operating piston to take over. When the machine is warm and
drains have been closed ofr, if oil,pressure gauges show normal indication l[e
throttle may be slowly opened until the speed governor takes over, then com-
pletely opened. At this point it is desirable to test the overspeed trip, even
though it may mean repeating the stariing cycle. Two forms of trip test are:
(1) operate the trip trigger manually, which verifies the valve mechanism but
not the centrifugal actuator; and (2) overpower the govemor, or withrspeed
changer raise the shaft speed until the overspeed element operates the trip re-
lease. This tests the entire trip system. To stop a noncondensing turbine one
merely needs to close the tlrrottle valve.
Back pressure turbines are started with the atmosphere relief line fully open.
After the turbine is started and the generator paralleled and connected to the
plant electrical bus, the unit is said to be "on-the-line." The atmospheric relief
valve is then adjusted to raise the exhaust pressure to its operating value. Auto-
matic extraction turbines are put on-theJine on a straight condensing or non-
condensing basis, after whieh the extraction gear is placed in service.
All the precautions and actions already mentioned are used in starting.con-
densing turbines, plus several others arising from the need for sirnultaneous
activation of condenser auxiliaries, or from large size, from high temperature,
or other extremes of practice so often met in central station units. Manufactur-
ers furnish the turbine purchaser with specific instructions for operation and
eupervision. T\ese are covered in a general way by the followiag:r
Turbinc Staiting Proccdurc
1. gtcrt suxiliary oil pump and check oil pressure
2. Chec\. levet in oil reseruoir
3. Opeu all cylinder draia valves
4. Open gland leakofi valyes
. Pooer, December, 1945. McGrcw-Eill.
,(m STEAM PRIMF, MOVERS
b_ Drain condensate from the main gteam header cnd the steam leads
6. Esta,blish cirqulating-water flow througb condenser
7. Start coDdensate pump
8. Establish seal on h-p gland for starting condition
o Estsblish seal on l-p gland for starting coDdition
t0. Start coDdeuser air eiector and close vacuum breaker
11. Close eylioder drains to stages under vacuum
12. With partial vacuum established, quickly admit erough steam to stut rotor
and then shut off
13. Listen for rubs on casing aDd at 6eal locations
14. If no rubs are evident, admit enough stea,m to establish rotor speed of about
200 rpm. Maintain about one-half hour to rvarm up rotor and casing evenly
15. Trip emergency hand control to check operation
16. Reestablish steam flow and slowly increase speed towards rated rpm driring
Dext 15 minutes. If rotor vibrates severely decrease speed and contiuue warmirg
up until no objectionable vibration appears on speed increasc
17. Adjust h-p and l-p seals for operatiug condition
'Wheu
18. cyliader coldensation ceases close drain valyes
19. Tum on cooling water to oil coolet to maintain about at C outl€t oil tempers-
turc
20. As turbine reaches rated speed make sure that the gdvcrnor takes control
21. Place unit on line quickly and apply abou120/6 load
Open bleed-line valves and place heaters in operation
Turbine Shutdown Procedure
_t. Reduce turbine load gradually to zero and quickly take the uuit off the line
Close bleed-line valves and take heaters out of service
3. Shut ofl steam by manual tripping of overspeed trip
4. Open vacuum breaker
5.. Shut of air ejector
6. Check that auxiliary oil pump starts at Droper speed
7. Shut off gland seal water
8. Shut down condensate pump
Shut ofi glaud sealing steam
10. Ope[ all atnospheric drains
ll. Shut ofi water to oil coolers
Shut down condenser circulating-water pumps
t3. Keep auxiliary oil pump in operation until unit is cool

Because of close clearances between rotor and casing blades in large turbines,
itis necessary to avoid ects that would cause unequal heating and expansion,
Buch as passing steam through a turbine or drawing air through the glands with
the rotor at rest. Most of the large turbines have spindle-tuming motors that
assist in maintaining even expansion or contraction by turning the rotor slowly
during preliminary warm-up, cooling ofr, or shut-down periods. The lube oil flow
can be greatly reduced during such periods of slow motion.
The maintenance supervision required during the lonq periods of time that
central station turbo-alternators e,re on-the-line consists of a verification of
bearing oil temperature, pressure, and purity; a logging of steam conditions as
indicated by gauges and instruments; plus a corresponding set of generator and
exciter checks. Special instrumenis such as shaft eccentricity, bearing vibration,
 TURBINE INSTALLATION AND OPERATION 407
and rubbing (noiae) detectors are frequently installed on large turbines and
interpreting their readings is part of supervision. Careful watching of these items
can usually dctect incipient troubles before real difficulties develop. Loading
supervision is generally carried out by remote control from the plant control
room or, in some cases, from the office of the load dispatther which may be miles
away. Periodic checks of thermal efficiency and load-carrying ability are made,
generally by the engineering supervisor or an efrciency-improvement group
working for him. As long as steam conditions are maintained at standard leveli,
vacuum is normal, and steam is clean, there is not much to turbine operation
except watchful waiting. Unclean steam represented by dust carryover from

Ltb. ot to Ata.gt rn g.dt

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Frc. 11-38 Oil system oi lerge stern turbine having hydraulic pressure-type
govemor,

the superheater may cause a slow lose of load-carrying ability, even vibration.
Eventually deposits may have to be regroved by internat washing with water or
wet steam, or by opening and cleaning.
Lubricating .Oil. Checking the lube oil has been mentioned as necessary
supervisi6n. This is because the oil may deposit sludge, become acidified, foam,
or form an oil-w&ter emulsion.. Although ihe lubrication of a turbine can be
said to_be.elatively simple (compared to other prime movels), it is never-
theless highly important and vital to operation. fhe turbine is a high-speed
machine. Large units have tremendous rotative momentum, and bearinls would
be ruined before the machine could come to rest, even the throtlle wereif
tripped simultaneously with fsilure of the lubricating system. Brakes are not
built into steam turbines.
Steam turtrine ot! is highly refined mineral oil with good antioxidatiot and
{06 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
demuhibility properties. It can be obtained in conventional or fortiffed forms,
the latter having certain additivee for restraining or preventing rqst and
oxidstion. Lese. frequent oil cleaning (4-6 months) is required with the. iu-
hibited oik then with conventional (1 month). However, the best o{ oils
cannot be used continuously without puriflcation. Either the entire charge
caa be drained at some time when the unit is shut down or a small percentage
oI the oil flow may be continuously by-passed to a purifier. The purification
can be accomplished by filtering, centrifuging, or settlement. firhen a new tur-
bine is ready for service, and after a turbine overhaul, the lubricating system
should be cleaned, the oil cooler tube bundle inspeeted, orifices and etrainers
checked to see tlrat no sludge or scale is encrusted. Special flushing fluids are
sometimes run through the system before filling with new or renovated lubri-
cating oil.
Table 11-5. STEAM TIIBBINE LTJBRICATINC OIL
ArecLaaundad, RinAailed and
Units Unih
Geared
Viscosity, SSU at 37,8'C 14{L1?O nu325
Neutralization No.' 0.05 0.05
ASTM Steam Emulsion No.f 120 max 150 mox
API degrees 30
Cooling range approx, 8il"-66," C 8it'- 00. c
* Acid rumber oI ASTM-D6&3. The mg o{ KOE used to treutmlize I g oil Bample.
t ASTM-Dr57.
1l-11 Turbine Tests. Turbine tests &re commercial, educational, or ex-
perimental. In the manufacturers' shops turbine testB are made for power,
valve setting, speed regulation, overspeed trip setting, and running balance.
From time to time commercial tests may be made by the operati4g company
to determine what increase oi steam rate or heat consumption has followed
opcration of the unit over a certain length of time. Experimental testing is
carried on in manufacturers' shops and in research laboratories for the purpose
of checking new designs or of improving the old. During the.initial period of
operation, the purchaser of a turbine may conduct at accepto,nce test to verify
any or all of the guarantees made Ior the unit by its manufacturer. The ac-
ceptance test, as ordinarily performed, ie a check on output, steam r&te (or
heat consumftion), speed regulation, and overspeed trip setting. The ASME
Test Code lor Steam Turbines has been a standard lor acceptance tests. This
code covers the testing of turbines for (1) thermal economy characteristics
and (2) capacity; and provides specific instructions for the testing of three
classes of turbines, i.e. (1) complete expansion turbines, (2) reheating turbines,
and (3) regenerative turbines. The load on a turbine generator is defined ia
the code ss the net output o{ its generator. Net output = Electrical output
of generator (kw) minus that portion ol the excitation power that is separately
supplied (kw) minus power for ventilation separately supplied (kw). The
totsl steam is determined in the case of a turbine exhausting to a surlace
condenser by weighing or measuring the condensate.
The readings of commercial steam flow metcrs connected to orifces in the
stean line leading to the turbine may bc used if the meter is checked end veri-
TURBINE TESTS 409
fied belore the test and if the usual tolerance of these instrumentl, ! 1.5%
of full-scile reading, is permissible for the test. For noncondensing turbinis
the steam flow meter or weighing of boiler feedwater are waye to get steam
consdmption. Since steam turbo-alternators are close-coupled, perrnanently
installed units, it is not practicoble to employ an! sort of dynamometer load
aB a means of measuring output. The generator is a dynamometer of sorts.
However, the instruments customarily installed give generator output; hence,
unlees dsta on electrical efficiency are available, turbine performance cannot
be separated from that of the whole unit.
A test wherein the variations of steam consumption, steam rate, combined
efficiency, &nd engine efrciency wii,h load are determined for a btraight con-

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Frc. 1139 Connectious for small condensing turbogenerator and auxiliaries. Special
instructional installatior.

densing unit, would present no unusual problems. If the unit were an extract-
ing or regenerativc turbine, and il the testing were to include determining
the state of steam at extr&ction points, as well as extraction flows, the field
work would be much more of a job. Steam condition is readily and easily
determined by pressure gauge aud thermometer where it is superheated. In
the saturdted stages, it is pressure and quality that must be measured. Test-
ing goes very well with throttling or separating caloiimeters until the point is
reached where casing pressure is too low to operate the separating calorim-
eter. The reader will recall that the principle of this calodmeter includes flow
me&surement through an orifice as a function of the high-side pressure. This
requires the low side to be less than 58% ol the high side, and for reliability
it would be well to limit use to pressures greater than twice condenser pressure.
Of course, the calorimeter discharge must be piped tightly to the condenser for
4IO STEAM PRIME MOVERS
all casing pressures less than about twice atmospheric. lhe presence of steam
jet air ejectors, discharging some of the condensed jet steam back to the
cpndensei, and the possibility of ejector condenser as well as main condenser
tube leakage are further complications if condensate weighing is to establish
eteam flow.
Erampte 1: Fig. llJg represents a 75-kw, condeusiug gealed, steam turbo-
altematoi employed educationally in the author's institution. During a certain'series
of iests data, were taken which led to the calculation oI the follorvi[g performance
characteristics at approximately L/t, th, 3/a, and full-load. The average data for each
of the t€st runs and the derived calculations are shorur in Table 11-6 The tests were
,Dade to obtaiD yariable load data for (l) lYillans line, (2) steam rate, (3) combined
e6ciency, and (4) engine efficiency. Performance curves showing these items agaiust
p€rcelt load can be plotted from the tabular calculations.
Preliminary static test with turbine exhaust valve closed, auxiliaries in operatiou,
and full condenser vacuum established $&s undertaken in order to fiud the "tare"
coDdensate fow. This was later subtracted from condensate weighings made during
loed tests,
Monulacturefs guarante*. The purchaser invests lai"ge amounts of money
in a turbogenerator. He naturally wishes to hold the manufacturer to fulfillment
oi claims for performance, capacity, etc. Therefore a guarantee is required and

Table 11-6. TESTS Or'7&krv, CONDENSING, STIIAM TURBO-ALTERNATOR

TEST RUN NUMBER

TE6T3
I 4

Elapsed time, min 30 30 30 30

Load fraction, approx ! 1 1

Initial steam pressurc, kg/ool eb rt 8? l3.or 13.01 13.67

Initial steam tempemture, o C 20E.3 2N ,0.0
/rr, kod Pcr lg 0&1.4 0?6.1 683,9 083.8
Observed vacuum, mm IIg 693.9 682J 690.0 wr.2
Vacuum, couected t,o 16.0o0 691.7 675,7 ita6 el.a
Barometer, corrected to 16.6q0 747.O 748.t 760.6 7a8.t
Exhaust pressure,oa Hg abs 6,4.4 68.6 6r., 50,s
Exhaust sat. temperature, "c 3e.6t &"06 41.06 4o.66
Weighed condensate,kg 217.7 2c1.7 362.0 4303
Condensa,te florv, Lg per hr 436.4 683.t1 7.a 86E,0
Tare flow,\ per hr 61.1 64"r 6t.1 ,1
Net flow (: throttle florv)kg per hr 381 580 0?r.l 7ee.,
Load, kw 17.6 34.1 55.0 70.4
Load fraction (of 75 kw) "455 .734 .938
Power factor 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
t r, &g Per k\l h! 21.65 16.62 t2.2t 11.35
i.1, ot exhaust, kcsl p6r kg 30.o, 44.0C {1,94 {t 50
Entropy oI throitle stoam 1.59 L57 1.59 r.r8
ft.r (at p: and sr) koal por kg 4!5.6 405.0 498.3 ac3.0
$:tr;se/{w(i,l,-hu)) 6.2 8.8 10.9 11.8
a." = 860.e/(ror(lz, - n)) 21.1 30.7 38.2 40.0
TURBINE TESTS 41I
Iurnished which may cover many items,r but economy in the use of steem ie
usually the purchaserb main interest. This may te a guaranteed steam rate,
over tire loild range, or a guarauteed heat rate with epecified extraction'
Theee guarantiees are made for specified design values of throttle pressule,
throtile tetperature, and exhaust pressure. However, these- operating condi-
tions may not be exactly achieved by the steam generator- and the condenser at
the timeif testing the new installation. Conditions may be eitler more or less
favorable and resilt in a test stcam rate that will need corlection before it can
be legitimately compared with the guarsntee. Hence the contract-for a turbine
ehouid hrct"de xhe iasis to be used in establishing the facts of compliance-
Fig. 1l-lO illustrotes typical correction fectors which the manufacturer will

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Frc, 11-!l() Typical co[ectioD factors lor steam turbine having perfonnance guaran-
teed !E.88 exhsust prcsEurp, st rsted
at,l2'2 LglcmrgE,426.7"C tbrottlo Et€dn,38.1
etpam fl99.
include in a turbine contract. Better steam or heat rates are provided by ptts-
sure, temperatrrre, and vacuum higher than design specifications, and vice
versa. A test steam rste lower than guarantee might actually represent a
failure to meet the guerantee, if the test conditions were more favorable to
efficiency than those speciffed in the contract. How the test resulte will be
corrected for comparison with the guaranteed rate will be illustrsted in the
following example.
Example 2: A straight condeDsiDg st€am turbine was tested for steam rate at s
loading produciug & rate of flow for which the corrections in Fig. 11-40 apply. Over
a 2-hr test the average load'vae 7515 kw, and the steam flow to the throttle was
6+ f80 k8. Steam &t throttle, atf trgroBr gq!416.6.O; ry€r8ge erhauEt pte88uteli6 rro
EB; oper8ting conditibDs, dcady. Th€ 8usr8,Dt€e st thiE load wss {ra Lg per kw hr.
WrE it met?
From the corection curves one 6nds that the &ctual t€st conditions should produce
& steam rate that is 0.5/6 better because of ovetpressure, 1.3% poorcr because of
undertempemture, and 0.8/2 poorer because of higher back-pressure. These net
1.6y'6 poorer stE&m rate than had the design conditions prevailed. A "poorer" steam
rate is a higher steam rate; consequeltly the tested steam rate should be decrerBed
by L,6% tor compa son with the guaraltee.
Test Eteamtate = 01,10 / (2 X 7515) =a.lsLgperkwbr
Corrected steam rate : (.2E - 0.016 X a.r8 = a.rt Lf pe! kw hr
Ttis meets and slightly exceeds the guaranteed petformance.

A better performance than contracted for means savings to the operator,

which is usually rervarcled by a bonus to the msnufacturer. Conversely a
t Maximunr oafe pressure a,nd temperature, matimum capscity, extraction, etc.
472 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
poorer steam rate ent&ils a 'penalty chsrge. A full set of correction curves
covering the load range would exhibit multiple curves, like those dashed in the
figure, for the purpose of verilying partJoad guarantees.
In the absence ol detailed correction factors such as there, engineers must
u8e arbitrary corrections l\ke 1.8/o Pel t0o0 difrerence in superheat, 1.5 ,4o per
7O/o vaiation in initial pressure , and'0.16/oper I mr vacuum difrerence.
11-12 Vacuum. Vacuum is a subatmospheric pressure, measured as the
pressure depression below atmospheric. (Sbe Fig. 1-3.) Yacuum is created in a
closed chamber il the gas or y&por whose molecules are responsible for the
internal fluid pressure is partially withdrau.-n. To withdraw a perma,nent gas
much work of compression must be expended on the gas, but water vapor may
be readily removed with low energy expcnditure by first condensing it. One
hg of water vapor ato.07 tg/6mt abqccupies 20.92 m9 whereae ifter coudensat-
ion,it ie only0.00l mrof liquiti. This stupendous shrinkage accomplishes two
practical results. First the liquidating oI most of the vapor molecules creates
a region of emptiness, thus a vacuuml second, but little'pump work is needed
to elevate the condensate from vacuum to plenum.
A" steqnt condenser is designed to accomplish this qction. It
is able con-
tinuously to swailow largc volumes of low-pressure vapor and, with the aid
of a flow of, cool water, "blot up" the heat, efrect condensation, and maintain
a high vacuum at the steam inlet. Now all this has a beneficial efrect on the
conversion of heat into rvork in the prir.ne mover. Ii the working expansion can
be continued below atmospheric pressures, extla work energy will be wrested
front each kg of steam. Notice how much of the total energy converted
irito work per Lg of steam, shown by the typical condensing turbine lines
(Frg. A-13), is released in the vacuum region. For example, line .4 represents
a 20,000-kw turbine with nearly 9000 krv ol this cleveloped in the lacuum region,
ttrereby being madc possible by conden-"ing opcration.
Condensers are used vith both steam turbines and engines, although es-
pecially with turbines because their thermodynamic advantages occur chiefly
in low-pressure cxpansions. Engines are not oldinarlly ollerated at exhaust
pressureslower thana660 mm,Hg vacuum, but turbines employ condensers de-
iigned to produce up to as much as749 mm.Cylinder dimensions are the lirniting
factors ioi engines because, bcing of positive displacemcnt, they must provide
piston
' displaccnrent equal to cxhaust steam volurne.
Condenser lacuums are measurcd u'ith nelcury manorlletets or with vac-
uum gauges having dials calilrrated in mm -of-tucrcittl' units. In the tneasute-
ment of condenser vacuurns grcat precisiotl is rctluitctl, both lith manometer
and barometer, for the absolute plcssurc, on I'hiclt tlte steatD propelties depend,
is extremely srnall--thc result o{ subtracting tuo nearl1' equal numbers, such
as76l.5-740.2. At high vacuum,2 5 mm. Hg prcssure diflcrence accounts for
about0.5 "C change in saiuration temperature, and Lzt kcal alailablc hcat. As
16.4rc temperatur; expansiou aloni rvill Yary a mercur:i colunu by 2.5 mm, it
is seen that barornctcr and manometer columns must be corrcctcci to a common
temperature bcfore they can bc subtracted to give absolutc pressure. The
common temperature to use is the one lor which tlle linear scale on the ba-
rometer is correct. It rvill be noted that the mercury pressure entries in the
published steam tables are based on 0"C mercury.
CONTACT CONDENSERS 413
column-(-rAr)lIxlo-.xl,8mm(U-16)
Linear cofiection to mercury
where A, is temperature difrercnce of the correction, plus if observed tempera-
ture is lower than standard, miruts il vice versa; and IJ = DEHg observed
height of mercury column.
Example l: The absolute pressure of a condenser will be determined Irom the
following data. Barometer, ?a0.3 DD at m'C; manometer, TO ED IIg at *!.rq
Both will be corrected to OoC.
True barometric pressute = ?40.8 + ('201 x 749.1 x 1.8 t l0-r 740-0 6ni
-?03.3
True condenser vacuum = 707.8 + (-9.21 \ 107.1 x l.Ex l0-. - EE
Absolute condenser presslne = r nr. 43.8 ED
Absolute condenser prcssure = .3'ax+# - 0.0680 kgloot cb
Example 2 : Euppo€6 a v.ouu6 ir rolort d to o 15.6'C OOI btD) bot@ot- .oluDD
t 608.6 Eb,We will now Bee whst this vould be if referr€4 to s ?00 ED colum[.

Absolute pressure in t6.0PC mercury units = 63.60 Ee

This same pressure would be indicated by a 0'C coluun of height: 0J'6 +
(-I6.0)x 046 x 1.8 x t0-r - Gl'{0 E n'
Therefore the vacuum relerred to OoC borometer = 700-68.O r 00O60 om
Air entrainment in the condenser has its efrect upon the vacuum. The ad-
dition of air lowers the vacuum possible with a fixed mixture temperature.
By Dalton's Lau, in a mixture of ges &nd vapor at I given temperature each
constituent contributes to the observed pressure the some amount thet it would
have exerted by itself at the same temperature had the other not, been present-
That is, the condenser pressure
p" = p, + p^ (U-17)
The application of this law will now be illustrated by example.
3: Suppose the measured temp€rature of a steam-iir mixture in a
Examplc
cotrdensetwere 86.7oC , wheleas the vacuum, referred td a Zai.Grlrla barometer was
,O.0 EE llg. The weight of entrained air can be found as follows:

rt=ta.?cc (tables), pv = 0.0a80 kgrool ab

Mixture pressure, pc (768-700.eXl.0nt/7C2)-O.O?06 Lg/oar ob.
The vapor prcssure
Partial pressure of air, p, : o,1xy;7lg oE! .b
t g at 30.?.C (tsbles) = 23,008 ar This is rilso ,,a.

pvlLT; w.- om7?*:l-%il:723'q9 rgor per trg deam.

From ro =
-
Note: Had the mixture pressure been erroneously used as saturation pressure, it
would have indicated a temperature of lt.8'O, or At:too high, Horvever, a 0.196:1
air-yapor ratio is far richer than would be errcountered in condenser practice, for
which a ratrio 0.0004:l would be more no.rmal. Hence in normal operations, cordenser
ptessure cau be considered to determine mixturc temperature.
11-13 Contact Condensers. Condensers can bc divided il\o contact and
*rlace Lypea. In the contact type, exhausl, steaur and condensing water are
actually mixed together. Heat transler is by direct conduction. The steam
quickly condeDses in the water, and the mixture is continuously withdrawn
 414 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
from the condenser aB a str€am of warm water. Surface condensers in-terpose
a wall between steam and water, through which heat must be convectively
iransferred. The condeneate and condensing water are separately withdrenin.
The cofitsct condensers (jet contiensers) may be further subdivided into
those from which the watcr is extracted directly by pumps, those from which
it is forced by the ejector action of a high velocity jet, and those from which
it flows by virtue of a head of wster maintained in a "tail" Bipe. The ffrst is
exemplified by the ordinary low leuel condmser, the second by lhe ejector
condenser, and the third by lhe barometric condenser. Elements of the iet
condenser are: (l) nozzles or distributorg for the condensing'water; (2) steim
inlet; (3) mixing chamber; (4) hotwell; and (5) in some cases, a difrusing
chamber or a tailpipe.
Mixing chambers are designated as parallel f"ou or wunterflotl, depend-
ing on whether the stearr and water move in the same direction before con-
densation or whether the flows are opposite. Both chamber types are built in

I Cond.ntar Sh.ll l0 Rohovol Pllnp Subrr..god

2 Injectao^ I/otar lnt.l I M.osvred V€rlicolty I

3 3 Air ond Vopor Oultat l1 Mli. Eff. Hsrght of Toit pip.

Top of
\. 4 Sl6oln lnl.l Roqured for Grdvily Oroinog!
l'l 5 Wol6. OullGl
6 Toil Pip.
l2 Wot6r Dist buting M.ons
13 R€novol Pulnp Suctio^ Pip.
7 S.ol Tonk l4 Toil Prp. Submergencc
I Seol Tonl Droin l5 Vocuuln Bl.eoker
9 R.movol PulnIr i6. Ai.' Coole.
t
nlel

I
2

t2
l6

r5 I

7 13
9

Pomp
I
8o@nalrrc Typ. Low Lav.l Jet Ty-po

FIc. 11-41 Examples of contact condensers. (Courtesy Etd,r. Ileot Etchange

I nstitut e.t
@NTACT @NDENSERS 416
bd,h the brmmetrio and low-level coqdeneers. We here eh6sr a low-level con-
denser with a parallel flow chamber and a barometric condenser with counter'
fow.
In contect condenser terminologl, the condensing wster is called injectimt
uater.ln the lowlevel type having a removal pump, the injection water may
be induced into the mixing chamber by vacuum head. Part oI the water lift
to the highJevel (bsrometric) condenser is similarly generated, but a booster
pump wil ueually be needed on the iniection wat€r. The vacuum will provide
i thiretical suction lift,in octcr of wat'rpf 13'595 x ltrs the condeoeer vacuum
ia in. Hg. Alt-y S% of this can be reliably countctl on for lift, and from this
muet be-deducted ihe static heads shown in the figure, plus all friction snd
water velocity head in the injection rvater line. Any resulting negative net
head must be mlde up by a booster pump. The height of setting {C!::rension 1l'
Fig. 1l-41) ought to be at least equal to ( 0.012 timc! mo marimum expect d
bsrometrio Dre66ure + l.!2a) t!.
'l'he head on the low-level condenscr removal pump consists of the externol
static head, the friction and velocity head in the pipe line, and the vacuum
head. trlom thie should be eubtracted the submergence head' to obtain net
pump head.
The watcr used for injection may be water previously removed from the
condenaer if it has been cooled in the meantime. Usually injeclion water is
taken from some available n*tural source such as 6 stream or river, is used
only once, aDd is unfit for use as boiler feedwater. The eubmergence volume
in the tail pipe seal tank (dimension 14) should be at least 50/o greater than
the water volume contained in the eutire tail pipe.
Compressors for the removal of noncondensable gas are attached to open-
ings marked 3, for unless this gas is continuously expelled its accumulation
'will result in rich air-vapor mixtures, thereby reducing the poseible condenser
vacuum. To the normal sources of air inflow to the low-pressure steam (to be
mentioned later) there mrrst be added the air released from injectipn water.
These cornbined 8ir quantities form the load on the air removal epparatus.
The vacuum obtainable'will be governed by outlet wst€r t€mperetur€
which, in tum, varies with the amount of condensing water used per Lg steam
and its initial t€mperature. Although it is theoretically possible to heat the
wster to the raturstion temperature of the steam, this is not practicable and
terminal difrerences exisL. Terminol, iliffererce is eaturation temperature corre-
sp;nding to the pressure at the steam inlet mir:ua outlet water temperature. This
is govemed by condenser design and operating conditiong. The Heat Exchange
Institute recommendstions for condensers with vacuum pumps are shorrn in
Table 11-7. Ejector type condensers operate on $.f-g.:;"Q tenninal difrerence.
Table 11-7. MINIMUM TERMINAL DIFFERENCE
FOR JET CONDENSERS, 'I'
C-ondenaer p::seureno Egabe. 25.+ 38.1 50I ,6.2 lol.6
Counterflow mixing 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.5 2.2
Parallel flow mixing 6.1 3.g 2.8 2.A 2.8
I
'RecommeadstioE of the Ee.t Exchaage Institute ir td deducto.glE lt6s ths[ the
aatu&l &rbErer8etue head.
416 STEAM PRTME MOVERS
The eiector type condenser ie a low-level type. The water pump gperates
with water under pressure instead of vacuum. This type is shown in Fig.
11-112. Discharge of water from this condenser is created by the kinetic enerry
of the water jets it employs. However, this also means that condensing water
requirements are steady at maximum flow rate, regardless of quantity of
steam being condensed. Condensed steam and air both are entrained by the
multiple water lets and removed without further use of air pumps or com-
pressors. This figure also shows methods of safeguarding the prime mover
should water pumps fail. Upon any qater accumulating in the mixing chamber
s vacuum breaker float will ride up on the water, opening the chamber to the
atmosphere. This would be followed automatically by opening of the atmos-
pheric relief valve, permitting the prime mover to exhaust noncondensing.
Furthermore, the path of water backing up toward the engine or turbine is
barred by o nonreturn or check valve.

thoinq

Water Purnp

flru I
Multi-Jet Eelanced
Valve

Refref \&lvc

fdtrf Sdt 4,c b Ao.rafi Ca

llot-Well

trrc. ll-42 R€ciprocating engine with low-level ejector condenser,

If exhaust eteam enters a condenser at the rate of ur. kgper hr at a condition

lopra€oted by fractional latent heat calr1". then the heat to be absorbed by
tbe iajection water ie ur" (tzhtr, * ta"\ Kcal per hr, wherc to. is the terminil
difi- e-rence- Calling in,ieciion vater per hr, ta., and ik rise in temperature to
tbe heat it absorbs is w.(t" - t), The equation ol hest releaied to heat ab-
- 11,
aorbed gives :
u"('" - A) : w"(af,uo * h")
Let ra.' be the unit water flow, in kg per tg steam, i.e., w-/w.i lhen
w", : (r,J4,. * ta")/(L _ t) 0l_18)
_ The quantity c2[1", is the exhaust enthalpy of the prime mover, less the
heat of the liquid st saturation pressure. This may be determined by ihe prime
mover efficiency studies xhich have been previously explained, although the
manufactur€N of condensers have concluded to use the constant 62g!foa rrrtr..
LB.
SI,RFACE CONDENSERS 4I7
for turbine condenser design, and 66ot for engine condensers. This trade prac-
tice applies likewise to surface condensers, although Eq 1l-18 does not.
Examplc 1: A barometric iet condenser is being planned lor a condensiqg opera-
tion involving t!00 tg per hr of engine exhaust steam. Desired vacuum,ott DD. Hg
refe[ed tor!8 DE Water to be cooled to tlcO and recirculated. I\Iaximum recorded
bsrometric pressure, 760.0 Ettrsome leadiDg specifications for this equipment may be
formulated lrom the data of this section.
Assu[ing counterflow chamber, ta' : 9.8pO. Saturation temperaturc at ,Et-C?t
ED llg = ag.'tto . Discharge temperaturc, t. = lg.2 - 13 = 16.400. Make the
sssumption of 6!c for e2i1",; then
uk'= F'.+z.a (6.1-82) -X.0,q ..Lr pct L8rt .m.
ur = 88.0 x I!0O-EI,86O lg F! ht.
Efiective height of tail pipe = 0,012 x 760.6 + !.62{ o - r&o2 m.
Assume i2 + fu + h6 (Fie. 1f-41) :l.oz m velocity head and pipe {rictiou o.tta E
and lr1 = 19.62 + 13S. E
N€t pumpiDg bead = 9-96119.636 y ro-t x G?3)-(l,O7+0.{O+!t.95}-
-Gt E.
This implies tbat a boostei pump will be rieeded for qlm ol the lift.
1l-14 Surface Condensers. The surface steam condenser is invariably an
essential unit in the steam-turbine-powered central power plant. It is elED
frequently applied to turbines elsewhere. Together with the steam generator
and turbo-altern&tor, it forms the central triumvirate of any vapor cycle
system. These three unitg are the
largest, and most of the remaining
mechanical equipment Berves as &ux-
@
iliary to one or the other. The sur-
face condenser is an airtight shell
enclosing a highly concentrated heat
transfer surface in the form oi a com-
pact bundle of small-diameter copper
alloy tubes. A condenser lor a large @
central station turbine will'have thou- o @
@
sands of these tubes from 3 to 7.6 Heot Erchonee In.,n e
m long The other components
91 3 r*. l14ii comDonents of a surface con-
condenser are f,nose elemcnTs wnlcn
Steari inlet. (2) outlet to rir
de^cer, (1) 'C""a"*"r"
enclose and support the heating sur- i-utt"t. (e) Cno-
face, direct the condensing water flow, "i*r."'f-af
densing waier inlet. (b) Condensini water
admit the steam, and collect thc con- outlet.- (6f lVater 6ox. (7) W'atcr bor
densate. These componcnts are iden- cover. (8) Shell. (9) Hotwell. (10) Tube
tified and schematically illustrated in sheet. (11) Tubes. (i2) .Tube zupport
Fig. 11-43. Thc condcnser is installed plate. (13) Inspection doom.
close up under the turbine, frequently
with its lgng axis transverse to that of the turbine. The shell is welded up in
plate steel constructi<in, although formerly cast iron was the rule.
Attached to the bottom of the shell is a collection chamber for condensate.
called. a hotwell. In central station practice this rvill usually be anangerl for
t AD nssumed static head, verifiable after initicl layout is completed.
t tanAg.
418 STEAM PRIME MOYERS
de-aerating and reheating the condeneate. Steam lanes are left through the
tube bank to provide direct st€am flow to the reheating hotwell.
Whenever the condensate temperature is less than the saturation tempera-
ture corresponding to steam inlet pressure, the difrerence ie termed condensate
depression.
Surface condensers are classiffed as horizontal or vertical by the position
of their tubes. Horizontal are the more common. They are Bingle-pass or two-
pass, according to the number of times the condensing water paeses the length
of the condenser. The diagram illustrates single-pass. In the two-prss, water
enters and leaves the eame water box, which, of courre, must be divided by
a partition. Condengers are also classified by the shape of the shell, for example,
cylindrical, oval, U.shaped, rectangular, etc.
C orulenstng 9urface. The tubular hest transfer surface is composed of copper
alloy tubes of small diameter. The sizes in ordinary use sre included in Table
11-8. The tube size is its external diameter. Practically all condenser tubing
in use is of eitherl.65 c 1.24 mrrwall thickness. A great deal oI research har
gone into the metallurgy ol thee tubes. The mixture developed by the British
Admiralty office, copper 7O, zinc 29, tin 1, had come into general use in sta-
tionary plants by 1930, but stepping up of some of th'e opersting limite re-
vealed weaknesses which have since been met with newly developed alloys.
Corrosion, de-zincification, oxygen pitting, and grooving were eneountered-
serious because ol the high cost of tube replacements* and loss of use of plant
capacity during replacement. Among the newer alloys, eome of which are
pstented, are arsenical Admiralty, sntimonial Admiralty, aluminum brass,
and cupro-nickel mixtups.
Table 11-8. DATA FOR COMMON SIZES AND GAUGES
OF CONDENSER TI'BES
'lVall
Tube Size Thickness Croes gection Ext. Surface Flow gt
Ext. Dir. Int. Dia. Arer ef Bore 0.6 Brto llt!..,
(ao1
(6!D ) BWO nttrl {d) ( ol) (hio )

16.0 16 r.06 t2,67 I utr o,u086t 3.7tt

l8 r.8a r3.$ r.tm 0.01066? a&1
le.l t6 1.06 16.76 l.ta8 o.otmt 6.8'ra
l8 t.2t 10.67 t 166 0.061rE47 6 a0a

ztt t6 r.66 r&e3 trl 0.060000 8;tltt

18 t.ta rg.ra t 000 0.00m06 e.lto
t!.a l6 1.06 ,r.to _!.!!6 u(}70?06 r!,608
l8 I iz.n a.lt 0.ryre70c ttt
The tubes in a condenser are all the same length and are arranged in a
bundle having steam entry lanes created by the omission of certain groups of
tubes. The difference between performance of two condensers of identical
surface would usually be traceable to the efrectiveness with which these lanes
xThe iadividual tube is not loo costly, but there sre eo maay of them iD s lo.rge
coadenser. A 50,00ckw unit's condenser may coatain0l toooc of tubiag.
SURTACE CONDENSERS 4I9
let the steam flow easily to all tubee. With adequate steam lanee each tube
performs its share of the condensing job. Fig. ll-44 indicatee EoEe of the various
plans that manufacturers hsve evolved to accomplish this.
Thbes are fsetened into tube sheets at their ends and loosely supportcd by
one or more Intermediate plates. The shell being steel, and the tubes copper
alloy, diflerential thermal expansion is encountered. This ie accommodated by:
l. Rolling tubes tightly into one tube sheet, packing in the other.
2. Rolling tubes into both aheets, with flexible joint between one sheet and
the supporting shell.

3
'I
2

I 0[ fl

i2
0000m0D0 ffi\
Wa

l6 l7 7E
. Pooe, Plon E^gtied,,,g

tr'rc. 11-{4 Various arrangements of condeDser surlace 8re indicat€d by these condeneer
tube sheet layouta.

i--
Idet-rolled ald fared Outlct-packed IDlet-packed
Ftc. 1l-45 Examplcs of tubc Iastening.
lN STEAM PRIME MOVERS
3. Fixed tube ends but tubes installed bowed.
4. Both ends packed.
The ofrcial surface area is the external tube area. Let o" be this surfsce
per linear mctrc of tube. Then for z tubes, each .L m long,
A" = o-nL sqm (11-19)

Each pass' of the condenser must present sumcient cross-sectional area

to carry the condensing water flow at the assigned velocity.
rp. : 3600 X l0tvra.I/. kgper hr (11-20)

where ur. : Flow of condensing water, Lg per hr.

n : Number of tubes per pass.
o* : Tube cross-section&l flow area, sq mctrc.
t. = Woter velocity, m/scc.
To determine the number of passes assume that the condenser is. one pass.
Then get the tube length ,L from Eq 11-19, having first found the necessary
transfer surface. If .L is larger than would be convenient or possible, due to
construction or available space, a two-pass arrangement is employed. Tube
length is half, and the number of tubes double, that of an equivalent single-
pass condenser.
Because of the practice of segregating.some of the tubes surrounding the
air ofr-take, for the purpose of temperature depression of the air-vapor mix-
ture taken by the eiector system, the total surface provided may be 5% ta 20%
more than that cslculated for condensation purposes. This segregation is ac.
complished by intemally baffiing the tube bundle to provide a rather long
contact flow with the air-vapor mixture about to be ejected. The absolute
pressure under this baffie is the lowest anywhere in the condenser; hence the
noncondensable ges naturally flows in that direction.
Heat Transler.It will be noted that the subject of condenser heat transfer
has been extensively covered in Sec 9-10. The reader is expected to employ
that background for the present treatment, as well as Sec 9-8 for mean tem-
perature difrerence.
g= Heat transfer, tcal per hr.
U= Over-all coemcient of conductivity, based on,'l'.
Irz = Enthalpy of exhaust steam at condenser inlet.
irs = Enthalpy of liquid water at hotwell temperature.
t. = Saturation temperature at condenser inlet pressure, o C.
tr1 to = Q6ldqa5ing water temperatures, in and out, 'C.

a., o. = Steam and condensing water flows,kg per hr.

* Portion of the tube bundle through which all the condensiug water flows.'
 SI'RFACE CONDENSERS 421

CN6ULATI}'G
YAIER OUTLEI

AIR
OUTLE

ari
sEcltot{
_l
')
cl
WATER ITLET

Hri:l

Fortd Wteetd Cdo.

Frc. 11-46 Section through reheating hot.well and tube bank ol large inward-flow
surface condenset.

. The equstions to be employed, in addition to thoee previously presented,

when determining wader flow and eurface ane& are:

S : w.(h", - h.) : w*(t. - J) Lcal per hr

Since c : 1 for water at ordinary tempera,tures,
w- : w.(hz - - i,) kg per hr
hr.) / (t" (11-21)
A+ : q/UO sq mclac (Lt-tZ)
A": q/kt/A") sqme.re (11-28)
..Eq 17-22 wolld
be gmployed when lsing statistical methods (Fig.9-10), or
n theoretical calculatioh based on Eq g-9.
4Y2 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
Eq 11-23 repr$ents the method of conve-rting a solution of Eq 0-19 into
surface area. In any event the megn tempersture difrerence 0 r.'ill involve use of
1., ln and t6. h2 ma1r follow calculatione on end conditions of the turbine eteam
expansion, but manufacturers are said to uee the assumedS2Slcsl pcr Lgt pre-
viously introduced, for (Il2 - h1").
If sea water is used lor condensing c -* l, Bnd density * 10fi) tg11or Inetc'
ad,0.g4 Bnd tu{.
The terminal difiermce ta' is the difierence between steam saturation tem-
perature at condenser lnlet pressure and condensing water outlet temperaturc.
tt":t"-L (ll-24)
Terminal difrerence employed is an economic matter. Higher vacuums can
be caried with smaller t6's, but larger condensers. In practiee, t6 appears to
range Jrom 2,8 to 6.6otC.The Heat Exchange Institute indicates that perform-
ance cannot be exactly predicted if t6 is less than 2.8oC if ?.. islessthan l8 !rE.
Hg, or if I/. is less than 0.9 Erlcc.
Enmple l: I'he principal apecification of a two-pass condenser (4, L, A"' w) wtll
be determiued, ueing the method of Eq $19. Dato given are: :
t8'lao kg per hr;
:
iz 617 kocl; p" :16.{ mro IIg; ,r = I6.0rc ; tra :1,4'C; Y. = 2.t8 n/ro i ro condou
sate depreesion. t/. :ta,6mt. Tube8 ,2,g Dro x lqn qtm thi.t
,,=26.1rc L= L -a.a -,0l-a.t - tr.?.C : 26 L6l
The lollowing calculations are made to implement Eq $19.

, - dlr-r6.0)/u+E*l-z.r"c
U":rtt,sto/(q/4,\o8
Ut : sr.Ill.A x I0-r - 76'565

r,. : (aze.z , --:r;%-"r")r.r ."'

- oeu

Then, with Eq 919:

'r.*
:
f [q"]# +a##;ill-,,o*rc#o=r *-*,.*+:r]
This reduces to (q/A")\w = 1*6@-9!.? (q/ A,).
l-or which a solution is (q/eJ = Cr, e0 k .l p.r nrr-it
C = lqUO(6U-2ol-&00, x lo' kool Pot hr
r{" = t.go[ x l0.rtt,t20 -178.0 rq m
lrb : &0OI x lO./(21.? -16.0)-1.{66xr0. kg Pr h.
This represents a condeusing water need of 6430 gpm.
Eq 11-20: a = l.a60xl0./(S6ooxrorxEo0xlFx2.ll) :6m tubes per pass

The two-poss condenser will therefore have 1240 tubes.

From Eq I l-19. I :
t73rr(0.0c0800 x l21o)-a.tl B'
Since some Iength is required Ior end connections, and varying tube lengthE by h.lf
bct 6, the specified tube length will be 4.5 B .
Example 2: We shall now repeat the calculatiou for required surface, usiug a
coefficient taken from Fig. 9-10. At 2.13 b/..6, U lor ,,.9 Ehtub€s = 339t kool P'i hr-
.06() Biu Por lb.
tlo.l pc! d-hr-dcg C.
AIR REMOVAL 4:28
rrr-deB O.Idet water ig onlf t5.6t, for whicl a correction factor oI 0.93 ir fouad.
Eerce corected U = 3393 x 0.99 ,E 3154.

rf the tubes werc clea" ,, = #fl:397.8 !q m

Now if a clea.nliness factor of 0.85 ie included (thh ie mauufacturer,s practice), and
if at l8,l,l0
g is token x 528, thou
: - go3'2 rq m
'' u,t?i?-,ii1',,t
, By comparing Ex I and 2, it can be seen thaf, stondsrd design practice in-
cludes a liberal allowance for the efrects of fouling, uneven steam loading, and
the uncertainty of exsct exhaust enthalpy.
l1-15 Air Removal. Heat transfer action in a surface condenser is hindered
by the presence of noncondensable gas'es which mix with the film of condendate
on the tube surface. The sourcee of air and other noncondensable gas leakage
&re, numerous. Some may come over with the boiler steam, or leak in through
turbine-packing gland or exhaust nozzle connection. Condensing water leakage
past tube packings is another source, for raw water contains dissolved gases
which are released under a vacuum. Yents back from low-pressure heaterj and
leaks in the condenser shell itself may provide still more of the undesirable gas.
Ualess atmospheric reliel valves are .water-sealed, air will back-flow through
them.
Air infiltration is a serious factor and should be kept down as much as possi-
ble. Since it is not practicable to eliminate it entirely, arrangements are made
for continuously drawing it out of the condenser'and compressing it up to
atmospheric pressule where it can be released.
Recommendations of the Heat Exchange Institute are given in Table 1l-9.
These are advaneed to serve as a guide in. specifying the capacity of the air re-
moval equipment and are based on operating experience.
An additional source of noncondensable gas is to be found in the release from
inje-ction.water iu dontact condensers. For design purposes one canuseo.Olg6,l
m' lree alr trom a n of 2SoC water, increasing this linearly to 0.02669 mr for
water injected at 59C .
The work required to compress a gas, a vapor, or a mixture of these is pro-
portional to the volume to be compressed. Gas withdrawn from a condenser is
fully mixed with water vapor which could haye been more cheaply removed by
Teble 11-9. DESIGN ALIOWANCE FOR AIR INFILTRATION TO
CONDENSE&S SERWNG STEAM'ENGINE.S AND TURBINES-
n /DiD AT 2t.r'C (n)el)
Maximum tg Free Dry Air Maximum tg Free Dry Air
of Steam Leakage of Stcam I-eakage
Condensed Conderxed
per Hr Turbines Engines per Hr Turbinea Engines

Up to ll,tao 0.0t5 0,tro r l3d0r 0.212 o.lzt;

tr,&r -rr,680 -r20,t(x)
0.lr! o.n7 - tttraoo
a5,3Cr 0.r83
t2.68r 46,3fo 0.:{l
- 0.2t3 ,t6,&)l -Dp, 0.464
U24 STEAM PRIME MOYERS
condensation snd pumping were it possible to sepurate vapor from gae. While
not separable, the vapor content of the mixture can be "leaned" by cooling the
mixture as much as possible. This is the firnction of the air-cooler sectionB of
eurface condensers. Given the mixture pressure and temperature, the gas rich-
nest ol the mixture can be cslculated with Dalton's principle of partial pressures.
Examplc 1 : The pressure under the air bafre of a surface coudeuser is 6l,iEla IIg.
Tempera,ture of the mixture leaviag the cooler s€ction is !!.oec. Assuming available
coolitrg water at l6.6no, an extertral coolq migh! lower the temperature furthe!, say
to iLtso. The efrect of this o! the quaDtity of vapor accompanyiDg the air to the
compreBsor wiil be studied.
The vapo! being sa,t,[ated, itE partial pressure is given by saturated steam tables.
AtJa.0.\C, p" = 0,0!d;k8l@l ob, u. = 10.162 E8/kg.
Pnrr = Pe + p.; p^ = 6l x0.0olut-0.000t-G0301 Lg/or ob.
ur = ?r for the quantity of air associated with 159 vapor.
ra.,. = o,O!92xrorxa0l68/ee.!xre63)-t.O8 Lg Fr kg. vapor. Noril sD ertrnsl
cooler with negligible friction loss cooled the mixture from 2E g"to t8.3"c, tben
pv =c.OUa; ,. = 0.016 mt/ks; p.= tl dwl!0-0.021{:0.99) ks/oor rb

?r,r, = 0.0180xl{x6t 0l6/(t9.3x 101.t)-8.60 Bg por ag. vapor

These calculatrons show that, by cooling the mixture from 23.9" to r8J'c, the
vapor accompanying each lb of air withdrawn from thc condenser is reduced
from o.{r0 La to o.?0Lg. This is bound to have B, significant efrect both on
eiector capacrty required for the lob and the consumption of energy to motivate
it.

llr

l. Irt ,t.r. Hy. ll. 2r.d .t69. lozrL. 20. Intd c@ler ho! vell
,. Irt rtige noztl. eltebrlo!. 12. 2trd stase atifisa 21. Aft6 c@16 hot *ell.
3. l.t .tsg6 rozle had. 13. Elbry.
l. PiF plu!5. 14. Tube plste.
5. l.t .t!ge lozde. 15. Crcwn head. 24. Prpe plug.
6. Irt ttrSE dlfiEg. 25. Safety $lve.
7. lnd .t ge body. 17. Wtt.r bor @va. 26. 101.0 6E GvEu.l6.
8. zrd .tege ldrzl. .ttdio!. 18, Tub6. 27. 101.6 .!D rrl. vdE.
9. ,!d ,t.sc loat€ hesd. 19. Coolq .he[. 28. 2nd sta8. 8.tc valve.
lO, PiF plug.
!ro. 11-47 'Wortbingtotr two-8t&ge air ejector with inte!- sDd after-cooler.
AIR REMOVAI 4i,,6

Air compressors may be claerified as reciprocatiag, rotary, or eieotor typea.

The recrprocating type, similar in principle to the air comptrssor, becomer ia-
conveniently large for other thal small or low vacuum condeasers,
The steam jet ejector is a widely used air pump, esJraially on large con-
deneers. When the heat liberated by condensmg the ejector exhaust is recovered
in the feedwater, the ejector becomes a compact, efrcient, and simpte machine
for exhauating the noncondensable gases. Its firat cost compares favorably with
other types of exhausters. Ejectors are usually operated on steam prtssures of
from 100 to 250 psi, taking eteam from reducing valve or bleeder nozzle. Up to
26-in, vacuum a single jet is satisfactory; above that two-stage eiectors are re-
quired. The first-stage erxhaust is condensed and cooled in an intercondenser;
the second-stage condenser is cslled the sftercondenser. The condensing water
should preferably be condensate from the hotwell of the main condenser. Jete
are arranged in parallel when capacities beyond that of a single jet are required.
Partial capacity opgration is better in a multijet ejector than in a large srngle-
jet ejector because the extra jets can be tumed ofr and ecch of the remalning
can work at its point of best efficieucy. Eiectors ore rated on the bssis of their
frre air handling capacity. Actually they handle gn air-vapor mirture. The
cslculations relating the actual operating conditions to the free air rating are
bs8€d on the ejector'e berng equally able to handle frte air or air-vapor on a
oa&f , basiE.

Eramplc 2: A condenser has 6l roro abe pressure. Tte air-vapor rrxture has be€D
cooled to ltf
iu anair cooler sectloD. Tbe eiector cspscity requiEd to hmdleo.G8 a,
free ur per min leakage rill be esteblisbod. From stesm tables, the specifc voluue of
vapor st $.ftqo p ,ta.l6l DrAt 8od pr = Oo[ fflor.
Thcn
p" = u xo.00ll-ons-0.(Dl tar@r
tben from pu = oE?
?,.|! = t.Orl{rx0.0alr€erxt .C)-OJO! rf pc niu
In tbe condenser, this air bae volume a. = O.lolc x tolxleGi/(o& x tor) =
tldtDa.
Mixed with it will be ra, lb of water vapor baving apecific volume of 6rl6J!.
/\S st O.oS fgrotr rL. In tlo! ar there would, therefore, be t t!8racl!t, or O,OrO La
vspor. Total x,eigbt of lllixtule csrryhgo.o€t Dlfrto rir ir0.fe{r+O.05to -O.l!aO Er
Air-vapor capacity:air capacity = Olllc r 0.toe-t.t10
Then free air rated capecity of ojector must b€ 0.0aox lJet- 0JL8 Blol! .

In recent years power plant deaigners have renewed an interest ilr mechanical
vacuum pumpa, Several types hEd been formerly employed, and thm eteem jet!
preompt€d the field. There hsve b€en developments in central station deeign that
hrve egain put the mechanical compressor forward as a oohdens€r 8uxilisry.
ltie has chiefly heen the treud to high generated eteam pressure and motor-
driven auxiliaries. Steam jet e;ectors require steam of moderate pressure, which
murt b€ taken from a reducing valve if the plant eteam preesure is higher.
lhrbino extrsction steam would 8erve, once it was in operation, but would not
be avsilable for starting vacuum. As higher steam pressures ard temperatures
come into use there seems to be a desire to elimindte steam lines to accessory
4"6 STEAM PRIME MOVERA
equipment &nd have a single lead from boiler to turbine. Above 1000 psi operat-
ing pressure the motor-driven, oil-sealed rotary vacuum pump sppears to many
plant operators more desirsble thun a pressure-reducing, desuperheating statrion
io supply jet ejector steam. Sometiri,res the operator wishes to have much of the
plant equipment controlled from a central panel. Motor-driven vacuum pumps
can be set in operation by pressing a button on the control panel, o feature not
easily adapted to jet ejectors.
Ole make of mechanical y&cuum pump is an oil-sealed rotary compressor,
motor-driven, with a circulating sealing otl system. A separator rB provrded to
recovrir the oil discharged with the compressed air-vapor. Compreesion is car-
ried out in a hot machine so that vapor does not condense in the casing. These
urrits are more expensive than jet ejectors and probably require more inspection
and maintenance. However, they are recerving increasing acceptance in the
high-pressure central station.
11-16 Condenser Auxiliaries. Both contact and surface condensers need
pumps for the movement or pressurizing of water. The surface condenser wtll
always require a condensate pump and nearly always a condensing water
pump.* The condensate is withdrawn from the condenser and delivered to stor-
age or to boiler feed pump suctton. The condensate pump serving a large con-
denser is always of the centrifugal type, but reciprocating pqmps may be used
for small condensers. The working head is the vacuum plus lriction of the piping
- to thc surge tank, plus the velocity head, plus the difrerence in elevation between
the discharge to the surge tank and the condenser hotwell.
Example 1: The porver to drive a condedsate pump which is to serve the con-
denser 60,000-kw Preferred Standard turbine is to be estimated; also the
foi a ratod
pump capacity. Xlaximum exhaust pressure G3.6, minimum 38.1 mmHg abs, for which
ioniensei steim rates at full capability are given as 3.36 and 3'88 kg per kw hr for
strarght condensing opention; 2.84 r,74kg per krt hr in regenerative operation.
Pipelnction, velocit-,- head, and static^nd
head are given as 18.8 bofvater. Pump efrciency,
55%. S.G. of Ug is I3.6.
vacuum hearl :{fi!:3i x r3.6/to!= {t fl} m H,o
rotal head :ra.g+ tg'*) = {?l,?8i E Eto
The r:ondensate pump ought to be capable of carrying the unit at rnaximum rating
rvhen for some reason the regeneraiive heatrrs are partially or wholly inoperotive; hence
we use the flow of {l,i8"} x 66.000 :
Gft:Iffi}ks.pPr hr.

Power Input to pump =-

Head x Flow
=
{i3f i !iJ:133}
= 1{r,0r ,rP.
Effi;G;; 75 X 60X 60 X 055
Trvo purnpiag conditions have been calculated, but it tums out that the pump
power is-praclicilly the same whethcr operating at EE.l Emo'03.6'oE Hg condenser
pressure. i\faximum coltinuous florv oi condensate, barring coudenser leakagc, is
6O,OOO x a,e5l6o-e685litre6. air.. A 86 litr.s/6in pump good for 30m dynamic
heccl at some specified minimur,, inlet, submergence t:ould give adequate capacity with
ample pressurJ over normal rating to meet any contingency, yet would not be over-
rat;d a; the above calcrrlations have shown. When operatirg at 60,000 kw regenerative,

* Otrly exception is w\ere water flow can be taken lrom 6-15 m higher eleYstiou tha'n
the discharge pool level. A dam or falls in a tiver would produce this coudiiioD.
CONDENSER AUXILIARIES 427
the condenser Eteam rate iE 2.85 ka per kw hr. Condensate pump load is then only
9850litrer per mia.
The condensate to be removed varies with load; yet customarily condensate
pumps are constant-speed centrifugals. At part load,.then, control must be
exercised on quantity of flow in order to maintain some uniformity of hotwell
liquid level. Three methods are practiced:
l. Throttling of flow in punp d.ischarge line, deriuing control trom hotwell
float.
2. Rectrmlation. Thrs is automatic by-passing of part of the pump discharge
back to the hotwell. It ts governed by a hotwell float-controlled valve in the
by-pass line.
3. Submergence control.'the constant speed centrifugal vacuum pump has a
rapidly dimimshing delivery as inlet submergence is lowered. For example, one
Molor

Gole Lifts
H
Troveling
Woter-Intoke Screen

Woler Inloke woter Woy to

lo T.oveling Condensers
Woler Screen

Frc. 11-48 Section through screen house.

of these pumps able to deliver r5l{ U6iD at r.22 msubmergence would be down to
7a? i/ni.n if the submergence should sink to 0.?6 m. This is a form of sel{-regula-
tion, but one whrch has disadvantages, to wit, at light to medrum loads the pump
operates under cavitation conditions, and at very light loads a, manual by-pass
or throttling of the discharge must be practiced.
A high-vacuum st,rface condcnser requir'es 60-100 Lgof water perkgof steam
condensed. Supply of circulating water is often a deciding f4ctor in statlon loca-
tion and a limiting factor rn extcnsion of existing plants. These large amounts o{
circulattng water make the condensing water circulating system of oonsiderable
importance. The pumps, motors, and pipes servi4g the circulating water system
are among the Iargest in the plant. This flow passes through (1) intake rtorks,
(2) screens, (3) intake conduit, (4) cilculating rvater pump, (5) condenser tubes
and water boxes, and (6) dischargc condr'rit. The sources of circulating water
are ril'ers, lakes, and oceans Sea water is suitable for condensers. It is of fairly
/'% STEAII PRIME MOVERS
even temperature the year round rf the intake is located far enough ofrshore.
Tidewater location is not elways the most convenient from other viewpoints
thsn that of water supply. Lakes as a source of condensing wster are liable to
more temperature variation and to ice trouble in the winter. Rivers ofrer the
further problem of sand in suspension, floating debris, shifting currents, and
extremely variable water levels. By-passing some of the warm discharge water
to suitable points near the intake workB takes care of ice formations. An intake
locatron should be made where silt is least likely to settle. The intakes should
be located in the deepest water possible since there the inlet circulating water
tempereture will be lowest. Fish and debrrs are removed by trash racks end
screens. At 6ome seasons of the year the screens need continuous cleaning, for
4.5 4.5
IT IITTI
-l .II!I
.0 II ll TIslnm lllltl
IIT'I
a.0
II I
lIIttTll
IITI'T'
19.!mfr O.O !.0
$3mn 0.0.
rrllrrr',
J/47/a
t
,itl .D
E
't) 2.2 mm 0.0. 22.2 mm
2
7tl
E 2.0
I
-T-r E E
25'a mm

TT-T-I TTI
ts/lzal
-T-T- -''I-f
TrlII
I

9 I ttt n ttl
-rn
.o t.0
-T-
tl-TT
.9 II F -Tt
I'TII
ttt !! -rttt -T-f
0 II
II
ttl 0
TTTTI
-[
rr E

aaa,,,zil !III E' + ttl

.-=a7aaa arrl
atarl,'z ttrr llll
lrtt 0
,{
0
lrl
d
010 !0 10
V.locily lhro{at I'rb.i '0
_ mr. V.lo€ll, Tlttougt Tul.t'0n,,
tee.".o -R,,td Cdcror E&,,,rb Dara W.
trro. I l-49 Friction loss through condenser iubes and water boxes.

which traveling screens with automatia cleaning features are employed. Fig,
ll-4t illustrates a screen house located at the circulating woter intake. The
traveliug Ecreen iE compmed of a seriee of smell rcctangular ecrtens mounted
'When
on two endless chains. the trash-laden screens reach the cleanrng position,
they are flushed clear by a jet of water directed through them from the inside.
Tlash and water are caught in e trough and caried awey. Unlees thoroughly
flushed the debris will be carried over the top of the ecreen and into the con-
densing water.
When natursl supplies of condensing wster are ineufrcient, cooling towers
may be employed to cool the water for recirculation through the condeneer, thus
mekiag the atmosphere the ultimate medium to which the ungvailable hest i8
reiect€d. Cooling towere may be classiffed as atmospheric, natural draft, and
forted draft. The construction of cooling towers and their thermodynamics were
prceented in Chapter 6 and will not be repeated here. They serve well for emall
plants, whieh do not hove adequate condensing water supply. Central gtatione
CONDENSER AUXILIARIES 429
ar€ better locsted of the uoter, rclying on electric transmission to reach the load
center,
Concrete tunnels and steel or iron pipe are used for the condensing water
conduits. A common method is to lead the water to and from the plant in con-
crete tunnels into which the suction and discharge pipee dip. The head on the
circulating pump is the total of the hydraulic resistances of the trash racks and
screens, the velocity head, friction in conduits, water boxes, and condenser tubes
less the external head due to the difrerence in elevation of the intake and dis-
eharge. This external head can usually be negleeted, and when it is appreciable,
it aids the pump. The friction heads in water conduits can be estimated from
Fig. A-14. Losses in the condenser itself can be taken lrom Fig. l1-4g.
Example 2: To iilustrate workiag conditions of the circulating pump, we shall
calculate the "water borsepower" requiredofI pump to rirculate rSt. 800 liipr/6ib.CoD-
denser is of two-pass design with 2r.a rlE l.r4 DE tubes, 6.s m long. Water velocity
thrcughtub€s, 1.62 EIr6o; wster veloclty rn conduits,g.0s s/rao.The water conduits total
33.6 h of steel pipe. Assume intake and discharge at the same elevation and take
fnction loss through screens, valves, elborps 0.16 a =
Volume flow :288.800/10 x 60E4.813 aE/Eo .

!4.818 4
Diameter ol water conduits - 3.06
1.417 b
1f

With the use of tr'ig, A-14 in Appendix, the friction loss in t8.E D of l.4U 6 dis. steei
pipre can be found to beo.262 m I{rO. The velocity head-A,O5r/2g : 0.472 m, Froo tr.ig.
11-49, loss in tubes iso,46 mper8.06 eoltubes and0.62 b in the water boxes. Then friction
Ioss in condenser : 0.48/3.0s x rx6.5 + 0.6?m
- 2.1? o
Gross pump head : 0.16 i O2S2 + O.*1, + 2.17
- $.064 E
water power : zeaiHrl49so a
-ros hr.
The circulating pumps are usually motor-driven, rvith direct drive. It is well
to be able to reduce pum;r speed at partial loads as an economy measure through
motor control or fluid couplings. Condensers rvith divided water boxes (i.e.,
double water circuits) may carry light loads on one circuit.
Atmospheric relief valves are pro,rided to permit partialJoad noncondensing
operatron and to prevent high back pressure on the weak cast-iron sections at
the low-pressure end of the turbme. As low-pressure steam is carried, the'valve
and its piping are large add cumbersome, but neve{heless desirable wherever
they can be accommodated. The size required can be estimated with an assumed
9140-9060 lo/Eitt exhaust steam velocity, although probably half this relievrng
area would sufrcc fof protection only.
Vacuum breakers are provided to admit air to the condenser shell to break
the vacuum and allow the atmospheric relief valve to open. The purpose of
breaking the vacuum is to prelent conclensatc backing up into the turbine should
the condensate pump break down. The vacuum breaker is usually a float-
operated device which remains out of service until condensate rising in the steam
space reaches a predetermrned level. In order to have the saure device protect the
turbine against damage Irom exccssive circulating water leakage resulting from
430 STEAM PRIME MOYERS
lD AI|6A{nI IUi8rE tXtAUsr
d 3 I ta cori0t16€n

6
a
t5
IE
Tt

0FArA t.lEclo{s 22 oRcrr.AI-

lyrltt grRf^ct IYPE lNrEnffiq-
AIE AIIO AFTES CONMNEXS

I coaotN rE

I PUI'P

W.stin chouse EI ect?ic C orp.

1. Atmospheric reflef valve 15. Air removal liae lrom malo coodeaser to
2. Expansion joint firsL sLoge ejectors
3. Gate valve 16. Air ejecLors (first
4. Circulating water discharge Irom rnain "tager
17. Air ejectors (becoad stage)
coDdenser 18. Stop valve (steam)
5. Condcnsate from coadenser to conden- 19. Throttie valve (steem)
sate pump 20- Steam strainer
6. Check valve 21. Steam pressure gauge
7. CoudeDsate from cotrdeusate pump to 22. Iqtermedi&te condenser cotrdeasate drain
iotermediate and after coDdenser loop
8. CondeDsete from iEtermediate and afier 23. After condenser condensate drain drip-
condensers ping
0. Condensatc line to heaters 24. After condenser dreiner
10. Condensate rccirculating line (o maiD 25. Aftcr condenser drainer float chamber
coodenser piping
11. CoodeDsate cofltrol lor recircul:rting line . After condenser drainer float chamber
12. Veat from cootrol valve float charnber yent
13. Cotrdensate line 1o control vah.e float 27. Irtermediate end alt€r condeDsa.te returD
chamber to main coDdeEser
14. \'pnl from condensarc pump to luain 28. Main condenser support springs
(ondenser 29. Main coDdenser spring support
tr'tc. 11-50 Typical connection of auxiliaries for a large condenser

e malor internal failure, the vacuum breaker may he electrically connected to

the turbine throttle trip and to an alarm system.
The relation ol the auxiliaries to the condensel itself, and the necessary con-
neetions can be studied in Figs. 1t-39 and I I -50.
' 11-17 Operation and Testing of Condensers. For obvious reasons, the
operation ol a condenser and its auxilisries is tied to turbine operation and vice
OPERATION AND TESTING OF CONDENSERS 431
v€rsa. The starting procedure for turbines, set forth earlier in this chapter, was
likewise that of the condenser, and was given for the case of a large unit whr:se
turbine was to be started ulder vacuum. Operators of smaller turbines may
elect to start them noncondensing, not drawing the vacuum until the turbine
is warmed up and idling at several hundred rpm.
When the turbine-condenser is in normal operation, supervision consists of
inspecting and logging the readings of the several instruments and gaugee with
which the operation of the condenser and its auxiliaries is verified. Many of
these may be delivered to a central instrument panel by remote indicating in-
strumentsl others will be locally installed. Thermometers sl.rould take the tem-
perature of incoming and outgoing condensing water, hotwell temperature, and
air ofrtake. The condensing water thermometers should give the water tem-
perature to the nearest ll20 degree if these temperatures are to be used
quantitatively, for the heat carried ofr by this water is the product of a large flow
and a small ternperature difrerence. Pressures to be waiched are condenser
vacuum, ejector motive steam, condensate discharge, condensing water, and the
differential pressure between condenser inlet and outlet. Flows that are usually
metered are condensate, condensin! water, and air ejector discharge. Water
sealing of condensate pump glands, the atmospheric relief valve, and the ejector
condenser drains require occasional inspection. Purity of the condensate may
be checked lrom time to time, or continuously recorded by a conductivity meter.
This gives an indication if sudden raw water leaks develop in the condenser.
Maintenance supervision endea'rors to keep the vacuum system air tight by
detecting and sealing all possible air leaks. But mainly this service is concerned
with kceping tlle heat transfer surface clean and intact.
Fouled tubes, air leakage, or insufficient circulating water are all causes o{
low vacuum. The fouling of tubes may arise from numerous sources, such as
silt or sand in the water, organic and inorganic slimes, or scale. lvhen fouled, the
tubcs are cleaned according to the characteristics of the dcposit or scale. The
principal methods are: (1) bake by draining the water side (certain scales r ill
crack loose and can be washed out after baking) ; (2) rvash out slimes by in-
creasing the water velocity through the tubesto4.6m/scc or more;(3) Iorce rubber
or metal plugs through the tubes under water or air pressure, thus scraping out
the scale; and (4) rvire brushes.
Surface waters contain vegetable matter and micro-organisms, principally
algae. The conditions rvithin a condenser tube are favorable for the rapid growth
of these organisms, resulting in the lormation of a gelatinous deposit on the
inside surfaces of the tubes. Chlorine has a germicidal action on tHcse organisms
and, if fed daily in amounts sufficient to produce some residual chlorine content
in the rvater leaving condenser, rvill destroy slime. Chlorine treatment will not
eliminate the necessity of cleaning tubes of deposits other than from micro-
organisms.
Because of the corrosive action ol chlorine solution on meials, excessive con-
cer.-trations which may seriously damage condcnser tubes must be avoided.
Special automatic equipment is available for controlling the addition of chlorine
to the circulating rvater'.
Chlorination is most econornically carried out with the unit operating at re-
duced load. Then the circulating water pump can be set at low speed 8nd its dis-
IEz STEAM PRIME MOVERS
chsrge valve only partiBlly opened. Liquid chlorine is then automatically fed
into the stream of circulating water at a rate sufficient to maintain a residual
chlorine content of from l to 15 ppm at the outlet. Some operators feed the
chlorine into the circulating water on the inlet side of the circulating water pump
for a period of about 30 min every 24 hr.
After chlorination the discharge valve is usually opened wide and the circu-
rtilg pump increased to high speed in order to rinse out the chlorine and dbad
lime.
Operators must also be able to detect tube leaks and cope with them with
little or n9 attendant outage to the turbogenerator. Air bubble impinggm.rl,
corrosion, dezincification, pitting, while not common, may suddenly appear in a
condenser. Troubles near the inlet end of the tube are often overcome by the
installation of thin, smooth, flared entrance sleeves which cover pitting tha[ may
not have progressed too far. Small leaks, if detected by condensate analysii,
may temporarily be remedied by injecting special stopJeak compounds into the
condensing water. In other cases it may be necessary to stop the unit, unwater
the boxes, and plug the ends of the leaking tubes until such time as scheduling
of the unit allows enough time out for retubing.
?esis. Operating tests for tube leakage are carried out in several ways, sll
requiring the turbine to be at rest. One method is to unwater the condenser,
establish a steam side vacuum, plug one end cif a tube, and insert a,,tell-tale,,in
the other. The yacuum works in through the leaks and is reported by the device.
Another method is possible when the water box covers Bre fitted with diver,a
lights and port glasses. The steam side is put under air plenum, the water boxes
being full. Leaks show as bubble streams leaving tubes which can therefore be
identified visually.
. Engineering -tests for the developed coefrcient of heat transfer require the
establishment, of heat transfer, usually from water side m"asu.emunts, con-
denser steam pressure, and knowledge of the eondensing surface installed. Water
inlet and outlet ternperatures must be accurately obtained and flows measured
correctly. These tests, which are fairlv simple of execution with small con-
densers, become on large units a real challenge to expedmental engineering.
lVhen stcam consumption of air ejectors is wanted, the same may be reedily
found from mcasurements of the nozzle throat diameter and the principles of
isentropic nozzle florv. The jet flow is set by throat conditions.
txample l: Suppose it has been asnertained that onc of the nozzles for motiya
s eam in an eiector has & throat of 8.l8tun diameter. The normal steam Dressule is"
7.0slgr@lga" dry and Eaturated. The Etesm coDsumptiotr of this nozzle csn be detelf
EiDd with lair accurocy by solnng the cquation for flow st the throst,
w": AtV"/r, (11-25)
Ttroat pressure, pr= oj8x6.o6:407 kg/oE8.b
The following steari propertres are found from the Mollier Chart bv locatiag the
)oDditiotr of isentropie nxpaniion from inlet to throat.
/rr =061.1. sr = 1.590, n, :636.1, zr - 0.962.
TheD Yt {1.61 081.1-03O I -467.66 D,l.oo.er: O.{Otr x0.86ra t gltE FLa
14 - H*ix#-o.ooozs\spnnF(rs..rf r,.r ht)

.I! L-!/tg
PBOBLEMS 43i}
lverc the st€&m iaitiolly ruperheated, the throat pr€s8ure would be 0.55pr, rmless
higher aceuracy is required for the cdticsl pressure rutio .If w, pt/pr : lZ/tt - t)1*.
Tletmod,yrwmit Prope i.cs of Stearh (Keenan and Keyes) chsrts the stesm expotrent l
ss s function of p and ,.

Some published test results on a large condenser will be given in the next
example to illustrate the testing of these units for heat transfer
Example 2: Ou a certain 6110 sq E condenser, the avemges of periodic teadings
taken duing a 2-hr test at steady load are as here reported. The over-all coefficieut
of heat transfer is to be computed.
Barometric plessure (corrected tol6.6"O), 7?0.0 DD
Metered steam flow to throttle, 42,126 kg per hr.
Vacuum at neck of condenser (corrected to r6.0"c),?61.3 rDE.
Condcnsing water in at 8,94"C, out &t r6.33"C.
Condensing rvater quantity 836,400litro6/air.The herttranslerrcd =136,400 :0.00012
x60(f6,33 -8. s4l: f284,E x to. kool p€I hr.
Steam pressure = (770.9-?6t.3) - 19.6 ua Eg abe &t15,6'; also !g-o IlllD .t 0f .

, : 06.33-s.oryrE ,ffiffi -r.*c.

A : l284.SxlD'/<*28 x6lro): 2?Oe &c.l trpr ir - mr.deg C.

It is possible to make a breakdown of the components of over-all coefrcient

by a test method suggested by Eqs 9-4 and 9-20. If on separate test runs con-
ducted with stearu loads that would
make q/A" approximately constant, the .oo4
water velocity is varied frorr run to mn,
then the principal variable is U* which
varies as a power of water velocity.
lVhile this exponent is 0.73 in Eq 9-20,
good test results are had by assuming 00? o
U- - V-0 8. U. is - and l/U- = 0
when y* = -. This test point cannot p1q 11-i1 Reciprocat ptotting of
be approached, fot 3-4.6 m/sec will be overall convection coefficieni.
found to be the limit in most installa-
tions. Ilowever, by reciprocal plotting as illustrated in Fig. 11-51, the probable
values at y- = :, can be determined since the test points usually fall along
a straight line which can be projected to the axis where 1/Y*o'8 = 0. The
intercept is l/a" + l/Ur * 1/U". After cleaning the condenser tubes 1/U"'=
0 (practically), and another series of runs so plotted would provide sn inter-
cept equal to l/U" + l/Ur.'fhe intercept increment on the two plots would
be l/U,. Ur is readily calculated; hence s subtraction lrom 1/U, * l/U1
leaves I / U, determined.

PROBLEMS
1. tr'ind the rcquired borc x stroke of a high-speed, simple steam engine lor
dircct connection to a 60-cycle, 25-kn, generator. Governor ean be adjusted to
operate in 300-350 rprn raoge. pr 7.03 Lg/ctd ga, sstur8ted stBaD: atEocpberic
erhsu8t. Ch.rr,Dcs, 6/e i c|tofr , *y'o ; 1*, ili.77.
434 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
2. A singlc-cylinder50.8cnXIol.6cBx24&rpm controlled compressiol unsflow
€o6iDe being available for & certarn pump drive, it is desiretlto determine the gpm of
qet9rtbst can be delivered againsttt.o m head. Clearance, 4y'6;
1^ $y'o; bydraulic
e,6.ciercy,i6%, pr,7.03 kl/cm! ab saturated steam; exhaust, Ij2rr0 Hg abe,
lieles.ee at 0.35 kg/cm! ga and 957o atrole.
3, A deeler oners an indushialist a single-cl linder, full-compression, noncon-
densing u-"cd unaflbrv engine of!0.5cEX/15.7 cmX.)00-rpm dimensions. Eugine would be
u8edto beltdrive s pump requiring l2Thp atl8oorym.Normal cutoff,25/.; clcaronce,

I it ,l

W.ttt^Ahotue Elec. l, MleL Co.

Frc. ll-52 A small tno-pass surface condenser.

I
'O
c

A b Chalmen Ml8t. Co.

Frc. ll-53Water-box and water connectioDs to large two-pass, divided flow eurfac€
coldenser. Note vertical motordriven condensing water pumps-
PROBLEMS !135
10/e. Advise the prospective purchaser whether the engine would be suiteble for his
job, knowing that the factory plant has l8.t LElo@! gr boilers.
4. Using Fig. 11-6, derive Willans lines (W = a + 6P) of a 10-kw noncondensing
uait for eteam conditions as given:
(a) Superheated steam a,t 8.8 kg/cEl ga, 2I8.!FC ; stEospheric elhsult.
(b) Superheated steam at 10.6 tg/oEr go, 2l8.3qo i atmospheric exhauet
(c) Satulated steam at 7.o3 Lglottri 80,0.86 t g/oo! 8. back pressure.
(d,) Saturated steam at?.01L{/omt go,0.7 kg/oEt g. back oressur".
5. Determiue, with use of Pig. Il-9, the 7s based on bp and a* of this u[aflow
when operated (a) at 607 bhp, pl lf.r }Srorlt gs and saturated steam; atmospheric
exhaust; or (b) 500-kw output, p,l4.t ka/om! s6pt2.2co:O68 k&/oEtg. exbaust pressure.
6. The piston of a full-compressron unaflolv engine will cover the exhaust port
at 8% retun stroke. Admission, 3y's belorc DC; clearance, 7y'e, What minimum
throttle gauge pressure should be used if (a) exhaust is atmosphe c; (b) exhaust is
at 508 Dro Eg vacuum?
7. Given a 10.6 oE x {a.7orr cotrtrolled cmpressiou horiaonta! unaflow havhg rf" based
oh ihp = 0.70wh€a opetated between &8 Lglomt ge6a6 slmosphere; steam iniirally dry
saturated. Itston rod,44.6 D,I!; tail rod,3l,E ED.;?6,0.90. WheD tbis is connected to a
standard 240-rpm NEMA a-c gencratol) what rs the proper kw rating? I'iud rou.
Consider rated Ioad to be such th$t r = 4.0.
8. Construct to scales t oe.-lo9/o PD,t oDEs Lg/06r, supedmposed s1'nthetic IIE
and CE indicator diagrams to the folloring specificationsl
Clearance Admission Cutofi Release Compretsion
HE 4.8 2.0 39 90 35
cE 5.2 1.5 32 88 38

If,U events specifled from IIEDC; CE events from CEDC. Throttle stLam state, 60:
LaroE .b3rqorc:Exhaust, 88 kg/crd ob (hence the &ssumptloD of hyDerboltc s.pansroD
lE not warrstted). Iitrd the sverage mep and diagram factror..
9. l)etermine, from this single-cylindcr engine test data, the same items of
performance as in Ex 2, Sec 1l-3. Time, 45 4!n; readings averaged for test period.
Load is a belted electric dynamometer with76 oEbr&kearm. Allow 1/o belt loss. Scale
force, 109 k8 net. prlo.6t L&lom?; quality by thlcttle calo meter rvhich shorvs ll6,0t0,
Barometer ?{8 EmHg. Speeds: engine,158 rpm; dyDemometer,g4S rpm.P,!.D,t:EE,6m
tg/cmr;CE,6.tl Ls/orD!.Increase shom by steam flow meter integrator Curing test, 1048
tg. F{haust,O.!, kt/oorgr. Engiue specrhcstrons iBO.6 oD x{6.? @ x ISOrpm. rat€d st 12,
bhp.Pistotr rod,6r mla no tail tod.
10. An engrneer was asked to measule the performance of a Coriss engine
driving a 125 kva a-c generator iu a lumber mill, belted as in Fig. 11-2. There was no
alrangement by rvhich steam or water flow
could be measured, but the engine could be HE Spring scoio.TO| CE
indicated,and the panel iDstruEeDts vere reliab- Sp..d 78 rpnl
le. Boiler&t Lglhr Sqrrmbebly about g77o dry, Lood 43.5 kr
loag ej(baust line. Eogine waE fouDd to be3[6 6a x
l.9A 3.i- f 56,\, A=1.76.,i
0l.aoE ritfi6f EDpiston rod.f'rc.l l-loPi! an ac-
curat€ teptoductiotr oI the cards taken at what Atm.lin. l02mm lont
was stated to be "normal load." Manulacturer
Frc. rl-loP
gives max cutoff of this engine, 2516. By assum-
ing 0.80 pot'er folgtor,2570 initial condensetion loss, 5/e clearance and 0.90 generator
efliciency, the engineer was able to (l) rcport a qu&trtitative estimate ol ell performance
items me-ntioned itr Sec 11-3 and (2) render a considered opinion whether the capacities
of engine and generstor were we[[ mataM.
4:}6 STEAM PRIME MOVERS
11. As I f8miliarization exercise, any one ol the turbine diagrams in Fig. 11-14 msy
be selected for redrawing on the more detailed basis suggested by Fig. 11-13.
12. Calculate ?t of the turbitre, Fig. &13.
13. Calculate the heat late of the turbine in Fig. &7.
14. Review tho re8ults oI Ex 1, Sec 8-5, then lay out the flow diagram of that
plaDt, properly labeled with the data pertinetrt to turbine he&t rete. Calculate said
ral€.
15. Obtaiu iile following equation for the ratio of extra,ctiirg to nonextrscting "in-
temal" steam rate. Assume conditioD line same ir either case.
wo"/w: (h1
- h2\/lh - h2
- he(l - (h2/h."\))
hr, h" are euthalpies at beginning and end of condition litre. h^" = (h, I h)/2; h* =
ko6l extraction per l.g thrcttle flow.
16, Note the equation in Prob. 15. ConAider that [R is the difference between feed-
\f,ater and condensate cnthalpies. Implement this equation with data from Ex 1, $ec
8-5 and find wotlw. Tesl the equation by calculatiou of u and IIl"*. separalely; -i,
frtrm the .4 turbine line, straight condensing; ru",1 lrom data and rcsults of the afore-
said Ex 1.
17. Find the nonextracting steam rate, rrk, for a 3600-rpm turbine of 30,000-kt'r
rating. pr,lt ? Lalctd8!'d64r1'C,'pzftoE. pmploy experience curves, Fig. 11-15. Assutning
that tbis turbine rras used regeneratively, what steam lute is to be expected? (See
Prob. 15.) Feedwater at lrl.l'O.
18. IIow much steam wiU a 76 -hp mechanical ddve turbine need per hour? Steam
srpplied at Il, tF/@r gt Eatursted. Exhrust, o.E6 kg/cor g.. Single-8t49e,1800-rpm tyF.
19. A large, 1800-rpm, noncondensing turbine uies l@,?60 hg steam per h! &t
n$ shaft hp. A2e.f Lgloot sb,8l6 6oC; r.l kg/oEl It exbaust. Is the developed eugine
efrciency in agreemetrt Tith Fig. 11-t7?.A-sllme ?- = 0.97.
m. Estimate the stage efficiency in the dry steam stages ef a pressure-compounded
impulse turbine of average economy. Do the same for a reaction turbine of high cotn-
mercial efficiency.
21. A pressure-eompounded impulse turbine for relotively low speed is designed
with blade velocity ratio of 4,/10. Estimaie trhe efficiency of a group of stages ( l6losl
AIr) in the wet region, beginning at 0.965 quality.
22. Prcdict the condition line of a .lraight reaction turbine operating between 60.t
tgr@r .b,a26.7!Fndot onEg abs.fuclude Dun6rically labeled [+ sketah. Use 8Ir
Bveragp commercial velocity ratio.
23. Predict the condition tlne ol a two-row velocity compounded turbine of three
pressurestages.prlt.! lre oor gr,313a ,rperheat, exhrustiDg st 6l aa f,g g!s. Small unit,
warraniing use of lo$'est commelcial blade velocity ratio.
24. Assume that the steam eDd point in the turbine, Fig. 8-13, was not knorm and
attempt to determine it by heat balance.
25. By means of a heat balance determine the end point of'the condition line of a
lol4-bhp, geared, noncontlensiag turhine. Mechanical fiation, 5/p of.internal work.
pr 17.0 kg/omr jq dry and ssluleted; p2, tr6 tSrolll 9..
26. Considering each isentropic heat decrement of Example 5, Sec 11-6 as a stage,
corrpute (1) rehegt factor; (2) internal engire efficiency; (3) overall stage efficiency.
27. tr'ind the blade velocity ratio represented by the top of iine B, fig. A-13.
Nozzle eficiency,0.94; leakage and rotation loss,0.05: ?wo-row Curtis stage.
28. Deterrnine the blade \relocit)- ratio represented by linq ,F, Fig. A-13. This
turbine is pressure-compoulded. Nozzle efficiency,0.9{; leakage and rotatiou Ioss,0.04.
29. Find the speed cbanger settings, in terms of noJoad !pm, tha,t will enable
 PROBLEMS 437
machines ,4 and B to divide a 10,000-kw load at 60 cps as follows: ,l{ of 5000-kw ca-
P8.city; l-bVo regulation i tr.kes 3000 kw; B of 8OOJ-kw capacity; 1.0/6 regulatiou;
takes 7000 kw. Soth have 4-pole alternetors.
30. Three turbo-altemators ale sharing a 33,000-krv, 60-cycle station load. All are
normal 1800-rpm units. Were the load then to decrease to 22,000 kw with no change
in governor setting, how rvould the load be divided bet$,een the three machines and
what would the frequency be?
Untt Speedregulation Capacity Load. ot 60 cps
A 0.9% 15,000 krv 12,000 kw
B 1.2/p 15pC0 Lrv 14,000 kw
C 1.9% 10,000 kw 7,000 kw

31. Operatiflg conditions for c 20,r]00-k$ turbine with divergent frst-stage nozzles
arel4.Uootsb66o$uperheat;exhaust,38.t rDxr IIg. aLs.Withfull unthrottled flow, 16,500
kw are generated on 8l,2oo kg stecm per hr. Fiud the capacity and steam rete of this
unit Nerc rhe steam temnerxtrrre raiscd to 816.G"C.
32. Repeat Prob. 31 except for a rerction turbine with lull peripheral admission to
tbe first stage.
33. A single-stage, 1800-rpm mechalical drive turbine is rated at 8f bhp with
steam conditions of 10,6 kg/omr 8s, saturated steam latmosph.ric exhaust. What would it
b€ ratedatoDts Lg/cm! gssaturated ste&m aud same exhaust? Assume ?e constant.
(Actlally the change mighf, imiror.e it. lYh1.?)
34. The turbine whose rated load condition line is GG, given by Fig. A-13, has
divergent first-stage nozzles and sing)e governor vcivc. l\rhat percent of its rated load
can it develop rvhen the governor is throttling the first-stage admission to I O.6k/oqrg. ?
35. Derive an equation fo'r the Willans line of a 50,000-kv, 3600-rpm cono.niiug
turbine. Stcam pressure,!4.2 lgtcmr goi temperaturq,6l0qo.E>rhaust, 6l omE*abs. gsp
crrlate ?" at 40,00&kw load.
36. Plot a predicted 'Vi/illans line aud the derived curves of steam rate and thermal
efiiciency, for a 3600-rnm, rated 20;000 krv supcrposed turbine. .A.ssume mech-elec effi-
cien-cy- of 0.92; pr,8?-o kg/om, sb6lo' i Pu, l?.6 kg/cmr sb.Overlord condition capacity
24,000 tw.
37. Plot a lVillans line froin the data of Tabie 11-6, then derive vclues of 1*
and g.
38. The results of o 90-nrin test run at steady load on a 7500-kw condcnsing steam
turbine are here summlrizecl. Calculate the folloiving. 11) Exhaust saturation tJlpera-
t'l]re to l,/r0 of a degree; (2) ideal and actual exhaust enthalpy; (3) wu; (4) l"i
(5) 7""; (6) IlR.
Dl ta: ptpSJ kSlcttraBa, 316,6.C. Condenser manometer,Tls.g mEHgatr6.?rc baromet-
er,?6t., llrDHg at 10"C. Barometer 6cale correct ai 0.C. Stcam florv, gg,52o Lg per hr.
lVatt hour meter rccdin;:': initial,265,217 kt hr; final, 22b,942 tw hi. OJnriensing
rvatei flow, 24,680 litro6/rsil;m at 2o.l"c;out at r0,8.c.
39. Assume that, Fig. 1I-40 applies to a 12,500-kw iurbine guuanteed fo! 4.4,! Lg
per krv hr atr kglc'e| gi,426.2.C with B8. LED flgjxhiu.t pressurc. f)r, !.u)g a performa-
42.2
nce test at this load the et€am rate xasfoundt,Jbe{.()k8per(11. hr. Drd this performance
meet the guaraDtee if the operating conditiots were4l.6 kg/oergb,.t463, 4t BmIIgl,
,10. A condenser manometcr rends?30.3 n6r llgat thc sime time that a mercurial
baromeler sho$s m2.6 Ero Temperatures are: manometer,2g.4rc; bj rometer, 13.3.0. Fiud
correct vccrum, referfed ro l6.6fcstxndilrd.
41. find the excct saturation tempertture corresfondrng to the following: Cotr-
deDser manometer,074.6 mrnHgst 87.8qoi baroineter, 758.7 aIn St27.2fC,
i[38 STEAM PRIME MOVER,B
,12. Ttc enthdpy of lt€dn cotering 8 gordeorer iB ,rtSJrf, Condeorer her , a
vacuuro of Zf.f ooEl gn .l*ft colunin. Atmo8pherc, .f!c l.rautt & Deteroinc
Ete8D, quelity lo nanat lltoy'o.
,til. At ttrbat height would s tlrlo mercury Eanometer columa be artained by a
vacuum in a region of O.6t lSrGrt/.D prcaue? B*omoter, ?66.? rlq rt.lr.oFo.
,14. The condenser preesure in a system with abnormal air leckage is accurately
deterniDed to be 0.0 Lgr@t .t.Tbe c@t otr rr6rt atrto . Net interior voluma, ta D. .
Fiud the cir-vapor mixture and tle weight of 8ir in tbe condenser.
,t5. lVhat is the air dchness, of an air-vapor mixture eutering aa air ejector atll.f
Oand?6.t tlro Hgv&cuum. MaBometer tamperature,tt.6o. Bsroroet€r,?O ltEst l6tio
{6. Body heigbt of a parallel flow harometric condenser is approxiuutelyl.Zn.
8t€am pressurc,o.t t3l.@l .b,WotkiDgbst@etric pt"ssurc?t7 -- IBiectionwater it lo,f
qrvsilablesto.!6lg1oorg.re!.tiv€ to hotwell level. IrBd i8ul. lgof engine exhaust 6tedm
per hr. Pipe frictiotr,o.alDlrvatcc Estimste the follorving: Efrective tail pipe heigbt; !a
injection wat€r per hr; noueondensable gas to be ejected; h€sd required of a booetir
pump, if any.
,17. A certain lowJevel, cormterffow mixing, iet condenser is to serrve an engine of
cbarrcteristics given by Fig. 1l-7. Iuiection w4ter availab.le at 8.aqC. Pump suction
arbmergence,l.246,rtatic di*hlrgeherd,o,tr&.N€glectpipefrictio[. I'ind required water
honepower of the removal pump.
a8. [epeat Prob. 47, apsuming au eiector condehser requiriDg 0.t LdoBra.pr€ssure
rt the spray nozzles. Pump suction,o.t{ llroEl !D.
,19.Detcrmine n,.L, ,r{., ra. for a two-pass surface condenser, using F,q 9-19 for hort
transfer. Speciocations: Condense CToaO h3Etea.E f,er hr 8t!l DD gg sbs with illto
terminal difierence, Condensing water available at tocc. y. -lJt E -o; U.=tltlO'
Tubes m.leExl.tara. Steam euthalpy, t7? 4S; l.l.C condensate tlepression. Negla:t
air cooling requlrements.
50. Deterrnile n, L, A", u- for a surfaee coudenser by employing data of Fig.9-10.
!0,?q) Lg. steam ale to be coldensed per hr at 6l DDHg abd. l6.A.nEx laOItEt -l.dlE,
.60; C6!.0rC; rt to.CqClAvsihble rpec€ limitstub€s toDot oveE.t Cl Elditg Neglect air cooling.
51. puring a test a tvo-pass condeuser with mo.t.l eX,', Erbxl.g&Etubesper
pass rcceived a flow of 6t,tr litiqrDiqo{lrreccoDdeBing watfrwhioh,Easdischargi:d rt
,&rco . Condens€r manom€tT, tr.t Em IIg at !.fr' Baromet€rr?.E.l nrf colrected to
l!.0"C.IIow does the devolofrd U conpare with a prcdiction from Fig.9-10?
52. Find tbe c&pociti faling, ot fr€e uir, of a Bte&m iet eiector for a 30,00Gkw
turbine's condelser. It is erpected that the sir-vapor mixture will be cooled to x.FC
at !&t Ern, Hg abs.
53'. Assume that the frbe air leakage' including injection watet rele&Le, lqr the coB-
derser mentioned in prob. 42 will beO.OZZe BtttniDat .r"(. Itrbat.rstEd cspacityof sterm
jet ejector is needed if (1) there is no extemal mirture cooler (2) there is an external
cooler, &s in Fig. 11-41, able to reduce mirture temp€Erure to 6lJ'0 ?
54, tr'ind the w&ter horsepower for the circulatiug pump of a two-plsi condenset
with florvoft(,r:mllrFr/6iocondensiD&n &ter'T[ere sI€ lr0 t", DDxllrir6x4.CE tubes
in thecondeuser, Wlter conduite are 6teel pipes 010 lDrn witb C8.6 E totsl leagth. Consider
6nal discharge at aaBe eleyation as gcreen house water level.
55. The lollowing &re test data on s ffi ol , two-pass condenser having 5720
t6.a eExtJ|aEdtubes. Condemate flow w8s rlt3ao lg p€r hr at tt.tlo ; condensiug
wst€r, ! I r,5lm litrirblD. Temf,€rsturrs: ,. tB'!; tr 2?,t i to !2.06 (all 'c ). Vapor pressure,
6t r.D Hgsbs.(l) C&lculate U; (2)as8umrng toat U, was 17,680c,i 6nd 4.
56. A certain tube ia a co[denser, haying been selected Ior testiDg, we8 isolated from
the maia flow ald these water quautitieb wele meabured:

.Lo.l pc ril-br-d{ C
PROBLEMS 4it9
TeEt No. Water flow,bg /mia Inlet O. Outlet C.

I !C.? t!, tg,m

2 &r u"0 ,o.d)
3 t5.? t6,6 q.r6
4 61.5 to.C 2r.c)
5 ru r!.0 ,3.06
6 r!.6 ta.N)
'o.c
Between test No. 3 ond 4 the inside of the tube was thoroughly clea.ned. Tube is tl,!
tr! x l.0! Dto t&l&- x 6.7 E CrndenEer vspor prssEurE, lqa u Eg abe. tr roru
thcE dst3, find U. and U..
 CHATTER 12

TFilE. GAS N..OOP

12-1 Function oI the Gas Loop. The equipmeni considered ss "GaB

Loop" has the function of creating the proper conditions for combustion, of sup-
plying the ingredients for combustion in the proper proportions, and oi moving
the products of combustion to the atmosphere. These actions necessarily involve
the combustion equipment itself, i.e., the furnace, and burner, or stoker; how-
ever, this portion of the gas loop is so intimately aesociated with t[e steam
generating unit that it w&s considered expedient to place the study of it in
Chapter 10.

ATIIOSPHERIO
EXOHAITIGE OF
q FoR cq

IMNE

RA6E

Frc. 12-1 The gas loop showing associated equipment

It is in the gas loop that dynamic, high-temperature heat energy is produced.

Then it is transferred from the gas to the working medium, after which the
spent products must be dispatched salely to the atmosphere, sometimes cleaned
of objectionable impurities. Economic designs of the necessary heai transfer
services aim to obtain the required heating at minimum ai:nual expense. As has
been previously mentioned, this often entails the use of auxiliary heat transfer
surlaces and draft fans. This equipment, the gas passages, the chimney, the
440
COAL STORAGE 441
arrarrgements for supplying fuel and air to the combustion equipment and rr:-
moving ash lrom it, together with control ancl regulatory apparatus, are wh:rt
constitutc tlre Cas Zool.
The elemcnts oI the gas loop equipment shorvn in the customary relative
positions are schematically diagrammed in Fig. 12-1, where it rvill be observed
that the loop is imaginary. Actually, the flow is open to the atmosphere, &nd
once having been discharged Irom the chimney, the products of combustion are
not wanted again at the inlct of the combustiou air system. Houever, the earth,s
atmosphere, blanketing the vcgetation rvhich coycrs much of the earth's surface,
undergoes a sort of rejuvenation lvhich undocs, to a ccrtain cxtent, the action
of combustion. 'Ihis is thc continual synthesis, by grcen vegetatiqn, of oxygcn
through botanical action, whereby sunliglrt, carbon dioxide, and water produce
oxygen. I{cnce, outside the power plant, naturc is at work changing carbon
dioxide, the proper product of the combustion of qarbon, back to oxygen. Thus,
by the exercise of some irnagination, and the taking of sorna libefiy with l.he
rneaning of "loop," rvc hrtve contrivecl to refcr to ihe gaseous florv connccted
with a stcam polrer plant ts tr loop.
l2-2 Coal Storage. 'I'o place coal in stor.egc can bc as sirnple as dumping
l<':rris of it frorn motor trucks onto the ground in an area assigned to a ,,c;al
pilc." I{owevcr, at rrcnv industrial and all utility plants a mechanical systrn}
frrr rccciving coal frorr. the tlelivcry systcm, conveying it to storage, holding it
safcly, thcn rcclaiming it for use will har.e been provided.
Thc purltosc of Irrel storage is tu.ofold. First, and most irnportant, fucl
storage is iu-"rrrancc against completc shut-down of a plant occurring flrrr;t
failure of norrnal opcrating supplies to arrive. Second, storagc permits sotne
choice ol thc datc of purchase, allowing the purchascr to take advaniage of
seasonal market conditions. Storage of coal is primarily a matter of piotection
agrinst coal strikes, lailure of thc transportation system, and general coal
shortagcs.
The cost of fuel storage is inexpensive insurance against the loss occasioned
by complete ccssation of a manufacturing pr.occss, even for a short time, caused
by lack of fuel. But coal storage is even rnore important to the public service
staiion. Elcctric light and porver have bccome so vital in everyday domestic and
industrial life that cost oi crcating coal storage is submerged in the gencral efiort
to sccure rcliable and continuous service. A storage of 10ft of the annual con-
sumption might suffice for most cascs, although, of course, factors such as
rrcarness to coal fields, tran-qportation facilities, amount coal will weather, and
the availability of substitute fuels must bc considered. The frequency of in-
terruption oi coal mining by Jabor action in the past has tended to induce
management to store more coal than would othcrwise be considered economical.
lYhcrc the area is available, it is not uncommon to find a frrll ts.elve-month
coal supnly in storage.
Example 1: Takinq tlrc venrly load duration curre lnd relrtecl (lit:r as in the
cx.rnrplc,
"r9cc
3-J0, lhc volurnc of coai storage ntcessarl for an cmcrgcncy tcservc of
i% ol the lrnnual consurnption and the requirctl acreage o[ storage will be detemrined.
Slorage depth,2.$ b.From theprobiem referretl to rve 6nd the annual consumption to
be7r00O toDnc..Bituminous coal rveighs approximately eOO fg/ml
442 THE GAS LOOP
zqx)ox0.o7xlom :
Volume of coal storage = 8300 tDl

Stora8e area : alQ_ : 262

7aa 'or
Actual area would be slightly larger because of sloping sides of the pile.
Storage {rom which coal may be withdrawn to supply combustion equip-
ment with little or no rchandling -is Liue storoge. Dead storage is that holding
area fron rvhich coal can only be taken by thc cxercise of a definite reclaiming
and conveying activity. Deed storage is ordinarily an exposecl pile, laid di-
rectly on the ground,
When coal is piled in storage it "wcathers." It has a tendency.to become
slack; to oxidize s,ith accompanying libcration of heat. lYhcn loosely piled
iu shallow piles with large lumps, natural circulation of air currcnts may carry
the heat ofi rapidly enough so that the tcmperatiue does not rise dangerously.

sroci'rc ouI a itcL^rc116

-l -l

tr'rc. 12-2 Outline of coal-handling equipment

Coals having high sulfur content are liablc to prove troublesome to store in
volume because local heating apparently originatcs in a reactton between
sulfur, a,ir, and watcr. Dee1, piling with exposure to winds aggravates spon-
taneous heating. The best rimedy knolvn at present is to exclude air lrom the
pile by (a) underwater storage, (b) bituminous surface coalings, (c) rolling
and packing an air-tight layer ol fine coal on the surface. At the Port Washing-
ton plant 70'307 tonn"i *"." satjsfactorily protected by covcring the pile with
30.5c[ offitre coal.dusd overlaid by a thin laycr ol lump coal to prcvent wind
and rain erosion.
The cost of maintainin[ coal in storage is the sum of interest and taxes on
capital invested in land, inlcrest and depreciation on handling equipment, in-
teiest and inslrance on coal Etored, the energy costs of moving the coal, aird
deterioration in value due to weathering.
The bulk of coal burned is received either by boat or railroad, suppte-
mented, to a limited extent, by trucks, mainly to supply- iustitutional' plants
that are accessible neither to rail nor watcr. Methods of handling coal con-
COAL STORAGE 443
stitute an important part of power plant equipment, and ihe coal handling
cquipment is generally one of the major components of plant cost.
Coal for either live or dead storage is received intermittently at the plant;
consequcntly, the coal stocking and reclaiming equipmeut must have capacity
to unload the expected shipments within a length of time which r,ill not bear
any definite relation to maximum rate of usage in the furnaces. Thc unload-
ing plant should be arranged so that the coal as received can he stocked to
dead storage or fed directly on to the conveying system leading to live storage.
fn almost, every case of coal handling, cquipmcnt may be selectcd frorn
among a large number of devices radically difrerent from one another so that
no standard systems rnay be described. Each installation is an individual
problem bascd on thc immediate surroundings.

/. ,l
t,"

ivacAL
=|Ecr'oH

Frc. 12-3 Storage and reclamation by drag scraper,

Whei.r coal is delivered to the plant by barge, unloading is readily ac-

complished by grab bucket operated fronr a high coal tower adjaccnt to the
rharf. 'fhe coal is hoisteC high cnough before being dumped into a receiving
hogrer that it ean then flow by gravity to either live ol dead storage.
Delivery S railnoad. mey be (1) to track hoppers at ground level, (2) to
unloading Spur; whete locomotive crane unloads it uith grab buckct, (3) to
storagc pilc.beneath elevatcd trestle, or (4) to oiren dump at ground levcl.
Thc last mcthod is often uscd in small plants, l'here the railroad spur can be
carried to ar overhead trestle. Coal is sliovclbd lry hand from the cars or
dumped to the ground through hopper bottinns, then elevated to coal buggies
or \l'agons by portable loiders. Handling to storage is generally by one ol the
following methods:
7. Drag line scroper. Has the advantage of lor first cost and maintenance,
but largc encrgy consumption per ton is a disadvantage. It is adaptable to
irregular storage areas and can store deeply or thinly as required. There will
be a front post with srriveling sheaves located beside the reclaiming hopper
and several tail posts or, as shown iu Fig. 12-3, a continuously movablc tail
post. The two-drum winding machine is usually driven through reduction gears
444 THE GAS LOOP
by a reversible motor. The haulagc eable is wound on one druml the return,
on thc other. By friction clutches thc idling drum is always loosed from the
drive. Thc scraper itself is dcsigned so that when hauled it dips and fills itself,
then floats on the n.tatcrial for conveying. When returned it quickly empties
itself. The change from stockirrg out to reclaiming is made simply by reversing
the cable hitohcs on thc scraper.
2. Bidge craze. I,'lexible and of high capacity but requtring a heary in-
vcstment cost.
3. Locomotiye crones. These both on rails and crawler treads. Flexible but
usually of highcr cost than drag scrapers. Do not require formation of a
stocking-out pile as do drag scrapers.
4. BuLLdozers qnd tndustrio| trucks.

!,i O

Link-Belt Co.
Frc. 12-4 Apron feeder shown removing coal fron a track hoppcr and discharging
it to a crrrsher.
Thc stocking-out equipment is invariably used for reclaiming. Where a
track hopper is used, the reclaiming system ordinarily Ieads to it because
coal crushers and apron feeders at the beginning of the conveying system arc
convcniently installed beneath the track hopper.
Livc storage can be provided with bunkers, cqal silos, and coal bins. The
word "bunker" is used herc to describe coal storage that is not a part of a
lruilding structure, but rathcr rvhich is separatelv constructeii and attached to
thc building structurc
Thc most conrtrtotr lornt of bunkcr is an ovcr.hcld -qusl)cnsion type, usuclly
madcol g,!rn6 ptntc stcel,althorigh rcinforced concletc has aiso hccn-employed.
Bunkers should rcccirc a protcctive coating insidc to gunrrl thcir stiuciure
rrgainst ihe conosile cffccts of srrlfirr in tlrc coal. Fig. l2-5.lrorvs some forms
of steel bunkers. The vcrtical c"viindrical t1,pe is usrral11' ruountcrl outsidc the
plant building, on tlrc roof, or in its ou.n separate structurc. 'l.roughcd sus-
pcnsion bunkers atc irrsirlc nrorrrrtcrl. Thc Bcrqtrist lonl aplrroximatcs thc icleal
COAL CONVEYORS 445
shepe which would produce only tension in the steel and thus do away with
stiflening structure except on the ends and interior bulkheads. However, the
use of stiffeners lrequently lets the bunker be more economical of the use of
plant space in which the bunker is hung.
The design of coal handling is frequently highly individualistic in the
smaller plants, where a variely of local conditions govern.

I 8D

Y
tilcEo lEiouts,
CYLII{DRICAL BUNKER SUSPENSION EUNKERS
I'rc. l2-5 Forms of steel coal bunkers.

Example 2: The dimensions of a steel suspension bunker to hokl a two-day supply

of bituminous coal. for an 8!i-hp boiier rvill be determined. llaximum ruttng, A ;/o;
load factor, 40lo. Averuge efficiency,80/6. eb= n 2tl{. Length of bunker,azla
Not surchargetl.

M&x mt€ of coal consumption : - 2soe.8 ks p6r hr

2701t xo.EOx 1000
=*I=y':T:
Capacity for 2 da]'s' oper&tion at average loads :2580.8 X 48 X 0.40 : 403:19 k&
Bunker volume -ff = ur.urn -"
' Cross-sectional ares : 01.0?4/6 zl - 0.tol rh!
A Berquist section of a.8 Erwidth and a.{ rndepth irill provide t X 4 3x3.1 - g.lmt
l2-3 Coal Conveyors. A conveying system must be installed to carry
the soal from the delivery station (or point ol reclamation from storage) to
the combustion equipment. The coal movement is generally accomplished in
three steps: (1) a hoist to a convenient elevation abovc live storage; (2) hor-

8.lr
gall

tr'rc. 12-6 Diagram of belt conveyor

. Multiply blr 0.t:!0 ao obt io qr f o bit/t ,
M6 THE GAS LOOP
izontal transportation and dumping into live storage; and (3) gravity flow to
the combustion equipment: Besides transpor'tation, this system may be in-
volved with lump crushing, removal of tramq iron, weighing, and prevention
of segregation ol sizes.
Common examples of hoisting equipment are:
l. Bucket eleuator. Moderale lifts-continuous operation.
2. Grab.buclcet with crane or tower

cost g€o13
ubber. Drive pull€y
puliey

Sell

Cul
t Sgeed r€duc aas

tr'ro. 12-7 Typical speed reduction to conve)'or drivc shaft. (Shown with belt
conveyor.)

3. Sltip hoi.st. Applicablc rvhen lifts are too high for bucket elcvators.
Simplc and compact.
4. Belt conueyors. Limited to less than 20" to the horizontal; therefore it
is necessary to start at considerable distance from the plant.
5. Electric ioists to elevate larries or coal buggies which have beeq filled
at the storage pile and wheeled in to the plant by hand. They will be hoisted
until their contcnts may bc discharged into the stoker hoppers.
Horizontal movcment of coal to bunkers is by conveyors, of which the
following are typical:
l. BeLt conueyors. Continuous system; belt usually troughed; high capac-
ities possible.
2. Spiral conuegors. Endless helicoid
screw in a trough. Can easily be made
dust-tight. Not having a return strand, it
requiret a minimum of space. Limited in
length. Consideratle wesr.
3. Fl:ight or Bcraper conaeyors. Low irt
first cost but having large energ'y consumD-
tion. There is considerable wear, caused by
friction and abrasion.
4. Piuoted bucket carrtere. Probably
ideal from a good many standpoints, al-
S,e,rhert!-Atlnn on Mlst. Co.
though expensive in first cost. Material ie
Fro. 12-8 Section through a carried and buckets are supported on rol-
troughed belt conveyor. Iers which reduce friction to a mlnimum.
The pivoted bucket carrier can both ele-
vate and convey. Since it is run at low speed, the operation is both silent and
free frorn vibration.
COAL CONVEYOAS 147
5, Larries. Suspended rail types are generally used because even though
they rcquire more headroom than the floor type, they leave the boiler aisle free
frorn obstructions.
Design of equipment for coal handling involves capacity calculations as
well as selection of equipmcnt type. What tonnagc per hour should the coal
conveying machinery be ablc to handle? Thc minimum requirernents (not-
allowing for the efrect of load factor) would be the maximum rate at which
coal can be burned under the boilers. Expected plant extension should be

Cyclc of ope.o+ion for tkip hoi3t

Il
YI
Skphetu-A.lanson Mlet. Co.

Fro. 12-9 Skip hoist.

anticipated by an initial installation of such dimensions that by increasing

operating speed, or some othcr simplc modification, the convcying system can
continue to meet the needs. Otherlrisc, enlargemcnts ol coal conveying equip-
ment may weli prove an expensivc process. The ultimate capacity of a power
plant is oftcn initially unccrtain; conscqucntll* conveyor systems usually have
capacities of sevcral times thc maximum continuous demand of the combustion
equrpment. Personncl dutics plannetl for the station can effect selection of
conveyor capacity, for a daily stint at the coal conireying equipment may be
only one of the duties to bc performed by a ccrtain operator.
Coal convcying cquipment is not tlugrlicaterl. Enough livc storage should

JT^iONAiYlerPPtq ta VtLr

ao^L lroe^qr DuNrcr

tetr.e Mts,. Co.

Frc. 12-10 Pivoted bucket conveyor. Combined coal and ash handling in a large
plant.
448 THE GAS LOOP
be interposed between it and the furnaces to allow for several bours' repsir on
conveyors without running out of coal.
Full mechanical coal handling will not be justified in all boiler plants. But
even in the smaller plants, rvhere the complete systems cannot always be af-
forded, portablc loaders, larries, etc., representing partial conveying, will be
found to be good investments.
Tramp iron is removed magnetically before coal is passed into pulverizers
or crushers.
\{cans lor ueighing coat can be incorporated into the conveying system
(1) at track scalcs; (2) by weigh lalries; (3) by coal spout volumetric metersl

lCl

St ahe -A.lom"oa M I er. C o.

^s

FIc. 12-11 The sctew cooveyor.

an<t (4) by scale stations between bunker and dorvnspouts. The weigh larry
has a small coal hopper suspended on knife edges in a scale beam weighing
system. Hopper, bcam, and all are a portable structure on rails, whose align-
ment suffices to carry the hopper under bunker discharge gates and then over
stoker or pulverizer hoppers. Some larries are motor propelled; small ones are
hand pushed. The hopper is filled lrom a bunker gate, the beam is put into
balance and read, and the hopper is discharged by gravity to the combustion
equipmeni. Larry scales are gener-
ally built so that e prepared record
card when inserted will bE marked
with the weight at whic! the beam
is tialancing.
The distribution from bunker to
several hoppers is not as simple with
the automaiic coal scalcs as with the
weigh larry. The automatic scales
Frc. t2-12 Flight conveyor. are best where one weigh slation is
continuously and exclusively em-
ployed with one combustion unit.
Hence, automatic coal scales are more likely to bc employed in ldrge plants,
antl weigh larries in small. As Fig. 12-14 shows, the automatic scale feeds coal
into a ,r'eigh hopper which is suspendcd from a weigh beam. When a preset
load is registered, the beam comes to balance, stope the feeder automatically,
anrl the load is dumped into the lower hopper. The durrlp action causes a
count to be registered on the recording apparatus.
Coal Gates and, Spouts. Coal will readily flow by gravity through srluarrr
 COAL CONVEYORS 449
or round spoutsof90.5cm internal dimension, provided the inclination is not
too flat. If the spout is nrore than 35' to the vcrtical, it should be arrangcd so
th&t operators may rap it il the coal should lodgc. Gatcs shorrld open casiiy
and ciose tightly, and bc desigrred so that the gatc anrl thc cut-off platc eair
be separatcly rcncrted. Coal dischargc spouts are solurtin)cs
fanned out so that the width of a stokcr hoppcr is supplictl by a
single dust-tight dos'nspout. Special dcsigns are rcquirt'cl ou thcsc
distributing spouts in order to keegt coal sizcs frour sr:grcgating
in thcm. Ji
Conueyor Layout. \"\e dcsign and dctailing of mechanical !:.
conveyors are su{Ecicntly spccializcd to lic outsidc the orrlinary
scopc of pol'cr plant enginecring; and thc ltlant <lesigtrt'r. cus- q.' ;i
tomarily relies on conl'cyor manufacturers for advicc on Iayorrts.
However, space allorvancc, capacities, and tllc leading ilata nlust
corrc frour the plant tlcsigncr. Whcrc the cquiprncrt itself is not
du-st-tight, its vicinity should be isolrtcd u'ith dust-tight rvalls
and partitions so that thc fine coal dust, n.hich invariably flics up
rvlrercvcr coal is dunlpcd ofr a conveyor, rvill not settlc over thc
rvhole plant and discourage operators lrom maintriining a lrigh I
standard of cleanliness. lValkways necd to bc provided alonq-
sidc convcyors for nraintonancc ln,l inspectlou. Aitcr lavrrut li
thc systcnr hos I'ccn mir e, it slroulcl bc studicd rvitli refer.t.nco to Fr(i. l..t_lji
tlrc possil'ility of coal piling up at convcyor discharges in thc Bqcki,t ele-
cvent of failure of any portion of thc conveying systeu. Intcr- rrtor.
locking rcllys are often appliccl to thc conveyor rnotors to mlke
certain that convcyors and nraclriles in series n'ith them are startr(l tn(l
stoppcd accorcling to a prcdctermiricd orrlcr.
Belt Conueyors. This type is probnbly tnorc univcrsllly userl tliln any
other. The first cost is rcasonablc and tlrc pol.cr.",,n.,,r.,.,1rtinn is l,,rr. Il is

warcH'^r6 coMPrefEo

Iin,r,r.lron S.dl, (-,,

Fro. 12-14 Principle of belt-fed hopper-type autonatic corJ scales
450 TIIE GAS LOOP
widely used for horizontal movement of coal and, to a certain extent, for in-
clined runs. Because of the varied conditions under which they are operated,
each individual belt conveyor installation should be
given a thororrgh engineering analysis so that an eco-
tar nomical and, at the same time, adequate installation
P
will be hsd. A fair averrge speed of all belt conveyors
is gl.4 m/trlitl. From ot - 9l { m/min is the usual range lor
coal conveyors because hfuher speeds tend to shatter the
coal at the discharg€ end. A minimum speedoi9l.,l m/min
Cool
should bc used if the belt discharges over a tripper (tr'ig.
12-6). There is no economy in running at a given speed
Iron
trrc. 12-15 with only half load; it is better to reduce the speed and
seDarator. run the belt full. Both flat ahd troughed belt conveyors
can handle coal, but the troughed are more frequently
used because their capacity is about 100ft. greater per inch width of belt.'lVith
the proper design of troughed carriers and correct alignment of head and foot
pulleys, guide idlers are not necessary.
Troughed belt conveyors also handle coal successfully
at slants up to about 20", but with capacity reduced 5ft
lo l0/o as compared with horizontal conveyorc. When in- gr{ x
clined, the conveyor must be equ{rped with a no-reverse
mechanism to prevent its mnning backward in case it is
etopped under load. The belt itself is made of multiple-ply
canvas duck surfaced with rubber covers for friction and
re6istance to abraslon. As the belt itsell will cost nearly
half that of the conveyor installation, expert advice should 6.8 lDBw.ld.d !1..1
be sought lor its selection. The canvas may be varied in ptot" conrrr'
numbers of plies and in weight of the duck used (28, 32, pc. 12-16 Coal
36, and 42 ) so that it will have sufrcient strength for ga1g.
tight side tension, be firm enough to prevent sagging be-
tween carriers, and yet be flexible enough to pass around pulleys readily. There
is no practical limitation to length of these conveyors and, if well main-

Table 12-1. BELT CONYEYOR PRACTICE

Minimum Pulley-
Weights of \faterial
(per ply per lm width
Diameter- ro Cerrier Spocing
(Plain drive)
p€r E)
No. of plies
Belt rvidtlr Spacing
28 duck, o.orlcts 4. 6 8 qD TD
32 duck, oottlt kg
36 duck,0.ola8 ra 6l 7t.2 t.06.7 30.5 -46.7 lr2
42 duck, 0.0165 Lt 36 0r cl,4 llt.t 60.8-78.2 1.(}7
(t.taDl rubber co!?r,
0.010t Lr 12 r00.7 I'L?, 0r - d6L{ 0.01
Idlere,
t.o5
COAL CONVEYORS 451

rll
il
fl.
ilt
ll
r''4

t#$
llrl
H

ff[,,

E:=

aft

Litk-BeL Co.

tr'ro. 12-17 Suggestions for coat handling in:mall- ari.l medium-sized plants
452 TIIE GAS LOOP
tained, they $'ill trsnsport millions of tons of coal lrefore the belt needs re-
placement.
Estinating C onueyor Requirements. Although, as pleviously mentioned,
the advice oi specialists must be sought for final layout work, the
"oor"1,o.
power plant engineet must-rnake some decisions as to type, capacity, etc. In
estimatitrg power requirements oI various conYeyors, the empirical relations of
Table 12-2 may be helpful, but estimates of space and support requirements
will hsve to be implemented by references to manufatturers' data.
The rymbols in Tables 12-2 atd l2-3 have the iollowing meanings:
.4, Workirg area ofea h flighg u-
b, Belt width, cm, or buc&et pitc.b, n
II, S X sin oftle algle ofincliaation ofttre conveyor.
I<, Horsepower CoDsultant, see Table rz-3.
Z, Conveyor length, m
JV, Driveshaft speed, rpm.
S, Lineal speed of conveyor, m/min.
f, Couveyor capacity, tonnes coal per hr.
uro, Individual bucket load, kg coal.
ur, Weight ofsingle strand, cheine and flighl lg per m.

Table 12-2. CONVEYOR CAPACII'Y AND POWER

I\(aximurn Capacity Horsepower Required

Conveyor Type ToE roa per Hr to Driveshaft t
Belt conl'eyor * 0.0@{0. sb' Llj4 ro,oong + rg
m00
Bucket elev&tor O.O7 ?rbs/6 i.s x (Th*. hoisting pore.)
Flight conveyor * !x8.066,{8 o.00ol9t ldrrs + o.$2fi7 TL
Screw conveyor * kg per Rev vs Dia 0.001 L(r.Esr r + 7.3tt T)
Dio, cm l0.lG l5i!l ,0.9, t6,
kg 0.136 0.4!r I.6 3.01
30.,(8 !5.6t a0.€a
6.0 9.8 12.26

*For horizontal conveyom. Add .rur,/2?8.?-hpfor rise on inclincd conl'eyors. Belt con-
veyors can be used up to 20' slope lvith little loss in capa'city.
t This is power to conveyor driveshaft. For motor power allow lor losses ns follows:
For each pair gears, sprockcls, shear.es:
Cut sears Cdst 7ears Steel roller chain Plain chain l"bell
5% 1070 5% t0% 5%
For each manufactured speed reducer unit:
Eelical gear type, 5%; worm gear lype,1G20%.
t Add tripper power where pertinent. See Table f23.
Examplc 1: The size and drive shaft power for al2.rn flight conveyor vill be
It is inclined 20' and rvill caty l8.l toDaoi of cosl p€r b st EGt rB/oin.
estimated.
From: Capaciiy = a8,065 r{S, the

working areo of flights = tt.t/a8.o6txo.6 = 0.01236 mr

 PULVERIZED COAL SYSTEMS 453
Table l2-3. HORSEPOWIIR CONSTANTS FOR BELT CONVEYORS

Belt width
(on") R Tripper Hp Belt Type

36.6 0.6t +0,00t9 ? Lpl:', 28 duck

{o.6 23.8 0.61+0.0039 ? Lplv, 28 duck
46.7 24.3 0.79+0.0039 &p1: 28 duck
,
60.8 31,3 0.88+0.0045 " 5-plv, 2a duck
6l l.O{'+0.UX6 "? Lplv, 32 duck
16.2 60.6 1.43+0.0056 7 0-nr1, 3ti duck
91.4 65,6 r.82+0.0050 Gpl1'. duck
106.7 74,4 2.r0+0.0061 "
7 &plr', :]2 duck
121.9 89.3 2.49+0,0067 r 6-pl,v, 42 duck
t17., 1o2.7 3,04+0.0078 f 6-plv, 12 duck
162.4 114.6 3.86+0,0080 ? 8-plr', 12 dtrdk

On account of partial filling, consider working area 1o be b\/o of flight area. Then
Flight area = o.o247 ,nz
Select 30,48 cmx lO.lO cm rectangular flights.
Strand rveight tr,1 assumed to be r7.E0 kg/m.
Agair referring to Table 12-2,
Power for ho zontal conveyor : O.0UO 198 x 17.86 X 12.9 x 30.6 +0.002567 X 18. t x t2.2 -
1.88 hp

Power for lifting : l8.r x 30.5

= 0 69 hp sin tu"/273.7
Total power to drive sprocket l.8S
+ 0.69 = 2,87 hl) (srl.3 hp motor)
Example 2: Principal d&ta for a horizontal belt convevor \\ill be estimated. Given
T =a5.\1, :26.2. S : sl.4
From Table l2-2, Capacity =0.00040{562, so

Belt width : VloT(onoolol x sl-{) : sa.rrE cru, ssy gE.6 cm bett

76-!) 45.72
l'ower = - goo0 + 4s.{] - tg,hp.
[(0.00 x 22.3 x 91.4)

A)lorv for trippcr 0.61 I 0.0030 x 45.4 : 0.?9 h P

Total to tlrive pullc5. : 3.OG hp
Assumc spced reduction iD drir.e consisting o[ 2 sets cut, gears lnd I set cast geals
(Fig. .l:-;1. For rhis rrringcment..rJJ 20a lor drrvn los"-ns. \l,,ro1
1,6rre1 _ 3.fr y
1.20 = u.67. Next larger standarrl srzc is 5 hp. From Tnble t:-3, Leit specification is
S-ply, 23. Thjs with t\\'o 1.6 mItr. nrl,l,er coycrs NrlI u,eigh (5x0.ulrc+2x0.0102)
35.6 - 2.84 kg por m or 4i3.S kg lor the conveyor.
Pulley diameter estimatcd ?l.l cm from Table l2-1.
Pulley spced 91.4/o.7llE :41 rpm
Over-all speed reduction required from 1750 rpm motor - i7;0:41 or 43:1.
Carrier roll spacing, l.2t moc; idtets, r.os moc.

_ 12-4 Pulverized Coal Systems. The burning of coal in pulverized form

has been previously d!scusscd. To prepare the coal for this system ol combustion
4M THE GAS LOOP
is, of course, more difficult and costly than by the other mcthods of firing. Like
rnost other improvemcnts the usc ol pulverized coal as a boiler fuel is attended
by some specific dise.dv:rntages that tcnd to lirnit the range of applications in
rvhich pulverized coal is the supcrior system of combustion. In general, the
field of application is the large porver
plant; hence it is important in the
electric power station. As palt of gas
loop
"tudy,
it is perlinent to examine
the system l'hich supplies the finely
ground coal to the burner.
There are two systems of prepara-
tion of pulverized coal. One is the
central system (liin system); the
other, the unit sgstern. A central pul-
verizing system employs a limited
number of Iarger capacity pulverizers
trG-"
at a central point to prepare coal for
all the burners. Driers, iI required,
are conveniently installed at this
point. From the pulverizers the coal
is transported to & central storage bin
therc it is deposited and its trans-
l\o, 12-13 Elements of pulveriz€d (oal porting air, ventcd,, from the bin
sy-ctcm. through a "cyclone"' This bin may
contaiu from 12 to 24 hours'supplli
of pulverized coal. From the bin the coal is mctercd to the burners by motor-
ddven fceders of r.aried design. Primary air, added at the feeders, floats the
coal to the brrrners.
Central systern adr.antages arc:
1. The pulvelizing mill may rvork at constant load l)ecartse of the storage capacity
l)ctiYecn it and the burBers.
2. The large stolage is a protection rgrinst interuption of fuel supply to the
hrtrncrs.
3. Offers good control of coal fineness-
.1. trIore latitude in the arrangement and number of burners is allowed the de-
signers..
5. The boiler aisles are unobstructed.

Cen+,ral system disadvantagcs nrc:

l. Additional co-"t rn.l complexity of a coal transportation system.

2. Certrul preplration may require a separate building.
3. Driors rrc usuj,llv n.r'tsq$D.
4. Fire hazard of qruntitics of -.tored pulverizcd coal.
Most prrlverizcd coal plants are nos- being installed with unit puiverizcrs.
'Ihe unit system is so-called from thrl- faqt that each burncr or bumer group
anrl the pulverizer constitutc b- uuit Cirrstd].co*l is fed to the pulverizing mill
it a variable rate governed lryr the Foqliruslion 'isqurrements of the boiler and
PULVERIZED COAL SYSTEMS 455
fumace. Primary air is admitted to thc mill and becomes the transport air
which carries the coal through the short delivery pipe to lhe burner. This air.
:nay be preheated iI mill drying is desirable.
Unit system advantages are:
l. It is cheaper than the centlal system.
2, It allows direct control of combustion from the pulvedzer.
3. Coal which would require drying in order to function satisfactorily in the centrrl
system may usually be employed without drf ing in the unit system.
4. In a replacement of stokers, the old conveyor rnd bunker cquipment rnav lrc used
5. There is no complex ttansportation system.
Unit system disadvantages are:
1, 1'he mills operate at variable load, r condition not espccially condu.ive 1lr l,cst
results.
2. lfith load factors in common practice, total mill capacity nrust lrc higher than
lor the central system.
3. Firing aisle is obstructed with pulverizing equipment, unlcss the latter is rele-
gated to a basement.

Coal is pulverized in order to increase its surface exposure, thus promoting

rapid combustion without using large quantities ol cxcess air. In a typical unit
system, lump coal, crushed to uniform size, is continuously supplied to the
pulverizer hopper, whence it is withrlrarvn by a leeder and sent to the pulver-
izing section. Rate of combustion is controlled at the feeder. Pulverization
beiug accornplished, the coal is next swept out of the mill and floated to thc
burner, located in the fumace wall, by admitting enough of the combustion air
at the pulverizer to accomplish air-borue transportation. This is called prinrcry
air, in distinction to secondarA air which is supplied directly to the burner. The
primary air may valy from as little Bs 10% lo almost the entire combustion
air requirements, depending on the load and type of pulverizer.
The puluerizer is the most importaut part of a pulverized coal system. Thc
degree ol fineness to which it is expected to reduce the coal has been mentioned.
To accomplish this on a large commercial scale with variable coal moisturc
content is a task whose successful accomplishment bears tribute to the inge-
nuity of equipment designers. In genera!, pulverizers (sometimes called .nills)
may be classified as ottrition or impoc, types. To these might be added "shear-
ing" types; however, the latter might be considered a form either of the at-
trition type, impact type, or both. The impact mills generally have some
attrition action present and, conversely, while attrition may be the primary
action of a mill, almost invariably impact is present as a secondarl. action:
consequently, a mill classification reelly represents a, statement of the most
prominently used principle.
Impact l[iLls Attritien. l'tiLLs
Ball mills Bol'l mills
Ilammer mills Ball and rscc rnills
A general description appliceble to any pulverizer r,;oultl include thc mctns
and method of size reduction, of fineness regulation, of air iutroduction lnrl
456 THE GAS I,OOP

-nq#!,19

l ariDdirrg

\-A.inding.idg

PtriLs nnova/ p,P.

sDial-llow .ro e,hausler a.d bu.n .
classiner ,i --From coat ftade.
c

orarsiza refurn lo ni//

'F/:Daness ftqu/dlor

0 ^1! !_ |

A-Ball and Race Mill C-Ball Mill

B-Bowl Mill D-Ilammer Mills
Frc. 12-19 Coal pulverizers
PULVERIZED COAL SYSTEMS 457
movement, of feed, and of drive. Pulverizers are driven by electric motors with
the fecdcrs eitlier actuated by the main drive or bv a suall d-c rnotor, de-
pending on the type of control uscd. Intcgral fans plovide ruovcment of air
to float the pulvcrizctl coal through the short duct connccting rvith thc
burner. Air separation is frequcntly eml-rloyed to control lincnoss, but some use
is madc of "whizzcrs" or "spinncrs" (throw-out vancs for ovcrsizcs), entrap-
ping ribs or vanes, centrifugal forcc, etc.
Fineness ol the pulvcrizcd coal is important since it afrccts thc incomplete
combustion loss, tube fouling, performance of flue gas cleaning systcms. To
increase the fineness of pulverization (as mcasured by the perci:nt of a sample
passing 75 micron screen) is to increase the cost oI pulr.crizetion, to decrease
maintenancc' to improve efficiency of combustion, anrl to leduce duty of dust
collectors. Thc fincness chosen is economic when the incrcrtcntal cost of furthcr
increasing the fineness exceeds the corresponding sumrnatiou of thc r.csulting
savings. This varics somewhat rvith the size of the unit, but is in excess of
75/o fineress. It, is equally important that the remaining 25ll ttot contain a
substantial portion of largc pieces. Thus a rcquirement ol 98% ot rnore through
s, 300 micron screen is also imposed,
Fig. 12-19 shorvs the ball and. race trmJverizer, the designation refening to
the appearance of thc grinding elemcnts thcrnselves. This is a lorv-spccd unit
in which grinding prcssurc is.mairtaincd by adjustable springs. Tlx: bowl miLL
shown in Fig. 12-19 grinds the coal l:ctrvccn a I'hirling bot-l anrl rolls rnountcd
on pivoted.axcs. Coal Ied into thc ccntcr is throrvn bv ccntrifugal lorce against
the sides ol the boll u,hcre it is pulverized betrvcen.the sirlcs of the borll and
the grinding ring. The fine and intermediatc sizes are pickcd up flrm the iop
by an air currcnt and carried into thc scparator abor.e lol classification.
The ball mill operates somcthing like a foundry trunbling barrel. The large
lotating drunr r100-200 rnmt contains a quanlity ol irorr l,all. rnixn.l lith the
coal. As thc drum turns some balls are carricd uprvard to bc dropped on the
coal while others, remaining in the agitated rnixturc, grind the coal at random
between them. The coal is fed into one end and reduced in sizc by this action
until it can be swept out of thc mill by a currcnt of air.
Hammer mills have swinging hamrncrs .,r bars, into the path of l{rich is
fed the coal to be pulverized. Fig. 12-19 -"hows hammer mills, one having a
siugle impact stage followed by attrition action, the other having trvo impact
stages.
The very nature of the action in a pulverizer insurcs that there will bc
considerable wcar and that a great dcal of energy will beconsumed per ronne
of coal. Hammer faces, balls, Ian blades, and the like need perioclic rcplacement.
By employing hard alloys and by dcsigning so that the labor and timc of re-
placement are minimized, costs of maintcnance are rctlucerl. Thc liie ol the
wearing parts these days extends through the pulvcrization of thousands of
tonnesofcoal. The amount of energy input per tonnc 6f coal varies with the
grindability of the coal. Lorv grindability indexes, such as that of anthracite
(4), are indicative o{ the greatest pulverizer wear and cnergy consumption.
The average bituminous coal index is around 60, but there may be considerdble

* Tube laacitrg, slag clecning, eoot blowing.

.1irB THE GAS I,OOP

I ,}
i
I
I
r

I<dneals-va Sat^ Ml6. G Ensr, Corp,

Ifrc. 12-20 Boiler erlripped with water walls and 6red by unit pulverizers

variation from this in individual cases. The kw hr r,f energy required for the
conveying and pulvcrizingofatonncol bituminous coal varies from ll ro 33, a
lair averagc being22kr hrper tonne. Anthracite might use38.6 kw hrfrertonne
12-5 Oil and Gas Supply Systems. Gas. The cost of storing gaseous
fucl is too high lor storagc to be economically practical in power plant work.
Nature has gas in strrrage in the forn ol gas dcposits at high prrssure in gas
sands. \\'hcn rvclls are drilletl into thcsc strata the gas can be dras.n ofl through
pipc lines sornc of u-hich extcnd hunclretls of rniles cross-country to customeis,
domestic antl inilustrial. tr'riction in the pipe linc flow consumcs fluicl pressure
so that gas comple,qsor stations must be located at intervals of 32 to B0 kru.
along the lincs in ordtr to rcncl\'thc prcssurc and continud thc florv. \\.hen thrs
pipe line gas linalll alrivei at a boiler plant, it will hsve a fluid pressure in
cxcers of that custc,r|ialil! uscd in the combustion equipment, and one or more
prr:ssrrrc rcrlucing stations are installcd. The plant layout, insofar as a gas
OIL AND GAS SUPPLY SYSTDMS 459

supply system ie involved is, therefore, quite simple. From pressure reducing
and metering points it flows to the gas burners where combustion is efrected as
wae desoribed itr Chapter. 10.
Gas buming eystems are(l) low pressure, i.e,,0.0.07 kgicm'gc8pd(2)highrpF
essure i.e.,0.35- t .41kg/cmtga.lt, may tre practicalto ia618ll the gBB met€r oD therfi -
nal reduced presatrre inhrgh-pressure :yatems,but, an intermediste pre8sure(q35.L+ I
hg/cmlga)ig prcfenble for metcringwith low-prtssure syeteme in order to reduce
gis volume and meter size. To meter gas exactly the plant gauging station
should have recording pressure and temperature gauges so that gas meter
readings can be corrected for these variables. The remainder of the system con-
sists of the branching pipe "tree" to the various bumers, with valves, drains,
boiler gas meters, and by-passes.
Ozl. Unlike gas, fuel oil compares favorably with coal in etorage bulk. Oil
will coutain about twice the heating value of coal per cubicmetieof storage-
This ratio is favorable, but the cost of siorage volume is not, since coal can
be piled on the ground with little previous preparation,. whereae oil must be
contained in tanke. After oil arrives at a plBnt, the operating expense of
storage and reclamation are likely to be less than lor coal by viriue of the
fluidity and the pumping method of transportation.
Fuel oil is transported in barges, railway tank cars, and motor trucks
Boiler plants that can be located on a railway system will usually receive fue)
in tank cars. On U. S. railroads these are30,283; !2854 or 45,425litres capacity.
Barge loads are rnuch greater.Highwsytruck-trailer unik are about l8,927litrcr'
It is desirable to have sufficient tankage so that several days' operating 'supply
remains in other tanks when a tank is empty and ready for fill by railroad or
truck delivery. Because of differences in production methods it is not con-
sidered essential or economic to sfore several months'supply, but rather to
provide only against delivery failures origiuating from flood, storm, and the like.
- Present-day demands for motor fuel are greet and, in meeting them, whether
by distillation or cracking, refiners accumulate large stores of heavy oil euitable
only for furnace combustion. While the burner equipment is somewhat more
elaborate and expensive than for light oil3, where properly chosen it will bum
the hea'ly (No. 6) oil efrcieutly and cleanly' Hence attention is focused on
this fuel sincB suppliee are abundant and cost is reasonable.
Table 12-4. DIMENSIONS OF BULK STORAGE TANKS

Capocity Plate Thickness Weight

Diarneter Length (lit&3) (mru) (ks)
m
2.1t 2.61 uE00 6.86 l&r4
2.4 6.0t 287m 6.36 2e06
2.4 1.b1 361t4{ 0.36 3907
2.4 ro.06 {0909 6.31t 6028
3.06 6.08 3?007 7.e4 1273
&06 1.57 56/N 7.$l 6EO'
1.06 r0.m 7$e2 7.0r 7386
t,olt I2J6 s1663 1.91 8E68
3.05 t6.(N l0,16 1;* 10100
460 THE GAS LOOP
The regulations of the National Board ol Fire Underwriters require oil
storage tanks to be constructed of steel, wrought iron, ot concrete, the latter
not being permitted for oils lighter than 35' Baum6. When the storage tanks
are located abo!'e ground and are liable, in case of breakage, to overflow and
endanger surrounding property, each tank should be protected by a continuous
embankment or dike. Inside storage is much nore hazardous t\an outside and
should be considcred only when there is no possibility of outside storage.
Then the tanks should not be locatcd above the lorvcst story or basement of
the building and should also be located below the level of any piping to which
they may be connected. The Underrvriters' rules state that the normal gross
capacity of such tanks shall not excccd 18927 titres in ordinary buildings nor
56781literr in firc-rcsistive buildings. Hoscvcl, undcr special conditions, and
u'here the oil is stored in a specially constructed room, 1892 T0literr may be etored.
lelnp€rolure degre€s f ohrenhei.t
5000 50
60 70 80 90 too I0 r20 t30t40150 160 r70
nlI.IITITI ft
f-sl Eosy pumplng flurdity
4000 ff\ I'T
lm0
llltlsII!ltsr
1500 lNtrNtrslrttl
2000 Ist
lttl A Cenl otomrzers

!oo0 I STNlI$II!II MS
B Steom
750 I tlsrrrrrll:s! ll lstl
E C Paess

500 r-r TT NTI"qIIlTS

ttrsIattls tsNt !ilI
a00
IEPTTTTT-I tt
H
2 300

200
-TTrmT IITIITIT
;
j r5o

r00 mr llltl
+t+iu+ ffi
90 ITI l ttt arlslltltr
t 80 "t lllsltl!
70
50 70 90 Il0 !50 t7o r90
NlMlt2r0 25C
'r0
20 10 40 50 60 70 60 90 r00 I0
'fempcroture, degrees t ond C
t.l

-t Ic. 12-21 Preheating needs in fuel oil slsttrns.

While light oils such as Nos. 2 or 3 are suficiently fluid at all normal tem-
peratures, heavy oil must be hee.ted both for prrmping and atomizing. Pumping
tempcratures arc dependcnt on viscosity. The chart in Fig. 12-21 will permit
selection of a pumping ternpcratui'e. Atomizing tcmperatures are dependent on
burner design and manufacturers' recommcndations govern. The chart may be
employed to dciermine required prbheating for pumping and atomizing oils
of different viscosities. It is entercd rvith thc viscosity antl temperature of the
viscosity rating. These determine a poirt on the cbart lrom which projections
parallel to the slopc lincs s'ill interscct the dcsirable pumping and atomiz.ing
fluidity lines. The abscissa at the intersection is the preheat temp(rature.
Example 1: P ncipxl datn will be estimated Ior al oil supply systcm to be used
with lr 30+hp "package' boilcr, fired rvith )io. 6 Iuel oil, I}6 12', \,i,scositv rating 155
SSF at 50'Q. Pre"sure ntomizing type burner. Estimated capacity factor, 33%.
Delivery by tank truck biwcekly. \Iinimum oil rcscrve to be a supply for one week.
OIL AND GAS SUPPLY SYSTEMS 461
This type ol steam generator can b/ expecied to get better than 75% thennsl
eficieucy. Using 75/, as the &verage efficiency, the maximum luel flow is ca,lculat€d as
follows:
Eq : Qu = 4r150+93.04(r2-t0l : 12,2U Jls'
Eq !2: s.G. : #f o
: o.nru
g04xtg23x 4.1t7x Jo!
.! uet flow - O-J6;{g204 x60tlm0- - 6.5719 p€r min (6.067 Vmin)

I'uel used per 2-webk f'eriod = 6.057x60x%x14X33% - 376Sb f

Were three 2.44 mx6.ot m tanks to be iustalled, each would take the Jull load ol a
truck-tlailer traDsport. No. I could be in use while No. 2lay empty awaiting deliyery.
No. 3 would contain somewhat more than the specified reserve.
Since 62 Saybolt Seconds Furol equals 600 Seconds Universll, this oil is 1500 SSU.
Enter Fig. 12-21 at 1500 and 60rc. Locate the intersection and project upward to
the lelt to fiIld that tank oil temperature should be at least 34.4'C. Projection downward
to the ght to line C shows that, the oil should be preheated to gl.t.C befor€ atomiza,-
tion.
Tank heating is done with & steam or hot water coil immersed in the oil,
located so as to surround the suction opening. Heating for the burner is done
by electric and steam heaters in serics. The electric heater under thermostatic
switch control comes into action only while starting up, after which the steam
heaters overide it and the thermostat keeps the electric circuit disconnected.
These heaters are generally located as near the burner as practical.

Frc. 12-22 Typical oil supply systems

Since automatic oil bumers commonly return a large pa$ of the quantity,
drawn lrom the tank, back to the tank, and since all of the suction is heated,
the burner oil heater ordinarily supplies all the heat needed to keep the whole
system sufrciently fluid. Exceptions are the very long suction lines, exposed
piping and/or tanks'in cold climates, long shut downs, as over week-ends, etc.
ln such cases patented electric heating which warms the piping with electric
current is helpful. This system needs to have all piping well insulated and uses
speci&l electric supply to produce the heating currents, utilizing the pipe itself as
the conductor. Another method is to install a steam or hot water line with the
oil lines inside a blanket of heat insulation.
. Ildtlplt tr 0r$ ro o!!r,io Cr b LoaVkg.
 462 THE GAS LOOP
The major field of application of oil burning has been the nonutility field,
generally the small plant, ofttsn with a single bumer. Oil supply then become$
relatively simplc since all tlie automatic burners have in-lruilt oil punrps and
can draw the oii from storagc provided it is rcasonably located, say not ovcr lfil
ft away horizontally or more thBr3.05 mstatic lift. Otherwise transfer pumpg
are required. \Yith multiplc burners instdlled. transfer pumps s,ill creat: maxi-
rnum flexibrlitv ol oil supplv.
12{ Flue Gas Cleaning. The products of combustion of coal-fed fues
contain particles of so[d matter floating in suspension. This may be smoke or
dust. If smoke, tle indication is that combustion conditions were faulty, and the
pmper remedy is in the design and management of the furnace. If dust, the
particles are mainly fine ash particles called "fly-ash" intermixed with sone
quantity of carbon-ash material called "cinder." Pulverized coal and spreader
stoker firing units are the principal types causing difficulty from this source.
Other stokers may produce minor quantities of dust but generally not enough to
derrand special gas cleaning equipment. The two mentioned are troublesome
because coal is bumed in suspension-in a turbulent fumace aturosphere -and every
opportunity is offered for the gas to pick up the smaller particles and sweep them
along with it.
Any sample of atmosphere will be found to mntain some matter other tfian
gaseous, but, of course, in widely varying percentages, depent on the time
and place of collection. The power plant engineer is interested rrainly in the
quantity and effect of tle solid content of the products of combustion his equip-
ment discharges from the plant chimney. Dust collection is a mmparatively new
subject to the power plant engineer, for until pulverized coal was inhoduced,
the rnain nuisance that could be created was smoke, Nowadays tlere are often
legal restrictions on the dust content that may be emitted and there is always the
po.ssibility that adjacent residents may bring damage suits resulting from the
fall of ash or cinder on theh premises. Consequently dust collection is often of
importance erren inthe absence ofsuchthings as municipa.l ordinances.
Nomenciature. As thc highly specialrzed field * of dust collectron is liable to
be unfamiliar to the reader, it may be well to mention some of the methods of
measurement. Thc sizc of dust particlcs is measurcd 1t microns. The micron is
one millionth of a mcter. As an indication of the scale of this measure, the
diameter of a human hair is approximately 80 microns. Typical classification of

!t:!l
N zat
tl
t
9
I

nn-a
or
llflil ltilfl
.tttot@
ililtflr
tooo
a ltIrtu roo
a PAirrcL€ 3rz€- r{rcRotits A. P€RCEI|I ST'ALLER IIIA'I

Frc. 12-23 Typical particle sizes. A. Flue gas particles and ranges of collecting equip-
meni. B. Typical distdbution of particle size in products of cornbustion.
*Boiler pl&nt chimney dust is but & small Eegment of this field. Dust collectiotr i$
practiced in industries such as petroleum refning, food products, cemeBt, fouudries, smelt-
eis, etc.
rLUE GAS CLEANING 46iI
particles by name is given in Fig. 12-23, but it must be understood that the
limits sholvn are, Ior the most part, arbitrary. A critical charaeteristic of dust is
iG Settling Velocitg in still air. This is prop_ortional to the product of.the square
of micron size and mass density. Manufactirrers often assume a specific gravity
of 2.0. for flue gas dust. Typical values:l B.3cm/min auO microns;I8.3 mhin tt
lO0microne. With settling velocity of 6l cm/min or less the dust will be-carded
from I .6 to 4.8 km ia a light breeze, from an lverage chimney height.TheGas Lo-
odiag isthe weightofdust psrticles per cubic foot tf flue gae. It can range from
4.6 to 27.6 grams Pcr mt s.ith typicsl operating conditions represented by the
minimum value.
The removal of dust and iinders from flue gas can usually be eflected to the
required degree by commercial dust collectors. These can be classified as me-
chanical and electrical. The mechanical collectors are subdivided into wet and
dry types.'lVet types, called scrubbers, operate with water sprays to wash dust
from the air. Such large quantities of wash water are needed for central station
gas washing that this system is seldom used. Ii also produces a waste water that
may require chemical neutralization before it can be discharged into natural
bodies of water. Hence the common mechanical dust collector is the dry type,
which can be subdivided according to operating pgnciple as follows:
Graaitational Separators. Act by slowing down gas flow so that particles
remain in a chamber long enough to settle to the bottom. Not very suitable
because of large chamber volume needed.
Inertial Separators. Act by rapid change of direction of gas, which cannot
be followed completely by the heavier particles. Common forms are lhe bafr,e,
the louure, and. trhe cyolone separators. Baffie rieparators are frequently impro-
vised within a boiler setting ln order to drop the large cinders from the gases.
Because volume is less than that of the other types, louvre and cyclone separa-
tors are favored. The former is a high-speed gas type in which a small portion
of the gas carries the bulk of the dust intd a secondary chamber where velocities
are low enough for a combination of gravitational and inertia forces to make the
separai;ion. Meanwhile the main gas flow passes out the side of the dircct-flow
chamber. A separator of this type is shown in Fig. 12-24. The cyclone is a
separating chamber wherein high-speed gas rotation is generated for the purpose
of "centrifuging" the particles from the carrying gases. Usually there is an
outer downward flowing vortex which tums into an inward upward flowing
vortex. Involute inlets and sufficient velocity head pressure are used to produce
the vortices. As multiple, small-diameter vortices with higher pressure drops
appear to have high cleaning efficiency, that type is now being exploited. Skim-
ming cyclones shave off the dust at the periphery of the vortex, along with a
Bmall portion of the gas flow. This concentrsted flow is then led to a secondary
chamber for final separation.
Some of the aforementioned principles are shown in Fig. 12-24. There are
numerous proprietary pstents in this field. Though the underlying principles
may be lew and simple, they are capable of various ingenuities in applicatipn,
each with sufrciently 'original leatures to have been patentable. Also, vhile
some separate the ilust from the gas more completely than others, the draft loss
requirements diff€r, and the more efrcient the gas cleaning, the higher the price
is droft. Thus bafre and louvre types may be built to op€rat€ onlz.7to 25,+mE
4T64 THE GAS LOOP
water ststic preesure loss, but cyclones must have from 38 to 76 nn ln addition
to the occasional patented features, much speciatrized knowledge on gas velocities
and decelerations, particle inertia, and the like must go into collector design.
Dlcctrb.al Prectpttator. This separation principle consists of imposing an
electricsl charge on the particles as they pass near a collecting electrode of
opposite polarity. Gas ie made to flow between grounded collecting electrodes
between which are suspended the highly cfrarged ionizing wires. The particles
are attracted to the collecting electrodes and stick there until removed by being
jared loose with electrode rappinp or some like methotl.
By rg€sns oI transformers the pressure of the a-c supply is raised sufficiently
high,'then made unidirectional either by synchronous rotary switching or
va-cuum tubes. The d-c voltqge is held at 30,000 to 60,000 v, dependent on
electrode spacing, particle size, etc. For good results this voltage ueeCs to sp-
proach the flashover voltage between electrodes.

r
COLL€CTEO
l fI
B@Il EiRt. Co. Wcstdn Prectpltatiot Car?'

Louvered Cyclone Electrostatic

Frc. 12-24 Representative dust collectorc.

Although the draft loss of the electrical precipitator is the least of all forms,
its operatio-n requires a steady input of electrical energy wtrich can well be rnuch
more than the extra fan powir used to boost the gases through mechanical col-
lectors. Also the first coit is high. However, in spite of costs, it is frequently
employed with pulverized coal-fired power stations for its effectiveness on very
fini ash pa*ictes is superior to that of any other type. As is typical in the dust
collection field, this piinciple is applicable to general industrial problems, and
flue gas cleaning is a small segment of its field of use. Also it is proprietary,
having been originally developed by Cottrell.
I6tattation.-Dusi collectois are installed between the boiler outlet and the
chimney, usually on the chimney side of the air heater, if there. is one. There
would 6e some advanteges from the standpoint of heater cleanliness werc the
collector to be put ahead of it; howi:ver, the practice seems to be to Iollow with
the collector, and uBe loot blowert to keep the heater surfaces clean. W'here
 FLUE OAS CLEANING 465
there is rnore than one boiler, the practice is to use an individual collector for
cach boilcr. In somc cases a low resistancc inertial and an electrostatic precipi-
tator havc bcen installcd in scries, again with pros and cons as to which should
bc ahcad of the other. Generally the mechanical type is placed first in the gas
flos,. Another charactcristic of interest in a combination is the veriation of col-
ldction cfficiency with gas flow. As flow increases, the electrostatic efficiency de-
creases, the cyclone efreiency increases.
Collectors arc bulky. The space they consume and the necessary breeching
conncctions are costly-and difficult to provide for, as an aftel thought. Hence
the need for a collector should receive careful considcration during the original
powcr plant layout.
Reinjection. The dust and cinders which are collected by this equipment fall
into hoppers from which they must be removed by some system. Two alterna
tives are: (1) dispose to a fly-ash bin with a pneumatic ash transport system;
(2) reinject the collection into the furnace, borne upon an air jet furnished by
a reinjection fan capable of about25.{
oo water static pressure. The first al- t+ T Tr
ternative is proper where there is but
little carbon in the dusl-as in pul-
P
I
I
j
-c-YcLoltz
# t'l :l
lrtltltl
= I

I7T
verized coal plant fly-ash, but the 3 T E
second may be desirable with spreader E
stokers, for the material bollected E
may have suficient carbon content t
20
I Ttlioivff-
-f-rirfT-tTr-
E
TTI ffiffi#tt L

that the boiler and furnace efficiency PARrrc!€ srz€ - xrcRons

ridght be raised as much as lft by Frc. t2-25 Typical fractional efficienciee
completing the combustion. However, of aust collectors.
the desirability of reinjection is a
matter on which the industry is not of one mind. Consider what happens when
the ash an.l cinder from a mechanical collector are seni back to the furnace.
Probably only a part of thc ash gcts pcrmanentiy mixcd with the ash on the
grates; the rest recirculates to.the collector and back to the furnace. This proc.
ess reduces the average micron size and increascs the gas loading until an
equilibrium is established where the collector passes superfinc fly-ash to thc
chimney. Uscd in this l,ay the collector merely assures minimum carbon loss
and a fly-ash state suitable for good atmospheric dispersion. The obvious an-
swer to a need both for no-calbon-loss and no-fly-ash-discharge is to follorv
the mechanical collector with a Cottrcll rvhose collcctions are not reinjected.
But it is equally obvious that this is costly and not likely to be adopted unless
Iocal conditions absolutely dcmanrl it. Two-stage mechanical collectors which
reinjecl coarse particles and send fines to storage have been built.
Efi.ciency. The absolute efficiency of a dust collector is the percentage of en-
tering solids that rvill be rcmoved by the collector. Some manufacturers prefer
to rate their equipment on an efficiency curve, as illustratcd in !'ig. 12-25. For
example, the curve for cyclone type shows 91ft at 15 microns. This can be in-
terpreted as meaning that this collector rtill remove 9l/. oI Lhe solid matter
over a lirnited range centered on 15 microns, say the 10 to 20 micron group of
dusts.
When variable-load operating conditions are considered, it will be seen that
 468 THE GAS LOOP
duet collection is a very inexact science. Gas volumes, gas loadings, and size
dietribution all vary and are not built with regulating features; the specifications
and deeign must be pointed at some assumed "normal operating condition" and
acceptance tests conducted at that load. Since the potential nuisance value of
dustJaden flte gas increases with boiler loading, some highJosd condition ie
selected as the specification point, and not an average load.
Actual performance is determiDed by tcsting, commonly with the Bagtest
Sa,mpler shown in Fig. 12-26. This is an apparatus for witMrawing a somple of
dusty ga6 and ffliering out the duct. Weighing of the filter before and after a
timed collection period, together with data on relative area of eampling nozzle
to flu€ g8s passage, will suffice to establish the collection eftciency if the gas
paeeage ie traversed both at the inlet and discharge of the dust collector, load

FLEI TEIAL I{OSE COT'PRESSED

lzFrar
XEEOEO
aA6 Fri-tei

S Ai0€

I'rc. 12-26 Dust sampler.

remaining dteady meanwhile. In order to obtain average samples the duct cross-
sectional area must be subdivided into elements and a reading taken at the
geometrieal center of eachr Furthermore for a true sample the gas velocity into
the sarnpling tube must be the same as that of the sumounding gas flow. This
considerably complicates the testing, for preliminary pitot-static traverse must
be made and then the rate of flow into the sample nozzle adjusted for the same
velocity. This expiains the reason lor some of the components ehown on the
sampler.

Examplc 1: 'fhe results of a rcst* lor collector perlormance will be calculatdd

basld on a.*med data. Methods of measuring gas flows in ducts are given elsewhere,t
ro lt *ff U" &6sumed that a pitot-static tesf has yieldeci r lelocityofl0'o? ro/rec inthe
tothe collector,and ?.ol mlBeoin tbe 0l'4 omxgl.4 orn breachlng to
l6,i
"- ire2.o;iotet
r[tchthe collector discharges. trlue 8ar lemp€rature in main for208'c inssmplerrS8eo
Sa,mplir! ,torzl" r.6?4 o-t; orifice area, &r52 cllr witb taps Iocated so that
"r"u,
the coefficient is 6170.
Firet the differential manometer reading for proper rate of flow at the nozzle will be
determined. Where double data appears in u*"t"t", It it fd]ffitiffil'
Bequired rate or flow into supply nozrle : 6.57..[]W] - [|!|]] "-r*".
Required rate or flow through orincef : +#+# t ffi ] : #S "-r"*.
[ ]
+The conduct of a test is l,he subiect of aa ASME Code An examination of the Code
wrll reveal that this example gteatly sbbrevia.tes the procedure'
t Sec 12-9.
i tf,i" ia temperature correctio[. Pressure correction is considered to be nealigible'
"
ASE HANDLING fi?
Notc that: Orifice flow: sreo X coefrcieDt I ideel velocity

rdeol velocty - 1/ffit, where fl - *#ffi- : ,r.*

In the above y ie difrerential reading o! the monometer in oD of w&ter snd 0.8t1 i8
gos deasity (fig. t2;g). Combining theee relationa, the following equation ie develop€d
for guidince io adiugting the eppamtus.

perccgeonperorua'^il,'ffi'l11"ff :**:,f *IruH.,offi i"E:]'",

| *'t"'.
|ffi ["- th&t
' Assdhe the Bagteet Sampler flow was eo adjuatad and thet samples wer€ taken
for 3&mia rune, showing collectione ol0.(l8l8 Lg ultstr€am rlnd 0.0r6a Lg dor,'trEtrcaro.
{trcq o.Gl6-ooll4:81%.
(iollector ettrcrcncy =
-a*t'
:
Rate of fow of solids into sampler - S* - t #.1 ] U.'ffi ] ,'*"" *' .*.
GasLooding:o.ot tx Io.F047 -,.6,gl.ln porb. entefrng collector r,ad 0.0080x
rO.r30O?
- g, gr.E! pet mr lervinS.

Total flow of eolids from boile" =lo.sz xqi$'o x -qI!9: ,.?, Ls psr EiD.

Hopper collectio! : ,.tzxgy{-.xatyo = 1t2.2 kg Potht

12-7 Ash Handling. Alt coal has more or less ash' Combustion oi the coal
is attended by the. necJssity of providing some means- of. removing the ash
hopper, but,
*iri"t i. a"po.itua in the ssh hopper. All the ash should be.in this gases
asla matter of fact, from 5 to 40l, of it leaves the fumace with the carried
i" tt u'constant endeavor is to reduce the percentage of ash particles
"u"pensio".
ieavin^g *ith th" gas because their collection and handling are more difficult than

Sleorn
FI y o.h r.novol I Porlioll
t. Stack sproys
2 El.clricol p..rigilolion
90s 3.Wrtooflllr
I 4 Trops & caatrifugol sapa.otor.
5.Sp!ciol blod.dfon
a fly orh

Oircho.g. to
.o* *.0 | I Hydroulicfill l
Cor
.R.R. I
2 S.tllingio^k
Hond.oking
3 .Eoro. 2 Grovity oump
I 3 Dryoih pit I wol.r sl0icing 3 Wot.r j.tt
.Motor hucrl 2 Pivohd buck t conv.yo.
3 Pn.umolic conv.tor
zl Sl.omjrl adrv.yor
5 A.|lcorr a ccrla

Ftc. 12-27 Outtine of ash disposal equipment'

.Ileie the reeder may wish to review velocity head theory. II so, see Ex l, sec l2-9
t68 THE GAS LOOP
if they were in the ash hopper. Ash handling is a maior problem because, first,
the ash is dusty, hence irritating and annoying to handle; second, it forms
clinkers by fusing together in large lumps which must be broken before given
to any reasonably bized conveying equipment; third, ash is abrasive and will
wear all conveyor perts on contast with it if therc is any relative motion.
Ash disposal systems are designed for intcrmittent or continuous operation.
A:r ash-handling system will consist of a means for removing ash from the
furnace and toading it onto a conveyor system, the conveyor to deliver the ash
to fiIl or storage, and a means of disposing of stored ash.
Ashes can be raked from ashpits to boiler room floor, then either shoveled
into wheelbarrows, c&rs, etc., or raked to gratings where they will fall into a
carrying system. If there is an ash basement with ash hopper, the ash can fall
directly into an ash car or conveying system. See Fig. 12-27 for an outline of
ash-handling methods.
Ashes are generally disposed oI to railroad cars or to trucks for local fills.
Loading of them may be by hand (small plants), by grab bucket from ashpit, ot
by gravity from elevated storage bin to whictr ashes are delivered by bucket ele-

T'- I
\
i

r! rcMI
lflr& ---

t5anfit 0,[

.,!

I
a u ln llltu
I
tIl
t
totltl

!{Irr IlI

rnI
Beaumo*-Btih Co.

Frc. 12-28 Steam-jet, \,acuum-tyi)e ash conveyor.

 :"iii.

I
:t
t:
a
P ti
$

p _L_

I l3 a ra I
8I t, li
i t
I I

it! 4l
ig
E "a
E
s J:

b
jI
I alr
i!I
r!8
I ?EI
$
ril
11 E;:
.I
*t iiE
a rl aa
"i
I
5
IE

,i
o
I
a
I
469
47O THE GAS LOOP
vstors, Bkip hoiats, or other conveying systems. Steam jet conveyors use jets
both lor carrying end for creating suction.
One of the most popular central station methods of handling ash in use at
present is the hydraulic system. It is essentially a large plant syst€m, but wher-
ever applicable has these advantages. It is clean, dustless, and totally enclosed.
The unhealthy aspect of ordinary ash basement work is eliminated. Men cannot
be gaesed or burned. But little labor is required, and the distinctly unplcasant
job of wheeling ashes is avoided. Considerable flexibility of the point of dis-
charge of ashes irom the conveying system is permitted. The hydraulic system
csn also be made to handle a stream ol molten ash, breaking it up inlo small
granular pieces.
The ash sluicing system is shown ia Fig. 12-29. The figure illustrates, in ad-
dition, the handlinggf stoker siftings and soot. Ash lalls from the clinkcr grinder
into the ash hopper and is quenched. This is an intermittent system. When the
ash hopper is to be emptied the attendant starts the water pump, then under-
cuts the ashes with an oscillating feed jet. The mingled ash and water flow into
a transverse trench which terrninates at the main trench to sunip. There it is
dropfed into the carrying jet of the trench nozzle and sluiced to the sump house.
At the sump the clinkers are further reduced ia size. The as! concentrates in the
bottom oI the sump; the sluicilg water overflows to the clear well an$ is ready
for recirculation. An ash pump delivers the wet ash to an elevated ash bin
where it is further dewatered.
12-8 Air Preheater. Some steam generators are equipped with. auxiliary
heating suilace designed to increase the temperature of the air used fo'r combus'
tion by transferring heat from the products of combustion. This equipment is
simply I heat transfer surface, enclosed in'a casing
which has'proper connections for the air and the flue
gas. The heating surlace is generally steel. The method
A]EO of transferring heat csn be used to divide air hesters
into two classes, lhe recuperotir.te eo'd the regeneratiue.
BES
Recuperative heaters are those which continuously re-
cuperate the cool side of the transfer surface by heat
I transfer ftom the hot side. The regenerative heater
works by an alternate heating and cooling of the ssme
convection surface. Unlike the recuperative type, the
regenerative is discontinuous in action and operates on
IMNEY
cycles. In the rotary regenerative type, the cyclic ac-
tion applies to the heating and cooling of an individual
element of the surface, but the flowing stream of air
receives heat continuously
tr'rc. 12-30 Tubular A. typical arrangement of an air heater surface ig
air he&ter. showa in Fig. 12-30. This illustrates the tubular iype
of heater whose surface is composed of steel tubes
through which the flue gas flowe, and over the outside of which the air to be
heated is made to circulate. This equipment is located in the gas passage be
tween the steam gener&tor and the chimney---on the chimney side of an econo-
mizer if the latter is also used. It is generally found close against the boiler
itself.
It is customary to cover the outside surface of the casing which encaees the
 AIR PREHEATER 171
hest transfer surface with heat insulstion suftciently thick to make the heat loss
aegligible. Hence one can say that the heat gained by the air is exactly equal to
thc heat given up by the flue gasl that is, the urcAt for air equals that for the
fluc gas. If all of the air for combuetion were to be passed thmugh the heater,
the weight of the flue gases would bc Bpproximstely the same as the weight of
thq air, but becguse some part of the combuetion air frequently is not heated,
also becausc of infiltration of air into the boilor setting, it is common to find
that gas flow is substantially greater than air flow. Heatere are designed for
counterflow action, and the mean temperature difrerence promoting the heat
transfer is of the form calculated by Eq 9-12.
Air heaters are not essential to the operation of a steam generating unit.
They arc used where a study of the costs indicates that some money can be
saved or some beneficial action on combustion be obtained by their use. Then
when the financial advantages are weighed against the cost of haviag the heater,
a decision can be made whether or not to use it. These Btudies are not easily
made, since the cconomic advantages of hot combustion air extend to size
of the boiler, the efrciency of combustion, and thq maintenance of furnaces, as
well as the saving in heat diecharged to the chimney. Some factors that need to
be taken into account in exsmining s case for justification of air pieheat are as
follows:
1. The extent to which air prehe&t may be permissible, due to limitations in tbe
combustion equipxneut.
2. The efiect of increased me&n temperature difrerences in the boiler made possible
by permitting higher boiler outlet temperature vhen air heaters cau salvage the exces-
sive heat in the flue gas.
3. The improvement in combustion efficiency due to the use of preheated air. There
can be a reduction of incomplete combustion loss€s.
4. Initial costs of the equipmeDt, estimated maintenance, &nd rate of depreciatioa
allowed.
5. Cost of extra draft. A heater in the gas loop adds dralt loss and requires greater
capacities of draft-producing equipment.
The principal benefits of prphesting the air are: first, increased thermal
efrciency; second, increased steam capacity per square foot of boiler surface.
Action in an air heater being surlace heat transfer, the coefficient of hest
transfer is a vital factor governing its performance. Since the enerry efficiency
of well-insulated heat trafsfer apparatus is inevitably lW%,Lhe rate at which
the heating surface can transfer heat is of far more importance than any thermal
€frciency. The rate of heat transfer varies with both air and gas velocities, with
temperatures, with shape of the heating surfaces, and with cleenliness. While
heat transfer can be stepped up by increasing fluid velocities, improvement in
tlus direction is sharply limited by the permissible dralt loss. Unfortunately
there is no eimple calculable relation between draft loss and heating surface,
since the loss depends as much on the arrangement of the heating surface ae its
DagDitudc, tlcat tra[slbr ratcr irl practicc vary lrom 9.8.19.5 tcrl pcs
hr-m.-dcg C. Surface hcat trarufer bctwccn.two fluids ir a cornbinatlon
of cooductancc and convection. Thc hcating surfacc is urcd with aD
ovcr-all cocfrcicnt of conductancc O, and tcEperaturc data to 6nd the
transferred hcat. ly't herc r{ ir thc hcating surfacc, and A, the mcar tcmpera.
turc dificrcncc, thc hcat tramfcrrcd pcr hour by thc hcatcr is
472 TEE GAs LOOP
Q : UALI (12-1)

The coefrcient of heat transfer in the form of an over-all conductance is

generally availsble from two sources: one is empirical equationa of the form of
(9-14); the other, rational equations, of which (9-10) is often used. There are,-
however, other rational forms whose absence from thts book does not implf
that they are inferior in any way to those furnished. Yalues of the constants for
the empirical form of equation for over-all conductance, given by Kreissinger
for conventional static heaters, are
.1 = 1.95.; B = 0.00045.
To illuetrate the fsctors involved in heat transfer of a recuperative type air
preheater, the lollowing illustrativg example is provided.

Examplc 1: The coefrcient of heat transfer for a tubular heater consisting of 35

tubes each 76.2 mmdiameter by 3.66 nlong will be estimated (1)
by empirical formula
and (2) by cu ceuters andthe air
thermodynamic parameters. Tubes are placed on 12.7
passage is bafled for a 5-pass arrangement as shown by Fig. 12-30. Gas and air
;uter;t 370.9'CaDd l5.9oq r"Bpectiyely.Gas mass flow,26800.kg pcr hr pcr mt The
thi(kness of the tubes will be neglected. Air flow is 90.c/6 of gas flow, by weight.
(1) If
an empirical formula of the form of Eq (9-1a) is available, it is a simple
malter to estimate U lrom the mass florv.
U = 1.95*0.00045 x 26860:14.04 Lcal pcr hr-mt dcg C
(2) If an empirii:al formula is not knoln to lrc based on closely simiiar instaliations,
then a thermodynamic ana)ysis of U by gas and air film coefrcients is in order.
It is necessary-, with the data as given, to make some assumptions about outlet tem-
peratures at this point. These ma1'be tested iater and a rccaiculation made if necessary.
Data must norv be assembled to implement the calculation of the 8e and Pr pararu-
eters, for the gas film coefficient i comes from the Nz parameter.
clrop of gas temperature of 83" through the heater, and specific heat of
"Assume
O.ro kosl por kg- d6gc Air llow is 90/6 of gas flow and specific heat is 0.24. Therefore se

of air temperature should be about ffi * ffi :*" . The terminal fluid temperatules
are: air, l6.dto ttl.( gas, B7o.g. to 28?.90'Iver&ge temperotures are: air, 03'o'; gas,32s-4';
g (arith.) 266.5q The thermodynamic constants a and & are token from tr'ig. 9-6, which
should be entered with the average lilm temperoture for the air side, and average tempera-
tttre for the gas side. Assuming that the tube temperature *ill be halfway between 6t.0'
end3r9.4o thc aveBge film tenperature for air is130.3o The air-curve data in Fig. 9.6 are
-Thi as constants. Refer to Table 9-2 also.
employed
air side baffiing sho,vn produces a passage heightof 3.66/5:0.732 m.It is assumed
that air florv is entirely cross flo\1: The equivalent diarneter on the ,ir side comes from
Eq (9-11). Free area betwecn tubes of air passage is 8 rectangulir areaseach0.0508 m
X 0.732 or 0.207 Er . Pe mcter of these 8 areas totals 8 X (0.O6u8+0.0608+0.7r2+0.732)
or I.2.63 D.
Eq (9-11): D" = 4 x 0.2s1112.63-0.0s48 E
Area of gas flow is cross-sectional area of 35 76.2 mm tub&, o! 0.1690 n! . (1ry'6ll
thickness neglected.)

.kg. m, hr, kcal, oC units

 AIR PREIIEATER 473
CAIC]SLATIONA EOB rII,U COEITICIENTS, I
nat Sitk Ait Sid.
Sttrm doDlity @ !t0,a'(r-0.00/(Fis. 12-44) Stre.m density @ 0E.rrf .0f0
StDsm D.r dcodlv-o.0fiD7 . Fil& derlsity @ l01tl-01r6;, - 0.0801
at.a8E ,. -ll.o x tor" (Fi8. ory Film ll =!t aX l0',
gtriu * - 0.O7, lilm t = 0.6n
c" - 0.25 x e.tl -,.rtl. c" - o.2{ X Otlrt.t6l
4 - ta86Or(tXO x 0.0001 - li. t! Droo ;. - r.r0 x 0.00-r:O, Lrr..,
uL - -l &rr x 0.Ue0 x o_a(n 1.10 kr..o.
- Y. - r.07/p.ry, x t.0O )-l,at Drha,
ic *5* 1r.*rr.O*rr1.6;19-Y- t&(loo r€ - 0.O{8 xt lt! x 0.0gat x ld - r&tro
r,' -I.ror x u x r'"/H - 0.z!6 Fr -i"r6rlxtt tx ro-/ffi
'!.a -ore
Jr'r. - 0.023 x t&Ooo| xO.rX... - 6t, Nu - 0.3i| xlr,tt(>..x0.7t0o.. - 8a.e
L -613 x 0.0urf70.rxlo-l - t6.e. I. - 81.0 x 0,04rrr0.m4.8 - railc

Over-all I/ - ,*6i1t5, r tr.ot r-r rc Ll.Er.dre c

A bheck on the original assumption of !t" drop on the gae eide is next mede by equat-
iag heat tronefer to hest releaEe. Log mtd ond total he&ting surfece arc required.

dE =28r.*15.9- 27!; 0,,,1^- !rQ.s-t tI.9-259; e: T- s = 26a'o

Total surface of 35 76.2 mu diameter X 3.66 m tubeo isaOOOmP
Iffirt"c*N : Ll A0

al :12.57 X3O66X265/(3600 X r,l9 x 0.25) - 9&4"C

'ILis is practically equivalent to the initial assumption; horvever, a recalculatiot is
indicated eince the difrerence found betrveen gas and air film coemcients of heat trans-
fer does uot justify the assumptioo that was made about the ayerage temper&ture of
the tube.
Recuperative air preheaters arc generally enclosed in rectsngulsr sheet steel
ca6ings. The recuperative type may be composed oI at6eltubesJrom50.8to76 mm
india,meter,in a parallel bank; or altcrnately, of rectangular flat plates spaced
from 12.5 to 25 om apart, Ie&ving altemate air and gas psssages. The
regenerative air preheater is sometimes built as a static double-chambered cas-
ing with tubular elements, and provided with lalves to alternate the gas-air
flow. However, the valveless rotary regenerative heater is more often seen !n the
power plant field. The Ljungstrom heater, a proprietary design, is illustrated.
The elemerrts of this type of heater are masses of metal in the form of crimped
or cellular steel sheet built into the form of a cylindrical rotor whose shaft is
mounted Bo that rotation carries iis elements, Bltemately, through air and flue
gas passages. The rotor turns at sbout 3 rpm, and while a motor is required,
which is a disadvantage compared to recuperative types, its power requirements
are very small. The casing in which this rotor is set is divided by diaphragms
and se8ls, so that gas rnay flow continuously through one side of it, and air
through the other.
For continuous operation of an air heater, arrangements must be made to
clean the heating surface, particularly the gss surface, this being done by pro-
viding openings for the use of bruehes and steam lances, or by permanent Boot-
471 TEE GAS LOOP
blower inetallations. Iloppers are frequently provided to accumulate fly-ash
and eoot at the bottom oi ihe heater. There havi been caees of frequent heating
surface replacements because of corosion. This difrculty is occasioned moinly
by the condensotion of vapor and sul-
fur trioxide to form a corrosive acid
at the cool end of the heating surface
Gor outl.t on the gas side. The presence of sul-
fur trioxide has a tendency to in-
crease the partial pressure of the
vapor, and so raise the temperBture
at which condensstion can occur. To
avoid this difficulty minimum outlet
gas temperatures are set and msin-
tained by passing a part of the air
around the heater at light boiler loads
when the outlet gas temperatures are
lowest.
12-9 Draft. Combustion requires
oxygen-and theiefore air. To move
this air through the fuel bed and to
Go! rnllt produce a flow of the gaseous prod-
ucts of combustion out of the fur-
PN)a nace, then through the boiler, egono-
FIc. 12-31 Regenerative air preheater. mizer, etc., requires a difrerence of
pressure equal to that necessary to
accelerate the gases to their final velocity, plus friction head losses. ?iis dil-
lerence of pressure is called. tlralt uhether meawred aboue or below atrnos-
pheric preszure. At a pressure less than atmospheric, the draft is called a
vacuum, whereas it is a plenum if above atmospheric pressure. Fig. 12-32
shows typical pressures in the gas loop. A close scrutiny of the manometers,
echematically depicted, will serve to show how the air, once having been given
a big boost by the forced draft fan has the plenum subject to continual attri-
tion by draft-consuming components oI the gas loop until not only does the
plenum disappear, but an increasing vacuum appears along the path of the
gas loop. This is flnally reduced to what th9 chimney can overcome by means
of an induced draft fan. Fans and chimneys produce pressure in the positive
direction; friction, tutbrilence, {uel bed resistance, and the like consume draft
and produce decreasingly positive or increasingly negative pressures.
Measurements of draft serve not only to deffne the resistances to gas
flow, but will also, in a comparative way, indicate the rate of flow. Thus
the difference in manometer readings between the first pass of the boiler and
the boiler outlet could be employed in a suitable instrument to indicate rate
of gas flow.
The range of prescures, both plenum and vacuum, appearing in the
gas loop are such as to be directly and accurately measursble by water-
loaded manometers. The simple U-tube manometer is an instrument which
balancee fluid heade in a glass tube so that readings may be taken by com-
paring the registry of menisci on a scale mount€d alongside the tube.
DRAFT lir'
Ueuallv one eud of the U-tube is open to the atmosphere, the ot'hcr bcing
;;;.iJ io e region oI vacuum or plenum. Theorvertical componeot of
plenum' A dbplag;
ai.ptt is a measure of the vacuum
-*i..i
;;;;f o{"-at
a liquid of ra gcd danaityrepregents a preeaure of !'!ldcor' A
"; 'easily
;;; ;;.iti"; *d rdid instmmint ie made when one leg of t'he

FIc. 12-32 Typical pressures in the gas loop.

U-tube is inclined at a small angle to the horizontal and the olher made
comparatively large in bore. The liquid diaplaceurent will then be almoet
entirely in the small tube. A considerable meniscue travel will be produced
by a very small pressure difrerence.
Although the manometer is a simple primary inetrument for draft
measurement, routine operating needs are better met by a dry type of draft

S'E D€TII

IUBE

li tl

EI
.-_. lxi
!t lrii
i!:l

u- Tut€
Iiclrit€o lEG TYPE

Fro. 12-33 Appara,tus for velocity tr&ven€ aud static prc€snre with a eingle ror,tr-
om€ter. If the duct carries a plenum, the leads to the EraDomet€r are reverrd. When
the Btaiic preszure exceeds the iapacity of the seniitive manomet€r, a U-tube mrDoEeter
ie added, as sho*n.
476 THE GAS LOOP
gsuge, one which will give a pointer reading on a prominent scale atrd re-
quire little or no msintenance through the yesrs. However, such gauges are
calibrated to read "cm lincho) ol wetarl'
For eome purposes the draft pressure must be ueed as g/co! or lg/cml
To convcrt I draft gauge rcading, multiply thc gugc rcading in cm by thc
dcruity of wat€r in g/car to obain prc$ure in g/co1
It frequently happens thct gas iow i8 slowed down snd 8 pressure built
up or vice versa. The equation used to relate the preseure increment to gas
vilocity is derived from Bernoulli's principle, assunring incompressible flow.
Vz2 - v] = c2 x 2cH (12'2\
where I/1 and y2 are the gas velocities before and after applying a driving
pressure of .[I m of gas.
C = a velocity coefficient, generally nearly unity.
Since gauge rradings are in cm of yater rather thaa E of gas, a
converrion is neccssary.

i
a .1,',
I
9/
,/
"2s
/.
-"9 21-oe
!
_..4 i.-- v
0
: =- i-ll t!--
t00 I
COAL aUFilEo - r9 PER ttR PEP SO m GRA,E AREA

Frc. 12-34 Draft loss through fuel beds.

Eramptr 1: The draft pressure consumed in giving l?0,7'c air, under 14 oo rf,&ter
plenum, a velocity increase from 0 to l6,ra rals.o will be determined.
As 7r is 0, and C is assumed - 1, Eq (122) can be renderqd: If = Vl/29 - ll$.s
of air. The procees of converting the pressure heod, represented by ll.&t D ol sir st
116o, waf€r plenum snd l76.inc, into crn water follows next. Stetic pressure of the
oir - r.oa +ffi- lo{8 g/oor
Density of the air - r.oa8 x r0' y'20.3 x l{0.7 -0.$lt6lg/ro'
I.€t y. be the om of a water column equiv&lent to 1t.83 m air oI

t0!rp : .Il.8t x 0.80146

Y, - 0.048 6E water
The total draft of a gss loop is the arithmetical sun of all incrementsl
draft losses in the series circuit. A clsssification of these increments of draft
is:
DRAFT {17
Dr - Velocity head, 7'!/29. Since velocity and pressure are frequently psrtislly
interchanged along the gas conduit, it is the final velocity of gas exit from
the chirnney that should be consider€d in the total dralt requiremeuts.
D: = Fuel bed resistance. Applies to gratea and stokerg. It v&ries with the r&t€
of combustion and is roughly indicated by Fig. 1234. Sprea.der stnkers
are not shown, since much of the coal is burned in suspension and does
not load up the gra,tes. Draft resistancea of spreader stokers are of the
order of 0.695 om or leaE
Dr = Draft losg caused by friction and turbulence of gas flow through the
equipment of the ga8 loop. Equipment m-snufacturer€' data should be
consulted whenever available.
Boil,er and supetheatet. Depends on mass flow, tube and ba.ffle altangement.
May be from 0.381 ota to 6.(B 06 water.
Ecoramizer. l.t7 om to t.8l oo water.
Air healer. t.64 06 to 6.(f olt w&ter.
Drqt collcctor. O26loer,o lr.7 orD. wster. Eighly efreient dust cotl€ctio[ by
mechanical action is paid for by high draft lo6cree; however, the required draft
if gas cle.auing apecificatiou are eaeed sligbtly.,
decreascs rapidly
Dr : Draft loss due to friction in air ducts, gas breechings, chimney.
This loss may be computed with the follorving equ&tion:
/ fv'H\
D': -i* (ffi7"- *""" (12-3)

where 11 : Length of conduit,m

R: Hydraulic radius of cross section,D (Area divided by perimeter.)
I/ : Gas velocity, m/sec.
d: Gas density, Lg/m8

"f: Priction factor as follorvs:*

Air'against steel, 0.005; against masonry and concrete, 0.007.
Flue gas against steel, 0.014; against masonry and concrete, 0.014.
Example 2 : The draft loss iE 8 sheet Eetslhot air duct 66.88 oB x 66.88 ola sqnate
by g1d4 e long wi.ll be determinedwith tbe u6e of the foregoing frictioa equatior. Air
l'elocity,000.6 D/ein; tempeletute, g&trC; pressure, lO.l6cm watar plr[um..Ru! oiduct
includes 3 right-angle and 2 45-degree tums.
The draft loss is the sum of lriction plus an allowance for loss in th€ turns of the

*Fol rectangular passages incrcase these values by 15%. Add 0.127 cm tater foa
each 00' b€Dd.
Numerical values of I appear in technical litcrature from time to time, Many investiga-
tors have caperimeBted with ga"s friction or &ttempted coarelation oI experimentel data
pertaiDing to J. Reported values rarge between the wide limits oI 0.004 and 0.0f6. Steel
and brick or concrete air ducts should have difiereni coefli(ients because of the difference
iD Bmoothaess. In the cs"se of breechings aod ehimneys there is aot so much difrereoce oa
sccouot of the t€ndetrey of both brick aBd steel surfsces ro soot up to approximately the
same couditious.
gA TIIE GAS LOOP
duct. Equivalent right-angle tum8 = 3 + Z x 11,
= 4. At 0.lt?6 per right-sDslc
bod,loea = 0.1t, - o.Lt8@ wst€r.
Deosity of sir st os.stc and o.otolo Llr@r plenun is now calculatedllrom the

g€ner8l gaE law PI/ : t 8?.

P : l.(!a + 0.0l0rt r r.u t3/or O

Density : P/RT : r0,J,l.6|jf., x 186.t - 0'0[28 \ld

66'88 x 66'88
tr.gr @ - Gllo7.
Irvdrsulic ndiug. E - -
ax 56.8C

D. : o,e?:!8
l0 x
ll5% x o.dE
1gg11y x 01.14
x erl6l'tffi- + 0.6G - o@ wstaF
'.ate
When au lrE orarf, losses ot the gas loop are summed up, the totsl repre-
Bents a fltid pressure the equal of which must be creBted by "draft pro-
ducers." These are generally fans or chimneys, although occasionally steam
and air jets are used-,for boosti4g other systems of draft or for localized
draft aid.
Some of the draft nomenclature of the gas loop is covered by the fol-
Iowing definitions.
Nqtural dralt. The fluid pressure difrerence created by eoofining a column
of heated gas, as by a chimney. See Fig. 12-43.
Forced, d.ra!t. A plenum on the air before it reaches the combustion zone.
Created by fans. -
Induciit dralt. A pressure rige from e greater to a lesser vacuum, created
in the gas loop between steam generator outlet and chimney by means of a
fan.
Balanced drall. A combination of lorced and induced, or lorced and
natural draft, so chosen that the gas loop pressure is nearly atmospheric at
the fumace.
Requtreil itraJt. "fha\ draft pressure required to overcome the sum of the
draft losses at any specified rate of flow, i.e., Dr f Dz * f)g I Da,.
Aaailable draft. "lhal draft which the fans and/or chimney of the gas
loop can produce at any specified rate ol flow.
-Ctrim"iy
draft decreases somewhat with increasing gas flow but not
greatly. Fan-produced draft varies according to lhe Fan Characte*tic,
which generally shows increasing delivery pressure with decreasing flow. A
system-whose available draft u'as not at least equal to the rcquired draft
it maximum expected rate of flow would be one in which the draft deficiency
limited the ouiput of the steam generator to less than its capacity. A
properly engineered design would provide some excess available draft at
rnuiiInurn eipected rating. At lesser loads the excess draft av&ilable would
always increase and the gas loop pressures are then brought into balance
by (l) adiustable dampers or (2) fan speed control'
' The Rate o! Flow in the gas loop may be established by:
1. Direct means, generally a traverse of some strategic cross-section in
GAg CONDUITiI {19
the duct or breeching, using pitot-static tube and inclined leg manometer.
Temperature readings are also necessary.
2. Indirect means, employing the principle of mass continuity. Complete
analysis of the fuel and flue gas are necessary, but no gas velocity measure-
ments are taken. Fuel consumption rate is necessary, however, for the masg
flow comes from a calculation of Gas-Fuel ratio, which is then multiplied by
the rate oi fuel flow.
Example 3: At a time when coal was being fired at the rate oi I Eo6.!llg per hr a
traverse of thegl.a oEx trl.o 06 breeching was made by pitot-static tube. Other data,
as follows, were simultaneously recorded. The gas flov will be calculated by both meth-
ods previously mentioned.
Coal ultimate analysis: C; 79.5; Hr, 5.1; Or, 5.0; N2, 1.6; S, 1.0; EzO, 2.8; Aeh, 5.0.
No combustible in refuse. Orcat: CO2, 10.5; Or,9.5; N2,80.Q.
FIue gas 260'O, 5.08 o wate! vacuum. Average of square root's of manometer read-
ings on pitot-static tmverse, 0J6? oo !F
Assume MW of gas, 30; A, t8.8 E/L
Ihrect rnethod,. Assume pitot-static coefficient =,1. Neglect effect 6.08 od vacuuD
ou density. I'ro4 the geneml gas law, or lig. 12-44, de$ity = 0.0t660 Lg/Er
To use Eq 12-2, change manometer reading to feet of gas thus:

,,: ";:H;':&8!oDsos.
Thea 7 : - lr,8l E e.o
1!/i9.0i x 8J6O

Gas Flow = ,.{yd : 9*X# x lr.8t x 0.6s6n0 x ,600 : 86!$ }s por hr

Indired mathad. Employ Eq F17 fo! dry gas.

Dry flue gas * o.or)

)to.znu+t
+ I X 0.01 : 19.05 Lg per Lgcoal
Wat€r lrapor:9 X 0.051 + 0.028:0.48kgper kg coal
Total flow : (19.05 + 0.48) X 1t06.3 = 86260 k8 pot bt
gas

12-10 Gas Conduits. The conduits connecting the various piecffi of

equipment of the gas loop, thereby providing s passage for the gas or air
as it flows from one to the other, are either ducts or breechings, depending
on whether air or products of combustion are conveyed. The term lue is
sometimes used interchangeably with breeching. The passeges may be cir-
cular or rectangular, made of steel, masonry, or concrete. The rectangular
steel type is most frequently seen in power plant practice.
Air Ducts. The design of a duct is a compromise between 6.rst cost and
cost oI energy loss from friction. This means a compromise between cross-
sectional area and velocity. Table 12-5 contains recommendations for ve-
locities in air ducts. Such data are in common use since most ducts are too
ehort to warrant exact analysis of economic size, Branch ducts should
have velocities not over two-thirds those given in the table.
Draft losses werc discussed in Sec 12-B, and equations and methods set
lorth there may be used lor duct calculations. A rough approximation is to
480 THE GAS LOOP
Toble l2-5- RECOMMENDED VEIOCITIES IN AIR DUqIS

St&tic pre€Guie Vetocity Stetic presoure Velocity

om (i!) tottt Drtrta (ffD) @ (io) r.b prDin (&a)

6,08 (r) 64e (rr0o) t2.7 (6) 860 (2860)

E.tQ (tl) 610 (10001 t4 (61) eu (s{xro)
7.42 o) 671 (?2fil t5,a (01 046 (8r0ol
8.80 (tl ) 1l}2 (2400) le.6l (01) 00r 13160l
10.r6 (4) TT7 (2660) lr.8 (7) rofl (3td0)
r.a3 (4t) 823 (1700)

Based oo air &t !l.lccl,?60 EDvetocities may be increosed 0.06ltf(l%) Ior carh*teo a
t6ooft)sltitudo sud 0.0%{I %) for esch fC (loqq over tl.r'O (m'}).

allow 0.022 co loss,per3 mof run where the duct friction is a small part of
the total draft requirements. Air ducts, in general, extend from the outlet
of a forced draft fan to the etoker or burner plenum chamber. Where air
heaters are used the air duct is necessarily in two sections, viz., the cool
Bection, fsn to heater, and the hot section, heater to combustion equipment.
The latter should be insulated against heat loss and may possibly require
special design for thermal expansion. Bends should be long radius if possible.
\{here of short radius, or square, internal guide vanes should be provided in
large (60cm *) ducts. The duct walls should not be lighter than:
0.64{ mm metal up to 122 cm wide.
O.Sl2,rommetal up to 152 ca wide.
1.02 mm metal up tol83 cm wide.
1.29 mn metal up to2l3 ca wide.
Breechings. Yelocities in breechings are not usually made lees thgn 6
nor over 15.2 m/sec atratedflow.If possible, the gas should be made to ffow with
approximately the same velocity as it has in the preheater or economizer
The gas passages of modern plants ofret so many variations that little
may be said of them in the way of generalization. A breeching, as such, is
often practically nonexistent, while auxiliary heat-absorbing surfaces have
occasioned almost as many variations of gas passage design as there are
plants. A factor of no Iittle importance is the trend to fewer and larger boiler
units which, in some casrcs, are serviced by individual stacks. Some of the
devices employed today, all of which must be incorporated in the flue gas
circuit between boiler and stack il they are installed, are:
1. Economizer.
2. Air preheater.
3. Induced draft fan.
4. Dust collector.
For control of air temperatures, for continuous plant opcration while equip-
ment repairs are carricd out, and lor part load adjustments, these devices
are frequently by-passed, the by-passes themselves adding much to the
expense and difficulty of design of the gas passages.
 GAS CONDUITS 481
Plants with some or ell of the aforementioned equipment in the flue
ga8 path exhibit a great desl of thoirght and care on the part of the de-
signers in the disposition ol the equipment for economical use of boiler
room sFace, while providing as short and direct a gas passage as possible.
A breeching must be of special d€sign for each installation. It is not
p,ossible to omit consideration of the breeching itself in locating the re-
mainder of gas loop equipment. By virtue of its physical bulk, the result

I
T
Not€: Wh.r. aurilid.ies dr. seDordte<r bv dameros
between forced-drof t fon o;d air heole.,ort d;oft
heosurement will not do.louble .luty, sepir.o+e
OU T m€asuremenis o.e needed-
coL toR

!
:
@ orofr h.osur.m.nt at

@
and'air'heet.r inl.l
\9
6t oror

w r 110Box
@
FORC'i.CRAFI DUCT

(O Pcssurr m.arulrnrgri dt
- rt'i.ni.taivEs "air-
l'.a+.r @Il.t.rlssm'
end'w;dbor'pr.3sur€ "

tr'rc. 12-35 Locatiot of draft measurements

of its carryinga fcw hundred cubic Drtrcr of gas per tilogrem oI coal burned,
the breeching &rrangement is not entirely ffexible. Large boiler breechings,
particularly, may be difficult to dispose of within the boiler room, and are
frequently installed on the roof. The breeching arrangement is still further
dependent upon the method of supporting the stacl,s. Obviously the breech-
ing would be difrerent were a battery of boilers to be connected to stacks
under conditions such as:
48A TIIE CJ{S LOOP
1. Stack mouated on boiler room roof and carried by roof structure, or by a special
et€el framework within the boiler room exterding from a flrm foundstion to tho bsse
of the stsck.
2. Sta.ck supported by a ehort solid foundation at grirund level. The breechitrg entry
8pproxim&t€ly et ground level pemrits lower headroom in the boiler house, and the
Eouutilg oI auxiliary heat-absorbing zurfaces and fans uear boiler floor grade,
3. Stack carried ou high masonry pedestal atlowing breechiog to be carried hori-
zoDtally iDto it at the level of gas outlet from the boiler.

Problems to'be met and overcome by a breeching are numemus, but ap-
parently corrosion is one of the most troublesome. Constructed of sheet iron
or steel plater the breeching is prey to the corrosive gases it may contsin snd
to stresses 6et up by expansion end contraction occasioned by virrying
temperature. I{ence, expansion joints which permi6 change of length of the
breeching are needed and may be either slip joints packed with a high-tem-
perature material or flexible creases which also setve as stiffeners. Large
breechings must be stifrened by angle-iron or in some other fashion, since
.rhe 4.8 mm to 7.9 mm steel plate is too thin to be sufrciently rigid alone.
Oorrosion will be lcast where no condeusation takes place in the gas
loop; thcrefore the breeching should be insulated where.surface radiation
from it would reduce the temperature of some of the gas below the dew
point. In the sbsence of mechanical draft, an exposed breeching should be
insulatcd to allow the chimney to dcvelop the maximum draft of which it
is capable, by delivering the gas to it as hot as the gas left the boiler. Also,
especially if mechanical draft is not employed, the draft resistance of the
breeching should be kept,to the minimum by eliminating bends, abrupt
changes of area, and interior rogghness. Other factors important to the
successful breeching are elimination of gas and air leaks, and the obtaining
of a completed structure of minimurn weight consistent with the meeting of
other requirements.
Many elements enter into the determination of breeching size, some of
them being assumptions or allowances which are to permit the etructure to
be successful at operating conditions which might be said to be sbnormal.
The foremost of these are the excess air allowed for, and the gas velocity
assigned to this operating condition. Given percent excess air, flue gas tem-
perature, coal analysis, and inflltration alLcwance, the flue gas volume may
be found by B suitsble application of combustion theory.
The proper design of ducts and breechings should include provision for:
(a) expansion, (b) insulation, (c) suppoft, (d) rigidity. Expansion and in-
sulation may be computed, following methods and data presented in Chapter
14. The construction needs to be stifrened, and this is generally accomplished
with angles welded or riveted circumferentially around the breeching or
duct at intervals to suit the individual case. Some types of expansion joints
are themselves excellent transterse stiffeners.
Insulation. The preheated air duct and the breeching must be well in-
sulated to conserve heat and to render the vicinity habitable. Molded block
insulation securely attached to the steel is the usual practice. The material
commonly used has been 85/o magnesia, although other materials are be-
ginning to be competitive at present. The magnesia is magne-sium carbonata
GAS CONDUITS 483
mixed witlr binder. Being able to withstand temperatures up to 316"C with-
out deterioration it is suitable lor all air duct work and can be applied
airectly to the steel.'With a metal spacing material such a Y-rib expanded
metal lath between it and a breeching wall, the 85ft magnesia ie suitable
for the mrjority of breeching coverings. Occasionally, however, there are
Bectiotrs between boiler and air heater which require some more highly re-
frabtory material, or which must be double layered with a material such ss
diatomaceous silica (which can withstand at leaet 8{3"C ) next to the
breeching, followed by an outer magnesia layer.
u25

SH SNI
NEI

STEE L

Prc. 12-36 Details of breeching construciion.

Insulations are usuelly applied to the outside of breechings, o'ut occasion.
ally they line the breeching. This is particularly desirable for outdoor in-
stallations and may result in a lower total cost compared to outeide insulated
and weather-proofed work. However, the exterior insulation is definitely
che&per on indoor work. Table 12-6 shows the heat loss through single
layer breeching insulation in vertical position. A glance at Table A-11,
Appendix, will show that the vertical surface is an approximate averege oI
top snd bottom horizontal surfaces, so Table 12-6 may be used to represent
the four sides of rectangular breechings. Double layer insulation ean be
cslculat€d by methods set forth in Chapter 14.
lrblo 12.6. EEAT LOss TEBOIIOE 86% AGIIESIA Iltgt LATION, EAVIXO
I2.7 mm ASBESTOS CEUElrr AINI8B
[ko.l !'ot El por hr. Air .auD6d ,8.lFC (r6!C]l
Insulation T.olrt.tur. Difirtr.o., Eot Sorl.oc fo Air rC ('B)
Thicknese
ED (in) 65i (l(n) ut ($o) 100.6 (300) 222 (tn) 9t7,6 (wl
.1 o) 80.6 tG,,6 t@.e 380.8 a0a.!
:18.t (rl) 66.0 lrr.t ! 80.0 201.t t$,1
60,8 121 {0.1 e6,t t48.9 w.G 266.1
Gl.6 (2t) 38.0 80.8 tlr.6 t60.3 2lD.'
7A.2 (3) 82.t 6?.0 1o1.2 l{3.8 t 86. I
88,0 (81) n.g ct.t 90.8 r24.3 I 6t. s
t01.8 (4) ,0 61.! 80.0 tl0,? It3.t

In all cases it i6 necessary to employ special means to hold the insulation

tur Eecurcly end to give it a neat hard ffnieh. The metal spacers should be spot
welded to the duct or attached to welded-on studs and the insulation eecurely
wired to it. Also large breechinge should haye angle clips welded to the top
& THE GAS LOOP
and bottom corners and along the cent€r of the bottom, punched so that
tie nircs may be ettached. After the block insulation is applied it is wrapped
with wire netting which is raised a bit from the insulation surface with thin
spacerB so that the final hard finish of an asbestos cement will be locked
into position.
l2-ll Draft by Fans. Mechanical draft fans have an important place
in the engineering of power plants. Without fans, the high rates of heat
transfer now possible could not have been realized nor would the thick fuel
beds of underfeed stokers have been possible. Mechsnical draft may be
classified as torced ot induced, the former having the combustion air placed
under a plenum, the latter referring to gas inovement produced as the result
of a vacuum. The forced draft fan draws in air from the atmosphere and
delivers it through air ducts either directly to the combustion equipment
or to the air inlet of an air preheater. Forccd draft alone is undesirable.
Furnace doors or ports may not be opened rvithout an outflow into the
boiler room. Fumace gases escape through all joints snd cracks in the set-
ting. There is more "soaking up" of heat by the furnace walls. However,
some package oil-burning boilers use it successfully.
Conversely a system entirely vacuum ln chsracrcr wrll have considerable
dilution of the products of combustion by inffltration of boiler room air
through the setting and st ony point in the extemal flue gas passages where
the casings 8re not Birtight. Most hand-ffred boilers, also a few stokers, and
gas burning units are ol this nature. Induced draft is created by chimneys
and by fans located in the gas passage on the chimney side o{ the boiler
and ite auxiliaries. The logical arrangement is to employ both vacuum and
plenum in such proportions that the furnace pressure is nearly atmospheric,
then the efrect of small leaks in the setting is negligible. h r bolanced dralt
system, the controls are usually'set to maintain about2.5 Enwater vscuum
over the fuel bed or in the fumace.
The centilugal /oz is a machine for moving large volumes of air against
a small plenum. It has.a bladed wheel rotating in a stationary scroll casing.
Air admitt€d eround the hub flows into the moving blades and is thrown
outwards into the scroll casing. The drive is most frequently an electric
motor, either direct-connected or belted, although sometimes ateam engines
or turbines are used.
The enerry used by a fan impeller goes into bearing friction, flow work,
compression, velocity head, and heating. It is commonly assumed in fan
work, where the presgures are usually less than 25.{ co water plenum or
vacuum, that the fluid is incompressible. This assumpfion, together with
ronsidering heating as a mechanical-type loss, simplifies the work equation
to

w : l^p * lgn per lc air flow (L1,,/],)

ry
in which 7 = Work added to thb air, tg r pcr Lg .

u : Specific volume of the air or gas, mr pc hg

Ap : Static pressure increase, l8/mi.
Yr, 7r : Yelocity, m pGr rGc.
 DRAFT BY FANS 4&5
From Eq 12-4 we see that the work, and consequently the power, im-
psrted to the air consists of two components, viz., static pressure and velocity.
An ordinary manometer reading on the inlet and outlet of a fan gives the
static pressures relative to the atmosphere. Their difrerence is the working
static pr€ssure of the fan. Similarly an emcient pitot tube tumed into the
air streein fumishes an indication oi the sum of jtatic pressure and velocity
head on the attached manometer. This is called total presx.te, or dynamic
pressure.
If the fan sucks air directly from the surrounding atmosphere this total
pressure is the dynamic draft produced.. If there is an inlet duct, the before-
and-after pressures must be read and subtracted or taken from a manometer
that is differentially connected.
Let Ap" : Static draft, cB watct
Apr : Total draft, cm watcr
Q: Gas flow, cfm'
Then from Eq 12-4 the following can be derived:
Total air [p : 1450
QAPr (12-5)

Static air hP : QAP. pfi (124)

The fan efrciencies are expressed as follorvs:

Total fan mech eff, ,,. : $gl+b O2-7)

Shaft hp

Static fan un, ,r'" : Y94h

Shaft hp
(12€)

, I" fan practice the term m,anometric efi.ciency is employed to describe

the.effectiveness of a
_fan in producing the draft piu.ro." of which its design
is theoretically capable.
Dra.f! actually produced
Manometric efr - Theoretical dra{t
(12-9)

Some manulacturers base this efficiency on a radial blade standsrd. In

efrect, this isto assume a theoretical draft itandard ol u2/g. On this basis, the
manometric efficiency (better referred Lo as manometii rotio) of a good.
plate {an
ic 0.65; of a forwardly curved multivane, L.l2; ol a'backwa"rdly
curved multivane, 0.385. For high-speed motor or turbine drive, low mano-
metric ratios are desirable.
-ler Draft fans are designated as plate (paddle wheel), multivane, or propel_
lype. The propeller type is seldom used, since it develops tui tittte
ststic pressure. The plate fan is employed to some extent, especially with
engine drive, but the multivane centrifugal fan is the common type for
both {orced and induced dreft. Multivane fans are constructed with blades
which are railial, bacltwarCly atrueil, or loruaraly curued. The blade curva-
tures are most important in determining the fan characteristics.
486 THE GAS LOOP
The efrect of blade curvature may be studied with the aid of Fig, 12-37,
in which u = peripheral speed of the blades, while V and 7' rcpresgnt, re-
spectively, the absolute and relative velocities as the air leaves the blade.
Obviously tr/, must increase with increased rate of dischargle. In the
vector diagrams the vectors 7' represent the higher discharge rate and one
may see tha,t for a given increase in /.' the vector V' is greater than Y in
two of the types, abo'rt the same in the other. Thus by study of these dia-
grams one may understand why the backwardly curved type possesses a
ielf-limiting demand for power and a limited rate of discharge, whereas
power increases rapidly with discharge for the forwardly curved type. But

EA. w" "'d

Bockwordrcu.v.d Forwordry.urv.d Rodr.ql

frc. 12-37 Basic blade forms for fan wheels.

since I is largely diffused into plenum in the scroll case, it is apparent that
low". vulr,". 6f L witt produce .the same plenum in a forwardly curved fan'
Backwardly curved blade wireels are generally selected for forced draft
.""ri." bo"ur,.. the high speed is suitable for standard motor drive' fans The
oo*". d"mand is self-iimitine, and the static efficiencv is high' These
may be satisfactorily operated in parallel. I

induced draft fans operate in gas of much higher temperature and may
harrdle gases laden with dust. Foiwardly curved blade wheels run at the
lowest slpeed to develop a given pressure, htnce are frequently closen-for
-centrifugal
induced'draft service so thal the stresses in the wheels will be
i"u.t. io* speeds, together with absence of dust-gathering tendency, mini-
mize out-of-'balance iibrations. The forward curvature reduoes the blade
a.ptt , U"t gives a large inlet opening for the gas. The rising horsepower and
p"ir.J." .#"u.t"ristici of this-type usually render it unsultable for parallel
ineration. for it can overload iti drtver under abnormal working conditions'
iiar""a aott service is exacting in requiring heavy-duty construction and
is frequently mei by a modified radial blade.
Basic operating conditions of forced draft service are:
1. The fan handles cool, clean air.
2. The fan location can 6e wherever convenient. Ducts carry a.ir lrom fan to plenum
chambers.
3. General use is made of backward curviag, high speed multivane fans.
4. Required draft consists of air duct, preheatfr, and fuel bed rcsistance.
Induced draft service is not so simple and direct as forced draft' Its basic
operating conditions are:
DRAFT BY FANS 4A7

1. The fan handles hot gases, often from ro(r-as0'o.

2. The gases often contaitr soot which fouls the blades, or ashes and cinder n'hich
wear them.
3. Required draft consists of the sum of gas lriction loss through lurnace, boiler,
superheater, economizer, dust collectors, and air preheater. Cbimney may assist.
4. Location is fixcd, somewhere between boiler outlet and chimney.
5. The handling of hot g:ises requires more expensive construction, such as shield-
ing or water-cooling of bearings, eto.
6. Vacuum costs more to crcate than plenum so the induced draft is used clone
only with iDstalla,tions rvhere little or no fuel bed resistaDce is encounteted.
Fan manufacturers test their product under standard conditions and
publish the results in tables or as performance charts. The power plant en-
gint--r's work is then the fitting of his own particular conditions with the aid
of these charts or tables, making ihe proper corrections where his data differ
from the manufacturer's test conditions. The purchase of Iarge laas is com-
t0

a l10o .ph -
r:
e.!
0

1./ \\t \ t/ z
EI \, 30

to /z { 20
I ,/
?: ! -* to
o:
0 .15 .30 .45 .60.rr o .t5 '!0 .{9 .60 I 0 .15 .10 .aS .60.r1
O.llv..r-tnoo.ond m3lmh o.liv.rr-1ho!.ond'/min o.ttv..y-rhoo3ond ;/6i.
Fo. rlth boclwordl, Fo. ralh aorrotdly
.orv.d btqdi^9 .urr.<, blodine

Fro. 12-38 Comparative perfonnlncc charactcristics of centrifugal fans. All rated

666.3,1, l[ ,l6ia (20.000 clmf ot 16.24 om (0") SP but not all same speed or siz€.

monly made upon the basi! of performance guarantees. The generalized per-
formance curves of Fig. 12-38 are for constant, speed, since that approximates
the usual condition of use. One is able to predict the performance at othcr
shaft speeds and gas conditions, making use of such data. From fan theory,
assuming emciency to remain constant, it is possible to formulate a number
of equations covering the before-and-after-a-change situatiun. Eq 12-10 rep-
resents all of them.
I€t a: fan capacity, volume of flow.
w: fan capacity, weight of flow.
P: horsepower.
D: dm"ft.
rotative speed.
d: density of the air.
488 THE GAS LOOP
Also, let d and B represent any pair of these. Then

(12-10)
"i,:PrJ'P^1'
r v
,:l olrlrlalrl la: a
l,l P D tr
a 1 I 2 I a 0 1 1 1 0 a
w 1 1 3 1 w 1 0 1
-1 w
P I * P 1 0 t P B
1 1 a s -T
D , 1
+ I D 1
1 a 0 _1i D
1 1 2 I N 0 1 1 1 0 N

The manner in which Eq 12-10 is implemented to represent a speci'fic

case is demonstrated by the following example.
Example l: A certa,in centifugal fan which has received a rating of 116,64r/oia
at l6.ra G6 of water, 1080 rpm, aDd4.45 is to be employed st ?$2 06 s,ater with air
be8t€d ro1o7.2ic Although openting at the sameefrcielcy point, the rctative speed muBt
be sltercd,8 differeut discharge will enzue, and the shaft power will decrease.
Let B in Eq 12-10 be the droft D, then in succession let.4 be Q, N, and P. The er-

[*]"[frI* fl: [fi]"[fl] "

ponetrts b€ing select€d from the tsble, these three equations are devired:*
-
&= f,: t3l-[i]
)@- y 1.37-ttt 19Qg : 2,, P: :
= 2,,2
Nz
zu, x t.gz-,,,
Qt P':
whence Q, = tmo er/EiD lfz 890 rpm; P! :
: 0.415P,.

The flow-pressure relation of the system of equipment and ducts in which

a fan is maintaining the flow is called the sastem, resistsnce characteristic.
This has the form approximately of
D" = Ke2 (12-t r)

When the fan is running, the flow Q is that singular value existing at the
intersection of the fan characteristic curve and the system characteristic.
l'his is made the full ratin'g of the fan if the system characteristic is definitely
known. Otherwise a fan of characteristic shown in Fig. 12-39 as Fan No.2
(which might be another fan or Fan No. 1 .at higher speed) is selected.
Then, were the system characteristic correctly evaluated, the surplus dra{t
oo'would be dissipated by damper action or speed control. The efficiency of
Fan No. I would be better than Fan No. 2 for a position at point a; hence
the allowance oo'if used should be niade as small as possible by careful in-
vestigation of the gas loop resistances.
The eflect oi variable load on this component of the power plant ie to
* The neceesary D aDd d ratios are : Oi
dt_ fla + l0,.2
-W*, - ,, tL rz5-+fJ-
DRAFT BY FANS 489
require operation Blong the D" characteristic. At
some fractional load, for
example, the fan should operate at point b, producing Qs and Dg. the.e sre
ttrre methods in common use for attaining this new.state with Fan No l.
Inlet uane control. This is the most used method in the iorced dlirft
field. The inlet vanes are located on the inlet to the ian and by adjuehtrent
can change the direction of air entcring thc wheel. Over limited rarqes of
control, say lrom 50/o 1o lO0/o rated volume, there is not muoh throttling;
rather, the inlet vanes reduce the volume of air handled by reducrng the
speed of the fan wheel relative to the entering air. At still smaller flows the
nearly closed vanes have considerable ihrottling action and the performance
is not much difrerent from plain damper control.

t
fT-
14o r40
R{
E
o-
t2
o'
t20 ---r--r-
9 zt o0
Shofl power

iernole lo F}
F conl J_
6
o.l ol
ced speed
,/ '/h

=
F
FT

z sy'
6<
t

PERGENT RATEO OELIVERY VOLUME PERCENT RATED DELIVERY VOLUME

Ftc. 12-39 Variable load perforurance of a centrifugal fan.

Speed control. Fans may be drivcn by turbines. variable-spce* moto$,

or constant-specd motors with variable-speed couplings-hydraulrc rnag-
netic, or mechanical. This control is, of course, f4r n.rore expens'rle in Iirst
cost than other lorms, but the resulting performance as depicted in Fig.
12-39 is quite favordble if the fan is operatccl much at fraction&l loa.ds be-
low 60/o ol rated capacity. This-type of control provides more adr,antage
on induced draft service, wherc inlet vanc control is not very expedient.
Theoretically, the action oI specd variation is to move along the D"
curue at constant efficiency. I'rorn Eq 12-10. by considering A = D, B = Q
and d1 = ir,
D : D"(e/e^),: (fj )0,: oonsranr X 0,
This is obviously thc equivalent of Eq 12-11. However, it must be re-
membered that system resistance is only approximately parabolic, and small
oorrections rvill still be rcririired by thc variations.
A compromise solution is damper eor,trol vith tnc-speed rnotor drive.
The two-speed motor is much cheaper than variable-spced control and re-
duces the damper losses at loq'forvs. Another variation is the double-motor
drive---one freervheeling or being disengaged at part load.
490 TEE GAS LOOP
Example 2: The characteristic fan eurvee shown in Fig. 12-'10 are the draft and
effciency curves for a cold air fan rated at talS tn8/Eia at ll.7 oE static pressule.
lte operating conditions under which this fan would produce 860 E /EiD &t 10.16 oE
ststic'pr€6su;c will be inveetigoted. A coDst&Dt efrciency parabola is passed through
the propoed tree operstitrg point gndcarried to the origrnal opersting (!rve in order
tc determiue what. tLe efficielicy will be. The constant efticietrcy curve is E{ 12-10 s€t
up ae followe:
D/D,: (Q,/Q,)'
Since one point on the plot of this relation is known, i.e., lo.lG oru at 860 tat, the
conitant efficiency line rray be drawn, e*tending to an intercection with the original
fan characteristic. This is point r, for rvhich the eorresponding original efficiency is
read to be 7216. All points along the plotted liue, including the new operating point,
have this emciency. By writing Eq 12-10 with N and D, aud troting that, at point
t, N = Nr, D = ld.{8om, the necesrqry new speed is found.
& :/19:f,, wheoce
..-.- 1r, :8470 Nt
1V, v{..8/
Damper control. This is the simplest methoC and least expensive in first
cost; also, the least dfficient on account of the irreversible, entropy-increasing,
action of throttling flow. Nevertheless it is a common method of control of
induced draft in power plants. The damper is usually located in the system
on the boiler side of the fan. The fan outlet is
an unrestricted discharge to the chimney. Since
f damper control merely imposes a controllabl€
\ i pressure drop in the system, the fan can produce
! point b (Fie. 12-39) conditions by opcraring et
I ) i point c with the damper increment bc added to
I ,/, 5 the system resistance.
1 i Construclion. Centrilugal draft fans consist
Drimarily of a fotating bladed wheel encloscd in
a spiral-shaped sheet-metal housing. The wheel
may be single-entry, meaning that air enters the
FIG. 12-40 Change of oper- interior of the rrheel lrom one side only, or
ating conditions. double-entry. The latter form is employed for
large volume fans where the necessary wheel
width is so great that it is expedient to feed in the gas or air lrom each end
of the wheel. The shaft on rvhich the wheel is mounted turns in bearings which
are supported on brackets fastened to the housing or on pedestals independ-
ently mounted on the foundation. Bracket support is the bheaper and is suit-
able lor close-coupled motor drives. The pedestals are prefeiable for induced
Craft Ians and for forced dralt fans driven by turbines or speed controllers.
The drive may be V-belt, but direot drive is usual, there being interposed
between driver and fan a flexible coupling.
The National Association of tr'an Manulacturers had adopted four standard
fan classifications in order to meet the varied operating conditions of the field
with fewer standard designs. The classification is based on maximum total pres-
sure, i.e., static and velocity head. The total is practically equivalent to static
pressure for outlet velocities less than6t0 mlmirybut at high duct speeds the
static pressure is more limited.
Bearings oI fans should be sealed ball bearings where possible. Air-
DRAT'T BY FANS 491
Tablo l2-7. TRADE PRACTICE IN OPERATING LIMITS
OF CENTRIFUGAL tr'ANS T
Class I-e6.36 ED wat€r mfiimu.E total prcssure
cl&ss II- lrl.a6 EE wster marimnm total pressure
Class III- ,{7.05 Ebwster oaxiDum total prrssure
Class lV--Greater tha.uxr.66 DD total pressurr
rAt rl,l'O and 7008@ Eg. Correct rcquired totel pressure before selectiog fan class
by multiplying by latm of density (ot 2t.lt, ?A) DE) to actual workiDg deDsity.
cooling disks or w&ter-cooling jackets are used to protect the bearings of
induced draft fans.
Installati.on. In determining the required capacity of draft fans, it is
well to allow for a quantity of air considerably in excess of that normally
anticipated so that boiler capacity need not be impa'rred during those pgriods
when autometic combustion control equipment is in maladjustment. The
excess capacity provided is necessarily a judgment factor. Sometimes the
gas" loop is designed to carry LOO/o excess air abnormally.- Meeting this
requirement neturally penalizes the normal operating eficiencies. Conse-
quently, designers often restrict the overload capacities of the mechanical
draft equipment. However, forced draft lans should have flow capacity at
least l0/o and induced dratt 20/o in excess of normal conditions. Illustrating
the efrect of abnormal gas flows. on the fan, note in Fig. 12-41 the normal
operating condition for a certain induced
draft lan is b, at which time the system
is at point o dnd ab is a dampcr-rcsrst-
ance. The power required is P. Now con-
=
sider the efiqct of an abnormal condition
introducing Q, excess flow for which thc 6
new system resistance is a' and damper
efiecl a'b'. Obviously ihe damper is nearly o
wide open and fan pressure has been re-
duced to b'. But power requlrcmcnts havc
increased to P., considerably above the CAPACTTY - mtn
rated power. The driver must be able to tr'rc. 12-41 Fan capacity ailorvances.
meet this demand. Furthermore if thc
system had by-passes, as around air heatcrs, thc system resistance might
change to curve D'", and in the absence of limit conirols the system flow
could increase to point c with damaging overload power P,' demanded of
the fau drive. These possibilities must be investigated by the plant designer.
The location oI induced dralt Ians is somewhat restricted by the needs
of the remainder of the flue gas circuit. They are frequently required to be
mountcd high in the boiler room, on steel framcwork supports. The fans
are relatively bulky and slow specd. Their noise is not particularly objection-
able.
tr'orced draft lans are inherently oI higher speed, usually with open inlets.
Hence their noise level is quite high, and the plant designer should isolate
them if at all possible. The author has seen many plants u,hcre the forced
dralt fan was placed close beside the boiler, probably ivith the idea of re-
ducing the forced draft duct work to a minimum. The price paid for thiq
492 THE GAS IiOOP
minor advantage is always: (1) noise levels in the boiler room too high for
ordinary conversation; (2) draity condition in the boiler room-nice for
summer heat, but objectionable in cold weather. It is suggested that an
isolated fan room ought to be provided with possibilities of drawing air
either from outeide or inside the plant, at, the option of the operators. Forced
draft duct work generally comes in under the boiler floor in stoker plants,
being terminated under the grates, in the ash hopper or special plenum
chamber, depending on the type of stoker. The burner box is the terminus
of the air duct on pulverized coal and oil buming equipment, and such duct

aa

I
,t

) ,
I l
B. F- S,tataaotn Co.

Fro. 12-42 An installaticn ol two motor-driven induced-draft fans. 061 2.9 -aloio
(880.000 cfrD) ot ll'(27.9 oEl8P, 21,'!t'O ({2ii5)
work is usually overhead and expcsed. If an air heater is used, the fan
location is dictated chiefly by gas flow, nct air flow, consideration. Ilence
this always affects the air duct location and frcquently thc forced draft
fan itself.
Fan testing. Fan tests are seldom performed by the plant engineer unless
as acceptance tests. Then pitot-statib equipment is generally employed, and
there should be some provision for test openings. Experience indicates that
the velocities in ducts and breechings v&ry &cross the flow. so that the area
should be divided into elements. Rectangular sections are divided into small
squates and readings taken at the center of each. Circular ducts are divided
into equal-area rings, and test stations are set at opposite mid-radii of each
CHIM\BYS 493
ring. It is thc square roots of lclocity-hcrd rcarlings that arc avelage{ fcir
the calculation of florv lclocity, not thc rcadings tlrcrnsclvcs.
On tc,.ts uterc it is not possiblc to holl thc rPru constant, corrcctions to
readings must bc rnatle lxrfolc cornparing results rvith constant-spced guaran-
tces. If N is thc ratcd spccrl and N, the test specd, rnultiply test volume by
l[/N,, test prcssurc by (N/N,)', and test porvus by (N/N,)a bcfore corn-
paring rvith the ratings.
12-12 Chimneys. \\Ihcther to producc draft by fan or. chimncy may be
an opcn qucstion, necessitrting a conrplctc cotnpari-son of thc characteristics
of cach bcfore an ans\acr can bc givcn. Briefly, their comparative charactcr-
istics aro:
1. Chimlcy nay have to bc high enough to producc sufficicnt draft for.
reasons forcign to rlraft.
2. Higher rates of combustion arc possible rlitL mcclrrrrricel tlraft.
3. Mechanical draft is morc rcarlilv controllcrl to tr ect varying load
conditions.
4. Mechanical draft is independcnt of atmosplreric ctrnditions.
5. Chimneys, once erectcd, cost nothing for opcration. anrl havc a lcry
ow dePrsxisllr, -*1a.
The chinrncy is provided primarily to produce s certain availablc draft
at the flue entry. But, in addition, there must be sufficient dralt to ovelcorre
frictidnal losses in the chimney itself. These losses are proportional to the
square of the velocity which, in turn, is proportional to cross-sectional area
of the chimney for any given flow of gas. Hence, the problem ol chimney
diameter is more than the mere assumption of a vclocity conrparable to that
used in actual practice; it should be such that the diameter and height it
indicates rcsult in a chimney of the least cosi. Deinlein has pointed out
that a combination whose diameter multiplied by its height rvas the least
of all $'orkable combinations would he thc most cconornical. Ordinaril3', the
velocities range betwcen 6.lBnd 1 5.2.1 m/rec, but, lor economicsl degign, height
cannot be separated from vclocity and diameter.
Most chimney equations arc based on rational derivations, but in at-
tempts to simplify them to whcre direct substitution is possiblc, various fac-
tors have had to be introduced to care for the many variables that enter into
a problem of this sort and, as a result, t!.ese equations have the aspect of
rule-of-thumb proportioning. The author beiieves it bctter to work from
the Iundamental data through the various logical steps, thus illustrating
basic features of the solution.
A chimncy produces dralt b), virtue of an extremely simple principle of
thermodynamics. \Yhcn the gas is heated, it expands in volume anC decreases
in dcnsity, in which condition it may be displaced by a more dense gas.
Fig. 12-43 shows hory this principle is incorporated in a chimney. (a) Air
movement is produced by heating one leg of a U-tube. (b) Comparative
weights of equal columns of air I 23.9'C )and flue gas ( 260t ) , the diflerence
producing the draft. (c) The U-tube is replaced by tl'o stacks connected
at their bases. The heat of combustion produces a florv of air down the cool
stack and gas up the heated stack. (d) Progressing toward the conventiontl
form of power house chimney, the air stack is brought around the chimney,
494 THE GAS LOOP
producing the same flow conditions ar in (c). (e) If the diameter of tbe air
stack is made exceediugly large, we have the chimney standing alone in thc
atmosphere, but performing as in (c) because of the flow action produced by
the heat not absorbed in the boiler.
The light hot flue gas is confined by the chimney column and the draft
produced is proportional to (1) the height and (2) the difference in density
of air and gas. Therefore the draft of a chimney is, in an elementBry wsy,
expressed by
D= Height x diflerence in density of flue gas and air

i I
I 1 1
I

!
1r.t
irli
1 II
ll =
)
*€R*
a bcd
Frc. 12-43 Evolution of chimney actioa

When this equation is rvritten for Height = ip 6 , incorporating certain

factors needed to convert draft to inches of water, and allowing for cooling
aud friction in the chimuey, it has the forrn:

rrn - Nltt.-irit- 0@?578418 02-12)

where D : Available.draft peg !B rn of chimney, c{D water.

K: 2,7 for brick chimneys, and 2.'1 for steel stacks.

d" : Density of air, taro,
d" : Deusity of flue gas, \1ar
Y: Gas velocity in.lhe chimney, E Per goc
0" : Gas flow, orfoo
Eq 12-12 is based on/:0.014. To use any other frietion coefrcient /',
Da: K(d..- a"l -orrura{f; (12-13)

Ihe actual height of a chimney is obtained by dividing required chimney

draft by D. and multiplying by !10 The required chimney draft is the sum
of all frictron losses external to it, plus the velocity head loss of gas dis-
CHI}INEYS 495
charging from thc chimney, less the eflective draft furnished by fans or jets.
Vclocity head is gitcn by
D, - 0.004 7V, cm wrter (12-14)
The sea-level air density can be ealculated by gas laws oi read frour
Tig. 12-44. It having been found that the density of the products of com-
bustion ol ordinary gradcs of coal is but little affcctcd by the coal or by the
cxcess air used, the gas density chart was prepared on the assumption of a
gas molecular rveight of 30. This assurnption is sufficiently accurate for most
chimney calculations, but should be rcplaccd by actual cornbustion calcula-
iions if (1) the gas is unusually cool, thus reducing tlrc differential density
(d^
- ds\, or (2) if the fucl is lignite, natural gas, or other luel with a vari-
able composition considerably differerrt from bituminous coal. Since,petro-
At T.mp..otur.- C

2.2
t.50 t0 173

coor'ir o,J.oe. 1,,.-i"*l-

0ror. lor 762ns H9 pr.3rur.
t.! 5
ai ollilud.s obov. r.o l.v.t
hullipty lrrs.. d.n3iti.! hy
60.od.l.r r.odi.d i. -6
t.2
r I lir,,,, r,;7irjl;i;-;,,
-E
l.o5

.60

.15

.40
r00 r5o 200 250 I
Ftu. go. i.np..otu.. -'C

f'Ic. 12-44 Variation ol air and flue gas densities with tempemtures

leum derivatives have a fairly constant chemical analysis it was also pos-
"sible to supply a curve lor'fuel oil
-fi.res. The charted densities are for
sea-level locations. Density corre-ctions to both d, zind d" must be made for
chimneys }ocated at altitudcs. Up to 1829m atrove sea level, it can be as-
sumcd that the barometric pressure decrement is 2$ msr Hg per 900m,
Thc draft of a chimncy is affected by atmospheric temperature, and its
diameter by the excess air assumption. In boiler plants uscd mainly for
heating, thc maximum loads ,(hence maximum requircd draft) come when
atmospheic temperaturcs are lo*-, so that atmospheric temperature efrects
:r,re in thc favorable dircction. In order to be conservatile, chimney heights
lte commonly designed to give the maximum required draft with l5.6tl
ambient temperature. In soutltern climstes and fot cases where maximunr
loads can occur in hot n'eather, and .rhere gas temperatures are low (say
496 THE GAS LOOP
252oC- ot less) the design assumption ol atmospheric temperature should be
carefully weighed.
The quantity of gas flow, Q,, is directly aflected by thc excess air as-
sumption. Depending on the combustion equip-
ment, and the size and type of plant, the oper-
ating range of excess air is lrom 0 to 100ft (or
more). Central station pulverized.cobl combus-
tion represents one extreme, using from 5 to
N/. excess air, while hand-fired grates, or small
stokers in poor adjustment, represent the other.
Central station designs rarely are critical on
excess air assumptions used for chimneys, sincc
gas movement is secured mainly by fans. In
cases where insufioient chimney would adversely
afrect the remainder of the gas loop equiprhent,
Frc. 12-45 Determinatiori of it is well to allo'w 100/o excess air in chim-
economic chimney propor- ney proportioning, even though normal opera-
tions. t.ions are expected to be carried out with much
less.
Examplc 1; The combinations of diameter and height of a clrimney required for
a specific case will be determined over a range that includes the minimum product.
Assume that the chimney is to be constru€ted of brick, prportioued to calry a8.{2
E /6.a of gas aDd Dsintsitr a 8t8tic drsft of 2.007 om wst€r. O&r density givetrss 0.0770
hB/Bt; stmospheric deneitv, l.ttt ls1mr.
Let I/ be the velocity of gas in the chimney. Then by Eq l?.14 the required draf! is
2.007 - 0.001 x 0.6770v!
- 2.007 + 0.002?t n oEw&ier.
Eq (12-12): Dr. - 2.7lr.t7r o.671ot
o.t!!8:jja]"1o8 p6r
- '- 4a-{rrll
Bo m

Dro - t.33, (LOOO?:1,03 Y5'! oD t6t 30 E'

-
chimoeyheight=3.::*ry4--
i.:gt 0.00073793 y6tt
xsoru (r)
-
From the above it is seen that the higher the gas velocity, the higher the chimney,
Next e relation betrveen diameter and velocity is developed.

rliqmPrar: @':t"
lnside chimneY - \1, ""!7
@
lVliere Q" : 48.42 Dtrse., chimney diameter : 7.86i F-r't o (2)
Eqs (1) and (2) give beight and diameter as lunctions of chimney gas velocity. By
assuming various velorities, the corresponding heights and diameters are obtained.
For example, if Y = 6,f lD/so6
2.(I/r+0.00t7lx37.ll _
Ecieht
" : ---------------_ x 80 _ 60.09 E-
l.332
- o.00O737eS x otl'(x){
Diometer = 7,86912..0 - 3.1t4 to
Height and Diameter : 60.03 x 3,18a - 168.3

Othet values of y were assumed and the resulting products plott€d as shom in
Fig. 12-45.
a

CEIMNEYS 497
The minimum product i8 fourd et 7.926 E/roo gas velocity. SubGiituiing V * fu26
in Eqs (r) sud (2).
Ileight = 64.!3 ln ; Dismet€r = 2.?sg,t!
The height is "above-the-grates"; hence, tbe actual structural height oI the
chimney might be difierent. The diameter is usually taken as that iuside the top
of the chimney. Lower sections may increase in diameter due to need for taper, but
siace the effect is to reduce gas velocity and frictron, treglect oI inside taper is on the
eide of adequate draft.

Use of the minimum proiluct as an index to economic porportions of a

masonry chimney has this basis. The wall i'olume of a hollow cylinder is
proportional to the product of length and diameter. Masonry costs are pro-
portional to masonry volume. Although a chimney is nbt a straight cylinder,
the thinner smaller sections cost more per unit volume in place than the
thicker because they are toward thc top of the chimney where the unit cost
of construction is more than for sections closer to ground level.
Chimneys which are to serve small boilers that may, nevertheless, re-
quire about the same draft as larger ones are likely to be too slender struc-
turally when proportioned by Deinlein's rule. In such cases the
minimum requiremen+"s of structural stability govern the diam-
eter, and the gas velocity is taken to be less than the economic
value. Analysis of the masonry chimrcy as a structurel column
subject to side load lrom wind was given in Chapter 4.
Tal[ chimneys are usually built of special, radial-shaped
bricks. To a smaller extent, reinforced concrete is also employed
in chimney building.
Steel chimneys, ordinarily called stoclcs, are designed both as
self-supporting and as guyed structures. The self-supporting type
is found most often where, on account of the. use of induced draft
fans, the chimney serves only as an "exhaust pipc" and can be
comparatively short. Such stacks are usually fully lined with a
refractory lining. They are cylindrical in shape except for those
in which an efficient cliffusion of velocity into pressure is sought Frc 12-46'
for in the stack itsclf. These shapes, called evase stacks, are illus- Evas6stack'
trated in Fig. 12-46. Thc guyed steel stack is used where minimum chimney
cost is souglrt, especially where gas flow volume is small. These can be built of
thinner plates than the self-suppcrting and are generally left unlined. Both
rcinforced concrete and steel chimneys can have tension to windward under
side load; hence the theory of partial cracking at extreme loadings as de-
veloped in Chapter 4 does not apply; rather the customary structural analy-
ses of loaded treams may be employed.
Although chimneys havc becn built of common rectangular bricks, per-
forated radial blocks are now in general use for this type of masonry work.
The dead air spaces a,ct as heat installation, the blocks are rapidly laid,
and weigh less per cubic metre in the wall than common brick. These blocks
are semi-refractory and are hard-burned. If properly made, they will ring
when held separately and struck.
Typical data on radial block construction are summarized as follows:
498 THE GAS LOOP
M atertal. Semi-ref ractory clay, hard-burned.
Common colors. Rufr and red.
Water absorption.5-10c1 weight increase on 24-hr immersion.
Net area. Perfcrations about 35ft of gross arca.
Density ol nlasonrA. l9?2 tgtar
Minintum. crushing strength, based on nelt area,281.2 kg/cm!
Mqtimum uorking compression, based on gross areo. 19.69 Lg/cmt
l[ortar. 1:2:5 by volumc of cement, hydrated lime, and sand.
The lower parts ol chimneys shorild be protectcd by a lining supported so
as to be free lo expand and contract separately from the structural column.
Unless some unusually high tcmpcratures arc anticipatcd, the lining of
radial brick chimneys may also be radial brick. Otherrvise, say above
538" C , the lining should be lully rclractory and cxtend from9,2 m15.2 m
ubove the breeching entrance.
C hhu.ney accessories. While the chimney is primanly a cylindrical struc-
a,ure it must have somc extras in order to function propcrly and last in-
defi.rritely. These are covered by the lollowing listing.

I
t
ft.h,vt.a iadial f.i.t
Ctida.r

@
@@@
S..fioo l,+or9^Iiu.

CJDoo,
f,

tcm
F
s.cton t aurhcLdn o!, o,,@,t s

Fl

Andicdn Chimncv Cotp,

Frc. 12-,17 trIasonry chimney.

CONTROL OF GAS LOOP FLOWS 4S9
1. Breeching openings. Structure around the breeching opening needs to
be c<.rrbelled our into reinforcing piers and strengthened by steel bands and
lintel beams.
2. Clcan out and entrance door at base. Tight fitting to prevent air
infiltration.
3. Reinforcing steel bands at each change of wall thickness and around
the head.
4. Tap for attaching draft gauge.
5. Ladder, wrought-iron rungs built into structural column, either outside
o, inside.
. 6. Protective and/or decorative head topperl off Eith concrete or cest
rron cap.
?. Lightnjng protcction. I'rorn 3 to 5 porrrts Iinnly anchort'cl in thc head
antl connectcd to one or more dog'nlcircls of12.?,n-crp1g cablc tlhich tertni-
natcs iu buried glound plate or othcr equally reliable grouncl. Bond the
lrrccching stccl to tlos'nlcads.
12-13 Control of Gas Loop Flows. The flow of the gas loop fluid, air
or flue gas, must vary if the rate of combustion varies. Because of variable
demand, which is the common expcricnce, thc erergy originated by cornbus-
tion in heating and power plants is wanted at varying rates of production.
This is true in practically all cases. It is in the Gas Loop that the energy rs
originated as heatl hence control Ior variable rate oI energy production bc-
gins in this part of the plant.
Combustion being the source of heat cnergy, the control is primarily corz.
bustion conttol. A controi system seeks to attain thc lollowing objectives:
L Regulate input of hcat energy to the plant equipnrent so that it will
always be equal to the plant necds, but not ir cxccss.
2. Maintain high efficiency of combustion at all rates.
3. Be sufficiently sensitive, so that the thcrmal state of the plant equip-
ment does not fluctuate. Only the rate of energy florv should vary.
The plant operating characteristic commonly uscd for "mastering" the con-
trol of combustion is steonz pressure- All,erralely stearn flow, generator
amperes, or some other quantity that is aflected
by load could possibly be used, but stcam pres- IE
sure control is the common practice. When plant
---r---
load increases, steam flow out ol the boiler will EP -T-
increase, and unlcss the rate of combustion im- i:
mediately increases the energy deficiency will Fb
quickly show up as a drooping steam pressure.
Since elements like diaphragms and Bourdon Irc. 12-48 "Constart pres-
tubes can be built to sense this change almost sute" conttol.
at once, they provide a convenient mcthod oI feel-
ing out the variable load and translating it into a call for increascd combus-
tion. The necessary alloq'ance for pressure variation over the full operating
range is within 4%, thal is to say combustion control equipment can be built
that will function satisfactorily from steam pressure only if a pressure-load
characteristic such as Fig. 12-48 is pernrissible. This is substantially "constant
prcssure" control, but not exactly, \lrhere the pressure must be more closely
5OO THE GAS LOOP
regulated the simple glrcssure-responsive elements must be aided by other im-
pulses, say from flow elements. Attempts to make the pressure-load charac-
teristic too flat arc follorved by "hunting"; hence the small pressure variation
is a stabilizing featurc.
In general, the control of combustion for variable load needs to adjust
the fue| input proportional to the load. This must be accompanied by a
elrangt in air flow to thc combustion equ\)ment so that the most efficient
air-luel ratit, will be maintained at all loads. Some secondary features usu-
aiiy fcunci to be desirable are the maintenance of. balanced drolt, and the
apportionment ol load, aL will, among br.rilers operating in parallel on the
same steam main.
It is possible for alert attendants, aided by instruments and gauges that
inform them ol conditions in the steam generatorJ to .adjust coal feedcrs,
dampers, motor speeds. etc., so as to maintain steady steam pressure, opti-
mum air-fucl rltio, and atmospheric furnace pressure u'hiie the rate of
steaming varies. It is not likely, horvever, that this will be consistently and
reliably accomplisired by manual operationsl also it becotres increasingly
diffiiult as stcam generators apploach the "flash" type, and the load be-
comes morc variable.

v)).

F(;. 1l-{1) Eiemcnt.rrl' combustion control bl' dinpcr rcgulator

Automatic ricvices are buih that can perfomr thc necessary regulating
actions far more perfectl-y then lruntans. These are in widespread use in
heating and pcwer plaal: Valying degrccs of control are possible. so that
the extent to rvhich rombustion of a ,uel is put under automatic control can
be suited to the sira of thc plent and the money ava,ilable for control in-
stallations.
A silnple form of contro{ wherein steam pressure automatically adjusts
the draft is applicable to the smallest plants. The damper regulator shown
in Fig. 12-49 substitutes mechanical control for the frequcnt opening and
closing of dampels by competent firemen, or for the open position often
maintained by poor firemen. The ratc of fuel fced remains under marual
control; horvever, this phase of combustion control can be better judged by
visible indication than may ga.s flow.
CONTROL OF GAS LOOP FLOWS 501

From this simple cssc the dcgree of automstic control availablc pro-
grcsscs to the othcr extrcmc of complctely automatic control capable of
successlully operating scvcral large boilers in parallel rvith pcak combustiol,
efficicncy in spitc of fluctuatirg loarl couditions. Lack of space prevents s
complete description of all thc systems that havc been employed as therc
is a multiplicity of detail and equipmcnt in this field. I'Ion'cver, the prin-
ciple of cornplete control will be explainerl, then illustrated by a few chosen
examPles.
We shall consider a balanced draft systenr, sincc that is customary in
modern steam generator practice. In this we have a supply of air at a
plenum and an exhaust systcm at a vacuum, thc lattcr bcing providcd by
chimney, fan, or both. We have also the supply of fuel to rcgulate, either
through stoker drive, feeder eontrol, or burner adjustmcnt. Fig. 12-50 shows
the elements of the ploblem. The controllers may be pneumatically, hy-

(Arl I D Fon sp..d co.tror)

A ch!!!I_

-o I
o
tll lilnal. _
--I,trd

0ooD.r coirtor
(Alr. F.UFo. conlrol)
'.1.r
Fr6. 12-50 Bements of full combustion control.
draulically, or electrically operated; honever, it is not necessary to look
into the details st this point. It is sufficient if onc understands that the
controller is permanently connected to some power source and, in addition,
has a signal input that will trigger the power at the proper time and efrect
a change in position of the damper, the stoker motor controller, etc. The
steam pressure variation which follows load change is converted into the
proper signal to regulate fuel feed and air supply. These increase or de-
crease properly so that a suitable new rate of combustion is produced. The
manner in which the apparatus efrects proper air-fuel ratio is given treat-
ment further along.
Had the boiler load increased, a diminishing steam pressure, acting
through a "master regulator" or "master sender," would have signaled i
new and increseed rate of fuel and air flow, thus .bolstering up the rate of
steam generation and preventing further pressur'e decay. The increased air
flow into the unit would increase the gas pfessure in the fumace slightlf,
but only until the furnace pressure regulatoi sensed it and responded !y
increasing the rate of flue gas flow to the chimney. Equally practical would
be a system where the induced draft control received the signrl irom tho
master regulator and the forced draft flow was controlled by f,umace pressulo
502 THE GAS I,OOP
Air-Juel ratio control. .A-t the present time there are three major classi-
fications of this control: timing, metering, and positioning control.
Timing control. As is irnplied in the name, thc cortrbustion equipment
would not operate continuously. It is the on-off systern. Nhen it is on, the
fuel feed has one rate only, likewise the air florv, but a favorable ratio can
be sct and naintained bctwccn thern. The control starts and stops motors,
opens and closes dampers, either simultaneously or in some desirahle se-
quence. This is espccially necessary with oil and gas burners, where air flow
should start and purge the combustion chamber before fuel valves arc
opened. The rate of combustion produccd is cqual to thc needs at maximum
.ating otr the boiler; consequently &t.p t load there is an excess of heat
whict builds up steam pressure until an upper limit of action is rcachcd in

tt r.r.nhriF .-frr .no' !5 * .-r.. i i--' '!.frr. r1r. --,- t-'

!i'..-" t"a *r. -a l".*- rsr.vch nnror. .i -i{
ft!.. J'!.r.d'.db r.rnr h "'r'.. "'r_r-'
oni d..{-
-a..ir.r 'e.-

Fro. 12-51 Typical control arrangements.

the control apparatus, which then shuts down the cotnbustion equiplnent'
When the pressut" has dropped to the Iorvcr control limit, the cquipment is
again started anri the cycle repeats itself. This systcm must necds operate
with a greatcr stealu pressurc range than thc continuously modulating types
to be de-scribetl, clse ii rvould be cycling too frequently lt is limited in use-
lulness to smali plants qherc the auxiliary tnotors it starts are not Iargc and
consequently do not drsturb tbe elcctrical system or strain the mechanical
by th;ir fr;q\rent across-the-line starts. AIso, the cyclic temperature varia-
tions in the iteam generator are undesirable in larger units' However, it is
inexpensive; also it is desirablt' whcre modulation of fuel fiow to light
loads produces infcrior combustion, as in the case with pressure. atoutizing oil
.bumers. Sometimcs a hybricl control is practieed, viz., modulation for the
upper rangcs oi load, timing for the Iight loads.
-'Meteing
control. In this system the operation of the controller directly
belaices co'ntrolled magnitude (duct pressure, draft loss, etc') against pri-
.
 CoNTROL OF GAS LOOP FLOWS ,to8
mary control impulse received from a master regulator. In metering c61-
bustion control systems the control impulsc is gcnerally taken from-the drafl,
loss ploduccd by the flou'of gases across the boiler or across a paS; of the
boilcr. Thus in an air florv regulator of this type, the rnastcr scn.ler u.ould
causc a displaccment of the primary element of thc controller, rcsulting in
l rlampcr change rvhich scnds in more air to thc fuinacc. The incrcasedlgas
flou' through thc boilcr then produccs morc pressurc diflcrcnce in the dr;ft
Icad-s back to the controllcr, which iu turn brings the controller into lralance
at thc ncl' opcrating point.
Positioni.ng conlrol. This is also callctl ,,compensated controi.,, In this
syston the controllcd apparatus, such as fan rheostat or danrpcr lcvcr, is
brought to definitc prcdetcrmined positions cstablished by c;libratioD to
correspond to thc iroilcr output rcquired by thc control iurpulsr:. Thc cali-
bration is accouplisherl rluring the initial pha,scs of opelatioir of the control
system. The ltropcr positions of cquiprncnt for optiunrur air-hrcl ratio at
cach Ioad arc detcrrnincrl by nanual opcrrtions and thc rontrollcrs are ad-
justed so tbat they rvill assurne thesc positions.
In thc sirnple mcchanical variant of this system thc movements of air
flow dampcr and fuel feetl control are positioned bv onc controller which
rcsponds to signals from the master
"scnclcr. The single porver unit opcrates
hoth regulatirrg points u.ith mechanical linkages such as cable antl iheave,
shaft and lever, etc. Thc other variation is rcrnote positioning controi
consisting of individual powel units responding to impulscs from the steam
pressurc controller.
llany diffcrent successfui schemes of control have been placed in service
by thc several firms specializing in combustion control systems. The follow-
ing outlines somc of the possibilities.
1. Control stokel motor, forced draft fan, anci irduced draft fun specd from master
regulator. Purnrce pres-.ure rcgulator to operitc cn lroiicr outlet damprr.
2. Control pulverizer feeder and induccd draft fin from naster regulator. Furnacc
pressure reglllated by control on forccd dralt frn spoccl or dempcr positiol.
3. Control boiler outlct damprr b1- master regnia.tor (sternt Prcssure). Control
stoker specd b1' air-florv-stcam flo.rv rehtion. Iurnlcc pressurc reguiated b1, varying
folced draft, through fan outlet damper, from fitrnrcc pressure controller.
4. Control induced draft by damper actuatcd from -ctcaln pres,.urc master con-
trolier. Control Iurnace pressure b)' rcguiator \.hich operates forced draft ftrn iniet
vane position. Usc gls flo$., as mctcrerl lry pres-"nre drop lcross boiler pass, to control
coal fecd.

Sleoln

cs=

Frc. 12-52 Typical master rgulators.

fi4 THE GAS LOOP
12-14 Combustion control equipment. Combuetion control systems
consist of the following elements
1. AII eleme[t sensitive to the quantity to be controlled (usually st€am pressure)
and which is capable of iDterpreting the variation oi that quantity as a signal that
is easiiy and quickly sent to the controlle$. This element is variously called master
legulator, mastcr sender, master controller. Some actuating principles are shown in
Fis. 12-52.
2. Power units celled controllers, receiving regulators, operators, o! drive units.
The source of po$er can be compressed air, oil or water under pump pressure, or
electricity. Electric systems use solenoid plungers and motors. PDeumatic systems
use piston and cylinder units, as do the oil and Nater types. Pover utrits need to
include some lorm of compensator that will halt the motion at some definite point
fol each signal strength. The compensators slabilize the power units and prevent a.
small change in signal from causing a complete contrcller stroke.
3. A signal medium which can be (1) high- or low-pressure air, (2) oil or water
prcssurc, (3) elcctrical, both porver and electronic. The high-pressure oil and
pneumatic systems have compact powerful contfollerc, but use considerable energy
(espccially tlre pneumatic forms) in keeping up a supply oI the signal medium. For
example, a 5-hp air compressor, ruDning at 50% capacity Jactor, is needed for a

m
rl

tsFl
___.J
Hnea^ cotp. Hav. cup.

Frc. 12-53 Controllers. Thc Hagan machine rcceives a variable air pressure fron the
rr{ster end rerds lvith a reciprocating stroke of the yolk, to which the operating rod
m&y ))c attachcd. Compensator action is mechanical. The llays machine receivee a
mechanical motion from the master and rercts with electric circuit control. Compensator
rctiotr is ptr.,umatic.
COMBUSTION CONTROL EQINPMENT 506
3-boiler control system. Coryersely, electrical systems &re liable to be more tricky
to maintain ard to go out oi order on less provocatioo thaD the mecbanical systeEs.
4. Mea,Ds to adjust load between boilera, to adjust air-fuel ratio while boiler
is in service, aad to override the automatic system with menual control. Atr exa.mple
of this is shown in Fig. 12-54, which diagrams a two-boiler system of the reEot€
coutrol positioning type with preumatic power and lo-,v-pressure air signal.
As the details of construction of the various units with which maru-
facturers sssemble con rol systems to meet the individual owner's nedg
are almost innumerable, and as they are constantly in the process of develop-
ment, only a few of the Ddncipsl€s of the mechanisms are shown ln accom-
panying figures. For further information the reader will need to consult
manufacturers' bulletins or special works on combustion control..

B:;r,:rl:'r.
va D,.,td.-1991-",-'."_-+r

T'

Frc, 12-54 Remote positioning control arranged for two spreader-stoker-fired boilers.
Valves, drains, filters, and gauges omitted.

PROBLEMS
(ID = Induced drclt; ID = Forced draft)
1. Assume an emergeocy storage of 10% of the annual coal consumption is to be
carried for the piant meutioned in Prob. 20, Chapter 2. \fhat acretge of storrlge are!
is ueeded assuming square base, slide slopes 22", dcpth,t.6? B, density 888 kg/D! ?
2, An open coal yard has dimensions 311.0 E x 15.2 m.Eow msDy tonn€s of coal eo
bo8tockpiled oD ittoadepth of i.oo lu, side slopes 35'?
3. Select the size of a cylindrical coal bunker(s.os Iodia.)Ior holding the one-half
month coal storage required in.a small plant having one l5OJrp 6rc tubc boiler. \Yest
Virginia coal, fire banked from 5:30 p.rr. to 7:00 e.u. During the day thc average
load lactor is 55fr. Ir,lake anj'[ecessary assumptions.
4. Find the length of a suspension bunker to contain I8l toDa6.oi coal without
surcharge: Width, rb6;depth,4.3 lo.What $'idth of colrvcyor belt would have the
capacity to fill it in 2 hours, running at {6.7 lol6ia?
5. Calculate the tons of co&lofEoo talEsdensity held in a Berquist type butrker
2l,g E loDg, 4,0 rB wide .nd4,6 ,D deep, pith surobslg6,

t See special eection Potrrer, December 1949.

506 THE GAS LOOP
6. Calculate the principal data lor & belt conveyor to transport lStotDcs pot hr at
20'. Length to be suficient to give 3t.6lr rise. 1750-rpm motor, V-boii drive to
helical gear speed reducer. Belt speed,6l mroin-Discharge over tail pulley.
7. Calculate the plincipal data for a lo., mhorizont&lsclew conveyo! foral tone
coal per hr, about 60 rpm. \{orm gear speed teducer. 1750-rpm motor.
8. Calculatc the driveshaft pos'er and flight size for a18.3mflight conveyot to
transport 30 tanqescoal per hr at30.5 m/miqincliDstiou 30". Efrective fliEhL arce,\OEo
of surlace area. Ailow22.3 L8per mfor strand weight. Standard flight sizes are q),
oE, 38,I om, 45.7 0!i,61 om wide and IO., 06, 16.2 ctn, 20.3 06, 26.4 oqhigh.
9. The individual buckets of a vertical elevator cauy 3.6 tgeoal and are spaced
g0.6 os apalt olr the chain. Sprocket wheelt slqndis. Chailspeed, 7e.t oF!i!. Height be-
tween sp;ockets,E.l 6 Drive:1?50-rpm motor trar'ough sprockets and steel roller chain.
Sperify the drive and diagram the conveyor.
10. Speeify the belt conveyor that will carry 73 toraor of coal per hr atolE,
inclinrtion 12'. L, E. No lrjPper. Drive from 1750-rpm motor through double
reducrron qcrring ionsisting of on. spt cllr and one so{.ast teerh
11, Thi power plant with the load gtven in Prob.3, Chapter 2 is a steam plant
burning No. 6 hrel oil, 15" 86, of SSF 250 at 40rc. Roiary-cup tl'pe bu.ner. Boiler
efiicicncl', 80/o. I'lant stearn rate to tg per krt' hr. F,lctor of eYlrporltion, 1.15. Find
maximurn rate of fuel florv, Caily consumplion and preheat temperature.
12. A No. 5 residual oii rated 250 SSU at 37.8oC is to be burnbd in a centrifugal
type atomizcr. lf ill it rcquire to be preheated if its tink temperature is 15.0'c ? If the
same oil rvere to be llrrned in a pressure atomizipg burner how maay rvatts e]ectrical
input t'ou1d be required for tlie prcheater u'hcn florv is 3.79 litre/Ei! ? A6sume
speci0c gravity of 0.93, specifrc heat, 0.55 rosl por kg pot dog o/.
13. Find thc -cterm consumed per hr to preheat heary oil ior burning in a sieanr
atomizer per 3.79 iltr6./oin flow. Assume specific gravity 097, sieam at l4.l k8/cE' 8'
saturated, oil in tank heated to minimum required tempereture for pumping. Visco-
simeter. test oD oii, SSU 1150 at aA39c,
14. Given following Bagtest Sampler data, find required dillerential manometer
pressure ior j'i test spot $here pitot-static in the duct gives a readiDg ofl.E oo water'
Sxrnplrng r rozzle, rs.od mE dia.; bn6ce dia.,26.a; coemcient, 065. Flue g:1s, 28t" c;
sample cooied to 143.3rc.
i5. Th" g,,. l elocity through a dust sampler having been properly adjusted, it
was oper:,t ct[ 20 min at 3.001 cm ira ter frcssurc acloss the 2o.s mm dia. orificeaqd collected
0,004 kg dust. The sampit'r nozzlo is 26.7 Inm dia. Sample temperatu!e.li 6.8'; flue ga8
temperature, 232.2"C . :\ssurne orifice coelficient = C.61' Iind.gas loaciing in graDs per
cu ootre.
16. Itis touod tht thc gas Io; diDg in theor.4 cm x 121.9 cE brecchiDg of a pulverized
coal fircrJ plunt is 9.61 grards/rn3 and thc gas velocity i8 r2.2 rn/eeo. A collector'of
8016 elicicnci' i-. installcri. Horv rnucir dust ccn it be cxpected to coliect, t8 per hr?
17. .{ :-prender stoker l)llnt is l:sumcd to have 3 gas dust content as shortn in
Fig. 12-11 i) ,rnLl a gns londirft of 4.58 grsos/m3. If a louvre type collector is instailed,
{,ith chrrictcristics as shorvn in Fig. 1f-!5, n'hat gas loading ca.rr be expec(ed lt the
collecror's our ler :'
18. An air prellerter consrsts ofs.3 Emflst plstes 91.&m wiie by I ^ highplst'€s
spaced:l.t *-oc. Both edge passagee arc for air. Mass flow,26860L8:8as lro. mr'hr.
triows:gas,$ssg kgper hr; 4ir,38566 k8 per hr'-G&€ ln at37t.l'c out at ,o'. Air in at
io.rl'c; out at r48i'c. (o) Fiqd tJ ii c,,-is u.2l'for atr aBd o.2b'for grs. (b) Find.the
oecessary heatrng surfaee, u-sing Eq 12-1.
19. 'Ihe air preheater described by the previoue problem has 37t.6,!' hcati,lg
surlace in the fletes- Horv mrnl' plites are required? lVhat is the necessary height
of each?
.kc.l p€. Lg pe,r ds8 C.
PROBLEMS fi7
20. Find the coefficient of film conductance for gas florving through a 6o.E ral! air
T
heater tube havitrg {.?6 Ern w&ll thickDeEs. ermiDat temperatur€8, 309'C, t o"c . Gas
velocity, f0.7 m/!4. Average tube temperature, z3a.rPC.
21. Test data on a 30i7 -r plate tl'pe heater are: Air flow. l5d fl8 LB pe! hr'
Air; in,37.8"; out,220.l'; gas, in,336.7"; out,182.tr, all 'o. Calculate the over-all
coeflicient oI conducta,nce.
22. A pltte tvpe recupcrative air heater is to be arranged lvith suficient surface
to cool gas from382.2" to 287.8"c atthe same time heatiug air from Lo' c. Air:gas, by
rveight = 0.95. Both gas and air passages arc recta[gulafP'6 cD x 76 cm.Msss flow
of ga6, il9,20o L8 per hr-ar Predict the over-all conductanDe from the thernodynamic
parameters.
23. Assuming that the results of Prob. 19 ale 146 plates and2.76 mheight, find tbe
gas and air outlet tempcratures \yhcn, at palt load, G =lg530Ig per hr-rtr, tl =szo.t"O.
Same A-F rrtio and slrne pcrcentage of air heated.
24. 'lYhat pres-.urc, om \yater, will give air at 93.39C atld 10.9 oE static pressure &
velocitl- incrc;rse from 0 to ?31.5 m/Ein ?
25. Find th. draft loss in rectangular breeching 2.59 m x 9.66 6 x 30.'18 4loog when
196 mr,ls€oflue gas of 0.?69 kg/m3 density are flowing.
26- l\'hat is tho friction loss, otr of rvater,iu a ,14 m dhm€ter chimney 0l Dhigh
up rvhich gris is ilolring rt g.l4 rn/Eoo? Gas density,0.67?6 k8/Bq
27. FIue gas (1? = 28.3) enters c tlperinq brecchir\g at 16.24.o/.6c, 5'6 cE water
vacuumSo4.4oc.Brceching is short atrd well iusulated. It tapers from l.?aor at ialet
to 3.02 ln. rt exit. lt-qtimatc the exit vacuum, essuming incompressible florv.
28. r\ concrcte rir trul.l Nhich carrics atnrospheric air is coilpo.sed of two
sections, ono 6l crEx 76.2 cm x 16.70 ttr loog, followod by one 6l c-ni x At.? @ x 0.14 m
long. Flow through the large section is 311.4 o8/6ir,then the flow divides and165.7 loll
mia continue ou tbrough the small section. Find the drult loss over thewhole tu-Enel
length. There are onc 90" and two ,15' turns iD the tunnel.
29, A concrctc cir tunnel, plan a$ shown, is
to cany283.9 Er8/Eia air from .4 to B. tr'ind co
$ rtcr air plenum at B. /C=12.rgrDofol o!!Xr6.2 od
c
tunnel. CB =9.l4aof 0l c.o x 45.? 06 tunnel.
30, The produtts of combustion of 636 Lg
B
l'rc. I2-r9P
I'ocahontls coal per hr pass through a breeching
tt,26orc and7.62 E/sec. Ikccss air, 50/6. Assurne square section trreeching and find its
dimen:ions. Sel lcvcl.
31. Estnnrrlc thc required cross-scctional arca of tie air ducts serving this boiler
phnt- 1, :, and 3 lire (rter tube boiiers using
\Ycst Virginia hituminous coal. th = Al{o0
J/g1 llx..s-. nir, simuitaneously: l, 707a; 2,
i0%; 3, loo%.
32. E..timete the rcquired cross-section^l
arta ol tlie fluo g,rs prsslge; oi the plant men-
lioDed in Prob. ll1. Llxs vciocit] , 9.lr n/sgo.,
}'lc. 12 IIP
temp.,287.8rc.
33. An air duct conr,.J's 0m00 kg air per hr between an cir -helter and a
prlverizcd coal burner. ,\ir temp., 107.9rC, delivering to burnerat6.08 omlrrtpr. L€sgth
27. t 3 r. sr'ith two 90" bends.33.l mrE mag3€sie heat insulation. (a) Find dimensions ol duct,
rfsquare. rl,t Find tr-,trl rl] heid jrt hclrtcr. (d) Esr,i]]iate heat loss per hour.
34. The tr m l,rr:rt rr" of ,ir in a76.2 .- x 50.8 cItr air duct iE l0S.3"cPitot--"ta'tic explora-
r

tions give 8.76 cEpitot her!d,7.87 oest"rtic head. Barometer, ?8o.tDlnflg. What is the
weight of air flow, tg per triin?
35. Del€rmine tbe rE3/mia fle.e air (21.r'C ,00 I!!m Hg) rquired of a Fp fen 11hich is

.Multiply by 0.139 to obtein QO ia Lc6l/ka

508 THE GAS LOOP
io supply a stoker \ ith enough air to lx 50/o excess when buming 680 kg bituminous
coal per hour.
36. Consider Pig. 12-39 to rcprcsent a certain ID fan performance on 2l.l.air
at 1140 rpm. The rating point 7.09 cmrhaft,600'7 mr/mia.lvith change of speed, could
this fan be used to produce 421.t at/Ei! at 87.8qoi.62 omdraft. What damper action,
if any, is allowable?
37. An I'D lan rvhen driven by a constant-speed motor produces a pressure of
20.t2 oawater whe[ 0 =1416.&lbs/l!iD.Whetptessure,would itproduce ol same air if Q
were made 2265.{ rf/oin? Whalwouldltre the lelative speed and power?
38. A boiler plant is expected to burn 7{0.3 kg ol 8r75o J,/g' coal per hr with
44% cxccss air. The gas loop is designated in
Fig. 12-38P. The boiler dlalt loss isl.la oE&t this
rate of combustion, and ttre fuel bed resistance
is8,r6 oE w&ter. Find the dmlt available at the
base of the chimney. Find the pressure drop re-
quired of the boiler outlet damper irt older to
Ftc. l2-38P have 0.26 o.D fumace pressure.
39. Find tho fan drive horsepower tr-r be recommended for the installation of
Fig. 1248P assuming that the total efficiency of the fan is 7O/e, at lated capacitv.
,10. A cold air fah which has been operating against a static dlaft 7.62 6m&t 900rpm
isshiftedto a newdutvwherels.24 omplenum is desired. Find the nerv speed, power, and
air delivery, for constant efficiency and density.
41. Find the pouer required and deliverv of a fan at 1200 rpm rvhen its 1080 rpm
chrracte stics arel60lrdlmin,26.4 oE static prersure,l!1.5 hp.Temperature coDstsnt at
260"0 . Emciencl' constrnt.
42. A certain FD fan delivers to a system whose I( (Eq 12-ll) is l.18lxlo-ot.
A static prcssure of 8.89 cm $ater is wanted at the outlet ol this system at a lated
flow of ll33 6lmin,If this fan's ch&racteristics at 1125 rpm a.e as shoivn in Fig. 12-40,.
and an allos'ance ofo.04 cm damper Ap is made, what are the required speed and drive
power for the fan ?
43. Calculate the data for ond plot a curve covering optimum combination of
Dia. X Ht. vs Dia. of a masonry chimney which is to produce an available draft of
9.41 oro wate! +velocity hea<i.Gas tempcrature,3lS,6oc; atmospheric tbmperature, 4,1'C.
Fucl is 2948 kg pcr hr of hitlminous coal burned rvith 100% excess air. Qr = 302{0
JIsr Location, 457 m above sea level.
44. The products oi combusiion of r designated coal from Table 5-4 arc discharged
through a guyed steel stackgl.4cm inside dia. X22.9mhigh (above breeching en-
trance). Gas temperature in breeching 3t5,6"c, atm l5,6"C, sea level. Rate of fiIing
810.6 kg per hr. Find the available draft when (a) 60/p and (b) 100% excess ai! is
used.
45. Piot thc height-diameter combinations against chimney gas velocity for a
m,rsonr)' chimne1' serving a boiler in which the fuel is nr,tural gas (\lonroe Field,
Tabie 5-4). Combustion equipment can burn .t246 ID8 per hr. Natrual draft.
Exccss air, 159i. Lowc.st flrre grs tcmperature on day of maximum ltmospheric
temperrture ( 35.c )is218.3'. Sca level. Gos measure.latT62 mmHg otrd 16.6"c.Draft
losscs: Burner,o.SoB om;boiler,o,seo orr breechitrg,0.264 c6II2O.The calculated products
of combustionoi a mol pl this gas are 962, 0.9786; H2O, 1.861; Or, 0.286; N2, 8.39,1 mols.
46. T\yo 185.8 E2 boiiers, eadh with 2.13 Bx-1.63 xogrete area, r'ill have a natural
d(rft stoker, using lndiana bitullinous corl, Ilaximum ratiDg. 150%. Exeess air,
100%. ExDecled lroiler efficiencl', 759i; flue gas terrperature, 279.4'C; boiler loss,
0.711 cmibreeching loss,Lr.55g om- -F'irrd the most eqodomrcal ploportioo8 by Deidern's
Rule. Do these seemto be reasonable fot structural stabiltty ? Atm, 16,7'c.

rifi tiply by 0.239 to obtain voluo iD kcolfg

tFor D. in cm.
PROBLEMS 509
47. The products of combustion of 696 kg per hr Pocahontas coal ere to pass
througb a breeohing at 20ooo 8nd 7.0 D/eoo'then through a masourychimneyt0.0 Ehlgh
&od,.62 !E iusidediameter at the top. Sea level local,ior.. fi/6 excess air. 2l.l'c atmos-
phere. (a) Iind the required dimensions of a square breeching. (b) Fitrd the evailable
chimrey draft.
 CHAPTER 13

]THE trEEDSTATER. N,OOP

l3-1 Function of the Water Loop. The water loop might be said
to have as itspurpose the conversion of condensate into hot boiler feed at
I pressure suffciently above that of the boiler to cause the conect flow into
the boiler, that is, correct from the standpoint of feedwater demand under
variable load operation. The elemcnts of this loop in the portion extending
between the condenser and the boiler are shorvn in Fig. 13-1. As is seen there,
a pump must first remove the condensate from the condenser. IIake-up is
then added to counter&ct loss of the working medium throughout the cycle
from blowdown, leaks, etc. The condensate is heated, put under pressure
by a boiler feed pump, then further heated. Its condition then is one having
a temperature approaching, and a pressure exceeding, that of the boiler
rvater. It is finally regulated for the desired flow into the boiler.
The remainder of the water loop consists of the flow at diminishing pres-
sure and enthalpy, but in the form oi vapor, from boiler through turbine to
condenser. This part, of the water loop has been covered in Chapters 10 and
1I, and our present concern is with that portion diagrammed in Fig. 13-1.
There the equipment is generalized. Details of actual systems vary greatly,
and often involve a complexity not suggested by the diagram. The technical
problems of design and operation of this phase of steam plant engineering
are conveniently gtouped under:
l. Water Treatment. Water quality, and operating dificulties originating
in inferior water. Remedies and preventative treatment.
2. W ater Heati,ng- "lhe reason for heating has been alluded to previously
i:r this volume, especially in Chapter 8. Here we deai with details of heaters.
3. Water Pressuri,zing and, Regulation. Pumps and feedwater regulators.
At high boiler pressures the feedwater treatment should be adequate to
continue the surfaces of the boiler in approximately the same condition as
when new. Once in the boiler, the water is first heated to saturation tem-
perature, then evaporated at the point ol contact with hcated tube surface.
In general, the steam is free of all impurities the water might have contained
(except dissolved gas). Impuritics are left in the boilerrvater whose concen-
tration thereby increases. The point of evaporation being the tube surface,
there is every opportunity for the impurities to deposit on these surfaces as
a ecale. When uutreated feedvater produces enough scale on the boiler sur-
510
WATER CONTAMINATION_ITS EFFECT 511
faces to interfere with heat transfer, or when it contains elements whicb
either corrode or alter the strength of the boiler metal, feedwater treatment
rs necessary.
The higher thc rate of heat transfer, the more important it becomes tc
keep that surface scale-Iree, because the scale can both reduce the steaming
capacity and cause overheating of the tubes. As steam generation goes to
highcr pressures and rates of evaporation, the feedwater problem becomes
morc important and more intricatc, even to the ext€nt of rcquiring specialized
physical and chcmical talent for its solution.

Frc. 13-1 Equipment of the water loop

Though it is primarily installed to promote higher thermal efrcienc-v, the

heatiug of boiler leedwater introduces threefold benefits into pl&nt operation.
1. Heat which would otherwise be wasted, if diverted into feedwater,
represents fuel savings. Less obvious, but nonethelcss tangible, is thc im-
provement in efficiency by regeneratively heating the water loop.
2. Thcrmal stress which can be induccd in boilcr surfaces by impinge-
ment of cold water streams is minimized or eliminated.
3. Ileating feedwater increases the steaming capacity per squar€ tncEe of
installed boiler capacity. This bccoines of increasing importance at high
pressurbs, for then hr is a substantial or even major portion of hs.*
One sees that ieedn'ater heating incrcases thermal eficiency and boiler
capacity. Balancing the cost of thc n'atcr loop cquipnent against these
savings is a lactor ernploved bv designing engineers to decide on thc cxtent
of heating the circumstances rvarrant. Horvever, some heating is ahlost al-
*,ays justrfied.
13-2 Water Contamination-Its Effect. Natural waters usually con-
taiu clissolvecl salts aud gases, and some organic and inorganic matcrial in
suspension. They rarelv are neutral in reaction. The dissolved salts are
.At 9&6 Ls/chr a,b, ir is 515%; hlr,,85%.
 .THE
Itz TEEDWATER Loop
r:hie8y ihe carbonates, sulfates, and chlorides of calcium, sodium, and mag-
nesiun.r, and occasionally somc iron, aluminum, or silica salts. Oxygcn and
crrhon dioxitlc are the gascs. The suspended matter is usually alumina and
gilica in tbc form of urud and silt or, if organic, seu age and inrlustrial wastes.
llhcn thc impuritics find their rvay into the water of a boiler, they re-
main there until (1) thc)' are neutralizcd by some intentionally produced
internal chemical rcaction I (2) they are removed by boiler '*rter blowdovrn;
or (3) they protluce operating difficulties which. if continued unabated, may
finally lcad to clisuse of the boiler or to explosion. The troubles caused by
tlre lceding of rvatcr of undesirablc qurlity arc sciling, corrosion, foaming,
plimin$, and crnbrittlement.

Gro!nd;
Co on.t aI bicorbonot€s
os HfOr
di5sotv€d O?

Frc. 13-2 Some ".ourccs of impurities in ground rvater.

Scaling. Prirnarily scaling results from the decrease of the solubility of

some salts rvith increase ol temperature. One chemical mechanism used to
cxplain scaling is a reaching of chr:mical saturation by the vater in the
boiler, then a beginning of precipitation rvith sedimentation forming a Iayer
,rf scale on the heatirrg surfaces and loose precipitate in drums. But more
iikely, heating surface scaie is produccd by crystallization of scsle-forming
salts lrom a locally supcrsaturated layer of water lying on the heating
,rurface. This forms an inclustation at thc point of evaporation
Scale is due marnty to salts ol calcrum and magnesium and, to a lesser extent,
ro siiicates. Calcium is the principal offender, particularly calcium sulfate. Cal-
cium ard magnesium bicarbonates are broken down by moderate heating (lOd
C) into the relatively insolnble monocarbonate and CO2. The reactions are:

*
J1
* COr
Ca(HCOs)r heat---+ CaCOa + H,O

MS(HCO')z t heat ---+

{1* Cq + IIp
I\.IgCOr
WATER CONTAMINATION_ITS EFFECT 513
Magnesium sulfate is fairly soluble in hot water, and chlorides are usually
sufficiently soluble not to be troublesome. Sodiurn salts are so highly soluble in
hot watcr that not only a.re they nonscalc-forming, but some chemical treat-
ments intentionally replace Ca and I\{g with Na. But unfodunately caicium
sulfate has solubility varyinq from 3200 ppm inl5.6"C water to 55 ppm in 227'
C water, and 27 ppm at 3l6oC
Scaling may take place in boiler drums or tubes, heater ti.lhes, and fecdrvater
plping. Its efiect on the piping system is to choke t"he flow, req.riring an inr"rcrse
of pressure to maintain water delivery. Its effect on heat transler surfaccs i-s to

r'

-."&-
':t4

Hartlotd Stetn tsoild lnstnrtut s_ ltutdr,, Ce

Frc. 13-3 When a boiler drum lets go! General viev of a wrecked boiler room sug-
gesiing the destructive forces set loose after lack of feedrvater treatment, or incorrec!
feedwater treotment has done its work.

decrease the transfer. The accumulation of scale may become so thick that the
temperature drop from gas to water is principally through the scale. \\'hcn this
condition occurs, overheated tubes, blistcring, and rupturing may be expcctul.
The scales that are tightly adherent and tough are the worst from the stanrl-
point of removal. Othcrs are adherent but soft, whereas still others are brittlc
enough to be removed by tube hammering cleaners. Boilcr water conditioning
often seeks to precipitate the impurities in the boiler as a soft sludge which can
be removed by blowing down. Antiscale treatment consists of removing the
scale-foirning elements or replacing them v'ith extremdly soluble salts.
\Yhen scale has formed, tubes are cleaned with wa.ter- or electric-powered
rotary brushes and cutters which are pushed through ihe tubes during boiler
 5I4 THE tr'EED\YATER LOOP
overhauls. Some large, high-capacity boilers, however, have long multi-bend,
small-diameter tubes such that working out the scale rvith tube cleanels is not
'practicable. AIso, the maxirnum thickness of scale pcrmittccl in thesc high<luty
boilers is so little that cutting it out vould not lcave tubes sufficiently clean.
Rather, scale is dissolved rvith weak acid baths. Prirnarill' the operational in-
tent is to preuent scale.
Corrosi,on. By corrosion is meant thc destructive conlcrsion of rnetll into
oxides or salts. It may occur any place in the rvater loop, but i-q rrost fcarcd in
the steam gcnerator because that is a "pressure-fired vcsscl" containing large
quantiiies of saturated water. But heatcrs, pumps. and piping arc also attacked.
Corrosion is due to an acid condition of rvatcr, or to oxygen, carbonrdioxide, or
chlorides. The most scrious factor in corrosion is thc dissolvccl oxygen. The per-
missible limit of oxygcn content varies with the acidity of the rvater anrl the
amount of scale on the tubes but should not exceed 0.5 cc per liter. Evcrr this

Hanlord Steon Boilet l*tpecriol b l'l,twancc Co.

(A) (B)
t'ro. 13-4 Results of rmsuitable boiler water. (A) Extreme cases of scaling in rvater-
tube boiler tubes. (B) Caustic embrittlement cracking of a boiler blow-ofi flange.

would not be permissiblc in high-pressure units. Oxygen entcrs a closed systcm

through make-up, condenser leakagc, open surge tanks, condensate nump pack-
ing, ctc. The corrosion may be a general loss of mct:rl over the whole tube surface
or a localized action. The latter is the more serious as it produces pitting and
grooving. To prevent corrosion thc boiler water is maintained alkaline and, if
necessary, the feedwater is processcd to reduce the oxygen content to a sale
value.
Actually corrosion is a complex subject-anci a highly important one be-
cause of the immense annuai damage for which it is responsible. It is probably
the most frequent cause of damage to power boilers. The steam and condensate
lines it may attack are often loc?lte.l in such inaccessible sites that replacement
is costly and time-consuming.
Generally, most coriosion is of an electrochemical nature in.r'olving an
anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte. In the water loop, iron will go into ionic
solution (pure water is an excellent solvent) because a steel surface is anodic,
the water will be a weak electrolyte, end a cethodic reaetion will follow any dis-
WATER CONTAMINATION-ITS EFFECT 515
ruption of the hydrogen film that plates out on the ferrous surface when the
iron goes into solution. Dissolved oxygen, which becomes very active as the
water temperature increases, will unite with the atomic hydrogen, forming H2O
and producing the necessary cathodic reaction for progressive corrosion.
Oxygen corrosion occurs typically as small pits and depressions, often
covered with a crust or scab of black Fe3Oa. For one reason or another, oxygen
attack is often localized rather than being a general wastage over a large area.
In such cases deep pits are formed and rapid failure follows.
Corrosion fatigue has recently been discovered. This is difrorent from
mechanical fatigue, although repetitive stressing (as by thermal strains caused
by irregular condensate flow in steam conduits) is necessary, as well as galvanic
conditions. Fatigue and corrosipn seem to act simultaneously, having an accel-
erating efiect on each other and contributing a definite reduction in fatigue
endurance.
There is no positive way to discover and assess corrosion damage other than
to rcmove the surlaces from service and examine them csrefully.
Boiler operators who have been treating feedwater for absolute prevention
of scale sometimes protect against corrosion by applying protectiue coatings lo
the intemal surfaces of boilers and econornizers. The requisites of a successful
coating are toughness and elasticity so as to give with the expansion of the
metal a3d maintain an unbroken film, chemical stability at actual operating
temperatures, a negligible resistance to heat transfer, and a semi-permenent
adherenr"e to the mctal surface.
Foaming and priming. Foaming refers to that condition of boiler operation
where a stable foam is produced. It may or may not be accompanied by priming,
which is the production of wet steam or, in the aggravated case, glugs of weter.
Wet steam is indicative of faulty operating conditions in a power boiler; slugn
of water are liable to be very destructive to piping, engines, or turbines. Prim-
ing can be produced by other causes than foaming, for instance, carrying too
high a water level, insufficient disengagement area, or a pulsating steam demand
that overtaxes the boiler steam storage. Priming is also lrequently cause* by a
disturbed disengagement area-for instance, on high-capacity loilers where
tubes entering drums from water walls discharge at such high v6locities es to
disturb the water surface-
The source of loaming resides in the condition of the boiler water itself. Too
higtr a concentration of dissolved salts is a frequent cause of foaming. Foaming
results also from saponification of the boiler water through mixture of oil or
grease with the alkali. Floating organic matter is another source oI foam. When
foaming is due to concentration of salls in the water, the condition is relieved
by altefng the treatment or by blowing down more oI the concentrated water.
Normally, a steam boiler without drum internals will produce from 0.5 to
1.5/o moisture in the steam in the form of I mist or fog. This is not permissible
in the high-temperBture, high-pressure power plant. There the steam generqtor
has special internal purifiers in the drum. Then less lhara 0.1/o moisture can be
normal for the steam. Leakage past faulty internals could be the cause of ab-
normally wet stesm, as hell as foamirrg or priming.
Whatever the cause, the result is carryouer, that is, the presence of impurity-
bealing droplets of water in the steam flow. As this passes through a superheater
516 THE FEEDWATER LOOP
thc water is vaporized, leaving the solid carryover as a deposit on superheater
tubes, or a dust rvhich witl float with the steam as far as the turbine stage where
the expanding stcam enterB the saturated steam regime. There it may form
troublesome deposits on the turbine blading. Carryover can be qualitatively
measured by recording conductivity meters which determine the mieromhos of
the saturatcd stcam flowing past eiectrodes located in a steam pipe. Quantita-
tive determinaiion (ppm solids) requircs the withdrawal, condensation, and
analysis of steam -samples. Foanring is the most common source of carryover on
boilers equippcd rvitir drum intcrnals. 'l tsts have sometimes revealed foar,
blankets of i05 mm or more thickness above tlle drum water lcvcl
T1l)lo lli-l. FAOTOnS AFFECTING C-{.RRYOVER *
I I e c lt anic al C ondition s lVater Cowlitions Operatinq C onditiotx
Roilcr design Source and makeup Ilating
Dnrm sizcs Concentration Changes in rating
\rrmber of clrums Alkalinity Pressure
Dnxn intcrnds Organic matter Water level
Circrrlation Suspended matter Changes irr level
llacliant vs. convection Chemical feed Blorving flues
heating surfrce Inherent foaminess Blowing safetl'vrlve
*P. R. l'lrrce, "Carryover Pr-oblems," Combistiotl, NIarch 19,17.

Dmbrittlenrcnt. Although this is the rarest of all boiler "diseascs," it cannot

bc said to be so rate as to be unimportant. A serious Ieature of embrittlernent is
tbat, whcn failure occurs, it nay courc as a disastrous explosion, because embrit-
tlerncnt aflects thc drums and its presence is not detectable except on minute
scrutiny. Iinbrittlerucnt is attributeri to the prcsence of a certain concentration
oI sodiurr hydroxidc rn the absencc of inhibiring agencies. The steel loses its
toughness and cracks appear along the seams below the water line. They gen-
erally nrn lrom rivet to rivet, lollowing the intercrystalline structure. In cases
of cmbrittlcrncnt it has always been found that thc feedrvater was high in
sorliurn hicarbonatc which brokc down into sodium carbonate in the boiler Cnd
partially hydrolized. The reaction
1
NazCOr * HOH ---+ COr * 2 NaOH
assumes considerable proportions at the water temperatures in high-pressure
boilers. Prevention of embrittlement consists of reducing the causticity or add-
ing inhibiting agents. Formerly sodium sulfate was considered to be an inhibitor.
Rccent researches have cast doubt on the reliability of sulfate, meantime indi-
cating sodium nitrate as an emcient inhibitor of caustic embrittlement. ThiB is
added to maintain in the boiler a ratio of sodium nitrate to total alkalinity (as
NaOH) of 0.3 urinimum. It can be steadily added to feedwater either by a
chcurical proportioner or by doses to the boilcr drum via an internal chemical
feedcr (Fig.'13-9) . Water testing will control frequency of dosages required.
Flmbrittlcment is most likely to occur in riveted drum boilers. It is not un-
known in r,clrlcrl rlrurns, a vulnerable spot being where the tube errd is rolled into
thc drum. Conccutlrtion of caustic at a highly stressed point is a forerunner of
emlrrittlcmcnt. Whcrc cmbrittlement is a likelihood, boiler inspectors &re care-
ful to cxaminc vulncrablc points, even resorting to acid etching, &nd inspecfing
1VATER TESTS AN,D ANAI,YSES 517
with Inagnifying lens, A tcst of great rcliabilitl', rh sigucrl to slros rvlrcLlrcr em-
brittlcment conditions cxist, is t hc I i. S. IJurciru of llines lrrrlrit t lrrl(,irt (lctcctor
shown in Fig. 13-5. Thc dctector is dc-
signcd to produce conditions of stlcss in
thc test bar and conccntrations of boilcr Spec;ncn- \ Aoitur wdte";n
watcr at the stressed arca. Thc only con-
clusion that can be drarvn fronr the tcst tuJilning
is that (under accelerated crxrrlitions)
thc rvater is, or is not, cmlrrittling in
-c, .o
character. It is not a pcrfect test, but the
l,cst onc currcntly rr ailahh . Whr,re sori- fiait
ous conditions cxist the specimen usually 3,4
fails vrithin a month.
13-3 Water Tests and Analyses.
ir
eI
Thc rvater loop equipment has been
shos'n by Fig. i3-1 to be an assortmcnt
of devices to heat, prcssurize, and regu-
late rhc florv r.rf liquid rvater. Thcy func-
Wd
tion in scries on thc water llorr-. fbe
chcmical condition of the water-s'hat it p16. 1r-., Embrittlement detcct.r
tarric-s in solution or suspcnsion-is not a (patented). (Courtesy Pot4r'.)
matttr confined to any specific piece of
cquipment, but is measured at dillerent points for different purposes. Prcssurc,
tcmpcrature, and quantity measurenents of thc rvatel rvhicL suffice to dcfine it
physically are simple of exccution bccausc of thc liquid statc. Chemically, tlrt:
determination o{ state is more complcx-but cqually irnportant. This scctio,r is
mainly descriptive of tests for chcmical statc.
The pulity of the working fluid is of extreme irnportance to the safety and
lile of steam generators. The water involved may be:
l. Boiler uater. Actual liquid contents of the boiler, of which that in the
water drum is typical.
2. Btowd.own. \\rater that is drained from the boiler. Dcpending on the point
of bloq'down connection, this water may have equal or greater impurity con-
tent than the boiler water.
3. Feedwater. That water which is introduced into a boiler to rcplace the
evaporation.
+. tldu'uater. Natural watcr with such impuritics as the enrth has originally
endowed it.
5. Make-up of losscs. \,Iay be raw water or trcated ta\\' \vatcr.
If natural waters available were pure H:O, all tht folcgoing four itcms
would be nearly chtmically idcntical. But pure rvater is not to bc had frorl
natural sorrrces; evcn wrte.rs from municipal systcrns, ordinarily con-sidered
potable, arc not fit ldr contrnuous, uncontrollcd usc as fecdrvttcr.
Groundwater (r-ells and springs) has picked up rlissolved hardness in sccp-
ing through rock strata tlrt is usually cleor.
Surlate water (streanrs anrl lakcs) has pickcd up dissolvtd harrlness trrd
insoluble organic and inorqanic mattcr in suspcnsion. Accordingly it is frrrlid.
In general, natural waters nced soltening 1or thc rcrnoval of dissolvcd solitls
and sometimcs clarification lor the removal of turbidity.
5I8 THE FEEDWATER LOOT.
For the control ol water conditionirrg on an engineering basis, it is necessary
to rnake cedain chemical tcsts on various water samples, the nature of the tests
rlepending ul)o the systcrrl of treatment used and the extent to which condition-
ing reagcnts are rcquired. Opelators in steam plants have found it desirable to
uraintain a systern of test adjustment, since in the absence of information
furnished by such tests, watel conditions are unknovm. In Iarger power plants,
especially in connection with high-pressure operation, it is essential that an
appropriate control systcm be instituted and that suitable tests be made at
frcquent intcrvbls on representative samples from thc watcr loop. These tests
can bc expected to supply pertinent information on such important items as:
l. Variation in rnincral cLaracteristics of the raw water supply.
2. Percentages of condensate and make-up in the feedwater.
3. Efficiency of deaeration.
4. Condition of thc boiler water with respect to treatment adjustment.
5. Condition ol the boiler water with respect to blow-down adjustment.
6. Corrcction of fcedwater and boiler water for corrosion control.
7. Stearn purity.
8. Return Iine corrosion.
9. Condcnser lcakage.
10. Contamination of roturns from process units.
When erterlal softening systems are used, test control is necessary in order'
properly to adjust chcmical dosage or to determine regeneratio! requirement!.
Sarnples are readily withdrawn from the water loop on the discharge side of
the condensate pump up to temperatures of
8f-93" C. At higher tcmperatures the
sample would rreed to be passed through a
flash cooler before being liberated to atmoE-
pheric pressure. Engineers use portable
Cool.d sompl. odl.l shell-and-tube coolers for this purpoee.
These are piped to the desired sampling
points and connccted to cold water supply
,Cooli^g noi.. inbt
IDE with garden hose. Permanent installetions
are made as a boiler auxiliary in case it ia
ll
I dccided that \yaier control through sample
analysis will be part of boiler operations.
In collecting samples, clean glass con-
tainers are indispensable. lCollection of sam-
ples is sometimes a critibal operatiorr-for
example, those used for oxygen determing-
tion. A rubber tube is attached to the cooler
outlet and placed in the sample bottle,
2.? Cooling nol.r outl.l which is in a bucket. The bottle is then filled
@ cochnne co?p. to overflprving, and additional sample water

tr\c. 13-6 Section through g"", is ftowed tlrrough it until the bucket water
cooler for water sampiing. level is above the bottle mouth. Then the
ground glass stopper is inserted, under wa-
ter. Even with this precaution, and rvith the samplc thoroughly chilled leaving
the cooler, thc actrral oxygen test should be made within the hour.
 WATER TESTS AND ANALYSES 519
In the usual small plant, measurements of feedwater quantity arc rrade only
at the rare intervals r.hen the plant is being testcd. In such cases actual I'eigh-
ing is often used. Continuous flows are weighed by having two scaie tanks with
manual or automatic means of directing thc flow from one tank to the othcr. In
most large plants, and in some of the more efficiently operated small ones, a
continuous record of feed'w'ater flow is kept. The make-up water is most easily
measured rvhcn cold by standard cold-water rneters, either lrositir c di-splace-
ment, orifice, or venturi. Hot water measurement is more severe service, but
meters are available for this too.
A complete quantitative analysis oI feedwater or boiler watcr is a matter for
the chemical laboratory. Rapid tests rvhich may be performed lt thc plaut are
essential to control of the water ol large high-pressure, high-clpacity boilers.
in experienced chemist can set up these tests in a simplifierl fom so that an
intelligent station attendant can be instructed in their perfourrnce anrl can,
from thcm, maintain boiler water in a suitable condition.
H ardness. Ilaldness is due to clissolvcd
"salts
l'hich make it dificult to obts"in
'soap
suds in the wa{,er. The simplest hardrress test is tha s6s,p tcst. Htrdness is
determined by rnixing increrncnts of a standard soap solution with the s'ater.
'Thc sample is shaken aftcr each
addition and rvhen lather is prorluccd that will
last 5 mins the number of rnl soap soiution used determines the hardness.

Hardness 11, as caco3 : t' ml.,!'r',5-JP

ol simple
or^ (13-l)

where S = ml soap solution used ; S. = ml for lather in distilied water.

One U.S. degree is the equivalent of l7.ll mt calcium csrbonat€ per
litcr or i7.11 ppm by weight. Hardness by soap tcst is not an accuratc indi-
cator of feedwaier quality as it indicatcs such a solrrble salt as sodium chloride
as being equally hard as calcium sulfate.
A laige quantity of dissolved COz in the water s&rnple interferes with the
soap tcst and shor.rld be eliminated if present
The type of hardncss that can be removed by hcating to the boiling point is
tenpr.,raiy harrlness. This is also called "carbonate hardness," because it is
cffective in purifying water containing calcium bicarbonate or magnesium bicar-
lioqate in solLrtio".'the reactions have previously bcen given. The t oiling is
generally conductcd at atmospheric pressule (lOOqCI . Heaters using steam at
a fn* ig garge can also be considcred to treat for temporary hardness if
their interials-rnclude a filter for holding the prccipitated CaCOs and \'IgCOg.
Waters containing salts which precipitate only at highcr temperatures are
said to have permanerlt lzo;'dness. This hardness is removable by suitably
chosen chemical reaction. \Yaters having less than 10 degrees hardness are con-
sidered soft, while those having urore than 25 degrees are considered very hard
and rvill ahvays require treatmcnt
pll Scole. Pure rvater is tlsteleiss, odorless, colorless, and "ncutral " Natural
and commercial watcrs &re ncYer Pure. Becluse rvater is & most universal sol-
vent, an(l because of ionizatit,n, eithcr OH or IIt ions u'ill prcdotninate, caus-
ing either an alkaline or acidic conrlition .A. scalc, callcd plI, has becn devised to
measure the intensity of acidity or a)kalinitl- of a solution. An cxact definition
of the pH number is that it is the logrllithrrr of the reciprocal ol the hydrogerr
520 THE FEED1VATER LOOP
ion concentration (grams per liter). Just as tcrnpirrature is.measurcd in degrees,
so is acidit",* or alkalinity u.rcasured in pII valueu from I to 14. p! 1 is strongl!
acid, pH 14 strongly basic, and pH 7 a ncutral solution. pII 5 is 10 times as acid
as pH 6; pII 4 is 10 timcs as acid as pU 5 and 100 times ad acid as pH 6. As +
corollary of thc larv of mass action in dissociation, OH- X II+ =.10-14. For
instance, if H+ is I0-e, tlxrn OI{- is 10-5 gram ions per liter and pI{ 9 desig-
nates the solution l,hich, of coulse, is alkaline as OH ions prcdorninatc. Controi
by pH has bccn pidely adoptcd, and cx;uicncc has dcmonstrated thc pI{
valucs which should be nraintaincd. Control to hold alkalinit""- betwcen pH l0
and pH 11 is a common practicc. Although it miglrt, at ffrst, sccm that pH 7 was
thc dcsidcratum, thc fact is that iron rvill go into solution in pure water far more
rapidly than in alkr[nc \yatcr held bctween pH l0 and 12.
ALk ali nity. ..\lk ulinity is the condition of a predorninancc of OH- ions over
H+ in a solution. Thcre are uses of alkalinity as dctected by rncthylorangc and
phcuolphthalcin indicators and reportcd as hydroxidc alkalinity, carbonatc
alkalinitl,, ctc. Using standardized technique, the samplc is cclorcri u'ith
phcnolyrlrthalcin und titratcd with acid to an. end lroint. I'rcur tlrc titration
quintitl'. alkalinity rs gln CaCO,r is dctcrmincd. Lct this bc P. Thc sarirc
1.xnr1rlr'is thcn colorc(l l'ith methytorange and again titr.atcrl rvith acitl to an
cn(l l)olut. Thc totrl acirl used defincs total alkalinity as lpnr CaCO3. Lct this
be tlA 'l'ix'n rlitlr Ppu ol lrardncss, I{, and.thc data contained in Tablc lll-2.
cettrrin rrscl\rl iniorrration as to the nature of water hartlncssc,.rures to light.
.l'lLlc l3-2. ALIiALINITY ITELATIO\S
ll-furc uoter arnltrcis sltolts: Thzn tfuse Eiantities aL erped.d:

Free carbou
Caustic alcs
;i,tr: 'iT:: 'ff
bonates Hardncss Hard,ness
P*:0 I1* :0 0 0 M 0 0
P:O 'I! : ltlt*
II < 0 0 M H 0
0 0 II H 0
II>JI 0 0 M M tl -M
l'< lri2 H:O 0 2P M.2P 0 0
I' < lI /2 II < )I _21' 0 2P M _ 2.P 0
I' < M,t2 H-l.t-2P 0 2P M _2P H 0
t' : tI,i2 0 2P 0 0 0
t' > JI /2 2P-M zrM - P) 0 0 0
i[ 0 0 0 E
*P phenolphl lur lein rlknlinity, M= Eethylolarge alkslinity, I{ = harduess (E.1
=
l3-1) ; all in ppm :rs CraCOr.

Dissolued O, and COr. These two corrosion aocelerators s,re detected and
quantitatively measuretl by a chemical titration mutine rvherein the quantity of
titrating reagents is usecl to determirre the dissolved gases in ppm. Both tests
rntrst be carricd out soon after collecting the sample or their validity will be
under suspicion. Tlre oxygen tcst comrnonly emplcyed ie known as the Winkler
test. Special portable apparatus has been dcsigned to lacilitate carrying out this
test rapidly in the plant where the sample is drawn.
Other chemical tests for boiler water include those for chlorides, zulfatec;
WATER TESTS AND ANALYSES 521
sulfite, and nitrates. Calorimetric or gravimetric methorls are emptoyed for
residual phosphates, silica, oil, and dissolved solids.
Dissolued Soli.ds. Primary gravimctric tests for tlissolved solids involve tine
and equipment reqrrirements that place these methods outside the scope of
routine boiler water testing. However, special t1'pes of hydrometcrs and elec-
trical conductivity meters are available for making ficld tests of the mineral
content dissolved in watcr. Ilost of these are sufficiently accurate lor plant
work. Tolerance limits for TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) in boiier u.ater re-
quested by boiler manulacturers :lre set dorvn in Table l3-3.

Table 1&3. NIAXIMUM BOILER WATEI{ CONCENTRATIONS

RECOMMENDED BY AXIERICAN BOILEIT
I\{ANUFACTURDRS' ASSOCIATION
Boi,ler Steam Boilet l4,ater
Preseure Cott?,eitraltok
(LgrcBq (not ooer ppm)
0lo rl
ov€r tt ut{o 8,.
-
BS0O
3000
ovor 3l uplo 4t 2b00
ovo! 42 upro 69 2000
ovor 5, uBto 0g 1b00
ov6l 0, lpto 70 1250
ovor m upta l0t.6 1001
Alkalinity not to exceed 20% of total concentrzrtion.

C ornplete llater Test. Natural or rarv rvatcr is thc sultltly rilost Itc(1!!ntit
subjected to a full analysis. On account of ionization, it is irnpossiblc to cle-
termine by analysis of rvater the nature of each compound that l as dissolvcd in
it. However, testing can detelmine the dissolved constituents by ionic rucasure-
ments so that, although the results cannot state horv much of the cornpounds

Table 13-4. PROPERTIES OI COMNfON IONS

POSITTVE IONS NltC,{TlVE lor..s

Namt Fonnula I. tv.' Eq.lV. Name Fornula 1.1r.' Eq.ll'.

Aluminum Al+++ 27.0 9.0 Bicarbonaie HCO,- 61.0 01.0
Ammonium NII.* 18.0 18.0 Corbonate cor-- 60.0 30.0
Barium Ba++ 137.4 68.7 Chloride cl- 3t5 35.5
Calcium Ca++ 40.1 20.0 Fluoride F_ 19.0 19.0
Ifydrogen. H+ 1.0 1.0 Iodide I- 126.9 126.9
Ferrous iron Fe+ 55.8 Nitrate NOr- t2.0 62.0
Ferric irou Fe-# 55.8 18.6 Hydroxide oH- 17.0 17.0
Magnesium Mg* 24.3 12.1 Phosphrte 3 PO{--- 95.0 3l .7
Mangauese Mn# 54.9 27 .5 Phosphate 2 HPO4-- 96.0 .18.0
PotessiuD K+ 39.1 39.1 Phosphate 1 H,PO{- 9?.0 97.0
Sodium Na+ 23.0 23.0 Sulfate so,-- 96.1 13.0
Sul6te so3-- 80.1 l0.o
* L 1\'. = Ionic weight
522 THE FEEDWATER LOOP
such as calcium sulfate or magncsirrm carb'onate was in solution, the plus ions
(cations) and the ncgative ions (anions) may be separated out and measured.
Bccause of this fact it is reasonablc to rcltot't dissolved watcr impurities as ions.
in parts per niilliou by weight. Somc of thc common positive and negative ions
ol water analyses are shoq'n in Table 13-4. The equivalent wcights given there
are the wcights that contain or will "match up with" a unit weight of hydrogen.
For example, the molecular weight of calcium is 40, but its valance is ttlo com-
pared to hydrogen's oze. Therefore, its equivalent weight is 20.
Of coneiderable assistance in arriving at the trcatment requirements of an
analyzed wa{er is an arrangement of the soluble ions in anodic and cathodic
equiualgnts pdr dillion, "epm." To obtaiu an epm, divide the ppm of an ionic
substance by Lhe equiualent ueight. However, some analyses are composed of
"ppur as CaCOs"; then epm is the ppm as CaCOs dividcd by the equivalent
weight of CaCOs.
For a perfectly analyzed water the sum of thc plus epm's should equal that
of the minus epm's; however, since ionic water analysis technology is not usually
able to achieve this accuracy, the tester usually reports some +N& or -NOg
sufficient to make the quantitative balance. A breakdown of an ionic water
analysis into positive and negative epm is shown in the next example.
Example 1: The fotlowing ionic analysis of a water sample is in pprn. Equivalents
per million are obtained Ly dividing with cqnivalent weights taken irom Table 13-4.

reporkd
Ionic, as +epm -cPnL
Ca 29.0 .. .. ...... 1.445
NIs 7.5 .........0.620
HCO3 980 .... 1.605
so. 22.0 .... ...... ...... 0.458
NO3 2.1 ..... .......... 0.03.1
cl 9.2 ...... 0.259
2.06-0 2.356

A balancc is provided bv odding epm of 2.356 - 2.065 = *0.291 for Na. Ppnt
cf Na = 0.291 x 211.0 = 6.8. lYe would therelore add Na 6.8 to the ionic column, and
0.291 to the +epm column, tlrereby bringiug anions and cations into balance.
13-4 Deconcentration (or Blowdown). In plants using raw water or
chemically treaied \i'ater for nake-up, there is a steady accumulation of dis-
solved solids in the boiler water. Even where make-up is by evaporation, the
boilcr water concentration will increase, although slowly. There is an upper
,imit bevond which concentrations of total dlssolved solids ma1, produce trouble-
some foaming and earry-over. In individual rases local conditions may demand
even lowcr concentrations. Ciontrol of concentration is obtained by tvvo methods,
both invoh'ing draining off sonre of the concentrated boiler water.
1. Pcriodic manual blow-off. Employecl in slnaller planls and lhere ppm ol
solids in feedrrater is low.
2. Continuous flow deconcentration, usually accompanied by heat-saving.
Thc quantity ol blowdou'n that u'ill maintain a givcn status of the boiler
s'ater is rcadily determined by a balance ol solids in and out of the boiler. Fig.
13-7 is provided to ilhfstratc thc ouantities involvcd.
DECONCENTRATION (OR BLOWDOWN) 523
Every boiler must have a manually operated blow-pfr valve connected to the
mud ring or mud drum. If this ie opened at intervals some boiler water can be
bloqn out, carrying not only dissolved and suspended impurities, but also any
prccipitate or silt that may have gravitated to the bottom oI the boiler. The
water so removed contains the saturation heet of the liquid which, of course, is
entirely wasted. If the same quantity of water were removed in a slow but con-
tinuous stream, there could be equivalent deconcentration with simultaneous
salvaging of the heat in the blowdown via exchange with the incoming feed.

AOILER
B

J o
t

TO
COOLED TER

Fro. l3-7 Boiler wat€! decoDceDtration.

This is also schematically illustrated. Symbols on the diagram are defined as

follows:
IIs : Weigbt of Bteam eveporated during a given interval
trs = Weig[t of blowdown required in same intewal.
z- Fraction of mak+up in entire feedwater. (Remainder takeu to be
condensate. )

Su - Concentration rnointeined in boiler, ppm.

8- : Concentration in make-up water, ppm.
S{ = Concentration in feedv'ater, ppm-
lr, L : Heat exchanppr blowdo[ryr water 'temperaiures.
tr', t ' - Ileet exchaoger feedwater t€mperatures.

A balance of solids gives the equations:

SrITa * 1r",
= 25-17" (13-2)

SuPs - gr1E" -P Y"; (13-3)

524 TIIE FEEDWATER LOOP
These equations can be used in various ways to solve the blowdown prob-
lem.*
For example, a solution of lYs/lYg gives the rate of blowdown as a fraction
of steam gencrated. It will be shown how a knowledge of boilcr water and feed-
water concentrations can be used to determine the proper interval between
manual blowdorvns. In far too many small boiler plants this is done by an
assumed routine rlerived from fireman "experience" and usually results in more
water than necess&ry being blorvn dos,n. That this is an error otr the side of
safety does not alter the fact that it may be costing the owner several hundred
dollars a year. The cost of a sensitive hydrometer suitable for determining
boiler l'ater ppm is a small {raction of this.
Example 1: Suppose a rvater tube boiler rvith steam drum .1220 mm x l83o mta
Iong has normal r,\'rter at Did-drurr and is equipped with a26o Emgauge glass.
Oper:lting pressure,lo.6 k8/cro. ge. Irt it bc r"quiDd to determine the proper inten'al
bets'een blorvdorvns, assuming that a "half gauge'' rvill be the quantity blorrn off. The
boiier has :r steam flo\!,meter of the indicating-integrating t}'pe. Given Sr : 12 ppm,
Sr, = 2500 ppm.
Tlre volume of $atc! remored i3 approximately a rectangular volume 126 rDm x
1220 rn6 x 1830 mm, o! 0,28 lltl. It8 doBsity i8 881 Lg/ml at nh6 opetatioS Pr€ssuroi honco
s halr ga,u8e ie 247 kgol boil€r wsto.. Nop with Eq l3-3, l2llt" j 2471- 2500 x247.
Irs = Sl2oakg steem flov betireen bioNdo$ns. \\'hen the steam frorv integrator on
the meter sLo$ -. 61203 kg above the rcading at the tinle of the last blorvdorrn,
another haif gauge blowdos'n is in order. Fo! a safety allovonce in plants rvhere Su
is oniy occasionally checked, probably it nould bc better to u'.e 5O7o to i5% of.the
calculated IIlg for blcrvdorm guidance, then adjust it to a schedule routine in boiler
operation.
A manual blow-off system is an essential boiler attachment. It must be in-
stalled even if continuous blorvdorvn is practiced. Continuous blowdown equip-
ment is instailcd only if justified on the basis of heat rccovery, or sornc tangible
advantage to boiler operations. By a development from Eq 13-3, we can say that
the annual saving due to heat recovered from continuous blorvdown is:

Annual saving : o.00t [J7s x C x j&f

,5t - ,5r
dollars

rvhere tlTs : Estimated amual evaporatioD, thousands of !g

C: Dollar value of lOlJoulcs in the feedrvater.
A/rr : Heat saved per
Joulcs/kg between 11 and lo .
The blowdot'n requircd to keep the SiOil content of boiler water liw enough
so that vaporizecl SiO, will not promote turbine operating troubles may be more
than that to rnaintain rnaximum rvater concentrations on a total pprn basis. Thi*
should be checked lor all high-pressure cases. Eqs 13-2 and 13-3 are valid if
S',, Sr, S,, are taken to bc ppm of SiOr.
l'Iuch high-pressurc operating experience is ncedcd to fix allowablc SiO2
r Note that hrd az been the make-up ts a fractiol oI IFs.
SoII/o=S.(zzfg.l-I7s)
WATER TREATMENT 525
Iimits in boiler water. Some present recommendatiorrs are roughly indicated by
the following equation; however, future experience may well alter these.
Sutet) : 161.880.5t3 X (saturation temperature) ppm
-
Furthermore, plans lor use of continuous deconcentration equipment should
be checked to see where and how heat can be re-
moved from the blowdown water. Since it should
be cooled well below 93.3" G to eliminate flashing, Ft
the heat oannot always be dclivered to feedlr-ater,
for in a regenerative cycle the feed leaving thc last 60-s
rnE
heater might already be 149' C or more. Sorne heat 76.2 tDtD
might be delivered to the high-temperature feed,
and the remainder to prehcating the make-up. This
is implied by the equipment shown dotted irr Fig. 6"
l3-7. Also flash tanks could be installed and heat-
ing accomplished (ro l00o c) by nasted steam.
i';';_:"","1[:ii]i:ll:t i
Example 2: Given arurual amortization mte oI should bc about trvice that
20la; the justifiable irvestmcnt cost of a continuous .of expected maximum blow
blovdown syst€m lors 42 kg/omr ga boilcr will be colou- per boiler.)
lated. Dits : Arcrsgo rBto of at6sl[ g€t statioo 2,76 x loa
Lgdairy at 0.72 efficiency. The coal, rvhich costs g 9.37 p6r tonno, hss 2?.0x loc J por kg,
Make-up at 16.60 C,i,r = 0.03, Sh = 200, .S-1g,, = 2
From data of this chapter, So = 2000, Sb(sr) = 32,.Srl(Su - Sr) = II/s/lIls.
Wa/Wa:0.03 X 200/(2000 - 0.03 X 200) : 0.00301 for TDS control.
Wa/We:0.03 x 2 (32 - 0.03 x 2) : 0.00188 for Si control.
Thus total dissolved solids are found to determine the rat€ of deconcentmtioa.

lcWt = 2.76 xlos x 366 x lo-s - tOO4 x loskilokg p€r yes,!.

C: 0.37 x 10.(r0o0 x 27.9 x t@ x 0.721: gs.X7l27g x 22 p6r I0! Joute..
h: 4.C ;assume ro :27'C: then Ai.r = 993.2 x 103 Joul€s.
Justifiable investment : (I /90%XioO4 ,lF - 2P9*', x 0.O03rx s93.2 xt05): g 7003.
'Ihe cool effiuent lrom a continuous blowdown system may be directly
wasted, but the hot rush of lully saturated water Iollowing opening of the
manual blow-off is dangerous and must be flashcd and cooled before it can be
discharged to the scwcr or to surface drainage. Blou-off pits aod tanks are in-
stalled for this purpose. Thcse rcceive the blolr,-ofl r'atcr, Ict it flash, vent the
vapor to atmosphere, and dischargc thc cooled watcr to drainage.
13-5 Water Treatrnent. Tleatmeut can bc mechanical, thermal, and
chemical. Examples of mechanical treatment are sedimentation, filtration, and
interior painting. Distiliation and deacr&tivc hcating arc thcrmal processes.
Chemical treatmcnt rnay consist of chemical reactions tith prcpared reagents
lo cause precipitalion ol rr:iybe exposure to a zcolite in order to obtain an ioa
etclnnge.Ion exchange is ahvays carricd out on make-up or feedwatcr before it
enters the hoiler, but precipitation is practiced both external to and internally in
the boiier water.
526 THE FEEDWATER LOOP
" Internal treatment" means the addition of chemical reagents to \r ater al-
ready in the boiler. This is usually done by periodic additions of the chemical
rvhich is placed in a feeder attached to the boiler drum or shell and so piped
thct, aiter the feeder is filled and closed, feedwater pressure can be admitted to
force it slowly into the boiler drum. Pot feeders are available from manufactur-
ers; s,lso, one may readily be constmcted by a piping contractor, as shown in
Fig. l3-9. Openings,4. and B are connectcd so as to let
feedwater pressure either inject the chemical directly
to the boiler drum or to the suction side of a feed pump.
former is prelcrable where there are two or more
' The
boilers, each with its own feeder. Iltemal treatment
may then be individualized for cach boiler. As the
are usually more dcnse than water, they are
o reagents
displaced downward out ol the feeder by connecting I
tb the boiler and ,,1 to the feedwater header. Thus ihe
pres.ure drop across the fecdwatcr regulating va,lye is
E5G applied to the feeder. Tricocks enable the progress. df ,

EX zr"- feeding to be estimated, gauge glasses being useles$or

3: iE this purpose on account of internal incrustations by
thc chcmical. The line to thc boiler should be orificed
::! i or include a small valve such aa 3.2 rnm or.6.4 mmro
that the rate of rcagent fecd will be restricted and thc
ali{ fccdiag pcriod extard over an hour or more.
Internal treatment is widely en:rployed by operators
ol small boi\ers, a\\d by others \ihose ieedN8ter grob-
lem is not intensified by the presence of large ppm ot
dissolved salts in thc watcr. It has also been employed
to give supplcmentary tteatment whele external soft- i
ening is the principal treatment. I{orvcvcr, ihe plant
I'rc. 13-9 Attachment operator should not expect any good results unless he
to . feed chemicals for adjusts the trea.tment, fron.r periodic analyses o{ boiler
intemal treatment wakr samples. It is not advisable to use internal treat:
mcnt for high pressure (over2l kg/cmr)boilers or for
those fed with water of high solids content, say over 15 ppm.
Some of the ohemicals employcd internally are:
Sorlizun hydroxide. To establish alkaline pH, and precipitate magnesium.
Sodhon cqrbonate. To precipitate calcium.
Sodiurn, aluminate. To coagulate finely divided precipitates inio a floc; also
to preeipitate calcium and magne'ium.
Sodiurn phosphates. To precipitate calcium in form favorable to .iddance
through blorvdown. The trisodium phosphate reaction is

I
3 CaCOa * 2 Nafor --- Car(PO,r): * 3 NazCOr
Sodiutn sulphite. To complete deoxidation.
Coll.oi.ds. Protecliye colloids such as tannin; and reactive organic forms to
make a fluid sludge of suspended particles.
WATER TBEATMENI 527
Acid. To control alkalinity. A typical reaction:
Na,CO' t HaSOr ---+ NaoSOr * H,CO"
Also to be classed ag internal treatment is the employment of electrolytio
apparatus ot lhe sacrifickl, anode type. Such spparstus is installed in the boiler
drum below the water line and coneists in psrt of a Bpecial metallio anode which
is alowly congumed dunng the period when it is protecting the boiler againet
soaling and oxygen corrosion. That such a protective syetem could be euccessful
is logical considering the eleotrolytic nature of.both orrygen corrosion and salt
solubility. Advantages are: (1) a eelf-inherent adlustment to the water need,
obviating eontrol water analyses; (2) simplicity; and (3) miuimum attentron.
Disadvantages are: (1) cost of replacernent anodic cartridges; (2) possibility of
unperceived exhauetion of the anode; and (3) limitation to boiler pressures less
ihan 24.5 Lg/cmr appr,oximatqly.

Table 13-5. SUMMARY Otr. 'WATER TREATMELTT

Limit of Tolerancer Kind of

Impurity Trouble in Feedwoter Treatment

o, Corrosion 0.03 cc per liter Chemical deoxidaiiont

Thermal dea,erotion

COu Corrosion 3 ppm Thermal deaeration

Ca, Mg, solts Scale 20 (low pressure) to 2 (high External softening

pressure) ppm os CaCOs Internal softeuing

tr'e Scale Tmce Ion exch"ange

sio, Carryover 40 (low pressure) to 5 (high Doionizatiou

Scsle pressure) ppm

Na alkelinitv Embrittlement ,5 ppm as CaCO3 at high press. Acid neutrslizer

Foam Variable at low press..

TDSI Priming See Table 1&3 lor tolerance Deconcentrotion

tr'oam limits in boiler water

Turbidity Sludge 5 ppm or less Coagulation

Sedimeut Sedimentstion
Filtration

oil Foam 5 ppm or less Coagulation

Filtration
Surface blowofr

'These are atr averege of practice. Quantitative statemeqts always debatable

'To impart excess 30 ppm sodium sulfrte ir boiler woter.
Total diesolved solids in boiler water.
'1ABMA
apeciication: Not to erceed 207o of TDS,
528 THE FEEDWATER LOOP
External uater soltenzrs are divided into precipitation and ion exchange
types. There are a few rather generally used reactions for prccipitation and a
great many specialized patented treatments which can be prescribed for unusual
and difrcult cgses of water treatment. It could not be expected that all of these
could be covered in a book of this character, nor would it be feaeible since
highly specialized knowledge of water chemistry is needed to understand rnany
ol them. We shall mention some of the treatments that are frequently used be-
cause they con economicslly cope with the average water problem. The reader
faced with sn unusual and serious water problem necds thc consultative services
of a specialist in this field.

Frc. 13-10 Hot plocess lime-soda ash softener, with deaetator section.

A precipitation softener embodies the principle o{ using calculated quantities

of goluble reagents to react with the hardness in the raw water. Two treating
tanks are used in the intermittent system, one supplying tre&ted water to feed
service while the other is receiving iis charge of chemicals and water or main-
taining a quiescent condition so that the precipitate may settle out. On the other
hand, water flows continuously from inlet to outlet in the continuous type of
eoftener. Reagents are added at the inlet, and what precipitate does not settle
out in the reaction tank is removed by filtration.
It is well known that chemical reactions ore *ccelerated by increased tem-
peratures. Thie fact {orms the basic advantage ol lhe hot process softeners
wherein the raw w&ter is heated nearly to the boiling point before the reagents
ar€ added. The reaction is very rapid and the character ol the precipitate formed
is such that sedimentation is greatly improved. Lime (CaO or Ca(OH)z) and
soda ash (NarCO3) are frcquently used. The lime precipitates the carbonate
WATER TRFATMENT 6'g
hardness; and soda ash, the sulfatc hardnees. Sodium phosphate ie also em-
ployed in extemal softeners, for the hot process lime-soda treatment is fre-
quently followed with a slight phosphate reaction to obtain near-zero hardneeer
The lime-soda trestment reactions are presumed to be:
I
Ca(IICOa)r * Ca(OE), -r 2 CaCOr f 2 IIO
]J
Mg(IICO), { 2 Ca(OH)r+ 2 CaCO3 -}- Mg(OII)r * 2 HO
J
MgClr * Ca(OII)z j Mg(OH)z * CaCL
I
CaSOr * NaaCOs ---+ CaCOr * Nar.SO

caClr * Na,Cor ---r c'co* + z Nact

I
MgSOr f NarCO3
- MeCOs * N&SO
I]
NIgCOT * Ca(OH),--+ Mg(OII), -t, CaCOr
A hot-process external softener is shown in Fig. 13-10. Raw water which
enters through a float-coatrolled regulating valve passes through a chemical
proportioning orifice, a vent condenser, and a preheater, after which it receives
the lime and soda ssh. The precipitation occurs oB the hot water moves dorrr-
wsrd to the bottom of the reaction chamber. Here it drops the coarse precipitate,
then flows upward to the jet type deaerator. Deaerated water then flows
through a filter bed, after which it is ready for boiler feed or make-up storage.
The reagent storage and proportioning equipment is at the left of the reaction
chsmber, the filter with its backwash Bystem for cleansing the bed Seing to the
right. The following example shows how an ionic water an;lyeiB, reduced to *
epm form, is used to calculete the required quantity of lime and soda ash.

Example 1: a water analysis has been oeported as: Ca,62.8; Mg; 15.45; HCO2,
200.5; SOr, 30.0; Cl, 13.81; all in ppm. It is desired to fix the quatrtity of- 96/e CP
soda ash and 87/o CP lime needed for treatment of 3786 utorr of this water, le&viDg &u
o!o66s of l7.ll trtg per litGr rods in tho ttrost,od -ator'
This calculation is simplified if done on an epm basis whereia the hardness is
matched by the same epm of reagent. Reactions previously cit€d indicete that tbe
time is supplied to soften magnesium and bicarbonate hardness, with soda ash lor
calcium.
tr'irst step is to convert the analysis to epm. Divide by the equivaleDt weights from
Table 13-4. This should give a balance of positive and negatiYe ions, but one may
usually expect a discrepancy because exact iouic analyses are difficult to achieve
experimentally. Transferred to epm, the water analysis becomes:
Ca*, 3.14; Mg+, 1.28; HCOr-, 3.29; SOr-, 0.625; CI-, 0.39; all in epm.
Beadions: 2 HCOg- + Ca.(OE), --+ CaCO' + 2 9.6 { COr-
Ms++ + ca(oH), ".+ Mg(oII)r * Ca+
Co+ * NazCOr --+ CaCOr * 2 No+
Ltma weded: The HCOr end Mg are 3.29 + 1.2a : 4.57 epm. The ppm of
Ca(OH)r = epm hardness X Eq. wt. C8(OH), = 4.17 X ?1 =J60.0 ppm.Eiocr 1?'u Es,
iite; -li.l rpp;,liD6 quinriry p€;3z85tsstor- l7.lt x 109 x 8786,/t7.lr La. x o.t7 x 1o': 0.786
580 TIIE FEEDWATER LOOP
S& uh ttttttd: Tlrc Mg reoction will prrduce Ca ia additiou to that, in the wat€r
rnalysie. However, the IICOr resction Foducee CO! which is ilstrumentsl in precipital
iag calcium, l,hus rcducing the amount of NeOOs requiEed, Totsl Ca = 3.14 * 1.28 :
4.A epm. Net NaOO r€quird : 4.42 - 3.29: 1.13 epm. Tto ppm oI NaOOr :
€pn X Eq. wt. : 1,18 X 53 : 50.8 ppm, Since t?.lr Darttbr exc roda : 1?.1
ppm, soda ash quartity per l0o0 sal w&ter: t*it#
i''iH'" - 0.!0! Lg

lon-eachange Processes. There are materials which will exchange their baee
radical with anions in solution in vr'ater brought into contact with them. If an
exchange of calcium for sodium might thus be accomplished, the action would
be a water-sbftening one. The word zeolite is associated with this action.
"Zeoli\e" was originally applied to certain natural sands, but artificially pre-
pared porous materials have supplanted natural zeolite. The most used form is
sodium zeolite, NarlAlzSizOr); simplified s1'mbol, Na2Z. Recently organic zeo-
lites have been produced, containing no silica. These are carbonaceous or resin-
ous, but like inorganic zeolite they exchange the base radical with $rater perco-
lating through a bed. Typical sodium zeolite actions on hard water are:
CaSOI 1Na/+NazSOr*CaZ
Mg(HCO)r * Na:Z.--+ 2 NaHCO. + MCZ
From the foregoing it is seen that, as hard water flows into a zeolite bed r.rd
emerges as soft water, there is a loss of sodium and gain of calcium by the
zeolite. Eventually the bed will become exhausted and fail to soften the vatef.
Fortunately, zeolite possesses another desirable property--the regeneration of
its strength through backwashing with a suitable sodium solution. If a calcium
and magnesium loaded zeolite bed is washed with brine (sodium chloride), it is
thus regenerated:
CaZ * 2 NaCl ---+ NazZ * CaCL
MsZ * 2 NaCl --- NazZ * tr{gCL
advantagc of ion exchange over precipitation is noted from these reactions,
.A.n
namely, that hardness is disposed of as a solution instead of a solid requiring
filtration.
Thc operation of a zeolite softener is explained by Fig. lB-11. Normally row
ryater enters the zeohte tank at the top, although the system can be by-passed
s,hile backwashing, if necessary. It flows downward through the bed, trading
hardness for Na ions. There is no precipitation, no reduction of TDS; hence no
ftillow-on fflter is needed. The ffgure also shows arrangements for the periodic
lnckwashing with brine needed by this system.
Consider that the organip zeolite iB rcpresented by H2Z. Typical softening ac-
t ion is as follows:
CaSO. + HzZ---+ CaZ + HrSO.
Backwashing an exhausted bed requircs an arid'for exchange:
CaZ * Hl'SOr -+ HlZ + CaSOr
The softeneri water is now acidic, requiring neutralization. It also mskes it
mandatory to build the softener of corrosion-resistant mgterial. ln some in-
WATER TREATMENT 531
staDcea row water tr€atment ia proportioned between Na2Z and H2Z softenert
and the effuents blended. As one is alkaline, the other acid, the mixed product
c8n b€ of chosen pH velue if the raw water proportioning is borrectly done.
Ar the hydrogen zeolite process leaves acids, including H2CO3, in the
efEuent, a demineralization is possible if the zeolite is followed by degasification
to remove CO2 snd anion exchange (another type of resinous zeolite exchanger)
to abeorb the acids. Thie is a chemical alt€mst€ to evaporation as a de-
mineralizing action.
Sikca Remoual. Thie substance may be present in water in either the
crystalloidal or the colloidel forms. Water analysis convention is to express it
as SiO2. As a colloid it is in suspension, finely divided, and yields to coagulation
and ffltration. In the soluble, crystalloidal form it is extremely difficult to re-
move.

FIG. l3-ll Ion exchange 6y8ten-z€olit€.

Preeence of silica in boiler water has become increasingly rerioue as boiler

pnessuree trend upward. Silica, being vaporized by high water terc.peratur€s,
goes over into the turbine with steam and mostly deposits on turbine blades to
cause unbalance and leduction of steam flow area. For this reason very low
conc€ntratrons of silica are allowable in boiler water. I{igh-pressure boiler
op€rators will control blowdown by silica concentrations rather than by TDS.
Studies seem to have demonstrated that, although 200 ppm silica is allowable in
I I kgtcor boileE, @ly 6-10 pptan be tolerated in boilei water at88 k&lco. and
have no silica troubles. Silica in solution is amphoteric and in several other ways
unpredictable. Ordinary treatment methods leave it nearly unscathed. Hence it
is the recipient of special interest from those ussociated with the operation oi
high-pressure boiler plants. Many special processes are under development for
silica control.
Summarizing the engineering of power plant water conditioning, it ib eeen
that the problem msy vsry from the simple to the complex. Often it may be
solved in more than one way. Competitive methods are not of equol coet or up.
 532 THE FEEDWATER LOOP
keep and do not require the same degrec of skill to operate. Not only must the
engineer have a good prediction of chemical rcsults of alternate methods, but
he must be prepared to analyze chemical operating costs, installation costs, and
the prospects of the operating staff being sufficiently skillful to give proper
/supewision and control to the trcatment system.
13-6 Feedwater Heating. We shall now turn to details of the heating
equipment implied by fig. 13-1. As the diagram shows, this equipment may be
the extraction steam heatcrs of thc regenerative vapor cycle; also, it may in-
clude loul- and iigh-levcl heat-saving equipment. The low and high refer to
relative temperature levels at which the heat is availablc. The low-level heat
must be added to the feedwater stream ncar the condenser where the water
itself is cool. Between the lorv and high heat levels there may be water heating
as a by-product of treatment. Thus it is with deaerators and evaporators.
Feedwater heaters are divided into two classes, the contqct and surlace
heaters. The economizer and part ol the boiler constitute actual water heating
surfaces; however, it is customary to refer only to equipment obtaining heat
from steam as "feedwater heaters." Live (boiler) steam is used in heaters only
when the primary purpose is evaporation or the thermal precipitation of hard-
ness external to the boiler.
The arrangements of equipment in the water Ioop are innumerable and no
comprehensive survey can be given here. A review of certain of the illustratiorrs
of Chapter 8 will show typical examples.
lVhere it has been possible to spend the maximum amount for heat recovery
equipment, oil coolers, generator coolers, etc., are incorporated into the feed
loop. The generator cooler is errployed when the generator windings are cooied
by the closed system, using either air or hydrogen. Condensate may be taken
directly from the hotwell and pumped through the heat exchanger of the cooling
gas circulating system. In order to insure adequate cooling of the windings in
hot weather, or during light loads, the condensate cooled heat exchanger is often
supplemented by a raw water-cooled exchanger section.
13-7 Contact Heaters. Open and iet heaters constitute this class. The open
heater is ordinarily built up in rectangular form, but heatcrs for other than
rrear-atrnospheric pressure &rc constructed in cylindrical form of steel plate.
The open heater is provided with tiers of trays, designerl to break up the flow
of water, delivered by gravity from a distributing pipe or trough, into a multi-
tude of small cascading strtams which present a large sgrface to the steem. It
is possible to heat water to the temperature of slturated steam entering the
heater iI there are no noncondensable valiors. Heating is by direct conduction
from steam to wster so thst the efrectiveness as a heater is not adversely
afrected by scale accumulation. A float-regulated valve admits the cold water
required to supplement the returne in drips, condensate, and other uncontrolled
ieed supply.
In addition to its heeting function the ordinary open heater performs the fol-
lowing important services :
l. Acts as s Btorage reservoir for heated feedwater.
2. Precipitates temporary hardness and removes it by a filter bed in the
heater.
3. Provides a convenient receiver for condensation from various sources.
CONTACT IIEATERS 533
4. Removes oil from engine or pump exhaust. (Most open heaters have oil
separators.)
The modern open heater "induces" the steam into it through a connection to
the exhaust line, by the slight pressure reduction created. by condensation of the
induced steam. The steam is frequently a portion of the exhaust of an engine.
In condensing plants, steam for-the open heater is obtained from steam-driven
auxiliaries, such as stoker and fan engines, or from
the exhaust of a noncondcnsing auxiliary turbogener- r-
ator. The auxiliary unit is used to supply a part ol
the energy to station auxiliaries in acdordance rvith i w*Ji
the feed hdating demand for its exhaust steatn, thc
balance of auxiliary energy being obtained from the
main generator.
The jet heater is similar to a low-level parallel-
flow jet condcnser mounted atop a storage tank. \\'a-
ter is hcated by spraying it in fine drops from nozzlcs h
in the rim of rvater belts which surround the mixinq
space. The nozzlc srca js lrrol'ortionnd io rlischargo
the maximum flos' with a velocity sufficient to throrv
a good spra-y. Nozzles are arranged in two or more
nozzle bclts so that, for fractional flows, groups of
nozzles can bc manually or automatically cut out of
service. A lew central power stations liave used rc-
generativc jet hea.te m. w.*
SuMt@out Co-
The opcn type of contact heater should be uscd
for small- and mcdium-sized plants, but thc jet hcatcr Frc . 13-12 "Open" type
is well suitcd to capacities above 90,000 kg I'ater per of contact heater.
hr. Compared to the surface heater it has advantages
of simplicity and compactncss. No cascading of drips is necessary, but a booster.
pump is required in the leed line between each lrcater.
Deaerating Heaters.'Ihe role of oxygen as a couosive agent has already
been explained. It, is desiraltle to reduce tlic oxygen content of fceriwater to zero,
or practically so. I{eating of water to 104-l l0o C rvith subscquent agitation is
capable oI freeing the water from this gas. \Yhile deactivation has bccn accom-
plished by chemical reaction and by rvater flashing,the trend is toward traltypc
contact hcating using steaE at 0.35-0.7kg/onr ga in contact mixing. By operating
at a plenum the libereted gcs can simplli be released to the atmosphere. On all
but small-sized units the released air-r'apor mixture first passes thiough a vent
condenser so that finally only the gas is discharged.
The form of one of these dcacrating heatgrs is shown in an accompanying
figure. The heater unit is generally mounted on a horizontal storage tank, or thi
storagc section of the heater is made suficiently decp to lulfill the needs of a
reservoir of deaerated water.
The feedwater courses first through the vent condenser, then to the spray dis-
tributor, from which it is projected upwardly, falling in a unilorm shorver over
the entire width ol the heating tray itack. After descentling through the nest of
heating trays and then tlrrough the air separating trays, it passes from the tra;r
compartment into the storage spacc ol the Ceacrator.
534 THE FEEDWATER LOOP
The steam enters through a nozzle in the eide of the shell, fflling the entire
space between the shell and the tray compartment. It then flows downward
through perforations in the top plate of the tray compartment, meeting the
water sprayed upward from the distributor. The steam continues down through
the heating tray stack and air separating tray stack.
Practically all of the condeasation of the steam occurs in the spray distribu-
tor space and in the heating trsy st8ck, the proportion of steam drawn through
the lower or air Beparating trays beiug determined by the capscity of the vent
oondenser.
From the bottom of the air separating tray stsck the vent Bteam, together
with the separated gases, passes to the vent condeneer. The vent condenser drips

9rro, plr.--------
ton
Ercfud-------- Stott

o.Glb-- c
corto

P@d

FIG. 13-13 Diagram of tray-type deaerating heater.

are retumed through a sealed connection to the tray stack, where they are de-
aerated.
Merely rendering gases insoluble by heating water to boiling temperature
does not of itself eliminate molecules and bubbles of gas in the mass of water
and, unless they are separated, they will enter into solution again as soon as the
t€mperature is reduced and the pressure increased. In order to escape from the
mass oI water, gas molecules must diffuse through the surface film surrounding
the particle of water. The rate of difrusion is proportional to the concentration of
gas within the water particle, to the surface area, and to the time of exposure.
Difrusion is, therefore, much more rapid from the emall particles of water con-
tinually mixed, agitated, and broken up by successive layers of trays than from
appreciable masees of still water. The repeated agitation and breaking up of the
water scteen as it pasees oyer the deaerating trays serve to bring the gas oole-
CONTAC"I EEATERSI 536
cules to the surface rapidly and eliminate the need of the gas to move from the
interior of each water particle to the eurfsce film by difiueion.
The atomizing deaerator does the job without trays and is therefore liked
where the water is very corrosive; also where the deaerator ie not stationary aa
in maritime practice.
In the atomiaing deeerator the water i8 first heated to within I or 2 degrees
of the t€mperaturc of the steam by spraying the water into a steBm atmoephere
from nozzleg spring-loaded to give a uniformly high spraying velocity at all
rates of flow. The hested water then encounters a high-velocity steam iet and is
atomized into a mist, presenting greatly increased total surface to coatact with
the 8team. The gases pass almost instantaneously into the enveloping steam
Exhoust

tad

Erhousl

t
?

!scl-q-r
lllormol operoling

]Em.19.lEy

EOILER FEEO

d
TER
PUMP
To

Frc. 13-14 Connections to a deaerstiDg heater. Suitable for a mall boilet plsDt.
Condens&te aDd feedwater tank Deed to be mounted above the pumps so a8 to provide
the required positive suction head.

atmosphere lrom the small droplets into which the water is subdivided by the
atomizing action. The deaerated water drops into a storage or pump supply
chamber, while the steam, little of which has been condensed in the atomizing
process, flows to meet the incoming water in a spray hester chamber, from which
the liberated gasea and a small amount of stesm are withdrawn to a vent con-
denser,
At the same time that oxygen is eliminated, free CO2 can also be removed
completely if the water is slightly alkaline. By first treating the watcr with
enough acid to decompose the bicarbonate, and then deaerating, bicsrbonate
COz can likewtee be removed.
A good deserator will reduce oxygen to 0.03 cc per liter or less. As the
'Winkler test yields Oz in ppm, it is necessary to know that 0.7 cc per liter
=I
ppm when comparing performance with the usual form of guerantee, expreseed
as cc 02 at 0' C, 760 mm.
536 THE FEEDWATER LOOP
Terminal difference in a heater or deaerator in good condition should be
less than 3'C. The steam and water thermometers on deaerators frequently
show the same temperature (within the tolerance of these instruments). The
following equation expresses the conservation of heat in contact heaters. As
these can be wcll insulated against heat leaks, an assumption ol no heat loss is
reasonabie. With nomenclature as iu Fig. 13-12:
ro*(L - ir) :ffit1, - lr,.l (134)

also @* * u,)/w": ht")/(L - ,t)4.19

1 + (h - (13-5)

Exampte 1: A steam turbine-driven boi\er leed pump is to exhaust into a

deaeratinf hea.ter to heat feedrvater. It is desired to determine whether the pump
exhaust i' be su6cient. The lxrilcr has maximum rate oI evaporation of 6800 Lg
per hr, dry and saturated kglc,r.,' EE.Data Plrmp opercting hcad-, l06m $'ater;
^t7 gs back pressure=8o kg1lhp-hrWater lrom condensate
iurbiae steam rate at 0,36 kg/cm'
tank, 85" C. Assurne punp efficieicv = 0.50, and tcrmrnal diflerence = 0' o'

steam flow through to"u," : go

L--oo##%=-] - roe o kg p"' t'"

Iixhaust enthalpl' s'ill be opploximately zzoe - ''Hi ftrrf ; h : 2680 J/s &t the-
deaeraior.
Deaerator will worl with stcam at about 0.36 kg/c5t ge end lO8.g' C saturotion'
wsPlrevsw
teloDeretu-re.
rr,q * ur") r.r" :l + (2080
- 468)/(108.0 - 85)1.10= 22.9

Since. l,s + zo" = 6800 kg pcr hr, u," ncedcd is

6800/22.9 = 207 kg steam per
hr. The turbine exhausr hls lren e-"timltctl to bel68.6 Lg per hr; hence in the absence
of an),other arxilitry exhlust stclrn live steam from the boiler should be sent through
g reducing valve to supply the tlifierclr:c.

13-8 Surface Heaters. The surlace lrcaters are divided into steam tube
and water tulrc types. Stcam tubcs are ortlinarily used in evaporators, but most
eitraction heaters arc of thc \ratcr tube type. Thcse heatcrs carr also be divided
into straight tub'e and bcnt tube (U tubes and steam coils), and into single- or
multi-pasi. The surfacc hctter is uscd s-hcn watcr is to be heated under pres-
sure without direct contact l'ith tltc steam. Problems associated I'ith good
Iohgitudinal distribution of stenm antl rcmoval of noncondensable gases are as
important as !n contlenser practice. Noncondensablc ga''e-" are vented lrom the
heater to the conrlenser through a stnall vent line Sometimes, to avoid all
possible load on the air removal apparatus, the heatcrs supplied rvith steam
above atmospheric pressure are ventcd to atnosphere through a small vent
condenscr.
.The ordinary closed heater is housed in a cylindrical shcll ol steel, well in-
sulated on the outsidc. Steel or coppcr alloy tubes are rollcd into trrbe sheets,
one of which is fixed, the othcr floating. Thc floating tube shcet allows free
expansion and contraction and permits the u-"e of iuterchangeablc tubes Th':
veitical type is also uscd. It oflcrs savings in requircd floor space, but taker
mo"e headioom. The rating of a closcd hcater should be expressetl in terms oi
o. surface and rate o{ heai transfer; or as the quantity of water heated per hr
from initial to 5;ral temperatttre. Ilcat transfer iu the water tube heater may
 SINFACE I{EATERS oit /

A,
I.{5:-*
t

1'ln-'p , .ij'
t' a

t l.i
\

i
J

EE
Elliott Co.
Fr( I3-I5 Turbiue room of a central station showing feedwater storage and deaerat_
ing heater.

t
I

r
D
.{- t._
,,_-At.Y+u-r:* :*.*on heitd.- B, CondcEare rLai.er. C, CoDdelrste iL.i.a by_pass vslve. D, Blecder
I,.,-:-i:*jr" dr.itrd veEt li.e. r, Fed wat6 by.ess lin.. J. C,dca.re &ip ri.e f,;; D.d b,isb6 prswe
Dc.ts. r(, lwo-p@ recordiDg rlerDometer. L, Sreb inter. i,f, Warer inlet. N. Watcr ourl.t.

t'rc. 13-16 Copne€tiols to the extraction heater.

538 TEE T'EEDWATER IOOP
be treated in the some maur€r aB for the surfece cotrdeuer, which it reoemblee
in construction and principle.
The mathematical treatment of thie category of heat transfer was deleloped
in Sec 9-10. When using the condenser equation for heaters, U. is aumerically
much higher than iu coadeneer practice. Being of the order of 29299'the scale
faotor will be less eigniffcant than the velocity factor in heater design.
Water velocitieeemployed varJIr@0.gutoe.oato/scc,haviag sbout tho sr-
me range as in condens€r ptactice.Ilettrgsip economics may be the deciding factor
in eeleetion of coefrcient of heat trsnsfer. The higher the wakr velocity, the
tietter the heat transfer and the cheaper thp heater. At the same time, howevet,
the friction losses aad costs of moving the water through the tubes will in-
crease. The proper compromise is that rhich will make the annual heater coet,
including amortization and water pumping cosk, a minimum.

EIIII'

6
IE g

I6 6

Pi@e Mooers Comm ree, N.E.L.A.

Frc. 13-i7 Performance of surface-type extraction heater for variable load conditiong.
(9a,000-kw turbine, 5th+tage heater.)

Terminal differences in these heatcrs are of the order of 3'- 6" C for design
purposes. However, actual tests may show more because it is possible that
operating conditions (proper venting, cleanliness, etc.) are not all that could
be expected.
Steam-tube heaters cannot be so readily analyzed as the water-tube type,
due to the uncontrolled circulation of water. The mean temperature difference
of steam-tube heaters is gcnerally oI higher order than for water tubes, rang-
ing frorn 28 to 84' C. Heat transfer rates vary between 975 to 1955 kcalJmr'hr'
dcg C if the tubes ere well drained.
The variable load perlormance of a rcgenerative heater is shown in Fig.
13j17. As turbine load increases, all quantities tend to increase more or less
linearly. This applies to extraction flow, water velocity, temperatur'es, and
coefficient of heat transfer. This is a high-pressure heater, i.e., on the boiler side
of the leed pump. Economic studies indicate slightly lower water velocities,
and coefficients of heat transfer should be enployed in low-pressure heaters.
Some of the details ol installation of closed heatets are shown in accompany-
ing illustrations. The several heaters of a large regenerative cycle are usually
mounted on a floor below the turbine operating floor. Extraction steam nozzles

. koal/el-hr.dog C
EVAPORATORS 589
open dowuward from the turbine caeing; hence'none of the auxiliary piping,
needs appear in the turbine room itself. However, there is plenty of it in the
space below. Equipment and piping layouts for that region require careful ex-
ecution in detail.
Examptc l: It is desired to verify proposed specificatious of aD extractioo heat€r
for heating n3l00 Lg water per hr from{,l.a.Oto 86.0tcl|u8ing extr&cted steam at 82.!t
O saturation temperature. Proposed desiga ie &psss, with 604 f0 EE Xt.r? Dq gauge
Admiralty tubes,t.0t elong. Desired water velocity about l.tmlaoo
L€t the prircip&l dimensions be calcu.lated from Eq 9-19 oad those in Sec 11-14. A
comparison of,calculated dimensions rrith the proposed surface may be sufrcient
veriffcation-

Eq 9-13:c - lr6.s - {.rltn:+-#* - lan, c.Thetr hest trarsler is Eolved with

the use ol Eq8 9-19 to S.22.
At the mean water temprerature of 0dO, L,'. is calculatrcd to be d@6 koauml-hr.d.l
O Uf - 03.63/0.001r,4J
- 76rtt LrslrEl-hr-dof c. AstDira U. - C*06,
,!.0 r:[(## ",Ed#++,mi + m#Hhm ]
-
After tn
reduction (q/A,P.6 stffiz q/A"; - - 6.6rE with the help of tr'ig. Ll2,
C/4, = aaa.u k@Uf,*Lr
s - rl840O(E6.62 - 44.0) - lt0$08 to.lrbr.
Required surface d" = {603008/1984 - toqSg td.
With Eq 11-20, frS4oo
- x
Sooo looon x 0.0002166
x l.z
Then z : 120 tubes per p&ss,,or 480 for +pass heat€r.
IMith Eq 11-10, 104.8, - o-06m8 x r80Z; tr - !.66 a.
Comparison of these calculations with the proposal indicates thst the heater should
do the job, provided it is kept clean and ventpd.

13-9 Evaporators. Evapora,tion tre&tment of feedwater has the advantag

of requiring but little boiler blowdown oi deconcentrating character and th
disadvantage of using Etesm to supply the evaporative heat. The disadvantag
is not marked in the regenerative cycle because the evaporator is readil.
adapted to the feed heating system, with the heat in the steam used by it be
ing put into the feedwater stream. How this is done is shown in Fig. 8-1Q
Essentially,,the tunction ol the euaporator is to produce, trom rau Dater, uqpo
that can ba condensed to distilled Dater for boiler leed malae-,up. Evaporatol
were first used in marine practice as a matter of neces8ity, but their use ha
extended to land practice, especially the central station.
An evaporator system may be single efiect, in which the steam is produce
from one.evaporatot. or multiple efrect, i\ which the steam is produced fro:
several evaporators in series. In a multiple-efrect system the vapor from or
evsporstor becomes the heating steam in the succeeding. Unusual conditior.
met in industrial or steam heeting pls,ntd may require so large a fraction
make-up a8 to waruent double, triple, or quadruple efrect evaporators. Tl4
central generating station ordinarily employs a single efrect. The ratio (vapo
pmduced)/(steam used) is about 0.8 for the singie effect, 1.5 for the doub
efrect, and 2.5 for the triple efrect system. Evaporator feed is usually preheatp
to increase evaporator capacity.
540 TAE FEEDWATER LOOP
Evaporators are classed as film, flash, or submerged. tube types. The first
and last are steam-tube types; in the lormer the raw water trickles over the
hot tubes; in the latter the tubes are entirely surrounded by the water being
evaporated. The flash type produces steam by dropping the pressure on vater
at the saturaiion temperature. The excess heat flashes part of the water into
steam, then the temainder is drawn off, reheated, and again flashed. The suc-
ceeding remarks about evapor&tors refer to the more common submerged tube
type.
tl..trL
sq*
F
I
I

.rr,o

lir{ I

(
&c&r

Schtfle-Koortlng

Frc. 13-18 Coutection of extraction heater to turbine nozzle.

In small or mgderate capacities the evaporator consists of a number oI

helical coils on vertical axes; enclosedin a steel or cast-iron shell, with provision
for control of water level, and ample vapor storage. For moderate and large
capacity the transfer surface is ordinarily a bank of horizontal tubes, slightly
inclined for condensate drainage. The surlace requirements are a function of 0,
which, in turn, is conirolled by the pressure of the vapor'
Since the evaporator is applied to the power plant for the purpose of pro-
ducing distilled water for boiler feeding, thereby preventing scale in the boiler,
it js essential that the scale be deposited in the evaporator. Therefore it is im-
podant that the dispositiorr of scale be given attention in evaporator design.
EVAPORATORS UI
A serious difficulty encountered in evaporator operation is the eteady loss of
evaporating capacity as scale accumulates on the water side. To maintain heat
trsnsfer and reduce evaporator outage, some makes have been designed to be
Belf-cleaning, either ehedding the scale by tube flexure or scraping it ofr. The
decrease of heat transfer due to scale accumulation has been shown to be}

t/U':AlBr (13-6)
in which ,4 and I cre constants and r is the time elapsed siuoe the last cleaning.
If, for an evaporator already installed, U is determined at two difrerent timel
since cleaning, the constants can be evaluated and, knowing the cost of cleaning
the evaporstor, an economic study can be made to determine the optimum
period of time between evaporator cleanings.

l.P. St om lin.

hlr
8oil..
m
Co ldwolar p
E Pu
EE
Condanration ralurn

Fro. 13-19 Evaporator paralleled with reducing valve for supply of indrrstrial ste,m.

To serve its purpose completely, an evaporator should produce clean steam;

i.e., there should be no solids in the vapor. Like the boiler, the evaporatcr will
produce carryover of suspended solids in the steam when it
is foaming or
priming. The evaporator shotld not prime if it is of the requisite capacity, but
it will loam iI the concentration of soluble salts becomes too great. To main-
tain the concentration below the foaming point it is necessary, therefore, that
the evaporator be blown down periodically. The amount of blowdown can be
calculated through the use of equations in Sec 13-4.
There can be but little similarity in the application of the evaporator to
the small generating station, the large central station, and the industrial plant.
Steam is supplied from. an extraction point in the regeneratiye cycle, but it
must be live steam or auxiliary turbine exhausd in the simple Rankine cycle.
When considerable quantity of low-pressure steam is used in process, the evap-
orator can be installed in parallel with a reducing valve.
Example l: I'ig. 13-20 represents a double efrect evaporator aod its auxiliary
piping. Preheated raw w&t€r is led into both effects. This same quantity is recovered
a8 distilled water in the draine of the second efrect arid the condcnser. Let it be
desircd to find ihe quautity of live steam at t6 LS/coE tb, ,arc, teeded to Eecure the
evapoBtiou of lta08 tf of distild srtc. Vspor cide pr€€sure of 6rd etrect,6.?t s/clb!.b:
* Badger, "Evaporators for Doiler Fe€d Make-up Water," ?roas, ,{,S.MJ., tr.SP 50-46
 ,iE
ld'
!! ;fr
il
I
I
tfl
rt'
I
c
3
E5
EE
H&
Ed
.2 .tr
d
,a .He
IB
'4ts
I
3F
qts
ctb
.:5
9o
I :ru
x.E
!g aE
!
+'i
---!2rrnm I
/-Hifrirrii
U..{6]t 6e
I
I E€
64
I
I I ad
I
trE
I
6
i B
I Fr
!
I E
i5 ei
h
542
WATER PUMPS 51f,I

of second efrect,2.8 k8/oht sb. Preheaterl feed t€mperature, 98.Ce C. pya,porstol

blowdown, 3% ot fiercd.
Designate feed to tiist eile('t lf*1; to secr-rud, l'l/*2. Assume dry saturated Yapor
and no condensate depression. 1'he fol]orving heatr and rveight balances are written
for an input of 1kg live steam:
1. t@(2021
- s42) - - 4lSlo.07rs,, + rd(6t6 - 413)o,08lrr!.
10!(2760
2. 10!(9160 - :
6t6)0.07r* lo{rrrl - 418)O0?fx,r + 108(640 - 418)O03tr{,.
3. Evaporator feed per kg live stoen : Itr*, + IIl*,.
A solution of thes€ equotions is II;*, = 6.911 1", Uz*' : 0.818L8.

Live steam per lg6oE kg rvater :6+su : ?870 kg.

oslE +
Distilled \,'ater produced \riih 7870 kg steam = 13608 x 0.97 + ?87o -. 2l @0 Lg.

13-10 Water Pumps. The u'ater loop is activatecl by purnps. The regener-
ative cycle with its extrnction hcaters, dcacrator', ati.i otlter auxiliarics presents
numerous requirements for moving water from one placc to another, as well
as of increasing its pressure. The lunctioru ol a pttttlp is to atkl to the pressure
edsti,ng on a liquid an increment suffcicnt to the required seruice. This service
rrray be the production of a velocity or the overcorning of lriction or external
pressure. \Yater pumps are used for condensing watcr, condens&te, boiler feed,

tsood Mtchineag CorP.

Fro. 13-21 Two-stage centrifugnl pump mounted oD cornmon base with single-stag€
steam turbine.

heater drain, booster flows, sump drain, and other services. The principal types
in power plant serrice are reciprocating, rotary, and centrifugal pumps. Jet
pumps as iepresented by the boiler injector are comparatively unimportant in
this field, though sometimcs uscd &s emergency feed for smBll boilers. Rot8ry
pumps are all types operating on pure rotation, excluding centrifugal force as
pressure-building action. The principal example is the turbine-type pump.
Reciprocating and rotary pumps are used to some extent in smaller powet'
plants and heating plants; centrifugals, in small and large plants. Reciprocat;
ing prmp" &re capsble of the very highcst prcssures, but are too bulky for
U TIIE FEEDWATER LOOP
moving large volumes of water. By multi-st8ging, the centrifugal pumps may
be caused to produce pressures suitable for feeding modern power boilers, in-
cluding those operating atuptol05 lgrcnr steam pressure. However, their field
of maximum discharge capacity occurs et lower pressuree.
At very small flows, but for boiler pressures, the centrifugal design is ia-
ferior to others.
Esseutial data for the selectionof tn;ryumpiocludetfrelpadir.Ectrc4capacilg
iqlitar/min and propertiza o! the liquiil$\ch z8 Yiscosityl€mper&ture,corrosive-
nebs, grittiness. Secondary data concerning the pump equrpment, are speed ot
rotation, power required, and first cost. Becausc of the importance of the pumps
to successful operation of plants, and of the small portion of total cost repre-
sented in pump cquipment, the cost of pumps should not be made the most
important factor in their selection.
The general requirements o{ - water pum,p bxtallation are the provision
of foundation, accurate mounting of the pump and driver on it, connection of
suction and discharge pipes of adequate eize without stressing the pump casing,
and provision of the desired form ol discharge control.
The loundations oi high-speed rotary and centrifugal pumps should be
solid and rigid-indicating concrete as the material. For foundation construc-
tion and installation of the bedplate,
see Sec 4-7. These machines are sold
mounted on a cast-iron or welded steel
bedplate of sufficient length to accom-
Ottv, 6r.otiomnt AnCulo,drotigin.it Cor.ctotrgmoi modate the driver. Because of the
direct connection to the motor or tur-
E1G. 13-22 AligDmenr of coupling. bine, the pump manufacturer is usu-
mount ir
on the base, and be responsible lltJrniltJj,lf,l".ti" jifr"'*"r,jHfl:
How-ever, the alignment of the coupling between driver and pump should be
verified after installation; also after pump or motor overhaui thii alignment
nceds- re-establishment. The adjustment is made with shims, slotted feet, and
the like, while alignment checks are made as suggested in Fig. IB-22. When hdt
fluids are involved (turbine drive and/or hot waier pump), tihe final alignment
should be made with the machine hot.
- Designers usually arrange to bring water to a pump in a suction line that
is. orre pipe siz-e larger thsn the pump opening. The-change in pipe size is made
with reducer fitting, not a pipe bushing. ThJsame can be done with discharge
piping, but is not as beneficial there. Suction piping is of particular importanie
as it is the most frequent source of trouble, apart iiom misalignment. partipu-
lar care should be taken to prevent air leakage into the suction line if the
guction head is negative, and to avoid piping alignment that leaves air pock-
ets. Wlether suction is positive or negative, all pumps should be piped with
a. checLvalve and gate valve in the discharge line, and a gate valve in the euc-
tion. The latter is for the purpose of isolating the pump foi inspection or repair.
A pressure gauge ought to be connected to the discharge close io the pump; one
on the suction is also desirable.
- Where the pump operates normally with negative suction head, as do con-
deneing water pumps, somg means of initial priming may be necessary. yacuum
WATER PIiMPS 545
pump6 end jet ejectors are exteosively used to prime la,rye centrifugal pumpe.
In gome cases a velved by-paas amund the discharge check valve will gufrce
to prime a pump with water from a diecharge header, if there is a foot velve
or check valve on the suction.
The layout of pumps in design drawinge requiree mainly dimeneional in-
lormation on the bedplate and the suction and discharge openinge. Points of
conneetion of bedplate draine, priming openings, casing draias, etc., may be
iadicated, but not necesssdly dimensioned, for the connecting piping is smoll
gi.ze and can be properly fitted in the field. Fig. 13-23 illustrat€a the type of
pump manufacturer's inlormation needed by the power plaat designer in laying
out o pump inetellation.
t5!o
,attllr lal

+- t
o
L]--J+
2! 2r

Fr6. 13-23 Tlpical dimensious required for nump layout. (All dib&dd. b Eo q
h otbrlro rpc.Ahd) rvote.' PuEp illustr8t€d is twcstrge ceDtrifugsl suit8ble for
soall boiler feed pump. Cspscity ebout 100 t/blo 8t lo, D,36m rptD.

The purpose of a pump is to'move B quantity of water against a pressure.

Essential to eny quantitative discussion of performance, capacity, eto., are
the following terms and definitions.

Q = Pump discharge, Umin (1000litrcs 61 {6r - I n)

IJ = Ilead, m cf water of specified density. At ordinary temperatures, I.tq
= I litrc; lOO0 hg - I nr; and I Lg/cor - l0 m; however these con-
stants tshould not be used in hot water calculations unless the deneity
error can be countenanced.
d. = Water density, hg/mr. Reciprocal of u1 frour steam tables.
Static head is lhe height (usually inrnetire) of the surface of the water sbove
the gauge point.
Preswre head is the static head plus gauge preseure on the water surface
plus friction head.
V eloctty head is the head required to produce a flow of the water.
Dynamic head, mLhe pressure head plus the velocity head. Except for wat€r
velocities considerably above average, or for large volumes handled at low
heads, the velocity head can be neglected.
Tolal {#.**} Ileod is the reading of a true gauge at the pump {ffi,i[8"] con-
vertedto oetrcr of liquidand refercd todatum, plus the velocity head at the point
ffi THE FEEDWATER LOOP
of gauge atta,chment. If the suction hea.d is less than atmospheric it is negative.
This is because the exstence of a srlction lift causes the gauge to read vacuum,
i.e., a negative gauge pressure.
Purnp operating lleod is the algebraic dif-
ference of discharge and suction heaCs. This
can also be cslled fotol ilgnami.c hea.il and
abbreviated TDH.
Net positi."-e suctton heqd,, abbreviated
NPSH, is defined ss the dynamic pressure of
the liqqid at pump suction,Lg/..81 abi less
the Baturation prcseure corrrsppnding to the
t€mperature at the same point, converted to
! nctrcrhead of the liquid.
3 Spectfic speed of a centrifugal pump im-
peller is the rotative speed at wl,ich a geo-
metrically similar impeller would run if it
were of such size as to rsiEe ?5kg of water
pcr second agairut onc mctrc head.

,, o.ol4e N\,& (t3-7)

^":ffrpm
1{ is pump shaft sneed, .pm, and 11 is thr
TDIIin melrcs per stage,O is thc dischargc Um.
Frc. 13-24 Pump working under Specific speed is uselul in defining the suc-
suction lift and atmosphcric dis- tion limitation of impellers of difrerent de-
charge. srgns.

Water hmsepower.. *r, : ffi n, (rg-g)

Pump efi.ciercy. q, : irhp/hhp (13-9)

_ Example 1: The drive requirements of the pumping iustaUetipn diagrammed in

Fig. 13-24 are analyzed. Dcta.. Velocity in suction line, z qloo; rlisehargeline,! roleco.
Frictrion estimate in suction line, including foot valve and entrance loss, O,Cc oi in
discharge line,O,76 rn, Flow is to be g80O f/E cold \ryater.4D
= 0.65. Using center-line
of pump as datum, total head is calculated. Assuming gaule attcchmeDts !00 ElD bel-
ow datuE:
Discharge head : a.6 + Eo + 0.76 + Op4 : (0 n
Suction head : -r.6 + 0.3 - 0.06 + 2tir, - _2.C6 t!
Pump operating head (difference) - 8.06 ro

Drive must supply no*", ot ffiffi{S - u.z tp

13-11 Reciprocating Pumps. The reciprocating pumps are best in the

field of high-pressure, moderate-capacity pumping. Feeding water into the
smaller powcr boilers'is servicc in this category. Tie princip-al types used are
the direct-acting steam pump and the tiiplex power pump.
Direct-acting stebm pump. As the sectional viirw i; Fig. 18-25 shows, steanr
RECIPROCATING PUMPft WI
acts egeinst its piston, thereby transmitting force to a water piston and pres-
surizing the wat€r. In boilel feed eervice the w&t€r goes back to the same
region imm which the driving steam was drawn; hence the Etesm piEton must
be larg"" than the watcr piston to overcome the efrect of hydrostatic head,
losses, and inertia. If p is the boiler geuge pressure, p1 the static plus friction
plessure on the wgter end, p1 the friction loss in the steam line, and D., D.
the diametere of weter and steam pistons:
D. P*Pa (1&10)
D. P-Pt
The foregoing cannot be an equality, for unless the left-hand term exceeds the
right theie iJ no surplus force for accelerating the water at the beginning of
each pumping Btrok€. In order to insure positive pump action, D"/D- is made
about 1.6 for ordinary boiler feed service and 2'5 for low-pressure feeds.

'wo,thilnst6 Pt'|p ci1, l{acih,.tv Cdp.

FrG. 13-26 Yertical section through one side of a duplex direct-acting pump.

On the gteam end it will be observed that the power is derived, es in an

engine, from the fluid pressure of steam against a piston. Steam action is con-'
trolled by a simple elide valve having no stearn or exhaust lap. Consequently,
the pump uses etesm nonexpansively (rectangular indicator card) and sterm
rates are copparatively very high. This, however, is necessary, for the pump
would stall part way through an expansion stroke unless the DJD- ratio were
much larger than manufacturers consider practicable.
These pumps are alwaye double-acting and are manufactured as simplex or
duplex units. Many consider thc valve gear of the duplex pumps (wherein the
rod motion in one cylinder valves the eteam cylinder on the other) somewhat
548 THE FEEDWATER, LOOP
moro reliable snd easily Bet th&n on the simplex unit where the rod motioa of
a cylinder must throw its own steam or pilot valve.
There are several sliding parts requiring lubrication. Steam pistons are
lubricated by injecting steam cylinder oil into the steam. Valve gear is lubri-
cated by hand oiling Uy grease and by force-feed oilers. Thire are pack-
"ups,piston rods and on the steam valve rode.
ing glands on the Eteam and water
The steam piston is sealed with hammered iron piston rings; the water piston,
with a set of composition packing rings appropriate for the service. The water
must provide whatever lubrication that end gets. All this adds up to more in-
spection and maintenance required than for centrifugal pumps.
Against the disadvantages of oily exhaust steam, Iow thermal efficiency, and
maintenance can be set the following advantages: (1) simplicity of design and

FEEOWATER
R€6ULATOR

EOILER

STEAI' GOVERNOR
SUPPLY
TO FJIIP

SUCTrOil
STEAI'

&4. 13-26 Control of direct-acting stesm puup il boiler foed e€rvice.

"understandability" of pumping action by the average mechanic. (2) Flexi-

bility in operation. (3) No rieed for separete driving potor or turbine. (4) Fairly
quiet, and can set on simple light foundstion. (6) Not likely to become mis-
aligned. (6) Comparatively low initisl cost up to capacity ol several hundred
litc$ par Eirutc.
Being a complete pumping unit the direct-acting pump is simple to install.
A hydrostatic oiler may be needed on the steam line. There should be a good-
quality globe valve for stopping and starting. The supply line should include
a steam separator. Steam cylinders and throttle valve should have drgjn lines
to sewer. Any inverted bends in the exhaust line also need draining. A simple
and convenicnt discharge control is accomplished by using a pump govertror
valve. Thie is an automatic regulating valve which will throttle the steam to
the pump when the feedwater line pressure increases due to closing. In effect,
it is flow control through speed control.
Except for the efrect of sllp, thlt is, leakage past piston packing or through
discharge valves of the water pump, the delivery of a slow-speed reciprocating
pump equals thc piston displacement. Ary pump csn be operated at apeeds high
enough to impair the volumgtric efficiency. Commercial speeds for rated capacity
are, thereiore, set low enough to give the water time enough to fill the cylinder
on each suction stroke. Commercial pump gpesis are approximately:
R.ECIPROCATING PUMPS 549

7a-1.38,ff, mlmin of piston speed (r8-u)

where Z : stroke in mm.
Thig is for use with cold water and should be reduced by s multiplier factor
if hot water is pumped Thie factor is 0.85 for 32.2"C water, 0.71 at65.5'Csnd
0.55 at.204.4q0. It can be considered to vary linearly with temperature. Also
the NPSH should be Bufficiently high. Because of the pulsating eharacter of
reciprocating pump suction, close control of NPSH is not as practical as for
steady flow pumps. In its stead we have the recommended normal suction lifts
of Fig. 13-27.

t!0
:\ :-_
o, :-: /z .609.6 h
90 --\ \i
--i .--\ -1219.2
-1826.0 m

7to \ \
hy<|rc{lic lnstitule. Ih8.
I
9
.2
i Ehl
30 I
ln ltul. S(on.lord3.
i
IO

tt
m Idi.. rlqtic h. od

tr'rc. 13-27 Commercial suction practices for duplex direot-&cting pumpB.

The discharge capacity of positive displacement equipment is the piston

displace4elt multiplied by volumetric efrciency, where the latter includee the
efrects of slip and piston rod displacement.

a:#-,/-r" (14-12)

where q,: Yolumetric efrciency. Should be more than 0.90 for pumps in
good order, not overspeeded.
FD : Pieton displacement, cm! . per min per pump.
Manufacturing practiqe i; to build pumps of cylinder diameters which ad-
vancc by 6.4 mm increments from 50.8 mm to 139.7 mm and by 25.4
mm increments to 4m.4 mm. Strolcs incrcasa by 50.8 mm increments
from 50,8 mmto 406.4 mm, plus 63.5 mm and 88.9 mmsize!. Onty thosc combi
natbm offcring suitable .Dr/Ds ratios arc usablc for boilcr fceding.
I
E..rnphf ! Thc dischsrge o.p.oity of . dupt6r .t6erD boilot f*d pump 22S.ai
1t3,36 x 2it4 mrn, olremtinS.t nomsl sp€od, *iU bo found. Wster t mp€roturo, g3.3oo.
Tho6o dimonsiorE ropr6s6ni D.x A, xL, @. tr'rorD Eq ll-ll, ooreotod for or.g.C, yp

=O.oSx r,38vrtl:1r.6 m/min. Fa of duplor pump-2x13.!4r*(t.6xllD)/4 -(ee00

cEV6iu. A.suminS lv:0.90, Q:0.23x0.00xa{0000/Bf -t{)6 Umia. Ep€cd in dtokc.
-"'----- -!1{}-l9Q--
Der Ein por ovlioder-
----iE--:oz'
550 THE FAEDWATER I,OOP
Thc d-a steam pump has u high steam rate because it does not expand the
steam. On agcount of initial ccndensation and cleararce the steam con€umed
exceeds the product of piston displaceinent and density of the throttle steam.
.Steam rates vary from 45 to 135 kg pcr hp hr. ,7, is so low that thermal
performanee is gauged by a terrtr called pump iluty, defined ss the kgm work
done in the water cylinders per mitlionJouleschargeable to the steam end. The
chargeable Joule/gram steam is throttle enthalpy less heat of the liquid at ex-
haust pressure. Pump duty id also expressed as kgm water work per 1000 kg
stegm.
Esraplc 2 : A t€so vo,s psrforrnod on e 152 emxlo2 mmxl52 mm d-a duplel purap
for the prrposo bf dotorminiog its opersting ootrdition aad porformsnco. In 30 Eio of
stosdy op6r6tion the pfinp ured 45.2 k8 stoelu (dot6rei[6d by cold6Dsin8 Grhaust ot
0.01 bglcml gs) ond mado 1254 shokos p6r cylindor, Atmosphorio pr€ssuto, 0.98 kg/oml ab.
Throttl€ rtosm,8.2 kg/oml ga a! 0.0?4 qu.elity. Mosn cfrectivo Plo€8ures : loft' 9.7 kg/orLli
!i8ht, 2,6 kg/arDl. Av€rs8o strokos I left, l4O ttrm; rightr 120.7 mm. Piston rcd, 31.8 InD.
l orcr pumpod, 2104 kg; tompsrsturo, l?.2oC, Diechargo boed,62.3 m ;3uction, o.05 E
Pump duty : 2104(62.t
-0.05) -0.0011, kgm pot lot Joules
x xl
110 t20.7 r(r6.2t-_3.18r) l!91 *
HE ihp =( 2.7 xt000- +2.6x loor0
)
x mrk ru = o.nue ,p
140 120.7 \ r(r6.2r t 15{ t
\VE ihp :( 2.7x tooo+2.6 x looo I -----
I
-3.18!)x--r-
4 x
3d;Toir6 :0.t58
= 0.868 ibp

Pump power : sum of head end and wator end = l.l4l ihp
W'eter power = 2tB4 (62.3 - (-0.05))/(30 X 6oxz6) = 0.849 whp.
Combined hydrauiic-mechanical efficrency = 0.849/ l.l4l : 0.74.
Steam mte = a5.2 X 60/(30 x 1.r4r) = ?9.3 kgper ihp hr.
Let y = Volumetric displacemEnt of vater piston per two strokes.
y = ,()67,3 om8. (exact), or 42{4 omr. (neglecting rbd effect).
(13-12),
From Eq ?, =
tryi
FD: {tili',};<t 4t(so\2):$gll:t {D-r p".-io r o:#A, - zo.s'r/min
Hence 4. : 231 X 19.1/{3.183} = 0 827 or 0.792, depending on whether the efficiency
is rmt or ri* to inqlude the loss of delivery due to piston rod displacement.
Triplea Power Purn ps. The re1:iprocating pump is also used in the forrn of a
three-cylinder, single-acting, motor-driven pump when discharge pressure is
moderately high to high, and where the inefficiency of steam pumps wasting
thdir exhaust or of small-sized centrifugal pumps is to be avoided. Triplex
pumps are three-cylindered in order to produce overlapping deliveries and
minimize pulsation. They are singlc-acting to simplify the mechanical linkage
connecting crankshaft to piston and to avoid rod stuffing boxes. These pumps
are quite efficieut, but control is a problem since either the driver must be
operated at variable speed or the portion oi normal capacity not needed at
part-load by-passed back to suction by relief or regulating valves. If an excess
pre*ure regulating valve is placed in a by-nass. and operated by the pressure
 TURBINE PUMPS 551
drop across the feedwater regulator, it must be of the spring-closing instead
of spring-opemng type, With by-pass control the partJoad -*ill
"d"i.rr"y
,".y
approximately proportional to the nct discharge.
Small boilers are supplied by motor-driven triplex pumps that can be pud
under float switch control and Bo operate on an on-oh basis. No feedwater
regulator valve is used and boiler water level fluctuates between high- and low-
water limits set by the float switch.
Pump ryeeds must be held down to those which will not result in impaired
volumetric efficiency. This is represented by the empiricat formula,r
if: 907r-1[rpm (lS-13)
where "L = Etroke inmm.
The schematic illustration of a triplex pump shows speed reduction.by
gearing the motor sha{t to the crank-
shaft. This is also made with V-belt
drive. The illustrated pump is plunger
type, hut power pumps are also built 'I
with trunk pistons having pins to take
the connecting rod. I
13-12 Turbine Pumps. This is the
nam€ given to a class of rotary, norr- Cul&
positiw displacement pumps having Dbcl.!tr Alr
some importance in the small boiler I
field. It is generally seen as a srngle- g@tloD
stage pump, for with a single vaned v
wheel it can produce a pressure incre-
ment of 7 kg/cmr or more. This pump Int6rcyli.tier
employs impact, diffusion, and some
centrifugal force, but is net a true cen- Frc. t3-2g Triplex power pump.
trifugal pump. Water enters at the
periphery and is carried around to the outlet by the vanes, being repeatedly
forced out into the free channel (see Fig. 13-29) only to retum for re-engage-
ment wrth the vanes. Thus the pressure is built up regenera-
tively from inlet to outlet. Considerable churning exists and
SUCtO{ therefore the efrciency is low (20/o, rising to 40 ot 80% i\
the larger capacities). However, small centrifugal pumps
eccomplish about the same wast€ of energy without being as
productive of prcssure per stage.
The characteristics of the turbine pump meet well the
boiler feed requirements of the small boiler operating with
Ftc. 13-29 Mul- steam pressures up to 14 kg/crn. This includee 3.5- l0.Skg/cmt
ti-vane or "tur- paekage oil brrrner units (described in Chapter l0r. Largi
bine" type pump. numbers of these are in service, and many new ones
are sold
annually. Most of them are fed by ,,pump sets,, which con-
sists of a motor-driven turbine pump, a feed tank with floal valves for auto-
matic make-up, and a float switch to attach to the boiler at the norm&l water
+ For ccld wster, Make temperlture correction lor hot sater.
552 TEE FEEDWATER LOOP
level. As steam is generated and the wster level drops to a set level, the float
closes switch contacts and starte the motor. After the pump has raised the boiler
level to an upper limit, the float opens the switch and stops the motor. This
system has the virtues of simplicity
and low cost, and since the combus-
[ion control is also generally of the
on-ofr form, another intermittently
operating electrical auxiliary is no
disadvantage. Up to I hp of electrical
power the float switch may handle
the motor directly, but Iarger motors
oeed a relay between float contacts
and motor power circuit.
13-13 CentrifUgal Pumps. The
basic parts oI this pump are a rotat-
ing impeller and a casing to sur-
round it and direct water flow. \Yatcr
let into the center or "eye" ol thc im-
peller is quickly rotated and dis-
charged from the periphery of the
impeller lvrth velocity rnd pressurc
-J more than it had at the eye. This
naturally cre&tns l forec on the im-
peller opposing rotation, accounting
for the torque which must be contin-
tatba kr Mdk \,- uously supplied to the impeller shaft
Frc. 13-30 Boiler feed unit, with turbine bY its driver' \Yithout entering into
pump. the theory of the centrifugal pump, it

has been derived bu*ha*his rheory, in rt'ffiii"rTl-t:i'fiX"TilTll"""il

certain indeterminate flow conditions in the impeller. The centrifugal pump is
a velocity machinel that is: its pumping action requtres, first, the production
of a water uelocity; second, the conuersion ol aeloctty to pre$sure head- The
velocity is given by the rotating impeller, the conyersion accomplished by
difrusing guide vgnes or in a volute casing surrounding the impeller. The dif-
fuser pump is the more efficient, especially on high heads, but is the more costly.
It is quite common to use the multi-stage volute type where the heads ere be-
low 35 kg/cmlTfith few exceptions, single.stage puqps are of the volute type.
Other bases of classrfication are: (1) the direction of the pump shaft, hori-
zontal or vertical; (2) method of constructing the casing I'or access; horizontally
split,.or barrel type with removable ends and stage separstors; (3) extended or
close-coupled. When pump impeller is mounted on the motor shaft and casing
is bolted to the motor end-bell, the pump is sard to be "close-coupled." There
are, of course, [umerous diflercnces in construction detail rvhich the engineer
must examine in any critical appraisal of competitive ofrenngs. Some of these
arc the method of balancing the end thrust which occurs with single suction
impellers, how mechanical and hydraulic wear can be ofrset by replacement of
wearing parts such as shaft sleeves and wearing rings, the design of packing
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 669
glandB, arrangements for cooling, draining, etc. Casinge are cast iron where the
pressure permits; otherwise they are carbon steel. It
is standard practice to
fit pumps with forged steel shafts and cast bronze impellers, but for high-tern-
perature service, stainless steel is rnore corrosion-resistant.

s t..
r!.
Slolftn ;

It

.ln9t

!rt"

tnEersoll-Rund, Co.

Ito. 13-31 Two-stage horizontal centrifugal pump. Design suitable for boiler feed
service up to 6B?6 t/m &t $6 E TDH and 3500 rnm.

Lu.brication is simple on most centrifugal pumps, there being only the two
shaft bearings to require it. Ring oiling from reservoirs cast in the bearing
pedestal and grease-lubricated ball bearings are usual. Cooling may be needed
Ior high-ternperature feed pump bearings. In the high-pressurc regenerative
cycle, power station boiler feetl requirements constitute severe service for a
pump. End thrusts are high and oillubricated thrust bearings such as the

20

, 05 '.r ;X -\
I
1
{/ R\ \\
E \^ L^\l

30
<1\,', X-e b.

',^
15
-->.(-
01 0l 00' 00 2 00
Litr.. / minure dtschdrge ot t750 rpm
Fro. 13€2 fupical centrilugal pump cold wat€r perforrnance. (For pumps with 10,
11, 12, 13 and 14.h. impeuerE.)
M .IHE FEEDWATER LOOP
Kingsbury are used. Such installations may heve a more complex luhricating
system, including oil circulntion and cooling.
Capacity is a function of inrlrcller rvidth, dianreter, and speed. Head is
determined by impeller disureter aDd specd, and emciency results from proper
integration of impeller and casing shapes. The variable discharge performance
of a pump is usually tested with cold water at constant shalt speed, resulting
in a set of curves similar in nature to those presented for the centrifugal fan
in Fig. 12-38. lVhere it is desired to show perfomrance data for a.line of ged-
metrically similar pumps, with difretent impeller diameters represented, a plot
like Fig. 13-32 is often used. This is a head-discharge graph for the several
Fo. 9.91. -Suction PsmPtwili Shall Throlgh Er. ol lh9.ll.r
15 20 25 30 t5 r0 50 60

E
_a

E
30

20

l5

t0

30 35 40 15 60 ?0 80

sp.cific sp..d N! . o'otlg t RI-! 6 tl

_3

H
For Oo!bl. Suclio. P!hp3

FIc. 13-33 Limiting specific speeds for centrifugal pump suction lifts. (Basedon
20.{ rc and sea lcvel )

rmpellers, all at the same speed wiih power and eficicncy noted at cach head-
discharge coordinate. Then all lines oI the same efficiency &nd the Bame bhp
arc connected to display these characteristics as contours. For other speeds
similar graph sheets would be necessary; however, for limited variation the
law of similitude may be invoked. Head is proportionel to N2, capacity to .l[,
and power to (N)3.
Speciffc speed is an indication of impeller type, the same as it indicates the
runner type of hydraulic turbines. Designers employ it to meet diflerent con-
ditions of H, Q, and -Iy'; power plant engineers should understBnd how to use
it to check an installation for permissible suction heads to avord cavitation.
A pump of low specific speed will operate safely with greater suction lift than
one of higher speed. With low suction lifts (high NPSH) a pump of highe'
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPfI 555
specific speed can be used-which often is a cheaper pump. Fig. 13-33 repre-
sents opersting experience on the upper limit of i[" for which centrifugal
pumps can be considered to be safe from cavitation difficulties, viz., noise,
vibration,and pitting.The chart basie is o sea-levelatmoephere and 29.4'Cwater. '

Example 2: Given driver speed of 3550 rpm, trhe ch&rt lvill be employed to
deteunine highest, safe, specific speed for a tuulti-stage boiler feed pump to handle
l80E UEin against a totsl head of l67,6molt2t.l'c w&t r. Suction head available ie
2.60 ka/omt ob '
The g.G. ofrgl.l'c wstrr is 0.912 rcferred to cold wat€r, Its vapor pressurc is
&069 k8/oE?ob.
Then NPSII = (2.68-2.00)ro=a.? m cold wster.
Chart, is b8s€d on 29.4'0 wat€r, for which vapot prtesure ie 0.042. At ses level,
suction Drersure, &bsolute = l.og x lo-ttr .uctioa lift. With ,s,{'C rvater NPSE =
(1.03 x l0 -rE.suctioo ltft)-0.04t x l0 =0.t8-suotion. Thorofo.€flrotion lifl on ohort:o:tt
_NpSE-e.8r_{.?0:6.t 8 m. = 82.6 - tS2 = r7.4 ft.
The head per 6tage is now determined, assuming 2 and 3 stages, tr'or 2-stage,
lf = l0?.6y0.91!/t:7&0 m cold sat6r. Lik6pi.o, if $6t6ga, E-69.7 m.
Etrt€r chart with suction lift and head.
2-stage rV. = l1E0; 3-stage /f" = 1520

Next solvo the sp€cific speed equation for pump speed.

2-stage r!' = ll&)x4.?{x78.9!/rlyt-O:UOO rpa

3-stage 1[ = t 610 x 4.74 x 62.?r,\fi6os - t2rt rpm
The 2-stage Dumn nsca a speed nearer the specified drive.
Cogocilv t/Din doubl. ruclion pomP3

ao

!6
a

.9

,:
0.6

0.5

600 000 1000 1500 2000 3000 400c

Copo.ily t/min -.in9l. tuclio. Dunp5

Hvdra'Aic kstt'ste

Frc. 13-34 Minimum positive suction bead for centrifugal condensate pnmps.
556 THE FEEDWATER LOOP
The chart may also be used for altitude cases by adding to the rpecified
euction lift, or deducting from the epecified suction head,O.l m per l00o alti-
tude above sea level.
Conileuate Pump. Cerrt;ifugal pumps are almost exclueively given the lob
of condensate pumping. For one thing, the self-regulating character of sub-
mergence control mentioned in the treatment of condenser auxiliaries simplifies
many condensate pumping installations, particularly those from vacuum !e-
gions.
Condensate pumps are a special class of centrifugals. They are genqrally
required to operate on minimums of net positive suction head, frequently when
pumping hot condensate. The flow into the pump through the suction nozzle is
rphatever the NPSH, used as If in the equation A : A \/rg4, will provide.
Since submergence ol inlet is a prominent factor in NPSH it acts to regulate
di$charge.
It follows, of course, that inetallation mistakes are easily and frequently
committed when the signifibance of suction head is not understood. The recom-
mendations showa in Fig. 13-34 are based on wide experience in this field. It
will be noted that the inflow to the pump at a given NPSH varies as the square
of the pump speed.
The single-stage, double-suction pump has the widest range of application
and can serve for all coadensate drainage except those cases with high discharge
pressurea. Then 2-stage axially balanced pumps are needed.
Another applicaticn'of the centrifugel
condensate pump is the integrated conden-
sation pumping set, illustrated in Fig.
13-35. These sets are cmployed to reeeive
assorted flows of condensate from traps,
heating systems, etc., and deliver the con-
densate to the leedwater tank. On a com-
mon base will be mounted a motor-driven
centrifugal pump, a receiver tank of steel
or cast iron, and the necessary valves,
strainerA, controls. Usually the control is
No.h Dnsinedbs co. a simple, float-operated Ewitch that starts
motor when the tank,s nearly full and
Frc. 13-85 Condensation unit. Con- the
sisis of cast-iron receiver tank, tank- stops it whel the tank has been nearly
;";i;d -;";fiLsri pr^p, - float pumped out Bv venting the-tank, hot trap
s*it"h. ""i discharges are cooled to 100"C through
ffashing; hence the pump must be de-
eigaed to opGrst d a few cm sustion submeqeuce, although pumping hot
water.
BtiJer Feed Pump. The multi-stage centrifugal pump has few competitora
for--boiler feeding in the large power station. There is no auxiliary more vital
to the continued operation of the statiorr. Let the boiler feed pump begin to
miebehave and operators spring to action, endeavoring to bring standby equip-
ment into service and avoid a plant shutdown. That standby equipment will
be provided is axiomatic to the central station and is nearly universal practice
elsewhere. The modern, high-duty steam generator might be out of water in e
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS fiZ
minute or less were the feed to fail completely. At such times an immediatc
shutdown is the only alternative to service from standby feed pumps.
The maximum capacity needed in this pump is theoretically the maximum
rate of evaporation of the boilers it feeds, but here is an auxiliary which ought
to be specified oversize. Where sieam demand is fairly steady and the ratio
of boiler water capacity to evapora-
tion rate is conservative, then a
margin of 5O/o o'ter the maximum
rate of evaporation would be ample
capacity. Contrariwise, if the steam
drum water capacity is a small frac-
tion of the evaporative rate, and
heavy load swings are expected, then
prudence dictates sizingthe pump even
more conservatively. A boiler rated
at 22700 Lg per hr could and would t t I

meet brief demands for 22700 to

a!t
36200 Lg ste&m if there were that
demand. This would not likely
happen in an electric nower station.
but could for institutional, industrial, s
or central heating loads where load
Civersity was temporarily missing.
Ihere is probably nothing more un-
nerving to cxperienced boiler opera-
iors than to see the waler level disap- IrG. 18-36 Working couditions for a boiler
pear into the bottom of the gauge feed pump.
glass with the feed valve wide open.
True, it may be o4ly a temporary Ioad peak and the pump will quickly gain
eommand ol the sitrration, but these philosophical attitudes are conspicuous by
their absence when operators lace empty water gauge glasses.
The total operatirg head of a boiler feed pump is calculated as the difrer-
ence between discharge and suction heads. Yelocity head is negligible. The
power plant boiler feed pump will be handling hot water under a positive suc-
tion head composed of hydraulic head to the water level in the feedwater supply
or surge tank plus gauge pressure, if any, on that v.vater level, Iess friction in
pipe, fittings, strainers, and valves. Discharge head will be the sum of hydro-
static head to the boiler water level, piping and fittings friction, boiler gauge
pressure, and pressure drop through the feedwater regulator. All should be
expressed in metres of wster st the pumping temperoture.
Example 3: A simple problem in boiler feed pump calculation is preseuted in
Fig. 13-36. Data: P\pe and fittings friction losses,l.6min suction line and ,.0m in
delivery liue;* pressure drop through regulating valve at open position, o.la lq/omt
water lpEperaturc, 93.3'C . MsximuE diEchsrge, 4?3 l/EiE
Using o1 from tables, the density of g3.3rcwater referred to theu.6"cstaudard
(where lo m:t ks/opr ) is 1.001 / 1.038 = 0364. Datum will be pump centetJiDe.

* Methods of computing pipe friction will appear itr the Dext chapter
558 TIIE FEEDWATER I,OOP
Discharge head = 6. r +2.0 + (I {+0. 14)10/0.064 : 166.3 r!
Suctionhead: 0.1-1.5 - 7.0 ttr

Catculated pump operating hesd : lt?.? m

Specified pump operating head will exceed this by whatever safety allowance the
mgiDeel wants to throrv in to meet efrect ol initial frictional discrepancies, aging of
pipe liue, lack of a,llowed suction head, variation of excess pressure control, etc.
Engineers will wish to put iu from 10/p lo 25/p allowatce here. Using 15y's, tbe
specifled head here would be 170 m wst6r at 03.gPC.
Now, if performaace curves of the pump were available, the driving power could
be computed. Assuning it was found that at a?t Vmin ond l?o o the pump efrciency
sil be 0.75, the power required is:
{73x -!9 *176
OOr:* = 0.75 x 4sofiXn :2t 8 hp

The iustallation therefore calls for a 25-hp motor.

On account of increa,sed operating head and lowered efficiency of the ma-
chiaes at part load, almost as much power may be needed at half load as at full.
It is also very important in this class of pump to provide sufficient positive
suction head. A pump which operated quite satisfactorily on I lO"C waterfeeding
a boiler at7 kg/cmr gawhenprovided with 3 m suction submergenca, was en-
tirely unable to produce flow when supplied with B2.2oC water from a sump
necessitating about 0.9 m suction lift.
30
5
aatt ra r altll
laaat
laatlaatltlllr
a aalrrrl
aJ,a II I
.20 aTta
Irs
aal
llaa
E3 lr7/Iraa tllt
22 Jaaaa alll
'aaa
3ro
?r rrl
llt 3500
.j lllt

0
r5oo 2oooc

€5
0.
z3
laraaalt
taatIlat
7

n5
.00 500 600 700 9 1000 1500 2000 30c0 a000 5000 ,6od

Esiboulic lnstitlttz

Fro. 13-37 Net positive suction head. Centrifugal hot water pumps-single suction'
These curves servi as guides in detemining the net positive suction head for hot water
pumps and do not necissarily reprcsent absolute minimum values. Cornpiied from daf,r
L,y representative companies. The curves aFEly to water temperatujes up to 100"c,
Itr temperatures abo;e roo'c use temperature correction chart For speeds within
t V. of those shorrn correct c&pacitylaccording to rpm VJp- = Cott"tunt'
CENTRIFUGAL PI'MPS 559
The data of Fig. 13-37 were compiled by the Hydraulic Institute from data
by representative companies. It is provided ae a reliable indicator of minimum
NPSH on the boiler feed pump euction. This graph is for single suction pumps.
A set of curves for double suction pumps is similar except that, at maximum
discharge, they rise to about 70/o ol lhe NPSII's given for single suction.
Examplc {:
Water ie hest€d to Esturstion( t.{o7 kg,/omr ob, lOt 9t) inrdeaerator,
then delivercd by grsvity to a boiler feed pump rated at 28t l/ruiD at tO.6 k8,/omt 8.
pn cauro. It ia dairod to dct,€rl[itre the required .uotion aubmergorloo hoighq fl. O.t rlt
head will be allowed for pipe friction in the suction line. N - 35W mm.
tr'rom Fig. 1347, NPSE = lmotl0oqo. Correction for tos.s'c-b.a m maLing
NPSE &t I os,e"c, 3.2,. m 8.c. ol I 06.e. -"t"r
- i#|
:o.ors ,
vapo" pfttrur€
NPSII -Suotior hesd rt------oJ5$--
1.07 r lo
r.2r- :+;6* +E-o.r- hg+!g
II = 3.64 o. Allowing some margia of assurance, the submergence will be put st a m.
Ia this example II ras simply tbe NPSII + friction, but orly because the water wae
saturated, and at the same tcmperature in both d€aeratror and pump suction.

Steam turbincs and electric motors are employed to drive the centrifugal
hoiler feed purtp. Motors are direct-connected ; so are the steam turbirres,
though largc, turbine-powered units will a.lso be {ound with geared turtrines.
This is so thc turbine may operate at higher speed than the pump in the in-
tcrest of bettcr emciency. Turbines are th6mechanical drive type, usually non.
condensing, with exhaust steam directed to feed heating or otherrvise usefully
absorbed. l\Iotors may nccd to have spccial features of high-temperature in-
sulation of the windings and drip proof frames.
Centrifugal pumps expected to be operated in parallel should have a droop-
irrg pressurc characteristic throughout the operating range and possess the
same percent AQ over the operating range.
Control of discharge is largely dependent on the drive employed. IIotor
drives are essentially constant spced so that the pump is caused to operate
back and forth along its constant-speed, hcad vs discharge eharacteristic by

450 .50

1---
f 3so E

l{,

! rso
P
50

o- o o

0 750 t500 250 0 ?50 1500 2250

Dirchorge t/m
b. lhrottlino control

fro. 1i-38 Two sJ,stems of centrifugal borler teed Flmp control with governed difier-
ential pressure across feedwete! rcgulator.
560 THE FEEDWATER LOOP
throttling the discharge. Turbine drives are readily speed-controlled by pres-
sure-operatetl throttle valves in series with the turbine speed governor. These
two systems are compared in Fig. 13-38.
Speed control is premiscd on the shilt ol the II-Q characteristic by change
oI pump speed. Imagine a feedwater systern resistance characteristic which is
composed of a pressure head and a variable frictional resistance. Constant
cxcess pressurc control is presumed to be applied to the feed regulating valve.
Then the systcm I/-Q rclation is represcnted by F, whereas that lor the pump
is N. Thc pump will alu'ays operate in hydraulic condition represented by the
intersection of these two curves. Thus if N in diagram o is normal rated turbine
speed set by its specd governor, then Nr would be the pump charactcristic
nceded to supply ratcd discharge Q1. The surplus head, AA' represents the al'
Iowance mentioned in Example 4 as a contingency shou'tl
OIFFEREITIAL the actual system resistance tum out to be F' instead ot
PRES S. LEADS the estimated F. At part loads Qr, 83, the pump characj
L H IGH
teristic will be shifted to rys, N3 in order to achieve requi-
site hydraulic balance. This shifting is carried out by
turbine govelning wherein an excess pressure governor
takes over. The feedwater system is usuhlly set up with
EYPAS excess pressure control on the feed regulator.* A turbine
throttle vaive to go in series with the speed governor
would be similar to Fig. 13-39. Pressure leads from the
high- and low-pressure side of the feedwater regulator, or
alternately lrom feed and steam headers, are connected
to the opposite sides of a diaphragm. The low pressure is
aided by the spring, and the system comes into balance at
a differential pressure that can be adjusted by spring
tr'rc. 1339 Excess comoression. Difrerential pressur* of 1.5 to 3.5 kg/cmrare
pressure regulating used with thc convcntional fccdwater regulators. When the
valve {eedwatcr regulator pBrtially closes, it tends to increase
thd pressure diflerential. This, transmitied to the turbine
pressur€ governor, partially closes the steam valve and the turbine slows down
to such speed as will again adjust the excess pressure to that value preset by
the spring comDression.
T hrottling control is shown in Fig. 13-38b. Disregarding the normal small
speed regulation of the motor, there is only one I{-Q characteristic to work with.
Now to deliver Qr, Qr, Qa, tlie control system must produce system resrstances
F1, F2, F 3. But as the basic system resistance is F, an extra controlled resistance
rnust be inserted in the discharge line. This takes the form of a water line valve
automatically controlled by the same pressure difrerential used in system o.
.4.4'is the necessary throttling at rated discharge resulting from the same pre-
cautionary pump specificationt that produced ,4.4' in Fig. 13-38a. If F tums
out to have been a correct prediction of iystem resistance, the water valve pro-
duces pressure drops BB' and. CC' Lo regulate for flows Q2 and 0s. The throt-

r Discussed ia the followiog section.

t Refers to use oI a chamcteristic tr" in specifying tbe pump Ether than tr' which is the
computed resistaDce.
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 561
tling valve to put in series with thc feedwater regulator is similar in design to
Fig. 13-39, that is, a spring-opcning desigrr.
trYhen a pump is opcrated at a small fraction of its rated output, yet pre-
serving rated speed (case b), thc efficicncy is quitr: Iow. L)ne rvith characteristics
of Fig. 13-38b, vrith ?n cxcce(ling 70/c at ratecl dischargc, probal,ly rvould lx.
down to 15/o ai 1/10th load. Thcse largc losses will heat thc water passing
through thc pump by scvcral tlcgrccs, sornetinrcs too much. Then thcrc is ahvays
a possibility that the fecd valvc uright ckrsc cornplctely for some tirne, during
which the motor input at h = 0% lvould lapidly hcat the rvatcr, churn it
into steam, and possibly overheat thc pump to thc point of mcchanical seizure.

.eg'rioling 8orle.

l3-41

Monuol fe€d volvo

Flr. 13-.10 Connections for fecd control rvith conslorrf-speerl ccntrifirgal boiler feed-
$?ter pump.

E
E

!! I

!
.+
225
tE rr+
+
!5,50
5 ?5

150 zoo zso :oo

l'rc 13-41 Dimensions

"r,
*n*,llr"ljlJlX,*,0"o (Courtcsl. southrrn Pouet
562 TIIE FEEDWATER LOOP
To prevent this a small orifice should alweyr be instslled to by-pass that mi"i
mum flow of water required to cool the pump ftom the discharge back into
the,feedwater cycle. The orifice must be quite small, should be corrosion proof.
and have o atrainer in front of it, or be installed so thst its interior can be
rodded from time to time to verify that it ie serviceable. The hldraulic lose
occasioned by this small by-pass is relatively insignificant; its protective feature
is valuable. If the oriffce flow is sufidient to prevent more than 8.3qC rise in
the watcr temperature in the nump, it is said to be adequate prot€[tion Bgeimt
flashing and overheating in the first-stage impeller. "

Examplc 3: A lz)s !/Bir pump which operates sg8isst f60 In wst€r TDE st f00!C
has efrciency ol ,Eo zt eluElin, and 15%, at tso UBin Ils by-psss orifice neede are to
be d€termined.
Each tg of w8ter flowing through the pump haa 160 kgm of work imparted
to it, equivslent to E6t0 J, The turbulence euergy abeorM aa t t€mperatur: rise iB
to* f1 - t). fhis amounts to 08100 J por kg st 0l l/min flow ed zosa8 J p.r kg at
f80 VaiD.The specific hest ot lq)'C boiog 4J8? J p6r 8-dca C, to h.ve 10.1rc ri.o st 0a
UDin, 4.8"C st I tO Vmin. Int tpolotiag, .t 8.3oC liro . 8oE of 160 V6itr ir iodtort€d. tr}oB
Fi& l3ll, it ls s6on tbst tho oriioo siro to rr!6 is 7,1 rtlrtr.
Installation. Some factors in centrifugal pump installation have been men-
tioned. To these might be added the fotlowing, which are specially pertinent
to the high-temperature, multi-stage centrifugal boiler feed pump. The elevate,.l
temperature ol the water being pumped creates &n expansion problem. The
large-capacity, high-pressure pump will be joined to pipe lines of considerable
rigidity, whose owrr expansiori may, if not allowed for, twist the pump casing
causing misalignmenf, wear, or breakAge. Hence the connecting piping should
be independently supported during installation with the final companion
flanges exactly lining up at the pump before the bolts are inserted and tightened.
Although expansion bends and loops can be built into the discharge system in
order to produce flexibility, there is a limit to this on the suction side because
of the efiect on NPSH- However, a short, direct, rigidly anchored suction ap-
proach is dangerous. Sometimes an expansion joint has to be placed in such
a line. Large, high-temperatrrre pumps ought also to be provided vith a
warm-up, manually controlled by-psss so that the pump may be in thermal
equilibrium be.fore it is started.
Desirable instrumentatiun includes pressure gauges on suction and djs-
charge, and on pressure pilot lines to regulator valves; suction Bnd discharge
thermometersl feedwater flow meter; and an Blarm system for low flow or low
pressure. OI course, the boiler water column low-water alarm will eventually
report insufrcient feedwater, but piecious minutes are saved by the earlier
alarm from a pump discharge warning system. Not all the foregoing are con-
eidered necessary for every pump installation; however, the pressure gauges
should be a "must."
Operation anil Tedl The centrifugal oump is mechanically simple, yet
ea8y to dsmsge if not operst€d correctly. Turbine-driven pumps can always be
started slowly and gradually brought up to speed. Motor-driven pumps sre
either started at full speed or, with large motorar on one reduced starting speed.
 FEEDWATER REGULATI0N 56A
The higher the pressure, and the higher the water temperature, the more the
care and time to be taken in starting up. One should be very careful that no
yalves are closed in the suction line, and that the plmp casing is vented during
the Btart. Operational supervision in-
volves watching pump instruments and
Iistening to the pump sound. Failure of

!
the pump to operate on its normal head- \\
discharge characteristic, vibratiorr, or un- rr.fc
usual noises are evidences of impending 1a8.3
\\ za.l'c
zt.t'c
trouble that can be detected by watchful
E
\\ rs.6'c ol,*
supervision, often iar enough in advance
of enforced shutdown to enable the owner
E
N\
to get the necessary parts on hand for
93.!
\ \N \ F
quick repairs.
Pump tests are made to
quantities necessary to plot the charac-
measure 3r.8
ooooF)
III
0.65 0.oo
\ N\
0.95 r.00

teristic curves of total head, bhp, and

effciency against discharge. The bhp of Frc. 13_42 Factors FD and ,7. for Eq
installed and operating pumps must corne tB-14. (Courte.y Sout"him power and
from analysis of the driver perfornrance, tidustrg.\
whether turbine or motor. Laboratory or
factory testing ol pumps is carried out with cold water. The results are corrected
to actual operating conditions with these rules:
1. Power consumption is directly proportional to specific gravity of the
water-
2. Adjust NPSH of the test to be equivalent to that available under actual
.rperating conditions.
3. If test speed is not operating speed, a speed correction is applied to
pon'er.
4. Efficiency is corrected by the lormula

Corrected 4, : (13-14)
lpr* (1 - zpr)j?"It
where F", l't : Correction factors, Fig. 13-42.
,pt: Test eficiency of pump.
In addition to correcting test results, this equation will be of assistance in
prediction of required power to drive a pump at some lesser speed than that for
which an efrciency is already known.
13-14 Feedwater Regulation, Air, fuel, and water are the three vari-
ablds entering into the production of steam. Control of the supply oi fuel and
air was described in the last chapter. We now come to the final element of the
feedwater loop-the feedwater regulator. The feedwater regulator is the gov-
amor of the feedwater supplied to the boiler.
Soon after steam boilers came into use it was discovered that major damage
resulted if they boiled dry; also that the engine might be wrecked by water
passing over with the steam. Naturally great csre was taken to prevent the
water level in the boiler from passing below or ahove ihe safc limits.
564 THE FEEDWATER LOOP
When pressure boilers first came into use, no regard was taken of any elact
water level-the only object was to keep water in the drum. This naturally
brought about the establishment of a . ean uater leuel, and consequently when
gauge glasses were introduced, as a matter of course the glass was placed with
its middle at this mean water level. In the case of the wster tube boiler, the
center-line of the drum was selected. The establuhment ol thts mean uater leael
at the middle gauge uas 7rurelg arbitrary ; i1 merely represented a point midway
between the two extremes; it gave the water tender something to aim at, for
avoiding the extremes.
Under modern conditions it is necessary for feedwater to flow into the
boiler almost as rapidly as the steam flows out; and since boilers are approech-
ing the flash type, it is plain that the feedwater regulation should be automatic.
It cannot be done successfully by hand; a close adjustment of boiler water
level cannot be accomplished manually by operators.
It will be seen, however, that maintaitring a fixed water level is not advisable.
Nowadays our high boiler ratings, high furnace temperatures, and small, water-
storage space call for a very sensitive water level adiustment; elery change in
load must be met with a change in fecdwater input. Otherwise,.the boiler rvill
surely be operating al abott 4/o or 5% below the efrciency which can be had
with correct regulation.
Even in the small plants there is no excuse for controlling feedwater i4put
by hand. In our efforts to produce greater efficiency, the number of devices anrl
instruments for tlre boiler room has grcatly irrcreased, and the small plents
rvhich show the highest efficiency are the ones which ore making the fullest use
of tbese improvements.
There are ser.eral makes of feedwdter regulators on the markct, most of
thern either float or thermostatically operated. Continuous regulators have
become the standard t1'pe for large boilers. Small boilers are frequently fed by
an intcrmittent system bascd on automatic start-snd-stop of thc motor-drivan
feeduntcr pump.
The principlcs of eontinuous-typc regulators are schematically pictured
in Fig. 13-43 and are descritei ss follows:
a. 'fhe lloat regulqtor has a float ,rhamber piped to ihe boiler drum. It is installed
opposite the normal water level of the boiler so that level csn bd duplicated in the
float chamber. As this levcl chatrges, ihe :qotion of the float mechanically opens or
closes a balanced regulating valvc irr the feedwater linc thus goventiDg thle inflo$
of feedwater. On some noncontinuous {loat regulotors the {loat motion actuates ir
switch for pump motor control.
b. The geaerator tl'pe of regulator has a vapor generator whose central pipe is
conlected to the boiler above and below the uater line. Surrounding this is the finned
generator chamber communicating, through connecting tubing, with the diaphrrgnr
charnber of the spring-closing regulating vah'e. This region is 6iled with water lo s
level in the generator chamber determined liy the manufacturcr. It is a closed region
x'ith &ll ioints pressure-tight. Steam above the water level in the centr&l tube is
condensed tjy heat transfer to the generatiDg chamber where some of the wate! i!
vaporized at a pressure which is detemrined by the rate of heat leakage from the 6ns
rrld the height
-of
of thc water lilre iD the central tube. This pressure, traDsmitt€d to th(i
diaphragm the valvc, producc,r a 6teJ1] movcmeni sum;ient to govern the flow of
w&ter to the boiler.
FEEDWATER REGULATION 566
c. lhe thermostotic tube regolalar iB &ctuated by slight changes in the leogth oI
a long inclined tube irr whicb the water level of the boiler is duplicated by proper pipe
connections to the boiler drums. Becsuse of the flat angle of installatiou, a small
change in boiler water level crcates larger changes in the portion of this tube that is
exposed to steam. Therefore, its average temperature varies with water level, The small
linear tbenaal expansion that follows is mechanically multiplied by a lever whose eDd
moven€Dt is utilized to oper&te the balanced regulating valve.
Normally, these regulators actuate the feed valve directly, but cases ariee
where it is desirable to.operate the valve by a relay uDder the control of s
primary element such ae the thermostatic tube. Relay operation is recommended
for high-pressure boilers(40 kg/cm. ood over) and for l.rge diameter vslves (say

<_

b. vooo, 9....urr lr9.

Boile, dtum ostol

o wolat
YolY€

+ +
c. Tharmoalollc arDonaion lrgr
Frd. 13-43 Three generic types of boiler feedw&t€r rrgulators for simple level coDtrol.
566 THE FEEDWATER LOOP
l27mm and lugcr) operating with highdifierential presure. The use of an air-,
oil-, or water-operated relay provides the necessary power to position the valve
accurately and rapidly, thus permitting the primary element to operate more
sensitively.
Regulators designed to maintain a constant feedwater pressure at the
pump by controlling the steam supply to it have been in use a long time. When
close feedwater regulation is necessary an excess, or difrerential, pressure regu-
lstor is used to maintain constsnt pressure across the control valve. Engineers
will appreciate the fact that the emount of water that may be passed by a valve
is dependent not only on the area of the opening, but upon.the pressure drop
across the valve. The practice of modern engineering is to control the water
pressure difrerential in the individual feed line to each boiler so thdt there will
be a uniform water pressure drop across each regulator. The excess pressure
regulator is installed at the inlet eide of the water level controller. Acting prac-
tically as a reducing valve, it maintains at its outlet a pressure which is a
definite amount higher than the pressure at the controller outiet.
In order to take advantige of the thermal storage between high- and low-
weter level in the boiler drum, the regulator should gradually incregse or de-
creese the feed on slowly increasing or decreasing steam demands, but it should
decrease the feed during rapid increase of steam demand and increase it vhen
the demand decreases rapidly, for in that way the fluctuation of boiler water
level can ofrset the time lag of combustion response to changing steam require-
ments. For illustration, suppose th&t the regulator shown in Fig. 43-c is regu-
lating the water level at middle gsuge. The expansion tube is half full of wster
and half full of steam, giving normal valve opening whieh produces a normal
feed. There is a sudden increase in ste'am demand, and rapid withdrawal of
stored steam is followed by a rapid drop in pressure and bubbling up of escap-
ing steam at a rapid rate. This raises the water level and contracts the tube
which decreases the valve opening. The decrease of cold feed input allows the
boiler to steam at maximum rate. A continued heary steam demand gradually
lowers the water level in the boiler and tube, expanding the tube and opening
the control valve wide enough to pass the required flow.
Modem boiler operating conditions have necessitated adding to standard
control equipment an element which is sensitive to the flow of stesm and which
is auxiliary to the ordinary water level regulator. The auxiliary control is
exerted by means of a steam. pressurc drop, such as that existing across the
superheater, which drop is roughly proportional to the square ol the steam flow.
As shown by Fig. 13-44, the feedwater regulating valve is operated by the
combined efrect of two controls, tualer leuel ancl stearn flow. In this particular
system the steam flow element is a diaphragm unit actuated by pressure drop
through the superheater, but the differential pressure could be taken across an
orifice in the steam line if there were no superhcater. The diaphragm balances
the flow-induced differential pressure against a spring force. At any time, then,
it assumes a position proportional to steam flow. The two-elernent regulator
being responsive to flow as well as level is able to anticipate changes in level
and can produce a more stable boiler water level when the load is fluctuating
than can level control alone.
Thd reader might now review the corttents o{ the last two chspters to gr88p
PROBLEMS oo,

E*
EI

*-*@

Frc. 13-44 A two-clement feedwater regulating system.

fully the double loop idea as outlined in Fig. 9-1. He will discover that, not only
has the equipment been described, but, what is more important from the stand-
poirft of. pouer plant engineeing, its relation to the remaindcr of the loop, and
the behavior and control of each loop on variable load (the fundamental operst-
ing condition) has been treated in as much detail as space perrnitted.

PROBLEMS
1. The leedwater to a boiler is g2l condcnsate and 8/6 make-up containing 270
ppm solids. What weight of solids enters thc boiler per h! at a ,26m L8 per hr steam
evaporation?
2. In a test for hardness of a water sample, 14.0 ml soap soiution were needed in
a 50-ml sample of ryater. Lather factor, 1.5 ml. Phenolphthalein and methylorange
alkalinities rvere determined to be 0 and 150 ppm respectively. 'What percintage of
the hardness is of the permanent type?
3. The hardness of a feedwater is reported as 4.5 U.S. Degrees. Phenolphthalein
alkalinity, 50 ppm; methylorangc alkalinity, 190 ppm. Describe the chamcter of the
alhalinity and hrrdness of this water.
'Write
4. the follorving water analysis on a balanced epm basis: Ca, 55.0; Mg, 19.0;
Na, 10.0; HCO3,220,0; SOa,29.0; Cl,9.6; all in ppm.
5. Write the Iollorving $'ater analysis on a balanced epm basis: Ca,29.0; Mg,7.5;
Na, 12.0; HCO3, 98.0; SOo, 22.0; NO3, 2.1i Cl,9.2; all iu ppm.
5. Deiermine the quantity of each rcagent for lime-soda treatmentof 3800litet!
e[ rvater of either problem 13-4 or 13-5 assuming lime to be g07o purc, soda ash
86% pure.
608 THE tr'EEDWATER LOOP
7. tr'iDd the bardnese in U.S. Degreesrof a water wbose ioaic analysis in pprn is:
Ca,58.0; Mg, 17.0; Na,44.0; ECOg, 178.0; SOa,44.0; NOg,2.2; Cl,91.0.
8. The water of Prob. 13-7 is used as make-up for a boiler evaporating an ayerage
of 2?2165 kg steam per day. Make-up, 40/6; remainder condensate. What Eeight of
Ca(OII), and Na2COs would constitute a, mooth's supply for vater treatment?
9. Estimate suitable proportions of a blow-ofi tank for the boiler of Example 1,
Sec 13-4 and sketch it approximately to scale.
10. Th6 1370 tn@ diar. st6Em drurD on s boilor is 2440 rDa long snd has a 260 mm
gouge gla€s st mid-drulo lovel. Find tho osrimum st€am go[oration ths0 oould bo
crrod for by s blowdown of holf B sat€r 8sug6 ssch 8-h. shift. Pr€ssuo, l?.6 kg,/cml gs
51 - 150 ppm; So, 2000 ppm.
11. The annuai prcductiou of a boiler is estiEat€dto be2xlou kg of 16.6 kg/cmt ge'
steam. Efficiency: 10 kg equivalent eYaporation per kg coal.Coal cost $6.50per toroe,
Assume that Sb ( 3500 ppm; zrz = 0.03; E- = 400. What annual dollar saving is pos-
sible from a continuous blowdorm system $'hich rvill cool the eJfluent 55.6"C ?
12. Find llmin of co[tinuous b]orvdo$n required to maintain boiler E?ter conceu-
tration sithin ABNIA limits for this casc: 850 hp boiler operated at 150Ec rating.
Lg/omlga,3l6f, food et 1386C. Foed is 30% Eok€-up, 70% oondonsato. Sm:l2lo.
13. Determine the maximum surn that can be economically invested iII a continuous
blowdown system Ior an 60 kg/omr ga plsnt wboe€ stosm g€nolator &verages d5360O kg
deily at 760/o over-all ofrcioocy. Fuol is ooel of l2x loE Joutes oodtitrg S8.?6 p€r tonoe.The
49oC f€odwoter is hslfoond€nsgto 6nd hslf I6oC ooke-up,S1 = 32. Base estimate on 2016
alnual amortization. Diagram the system.
14, The exhaust of a mechcnical drive turbine is estimated to be 1270 kg per hr at
l{ kg/orDl ga and 2850 J/g. IIow much feedweter will this h6st per hr with s 2.ZoC
t€rminat difforonco (, d") t
Cold wator tompelature, 28.7'C.
15. Teo pera€nt of heaiod foddsste. is erhsust stesm (0 kg/cmr gu.90o/o dry) condensed
in au open heatcr; 90% condens-lte rctiun at i7.8"C. tr'ind the heated wate! tempere-
ture aud the terminal difrerence, Describe the heater situation had the retums been
et 140"
16. Wot6r st 60'C will bo deaerBted in s h6stor et 0.7 kg/cm! ge 6team s&turatioD pres-
sure. d:2.7rc. Stelm is strpplied throngh a reducing valr.c from a heade|rvhere the
steam is at 10.6 hg/cmt gs dry and setur?tod. IIo{ esay k8 p€r hr stosm will b€ drsrn
into tho heat€r wh€n the r&t6 of oirtf,oi{ of dos€!&ted wat,or is 630-Umil} ,
17. Determine thc principal specifications of a surface heater assigned Irom one of
the extraction hoaters c:riculatcd in Ilx 1, Sec 8-5. Tubes to bel96ru byl,ozmorcopper
alloy in lorv-pressure heaters. y{, 1.6 m/seo i Us :29296.
18. The conditions of steam extmction to a sudace heater arc: 2650 J/g l.r kgl
-cmt ab. Water flo1v is 13470 kg pcr hr heated from 20.6o to 99'c Specify principal
dimeusions of this heater, given desired tube length about ,.{ mxl6.8 nmxl.27 mrD
tubos ofcoppor slloy ; I/w:1.5 r!/.eo, Us :29295,
19. Lay out the two tube sheets aDd water box partitions for the heater o{ I'rob. 18,
on the basis that it is six-pass with lS tubes per pass.
20. During & test an extraction heater condensed 657.5 kg steam per hr and heated
l?800 kg froa 6r- to 78'c. The heating surface is 6uch that .4 : 10.7 mr aud f.
2.ll m/'€o . Steam pressure, 0.8 kg/crEt ab, 04oc ; coudensate, 8fc . Find the d, U, atrd
thermal eficieDcy.
21. Evaporation oI 2268 kg of raw water is the desired performance of a single-stage
ev&porator. IIow much liv€ stesm will it uso ? Livo steom st ?-, k8/cmt sb' t8.3qc
.up€rh€st. naw w&tor st 15.600. e: .33"C on tho hostinS surfsce. 6% blowdol,!,
22. Solve Prob. 13-21 rvere the evaporator a two-efiect type. REcord the n€cess&ry
eYapor&tor condenser vapor pressure.
 PROBLEMS 5OO

23. Calculate the maximuru quaDtity of distilled water that catr be obtained lrom
the operation ol a multiple efrect evaporator operating between 7.0 t8/oor ab dly .nd
soturaLd livo st6sD stst€ s[d 1.03 kg/oEt ab oodcnror y6ps1, p1so... Ncglot bior-
dowo , obout 2l.l'C. C,onsidor thst tho input r*t4.06
is 0.45 L8 of 8toao. 12.64 rI
24, An eveporator is iuse ed iDto the 6ro/c#
heat balance ol an iadustrial plaut as 8oil..
shown in Fig. 13-24P. A make-up of l0% l2.lSrlotJ
is required and this is srrpplied by tbe
evaporator. Calculate boiler leedwater tem- r37.0oc
A.
l.o3tqt.ft
perature, aud all flows (t<g per hr) for a
generator lo&d ol 100 krv. /r""1 : 3ltit5 Jig. o2
t&3';
t0
25. Half of the steam sent by au indus- 65.5 C
t57.8
trial steam plant to the factory is returned
as condensate, An evaporator, located as Slorogc
in Fig. 13-25P, supplies the other half of
feedwater flow. Calculate the boiler feed-
water temperature. Neglect blowdown and
heat losses. rrc lS-'ilP
26. 'lYere the rarv water of Prob. 4 (or 5) to be fed to an evaporator in wbich tho
conuentration of TDS should not exceed 7000 pptrl, $hat rate of contiDuoue blowdown
should be practicd? Average evaporation is l$a Lg per hr.
27. Find the eoJd water TDE for a glDp througb which a7t UIn otg8.aeo vst€r
R oto p.6.iD8. Di.ch!rg6,6a) rntr dioi .uoti@, r,
Era. Disobo.Ss prossurc ia 2.6 kg/otDl ga tDro-
45360 * l6'6 t9 / cir2ob auncdo.o m sbovc puDp oont6r-linc. Ouotbo,
45360 t3.?r ld O.a Ltlromlisteossurnlo.(a m belowocnt rlino.
2E. Calculst€ drive hp lor pumprrgtTo$
_-
lrDia cold water to a tanl. Suctiou atf,
86t1.,
90720 r9 3?'!' IIg vaouu6, dclivory.t 6,! kg/ortrt gE,
.rq
botD moasuFd olca to p,ttEp. rlo :0,66.
10.5 t9 /cml
ga
rzr.f c
a. Estimate discharge raielumin) 8nd
ruximum suctiotr lift of a 06Etr!xl'?mm
45360 19
5lo.o9. xl60 rnmr duplex, dircot-rotitrg at€atD t uEp.
54'{'C rl':0.00. B6e lsvol.Oould this bo s boilcr lesd
pump ?
3). Select suitable dimensious for a du-
plex direct-acting steam pump lor the followiug boiler eervice.,r66 l/rDin a,gainst t,8
kgromt ab hoilor pr€s€ut .Wstor ot 93,3oC. Boilor wstor Lrvo!, 6.6 E sbov€ punip.Installetion
of suction in accordance with Fig. 13-7. dtitude, t5? I!, Water cyliader D = L.
?v =0.90. Neglect 1'elocity head and pipe friction. Find rvhp.
31. Results of a test on & gd4 mrDxld2 mm x3o5 rDm dupl6x direot-aDtirS pump.E
givoa. Firrd 1", whp, ..dutr." T6st dete : Time, 60 min. St6stD u!6d 667 ks of 14 kg/oa3
ab r.turated 8tsdm, Exhsust, l.O3 kg/crEl sb.8p€od, lt8 strskcs per min.por cyliador. w|t6r
purlped, 22680 kg. TDIf, ?B m of82.fo wst .,,
32. I{har size of 1750-rpm motor should be used to driye a 100 mm x 2oomm.insl6.
.otiag t ipl6r powet pump ? ,lp, 0.88, ,lm, 0.9O, ,iv, 0.06, What V-bclt pult€y di.mst rd
shoul.l bo us€d, Wst€r-tomp€rstuE, lf0"C. TDE
-2{,S kg/oror"
33. Draw the Q-Il ond tho Q-P ourv€s of the gos mm impeller pilrxp cherted in Fig.
13-32 if it were direcily conoected to a 1200-rpm motoi. What mltor size will bs
needed ?
570 THE FEEDWATER LOOP
34. whso turbino spo.d dould bo $quirod if the 3G5 mra impeller pump of Fig. 13-32
vere to be driven so that l6l{U6 coulC be delivered at 84m head ? Hitrt: Plot 1750-
rpm curve on 8-II plaue, then add others (by the laws of 8imilitude) until one pssses
through the specifled Q-L point.
35. A z-stage ceutrifugal pump delivers lgo VI[in of 107'C wat€r &gaiust ?6 .tr head
st 3500 !pm. What i8 its specific speed ? What head could a geometrically similar pump
produce if operated at 3000 rpm atlsl t/mioflow?
36. Determine the minimum practicable static head of hot water otr the 6uctioD ol
a double-suctiou, centrif[Fal, hcetcr-condeniate-pnmp. lfater st 8!'c,9r5:ro kg per
hr f,ov,Ilcat€r preeeure,0.7 kg/cratob; disctargo st ,.E k8/orDr o,b. Nogloci pip€ftiction.
37. The constant-Epeed (3500-rpm) perlorma,lce of a multi-Btage cetrtnlugal pump,
cotr€cted to t2l"C , is as follows:
Q, r/min 370 ll30 l5l4 It08. ,27t
E, Er 66t 652 610 018 6t, 518
w,% 45 59 68 72 70

Diagram the contrections for using this pump as & boiler feeder. Suction from overhead
water tank pressurized to 2.6 kg/o6t sb .nd h6at€d to r2loC.NPSII in accordance with
Fig. 13-37. Control system: FW regulator valve plus speed control of the driving tur-
bine..Boilor is 44.6 L8/cml ga, Dimherge ststio heed,0m. Fiiction heod 2,8 kg/cml, FW
regulator working dilforoDiial pro€su.€:2.I kg/cmt. Cslculate (o) the Btetic hea.<l on the
pump Buotioo, (b) tho head .t Point A, I.ig. 13'31|3.
38, For the same plant as described in Prob. 13-37, construct a scaled diagram
similar to Fig. 13-38a, showing all lines except ly'3. I is to be at 1130 l/m .
39, Repeat Prob. 13-37, except adapt the pump to throttling control, i.e., coDstant-
Bpeed Dotor, difrerential pressure valve in series with the FW regulator, and by-pass.
40. For the same plant as described in Prob. 13-39, cotrstruct a scaled diagram simi-
lar to Fig. 13-38b, showing all lines except F'3. B is to be at rr38 Ura . Calculate the
required orifice flow lor cooliug at zero Ieedwater flow and select an o fice size from
fig. 13-41.
{1. Determine the orifice flow and select an oi6ce diamete! (Fig. 13-41) {or a
by-pass line around a throttle-controlled boiler feed pump.TDE = r$ n\, b : ,Eo at
31 tlmin, 15/p atlr4lln.ill.@To at 228 l/min.
42. Suppose that the pump characte stic data of Prob. 13-37 were for cold rvater
instead oI hot. Thetr what vould the efficiency of this pump have been at;
(a) l89r l/min; 3500 tpm; r 2l.C water. (b) I136 Vmin 3120 lpm; Ill'ro water.
;
* Rsted poiDt.
 CHAPTER 14

Ttr{E PNPNNG SYSTEM

1{-l Pipe System Classification. After a study of the vapor cycle and its
equipment, a person could hardly fail to note the multitude of flow lines re-
quired to connect the individual pieces of equipmeat to make them the homo-
geneols working unit constituting the well designed power plant. Flows of
liquids, gases, or vapors are through pipes comprising the piping slstem of the
plant. Piping, valves, and fittings are indispensable neceesities in all power
plants, especially the steam plant. The piping incidental to the installation oI
a power plsn6 may not appear, offhand, to be of primary importance, yet its
selection and arraugement is dbserving of the most careful study. The best
possible selection can be made of mechanical equipment, yet the plant may be
inferior from the standpoint of economy, operation, appearance, and reliability
if the piping is not equally well selected. Then too, with advancing temperatures
and pressures, and with the increasing complexity of the central station cycle,
the cost of the piping system hds become one of thc major items of expense and
its selection and arrangement one oI the major items of design.
Service conditions ol portions of the piping system are frequently rigorous.
Feedwater piping may be expectedto cerry pressures3.5.7k6la#or more, higher
than the boiler pressure; steam temperatures as high as 425"-5,10" are met in
some plants I corrosive and grit-laden liquids are sometimes pumped; moisture-
laden steam may have to be handled at high velocity; and some of the water
lines may have to resist water h&mmer as well as hydrostatic pressure. Obvi-
ously, these various service conditions call lor differing construction if the
Ieast expenslve system is to be built. Piping systems may be classified on the
basis of the fluid carried, for example (1) steam, (2) cold water, (3) hot waier,
(4) oil, etc., but a more useful classification is based on the service conditions,
as follows:
1. High-pressure superhe&ted or saturated steam.
2. High-pressure drip piping.
3. Low-pressure steam piping,
4. Boiler feedwater piping.
5. Heatcr piping.
6. Blow-ofr piping.
7. Condensate piping.
8. Hot and cold water service piping.
511
572 PIPING SYSTEM
9. Circulating water pipirig.
10. Oil piping (lubricating, fuel, insulating).
11. Instrument piping.
12. Compressed air piping.
13. Soot blower piping.
14. Drainage piping, etc.
l4-2 Commercial Pipe. Pipe is either rarozght or casf. lYrought pipe rnay
be welded or seamless. The material may be iron, carbon steel, alloy steel,
wrought iron, brass, or copper. There is very little use of cast pipe in power
plants-most pipe being wrought steel, with wrought iron in fair demand for
corrosion resisthnce*as in condensate lines.
Cast lron. This pipe is principally used for drainage or for resistance to
corrosion and abrcsion. Yarious weight classifications, for heads to 244 m water,
are listed under American 'lYaterworks Association Standards.
lVrought Steel. Most power plant piping is the low-cost and .strong wrought
steel pipe. The resistance of wrough[ steel pipe to corrosion is increased by a
protective coating of zinc. Such pipe is designated as "galvanized." Small water
pipe is ofterr galvanized, but large pipe and gas, steam, air, or oil pipe are
"black." 'trYrought pipe is manufactured by welding long plates, called skelp,
with butt or lap weld; or by piercing and drawing a seamless pipe from a billet.
Butt-welded pipe has small area of contact at the weld. Its inherent weakness
limits its use to sizes smaller than76.2 mm, Pipe is not lap welded in siles smaller
than 50.8 nrm. LargeoDpipe iB madeby hammer welding and by Bpirsl riveth&
Alloy Steels. These are steels which owe their special properties to alloying
elements other than carbon. Such steels are required for temperatures in excess
ol 455'C and may be beneffcially emfloyed above 4009C. Carbon-molybdenum
alloy was used for many years, but recent experience with graphitization* at
very high temperatures has directed attention to the advantages of other alloys'
Chromium molybdenum is being specified for the.highest temperatures, as it has
been found that carbon steel is subject to graphitization above 427"C" C-Mo
steel above 477qC . Cr-Mo steels have 1/2% N[o. with Cr ranging Irom 1 1o 5/o
depending on the temperature to be met. Very high pressure and temperature
'
pipe of large size is made by turning and boring solid forgings.
lTrougit lron. This is a two-component metal consisting of iron permeated
wilh 1/o to 3/o ol finely divided and uniformly distributed iron silicate. The
silicate is distributed throughout the base metal in the form ofthreads or fibers'
-dntil
the fourteenth century wrought iron was the only product made from iron
ore. Thus there has been ample time to verify that this is a metal of superior
resistance to most forms of corrosion. In power plants it is favored for conden-
sate, feedwater, and blow-ofr lines. It is not advisable to employ it when pres-
sure exceeds 17.5 kg/cmr,
A superficial ex-amination is not always able to distinguish wrought iron from
wrought steel pipe. \Yrought iron manufacturers mark their prcduct by some
means such as spiral color stripe. A ragged fibrous fracture-or a crumbly chip
instead of a long shaving lrom a pipe threader-will identify wrought iron.
exposed to hiSh
'Graphitizatio! is s couditioo where the carbon in a steel coutinuorrsly
temperotute ch&lges to grephite aBd may cobceDtrete at critical spots, deilitely sea-keu-
ing the steel iB tension.
COI\TMERCIAL PIPE 573
Since rvrought steel pipe is frequently called "wrought iron" by material men
and contractors, one should specify "genuine wrought lron" when it is wanted.
Copper and Brass. There are several compositions ised for brass pipe, all of
which contain ovet 60% copper, the reurainder being mostly zinc. Brass pipe is
cold drawn to size and annealed. It may be threaded and is rigid, compared to
copper alone. The latter is generally employed as tubing where flexibility is de-
sired or where some special quality of the fluid is detrimental to brass.
.. The use of brass and
copper pipe is limited by its cost to piping in which
flexibility, &ppearance, or resistance to certain forms oi corrosion are important.
Brass and copper piping is principally used for oil lines and occasionally for
sectionstf boiler feed pipes. Brass pipe should not be used above 2l Lg/cm!
or 204'C.
Sorne of the standards and specifications applying to the more common pip-
ing materials are given in Table 14-1.
In order to meet various service conditions economically, steel pipe is manu-
factured in several wall thickness classifications. The American- Standards
Association has established a standard, A3A836.10, for a rational system of pipe
wall thicknesses to supersede the common designations. of ,,standard,,, ,,eitra
strong," and "double extra strong." In this standard Scheilule Numbers were
introduced to designate pipe weight. These numbers are an approximation of the
equation:
Schedule Number : 1000p/S (14-1)
where p= Gauge pressurc carded, kg/cm!.

S ='l\rorking stress,tg/cm!. See Table 14-1.

These numbcrs are made to agree closely with regularly used commercial sizes,
the wall thickness of Schedules 40 and 80 being identical with those of the old
Standard and Extra Strong lists up through203.2 mm nominal sizc, ,.Double
cxca strong" is pipc with wall thicknesses doublc those of ,,cxtra strong.,,
Pipcs are sized by their zomizal.inside diametcr for sizcs up tolo.4.8 mm.lVhen
the pipe wall is thickened to provftle additional strength, the increment is added
to the inside so that, the outside diameter remaining constant, the same size of
thread and fittings can be used for all weights. Above 304.8 mm thc sizer arc
bared on outside diameters;for cxamptc,406.4 mm OD by 9.53 rnm. pipe is
marketcd in random lelgrhs of 4.88 m to 6.71 m, 6.4 m being a common lengrh.
Seamless siccl pipc in the smaller sizes can be obtaincd iavery long lengths (7--62_
10.67 m).
- A- trible of pipe size stan{ards, iacorporating schedule numbers, will be
found in the Appendix. The tebuleted thicknesses are average wall dimensions.
Cuotornarily steel pipe speciffcations permit the actual pipJ wall thickness to
aary l"om the norni,nal dae by + 72lz%.
- Many formulae have been devieed for calculating the gauge working pressure
in a pipe of given eize, material, snd thickness. One of-th&e, of considerable
usage, ie the Barlow formula which is b88ed on a lactor of safety of 8 8nd
appliee to thin-walled pipe.
tL : 4pD"/5" rrrm. (t+2)
r These, however, are uscd for geuuine wrought iron pipe.
 c) L
q a
li
n
tL I

3 l!
:d
rl
t-l 9 j :r
^!
d I6l il4 l:{ I
{5
tl
I
l'l
Ip q e
i6
t1 I
F
2 sab 3 ;;
o.^
!
€ ts ; u :r ex
t;
A! 3 oq
c8 o
\
I& 1
i ,ts
oq a!
Eg G..
n
g x a
6 t I
t9I 9:
8E c [:
IE
E€
o
!.i
rt l. I !i9E
@X
ztz
i5 6 t il rE
l3 ET
riE
Fd {€
f Ef ;f ; E!
O
o
VS I * F
J $ E B
; f 5 $.
r)Z ^ -9 ue
klF
fuQ
a< "e 5 tre
AE .r .L
a 3j ,! rE
zd <l
I '6 1E E
{
A4 ! a ! 'd E:Ia
AE
<d +
ts. !!:E Ete
.. !.
! TS
I + :.;
3 uh E?
E6 d
,a 6
iE iiEr TT i .!d
t{? t ,9: c:x E
l;! 3 tsE BE -i et
@5 .9
8B!g ebe ,c
F e A6 Oi' F a sl
R I fi t E 3 !tll!b
l + + I +
{ I :;
F 3 3 1 2 T
! 3 , .aZ
| 5-c
t 3 ta B 3 3 E Ei
L
o I O ts o ,j o t e8
lc) t ld:
f s $
E fr;
-b <E
!'l
t'74
PIPE CONNECTIONS 575
However, the ASA Code for power pressure piping gives the following, not
Iirnited to thin rvall:

,,: *+G+ c mm. (r4-B)

In Eqs 14-2 and 14-3 the symbols are:

:
dt Minimum pipe rvall thickn€ss, mm.
p: Working pressure, Lg/cu! ga ,

D. : Outside diamet€r, mm.

S, : Ultim&te tensile strength, kg/cmr.
S: Working stress (Table 14-1).
g :1.27 for pipe 25.4mm a.nd smaller; 1.65 for 31.8 mnr &nd l&rger.
(Allowances lor cutting, corrosion, etc.)
Br.aplc I ! lho treo63sary spooidcstioa for c 162,4 mE prpo to oarlr .tosD st 40,2 kg/
sp! go, {26.7oC ie to bo fouad. Tsbla l4-l indicst€s tho uao of sosmloEs carbon eteel pipe
A-100. Of O.sd€€ A ond B, tho lsttor i8 of g.sst6r tonsile stroagth, but Grad6 A i6 rno.e
duobito, i.e., betrds srd cuis b€ttor. fho wo.kiag stro€s fot Grodo A at 426.7oC is obtsitred
frclo iho tsble. ,s:687.7 kg/cmr. UBiog Eq l+1, gohodulo Nurober- l00O x 49.2/587.7:83,&
Ordinarily the uext higher Schedule Number is chosen, but as this would require using
120 rather than 80, the latter is tested for €afety with Eq 14-3. Nominal pipe thicknesE
for 152.4 mrn ScLedulg 80 is 10.9, mrE. Outlido dlsm6tor is 168.28 Ern. Th6 rlioimuin thiok-
Do33 (&lloring for iranufsotu.ing tol6raoco)- 10.97 g.bo oo. Thso
- 0.125 x 10.92:
49.2x 168.2t
0.00 = 9,9+0.8x{0.2 + 1.05

8 = 60l kslom!
Since this is less tban the maximum safe etress, Schedule 80 pipc of A-106, Grade A,
manufacture is the specitcatioD.

l4-3 Pipc Connections. Adjacent sections of pipe are connected together

iu various ways but all connections can be grouped under these four headings:
1, Packed joints such as leaded bell-and-spigot, or plain end coupling.
Mainly used for low pressures, soil pipe, drainage, large OD pipe.
2. Screwed joints such as couplings and unions. Generally used for sizes less
than 101.6 mm, but large sizes are marketed.
3. Flanged joints with companion flanges either loose or screwed, shrunk,
riveted, or welded to the pipe. Flanged fittings are generally called for in the
larger sizes of pipc; and for high-pressure, high-temperature work.
4- Welded joints. Welds made by the fusion process (as opposed to hammer
welds) using gas or metal arc welders. The firsi cost of the welded line is an
advantage in Iarge pipe sizes. Can be used on high-pressure and temperature
lines.
The type of joint selected lor use depends on several factors, viz., size of
pfuie, pressure &nd temperature, ease of removal-of sections between joints, ex-
pected future maintenancc, labor available for installation, &nd first cmt. The
576 THE PIPING SYSTEM
type of ioint used influences the method selected for depicting piping dimensione
on drawings. Note Fig. 14-1.
Screued Joints. The most common lray of making a screwed joint is to use
wrought couplings. All fittings for screwed pipe are threaded to con{orm to the
American Standard for pipe threads
Threads should be smooth and clean, go
together dasily, and remain pressure-
tight. Each lengih of threaded pipe as
purchased normally comes equipped with
one coupling. The standard coupling is
F right handed, but right and Ieft couplings
can be had where the pipe is not to be
turned. Ilore frequently, unions are pro-
vided when ea.sily broken joints are
tx wanted.
Pipe mcasurements are made end to
end of pipe. l'Vhen it becomes necessary
to ealculate the length of a piece of
Frc. 14-1 Details showing dimension- screwed pipc, as lor irstance in calculat-
ing of piping. ing thc lcngth to cut for a given offset,
one needs to knon' hoq' far. on thc aver-
age, the pipe will enter the fitting, otherwise & pure guess will be madc and the
pipt: as cut may or may aot give the desired pipe linc configuration. Fig. 14-2
gives the approximate lengths of thread that will entcr the fitting rn n.raking up
I tight joint.
E
mm
'12 -1 12.7
E 19.1 l{ 3
25.t, l7 .5

.ftrIffi'
c G
( tt- -i I
3r.8
3
50.8
8.1
t?.5
t?.5
l9 .t
16.2 25.1
l0r.5 2 8.6
127.0 31.8
A:G-(0'00197Gr1'tlP D
r52.a 33.3
6.A + (.0625 F nl r,iuB trr4 0l^or nrN4r
C.g + 1Pr.0623 )
or8 + ( 5Pr-0625 ) lrxrrRn& u*qrl
A[l dimansrons rn mm
Frc. 14-2 Anerican Standard Pipe Thread rvith normal cngagement length E re-
quired to make tight joints.

Example 1: Let it be required to determine the Iength of the pipe to be cut for a
in a 76.2 rnrD lin€,6tsnds.d pipo.
G035 ,a of.et,
The layout, shorvn in Fig. 14-1, can be dragn after taking the dimension B from
Tsblo A-8 fore 78.2 mq stindsrd 45" ell &nd the dimoosion ,D from Fi8. l4-2. 8:55.1 r!m;
r :25.16m. Tlra longth requi.od is seor to b€ Ir-2(B-8 , Tho offeet, i6 0.005 m a :
, : y'0.@T636E! : t.365 m.
Thotefore, tho roquired longth is 1.365 - 2(0,0551 -0.0%.t): 1.306 ,n.
PIPE CONNECTIONS 577
Xktngeil Joinle. Low-prcsurc piping lalgcr than 152.4 mm and high-presurc
piping are, in the majority of cases, connecied by companion flanges. !.langes
are drilled to a standard templet, and drawn tightly together by means ol flange
bolts. Alloy steel bolting to conform to ASTM specifications should be usJd
when prcssures exceed 11.25 kg/cmr or
t€mperatunct cxcecd 23f, but bclow thsse
limits commercial bolting can be used.
-t'langes are manufactured in a number
of styles, the more important of wLich are
shown. It will be noted that some are de- couplins uA,on
E
signed_ to be scren'ed to the pipc, otlers Frc. t4_3 Scre*,ed joints.
welded on, still others being loose. With
the latter, the necessary pressure-sealing gaskets are held bet.r'een flanged and
faced ends of the pipe itself, while in the other cases the gaskets are pressed
between flange laces. 'Ihe loose flange joint is called a lap joint or a Van Stone
joint. Its advantage is that the pipe does not need to be turned in order to bring
bolt holes in companion flanges into register. Often a Iine with tight ffange joints
is terminated with a lap joint in order to simplify connection to a fitting or
valve. A.blank flange is s standard flange in which the bolt holes have not been
drilled. A blind flange is a solid disk, drilled.for bolting, and used for temporary

If, r-i sr
end closure of flanged lines.

_.E+
rr Tr r:r rr
Rois?d tqcr Lop (Von Slon€) Rlno Mol€ ond temoto
SOME STANDARD PIPE FLANGE FACES

Screwed Wotd6d Wetding neck Lopped 3lub end

PIPE- FLANGE ATTACH MENT S
Frc. 14-4 Companion flanges.

As it is cxpensive to lap-grind joint faces to a fluid tight condition, goskets

are inserted between the faccs of companion flanges or pi[e laps to provide thc
seal. When flange bolts arc tightercd thc gasket materiai flows into the minor
surlace irregularities and scals the fluid in the pipe. If flange bolts stretch or
gasket continues a slow yield, flanges may latei begin to l-eak and require a
f urther-tightening-or renenal of gasket. Special
bigil-temperature joints such
qs the_ Sargol havc very smooth finish. No gaskei is- used,'but
sealing lips are
provided which may be welded iogether to iiop leakage.
678 THE PIPING SYSTEM
Gaskets are generally cut from red rubber.sheeting lor air, steam, and water
lines up to 100'C. Oil lines require something other than rubber, such as fiber.
For high-temperature iines, such as high-pressute Eteam, the gasket rvill usually
be wire-inserted asbestos or asbestos-corrugated metal sandwich. Thin, coruu-
gated copper is satisfactory only i{ the flange
surfaces are lap-ground to a smooth plane sur-
face.
T
Very high pressure-temperature lines are
5 !i !r gasketed by corrugated iron, soft steel, or Monel
5 mctal disks, also by ingot iron rings. Special
1 flange faces must be provided for the ring joint.
t'rc, l4-D rroDorttons -" Its advantage is the concentration of pressure,
or
ir"*"" n"i.JI"."l" "p,i"rrt. making heavy-duty seals without excessivc bolt:
;i;;;;i;io;;-,nair.r rer ing Welded loads.
J oi.nts. \\relded joints are n.rade by
cmr Standards, 6.Bs mo un otheis.
See Fig. A-? for dimensions. bringing thc tl'o pipe ends within a spccificd
small distance ol each other, then joining them
by a high-temperature fusion of weld metal from a welding rod antl the pipe
metal. This butt ueld:ing process is the one generally errpkryed, although othcrs
are used on occasion. A good butt weld is stronger than the pipe itself, requires
no gasket, flange, or bolts, and is free fi'om future maintenance. It cannot be
broken for disassembly as can the screwed and flanged joint.
The speed and cost of making welded joints are in their favor for Iarger pipe
sizes, for higher pressures, and for lines that are to be coverecl with heat insula-
tion. Welded pipe lines are the only satisfactory conduits for extremely high-
pressure and high-temperature steaml Thus the main steam lines of a modern

M
Fo. Mctal Thicknd o,

wd%
e*
WcLdd C.lplins W.ldld P.d

Crone Co.
f'rc. 14-6 Tyfes of rvelded joints

porler station rvili be of rl elded construction because ol tlre deficiencies of other

methods of jointing, n'hereas pipe lines elscrvhcrc in po\rcr plants and indrrstry
may bc so joined because it has occn found to bc tlte cheapcr rnethod. \'lanu-
facturers havc developed lincs of iittings and valves fol use s,ith rvcldcd joints.
Welded conneciion valves are to use with cxtrerne stearn conditions, fol urost
designers prefer flanged valves in welded lines if gasketiug difficulties are not
exlrccted-
PIPE CONNECTIONS 5t-9

Thc advantages of welJed joinis are, besides low cost: (1) nest appearance,
(2) no gaskcts to bl6w out, (3) additions and changes readily made with cutting
torch, and (4) insulation is easily applied. Many pipes which are screwed or
flanged havc the small branches and connections (instrument pipipg, auxiliaries,
etc.) wckled on. On the other haud, in spite of procedure control, much still
depends on the skill of the weldcr.
This fusion welding can be made with either the gas flame or electric arc
method. lllectric welding predomiuates where preheating the pipe or annealing
the weld is not required. To obtain welds of uniform strength and ductility, the
equipment, materials, and wclding procedure must be expertly selected and con-
trolled. An outline of procedure control for fabrication of welded piping might be
as follows:
1. Check of the welders.
a. Experience.
b. Qualificatior tests.
2. Selection and inspection oI material.
a. Use commetcial ircn or steel pipe of good weldable qrrality.
b. flave rvelding rods conform to specifications for such.
c. Cases and appar&tus.
3. Design and layout of welded joints.
4. Preparation of material for rvelding.
See tbat cutrting or othei preparation of the joint is correct aDd that it is cor-
rectly asscmbled and olamped preparatory to welding.
5. Organization anLl rvelding fechnique.
a. Qualifying the designers and operators.
b. Specifying the actual techrrique of welding.
6. Inspectiou and test.
a. 'Io check the foregoing items of procedure.
b. To test the strength of individual welds.

It is advisable to specify conformance to one of the codes for the constmc-

tion of welled pressure piping. Thesc codes set up very comprehensive standards.
for welding proccdures, and the qualifications of welders to use these procedures.
AS-'VIE, ASA, and American \\relding Society have these standa.rd codes. On the
average construction project the supervising engineer may elect to qualify the
welders for the low-pressure, pipe-welded joints, but not ior pressure piping.
For that he will usually avail himself of an existing service in the form of welder
qualification carried on by thc insurance firms specializing in the damage in-
surance of boilers and pressure piping. These firms will qualify a welder and
issue him a certificate of limited duration. By requiring a "certified" welder,
the engincer has some assurance that the joints in imporiant piping are made by
workmcn of provcn competcnce.
Butt rvckls are generally used unless very high stresses are expected at the
joirt. The pipe ends should be squared accurately and beveled to an angle of
45" to within 1.6 mm. ol thc inner wall. New pipe is purchased with ends
bevcled. Field joints in cut pieces are generally beveled by flame cutting vith
the oxygen torch. Tlre abutting edgcs are then separated to a specified distance
and tack weldcd. Thc joint is thcn rcady to be wcklcd.
In thick-wallcd, i.e., hieh-pressulc, pipcs prcheating bcfore welding and
580 TEE PIPING SYSTEI\{
stress relieving sfterward are desirableto insure the development of full ioint
etrength.
Considerable concem has been given to evidences of graphitization at the
welded joints of high-temperrture steam piping eince the first failure, a few
yearB ago, of such a joint. Some graphitization has been found in carbon steel
qsed above 425"C snd carbon molybdenum steel above ,180"C. It is an erratic
phenomenon, not necessarily reproducing itself under similar or ',:quivalent con-
ditions. It has, however, induced many conpanies operating high-temperature
steam lines to begin a program of periodic sampling of joint metal. There has
been developed a weld probing machine that removes a half moon sample from
the joint in such a maDner &s not to penetrste through the pipe wall. The
sample is adequate for microscopic examination aud bend testing. The hole is
safely filled with new weld metal. A badly graphitized joint needs to be cut out
and s ne\f, section of pipe welded in. Some companies believe that slightly
graphitized metal can be rehebilitated by redissotving the carbou with induction
heating of the joint.

d D ffi h
€lto'
FLANGEO
O.orr
PATTERN
E.calrlrl.
Elbor taa

DA Str..l
Lot.i.l
SOREWED PATTERN
45'.lbor
Shopad
Dlppl.r
WELO'NO
S6ddl.
PATTERN
Frc. 14-7 Some of the cornmon pipe frttings

Inspection ol ,l oints. The inspector of new construction needs to examine

joint making while the work is in progress, and test the finiehed piping for tight-
ness-as & system or in subsections.
During construction the material and pressure classification of screwed and
flanged joint material must be verified for compliance with specifications. The
perfomance of thread cutting equipment (for clean sharp threads) should be
checked. Workmen should be made to ream or file the burrs leit on pipe interiors
after cutting. Poorly threaded joints can sometimes be tightened by caulking the
threads with punch and hammer, but specifications and inspection should forbid
it. Pipe should enter flanges and couplings the full distance indicated by Fig.
14-2. Flange bolts should be of proper style, material, and length. Gaskets should
be checked for conformance with specifications snd suitsbility to flange faces.
Inspection should confirm that they are installed concentrically on the flange
face.
'Welding
is inspected to determine if beveling, separation, and alignment are
correct, if proper welding rod is on the job, if metal is being laid on in suitable
number of passes, and if the finished weld has the "right look."
When a section of piping is ready for test, the ends are blanked ofr, and any
PIPE CONNECTIONS 58I
equipinent, such as pressure-reducing valve diaphragme, that might be damaged
by over-pressure is removed or protected. The pipe is filled with water and
hydrostatic pressure applied to the extent specified (often 150/o of worl:ing
pressure for 24-36 hr) and the line made tight at this condition. During such a
test the jointa of welded pipe should be tested by striking the pipe on eagh side
with hammer blows, as should the weld metal itself.
Simple tests such as these are of no vslue in detecting small flaws in pipe or
reld. The safety problem is acute in high-pressure, high-temperature alloy
steel pipe and welded jriints. An internal "look" into the metal is about the only
nondestruotive means of checkiag for iaternal cracks. For several years it hss
been possible to X-ray fabricated piping iu the manufacturer's shops, but X-ray
examination of field welds is impracticable on accuunt of the bulky equipment
and the restricted space in which pipe is so frequently located. Instead, radio-
graphic inspections are carried out by gamma-ray penetration oI the weld.
Radium was used for this purpose, but now the source of gamma rays for in-
dustrial radiography is usually radioactive cobalt 60. In a capsule, this is
centered in the interio of the pipe at the weld while X-ray films are wrapped
sround the outside over the weld. Exposures of from one to several hours (de-
pending on wall thickness and diameter) will so mark the film that, when
developed, sub-surface cracks and other defects may be detected by the trained
examiner. This inspection is expepsive and requires special training and care on
the part of the inspection technicians; hence it is used mainly lor extreme
service conditions wher€ prot€ction through unnecessarily high safety factors
would be prohibitive.
Recentlv an ultresonic method of exploring the integrity of joints and pipes

'{,/
T.

.,:a

*-,

Ttte tl,,wi ,1 .

Frc. 148 Installation of welded pipe fiitings

582 THE PIPING SYSTEM
has been tried with indications that it will prove to be a safe, low-cost means for
detecting interior flaws. It involves transmitting ultraeonic vibrations into the
section under test and comparing the transmitted and reflected \rave8 on an
oscilloscope screen.
14-4 Pipe Fittings. The piping system, in fulfilling its function of provid-
ing a flow path lor the liquids and vapors of a power plant, is rarely a straight
run of pipe between two points. Flows are joined, parted, star-ted, stopped, and
regulated in the piping system. Only occasionally is it possible to take a "crow
flight" path between end connections; the common run of pipe must follow
configurations of equipment, walls, floors, beams, etc. Fittings and valves,
properly incorporated in the pipe system, enable it to meet tlrese varied service
conditions.
In general, ltttings consist of the pieces required to make turns, junctions,
and reductions. The straight size fittings are the 45" and g0' elbows, the tees,
crosses, Y's, laterals, and reducers. These fittings may also be had in special
reducing sizes. The fitting pattern vBries greatly with the type oi joint. All forms
of fittings are available for both screwed and flanged loints; also many of them
Ior welded connections. Ordinarily, fittings are chosen for the'same style ol
joint as is used in the straight pipe runs. Brass and bronze fittings are used with
brass pipe, cast iron for working pressurd.up to 17.6 tg/cmt, mallablc iron for
10.6 kg/cmr, and forged steel for high tcmperaturc! and prcssurc.
Table 14-2. FITTINGS CLASSIFICATION BY MATERIAL,
WORKING PRESSURE, AND JOINTS

Wrought steel
'Wrought
Cast Mallczrble Cast
Pressure olass tron lron lnon Corbon Alloy steel

Schedules 40, 80, 160 l'!'elded Speciol

order

1.70 k8/omr Flanged

8.8 kg/omr tr'langed \Yelded

& Screwed (Special)

10.6 k8roEt Sclerved tr'langed

17.6 Lg/cm! tr'langed rffelded

& Screwed (Speeial)

2l.l Lg/omr Flanged

?a.12, 1r.2, 63.3, 105.6.

& I{0.6 kg/oD! Flenged

Iligher pressures reqrdre forged steel

Nole: Screwed bronze fittillgs and solder-type bronze fittiDgs are also available, as are
slrinless slc'i and Monel for sperial servir"o.
COMMON VALVES 583
Fig. l4-7 ahows a few of the many types of fittings that are manufacturec
for use in pipe systems, and Table 14-2 gives a r6sum6 of the materials and
pressure groups in which they are produced. Tables of dimensions of Etandard
ffttings are relegated to the Appendix.
l4-5 Common Valves. Yalves start, stop, and regulate fluid flow. The com-
mon pipe line valve consists of a body to house it and give a means of connect-
ing it to the pipe, a valve seat, a valve, a valve stem, a top, a means of operating
the stem-usually screw and hand wheel-and a packing to prevent, leakage
around the stem as it emerges from the top. Valves are furnished for either
screwed or flanged connection. Inside, or female, thrcads are standard on
screwed valves, and if male threads are wanted they must be so specified.
Yalves are sized by the nominal inside diameter of the pipc to which they are
connected, They are made of brass, bronze, malleable iron, cast iron, cast steel,
and lorged steel. Cast and forged steel are employed in high pressure-tempera-
ture service. Yalve sealing materials (sometimes constituting the valve seat,
sometimes attached to the valve face) include rubber for cold rvater, brass and
bronze for ordinary temperatures, stainless steel, I{ouel metal, and various
other alloys for high temperatures.
Yalyes most used are the ordinary hand-operated globe and gate valves, and
the check valves. These are classified thus:
1. Globe valves (straight and.angie).
a. Inside screw; outside screw.
b. Screw bonnet top; bolted yolk top.
2. Gate valves (straight and angle).
a. Rising stem; nonrising stem.
b. Wedge valve (split and solid); parallel seat valve.
3. Check valves (lift and swing types).
a. For vertical pipe.
b. For horizontal pipe.
The globe vah,ee do not allow a line to drain completcly; also, they offer
more frictional resistance than gate valves. They are frequently used in very
small lines (both water and steam) and where the valve is to be used for throt-
lling, as they can bc closely regulated and the seats which are liable to be cut
away in throttling servicc can be more easily replaced than in gate valves.
Gate valves are used in large pipe lines, in high-pressure steam lines, and in
all service where small friction loss is wanted. They should always be fully
shut or open and not bc uscd for throttling the flor'.
Gate valvcs differ chicfly in the action of the stern, or spindle, and the shape
of the gate, i.e., wedge or parallel. The inside screrv rising stcm is thq simptrest
construction. The position of the stem indicabes rvhether the valvc is open or
closed. However, the room neecled for stcrn travel may not exist in cl.rl\\.ded
quarters, especially if the valve is a large oue, and the nonrising stem is be1rr1
Also the packing weal is less. Life and maintenance are superior i{ an outslde
screw rising stem design is used. Threads are not in contact with the fluid aod
stem is packed against longitudinal motion onl)'.
The disks of gate valves are split ol solirl rvcdge. and parlallel doubre.disk
The solid wedge is the sin.rplest and least cxpcnsivc to builcl. It i.. thcrefore the
rnost common type for steam and rvater, particrrlarlv j"r thc smallcr sizes Oil
584 THE PIPING SYSTEM
larger valvee the split wedge with its self-adjuating feature not only maintains
a tighter closure, but is also freer from sticking closed. Parallel-seat, double-
disk type of sest is especially jam-free as disks apread apart to the Bests on
final turn of the wheel. Being more expensive than the split wedge, they are
less frequently selected. Some gate valves have the valve seat machined in the
metal of the valve body; others have renewable seats, screwed in. Fig. 14-9A is
the former; 9C, the latter. Integral seats may be refaced s limited number of

-l
I I
B c D
Outside Sd and Yoke
N@-Ridng Spindl6 TrswliDg SpiDill€ N@-Risilg Spinille Risins sPiEdle
Sorid ]Vedse Split Wedse Double Dnc*Pr6llel Double DisrTapq

ililil

IenkiB Bros.
E FG H
One-Diee bouet Union bonoet Eolted boMet. OuBide sdry and yoke
ReDaable compGitiotr Regdnding bevel di!. Renewable @mpGitio! Stainl6s st.el dus sld
disc eith thlotding nut dnc. Spida reat ti!g.

Fis, TyrE ToP

Solid e€ds6
B Cate Split w€dg6
c Gats Doubl. di.k, parallel seat
D Catc Doublo tlirL, tap€r ,eat
E GlobG CmpdilioD t|isL ........
F Alldy bacl dlt ..........
G Cobpdition dill .........
H Glob€ Plui ...............
I8ide 36crv, no!-driag spildle
I.ttdo sd, rising rpinille
.. Outlide tctrett, DoD-risiDg spindle Cau]}.d
,... Outlide r6s, rr.inr rpinalle Flsnged
ODe piece, sGryed boDEt
S6@ed uior bo.D€t
neg€d
- -.. Outride .da & yolk bo.net

trro, 14-9-. Commou {orrns of gat€ snd glob€ vakes.

COMMON VALVES 585
times, whereas gate and rcats may be renewed as many times as want€d in the
rtnewable type, whose life is therefore indefinitely long.
Globe ualue designs feature difrerent styles of the valve body top (which
guides and packs the stem) and difrerent seat deslgns. The tops are classified as
screwed bonuet or bolted bonnet. The former are always inside screw type; the
latter may be inside or outside screw. All are rising stem. The same advantages
and defects prevail with integral seats as were cited lor gate valves. The better
globe valves have renewable Beat dngs End renew-
able valve dieka or plugs. Vslve elements are con-
ical pluge or flat disks.' The cone types may be
reground in place when leaking, while reuew disks
of vulcanized rubber, phenolic resine, soft metal, or
special composition are inserted to. rehabilitate flat
disk types. The one-piece screwed bonnet type is Fra. 1410 Swing and lift
most common, but regrinding seate is easier with check valves.
the union screwed bonnet. Bolted bonnets are em-
ployed in the larger sizes with outside screw and yolk type used if it is deaired
to keep the fluid {rom the screw.
Angle valves have the same internal constmction as globe valves. They can
be used as an alternate to a globe valve plus an elbow and, as such, are cheapet
and have less fluid friction.
Materialwise, common valves are manufactured as:
1. Bronze valves. Noncorrosive, very malleable.
2. Iron valves. Iron body, bronze mounted (IBBM) ; or all iron.
3. Cast steel. High strength carbon or alloy steel with special high-tempera-
ture duty seat trim.
Pressure ratings are given in Tsble l4-3. Do aot sssume that the maximum
eizes are available for the maximum listed pressures.
14-6 Special Valves. Many valves made by manufacturers must be classi-
fied as special, although they are ofrered as standard catalogue items. This dis-
tinguishes them from the common valves of Sec l4-5 and also reflects the fact of
their occasional use compared to ga'te and globe valves. Only a limited selection
of these special valves may be taken from manufacturers' catalogues ior inclu-
sion here, the choice being based on their importance to the power plant field.
Satetg Valaes. These are primarily the boiler safety valves which conetitute
the ultimate line of defense against the occurrence of hazardous steam pressures
in the boiler. Their importance is re6ected in the considerable eection of the
ASME Boiler Construction Code devoted to their speciffcation aad installation.
Here we shall describe the valve itself, and in the following section the selection
and installation.
The power boiler safety valve must be a spring-lo8ded valve, one which holds
the valve &gsinst it8 seat by means of a coupression coil spring. The adjusted
compression in the spring determines the pressure st which the valve will open
and relieve over-pressure. The design of the "huddling chamber" in the seat
determines that steam sufrcient to produce a certain pressure drop must be
exhausted before the valve will close. The desigo is such that the velve opens
t Needle ydvea for close regulatiou of gmsll 0ows.
686 THE PIPING SYSTEM

Toble l4-3. RANGE OP BODY MATERIAI"S, PBESSI./BII ANI)

TEMPERATURE RATINGS, AND SIZES O}'VALYES

Ma,ximum Iligh Temperaturc

'Cold
Working Maximum Maximurn Range of
Bodl' I,Ietal Prcseure Presgure Temp. Sizes
Gate Vllves (k8/dDt) (L8/od) (rc) (Em)

Bross 70.3 24.4 28t 6.1ta W

Ir on u.4 r7.6 m1 0,4 t lrl0
Cast Steel 96t.1 t2.2' 6$ 60.8 to ar
Forged Steel 210.0 {).1' 6tE l2:1 ta &,t

Moximum Iligh Temperature

Cold
W'orking Maximum Maximum Bange of
Body Metal Pressure Pressure Temp. Sizes
Globe Valves , (kg/ottra) (Lg/oDr) ('c) (Em)

Bra.ss 6&2 .8 288 E,l to l6r,a

Iron ,6.1 t7.0 82 0.4 to iloa.a
Cast Steel 105.1 $.t * 6et !0.t to t(X,8
Forged Steel tfl.6 70.t * 6lt t., to &)'8

,lt
-
I Bol
be o rinq

Plug hsod
Glond

Pocktog Pluq
rrng lu ba
Scht de-Kontine \ffiali-Waing
Stop aad check Blow-ofi (seatless) Pop Bafety
tr'rc. 14-11 Three spebi&l boiler valves.
* Iligher pressurB-temperaturc ratiDgE with cast a,lloy steel.
SPECIAL VALVES 537
quickly snd remsine wide open until the pressure has fallen the pre-set amount
(gell'erally 2-4/o), when it quickly closee. There is no floating and wire drawing
which could cut the valve or its seat. This ie e dietinguishiag feature, for con-
mou relief valves do not possess it.
Bekel V alaes.The relief valve is a form of safety valve, but usually intended
for less severe service and of less importance from the safety viewpoint. Relief
valves are applied to air, water, and steam lines, also to tanks, heaters, etc.
Among them could be mentioned the back pressure valves and atmoepheric re-
lief valves.
Blou-ofi Values. These, together with their connected lines, are to rid the
mud drums of sediment &ccumulations, to drain the boiler, to reduce concentra-
tion of boiler water, and to provide a means for rapidly lowering the boiler
water level in case the {eedwater regulator becomes deranged or hand regulation
has been caleless. Blowdown valves fall into three classifications: (1) seal,less
plunger type valves, (2) qusrter-tum cock and shutter valves, and (3) seat and
disk valves. Most safety codes specify tandem boiler blow-ofr valves for ssfety,
aad an additional reason for using tandem valves is the added iusurance against
leakage, for should a slight leak develop in a single valve, it would quickly in-
crease in amount and soon represent considerable waste of heat.
The valve nearest the boiler is the guard valve; the other is the normal
blow-ofr and should be opened last and closed first when blowing down. Where
a slow-opening valve and a quick-opening cock rire used as the tandem com-
bination, the cock is the guard valve. Only one boiler should be blown down at a
time. The operator should be taught to remain at the valve until it is closed in
order to reduae the danger of forgetting that the valve is open.
A "must" for plant superintendents is to check the blow-ofr valves of a
boiler for closed position and secure them that way before sending men into a
drum for inspection or repairs. This precaution applies to plants where other
live boilers are connected to the same blow-ofr header. Failure to do thie has
been the cause of latal accidents.
Control and fregulating Talues. These are for water level, stcam pressure,
water flow, etc. Some makes are thermostatically controlled, others mechani-
cally, as by a float, others by pressure either steam, hydraulic, or pneumatic.
The actustion of the pressure-operated valves is obtained from diaphragm,
sylphon, or loaded piston. Steam pressure reducing valves and regulating valves
are used largely in heating work, but also, to a Iimited extent, in the power
plant for supplying steam to auxiliaries, heaters, air eiectors, etc., when these
dhould have steam at less than header pressure.
' Pressure-regulating valves are Iound in great variety because of differing
requirements as to: (1) the fluid-liquid, gas, or stcaml (2) the sensitivity--
close pressure regulation vB. less expensive types Laving greater variation of
the controlled pressure; (3) high or low ratio of final to initial pressure; (4)
pilot-operated .qr dirept-oqerated (large diaphragm type); (5) if pilot-operated
may have internal or exttmal pilot valve; (6) single seat or doutrle seat-
double seat being more sensitive,.in better balance, but single seat being neces-
sary for service where there could be possible dead end, i.e.,,tinqes of no low-
pressure steam flow.
Boil,er Outlet V alues. These special valves are of the stop-check or automatic
588 THE PIPING SYSTEM

fl

_tL

ItI
,'.t,

Letua Saa.h.o6 Ladb

(A) (B) (C)
Frc. 1+12 ReprcseDtative regulating valves.
(A) Pilol-operated, ptes*re-red,ucing oaloe. The tegulated prefrure (downstreom) is ad-
mjtted against the lower side of a diaphragm and ie bilaEced 6geinst, on adiuetsble
apring pre€sure. Diaphragm moves the pilot vslve to proper positioo to let upstream
Bte&m presaure against the pistoE fsce iD the losgDitude required to open tlie main
valve for that flow of steam that rill tnehtain the desired dowustream piesaure. Other
maaufacturirs may build po's with separated pilots where the pilot is jbbed vith the
maio valve etrd vith dowtrstresm pre€sure through small pipe or tubilg.
(B) Dircctaclinq preszure-reilucirlg odhe. ,,Direcl icting,, rniairs that uo-pilot vslve is
used. The regulated pressure, applied ag&iust the upper side of the epriigJoaded dio-
,. phragm,
(C)
_
directly actos,tes the mail valie. Thig ie a double-.ce8ted, spriDg-opening vslve.
This remperature reguloling,olue has an iDtemal pilot reguiatiug the fraclion of
upstream pressure placed agaiDst the upper surface of the diaphragm, the lower side
of which receives 8pritrg-assisted downstieom preesure. Tbis diaphiagm regulates the
posilion of the oein v&lve. The pilot volve'position is adiusied by a -thermoetat
diaphragm which balaoces gas or vapor pr€6sure set up in the ihermoslat bulb agsinst
etr adiustable spriog pressuie.

nonreturn type so as to prevent otre of boilers in parallel receiving backflow

Irom the others should its pressure become subetandard. Fig. 14-11 shows a
frequently used type of stop and check valve. With the stem in the position
Bhown the valve acts as a one-wsy, ol nonreturn, valve, stcam flow being per-
mitted in the direction shown by the arrows. When the stem is screwed dovn it
holds the valve tightly egainst its sest, thus completely shutting ofr the flow of
steam until such time as the stem ie again screwed up, releesing the valve. Such
valves are not used for regulating purposes.
V alue Accessortas. Among the eqtipment that could be Eo classified sre (l)
by-passes, (2) mechanical operators, and (3) motor drivee. Large gste valves
should have small by-passee by means of which the presstnes on the two sides
of the gate can be equalized before it is opened. Globe valves 8re often modified
eo as to be bslanced automatically in all poeitione, cloced or open.
Valves high ofr the operating floor, if not too large, can be opened and cloeed
by hand chain. The valve ie mount€d with the gtem horizontal. Eandwheel is
replaced with eprocket wheel over which is placed a loop of chain extending to
the operator'e reech.
BOILER SAT'ETY VALVES 589
Yalves are sometimes equipped with hydraulic or electrical openiDg and
closing units. On some lines this is done for the sake ol convenience on sccount
of the large size of the valve or its inaccessibility, but on high-pressure steam
linee electric motor control is to enable the operator to stop the flow from a re-
mote control etation. With the increasing application of high pressuree and
superheats in power stations, the Deed for safe and positive meaas for controlling
the operation of steam lines and headerr is emphasized. Central stations ofier
many opportunities for the application of motor-operated valves for both shut-
down and sectionalizing service.
Provision is made for hand operation, if necessarJr. Control syetems for
motor-operated valves are worked out in considerable detail. Moet control
systems permit the operation of the valve from oue or two nain coutrol stations,
and emergeney closing from a mrmber of emergency pointe. Indicating lampe
are used at the coutrol stations to indicate poeition df the valves, i.e., cloeed or
op€n.
1,t-7 Boiler Safety Valves. The selection and installation oI these special
valves are largely govemed by the ASME Boiler Code. Conformance with this
code ie a requirement imposed by the boiler insurance companies so that,
whether.there is a local safety code covering this matter or not, the owner who
inqures lrls property against the hazard of boiler explosion must comply. For
that reason signiflcant paragraphs of the ASME Code are here summarized.
l. All power boilers Eust have a safety valve, All power 6oilerr haviag $ mr
or more heating surface must heve at leaet two s&fety valves on the boilei dnrm and
at lea6t otre otr the supeiheater outlet header.
2. Salety valves must be mounted close to the boile! drum, with stem vertical.
3. If mounted singly on the drum, the smaller safety valve must have st leaat half
the relieviDg capacity of the larger. If mounted ou the arms of a Y branch fitting, both
valves must be of the sane capacity, though one may be set for a lower preesure than
the other.
4. No steam outlet coDnection i6 permitted on a salety valve nozzle.
6. If tbere is a superheater, 75Va ol the total relieyiug capacity for the stea,m ge!-
erator must be in the drum valvee.
6. Setting of the highest-set s&fety valve on the boiler shall not exceed 103y'e of
the design pressure ol the ste&m generator. The range of pressure (pop-ofi) between
lowest and highest set valve shall uot exce€d LUV1 ol lbe set value of the high€st
pressure valve.
7. Discharge copocr'tg. Manufacturers' rating oI a valve h Bel at 90/o of its sctual
t€st steam discharge, in kg p€r hr, this to be secured without inlet preszure rieing morc
lhat \y'o above popping pressure. Let this be lrs.y. Also let trr = Totat requited re-
lieviug capacity for the boiler, lg per hr.

[* : Maximum rat€d Bt€am genereiing copecity,Lg per hr.

,4r = Total heating surface of borler (excluding water wa.ll) exposed to products of
combustion, ol.
/r : Total heoting eurface ol vster walls and thet headers exposed to pnr,rluct*of
coobustion, ut
Then 17, E I7* is one Code criterion for relieving capacity. Another is
' 'w. : car * czAz (14-4)
590 THE PIPING SYSTEIII
The lalger If. so determined governs the choice,
In Eq 1,1-4, C is a ccnstant with these vclues:

Stoker Brrrner
Firing by
C. (- Cr c,
'Water
tube boiler r0.0i 63.60 48.r3 78. t'
Fire tube boiler 3a.rt 30.06 4,t2 0t.t6

After I7, is determined, the safeLy valve sizes can be selected from manu-
facturers' ratihg tables, in accordsnce with the requirement, consistent with
above Code specifications.
W, I 2wa.v. (11-5)
In
case morc than one safety valve is uaed, the smaller one can be Bet to pop
at thc dcsircd naximum prcrsurc and thc larger at 0.35 to 0.7Lg/cmr higtrcr. Sincc
thcsfety valvc blowr down a fcw Lg
cmtgapresslre before clo8iDg, a Bmaller
r'yernier"s&fety valve giving less press-
urc drop betweetr pop 8nd close is iD-
NOZZLE
stalled, usually on the superhester
outlet, though sometimes on the boiler
lead, for the purpose of giving partial
AOILER I relief to thc high pressure, warning the
_.t.-._ DRUM
attendants of high pressure, prevcnt-
ing overheating of superheater tubes,
I
and possibly forestalling popping of
the main safety velves and the result-
Fre. 14-13 Boiler safety valve.
' ant waste of high potential hcat.
Examplc 1: This example will illustrate the selection and choice of setting of safety
valves, given operating conditions, and the followitrg line of safety valves,

Size, mm : 38.1x50.8 60.8x 76.2 6t.6x10l.6 ?G.gxlot.6 tol.oxl6t.4

Rating, Lg per hr,
&t t.00 tS/oEl to: 7t0 r032 3t26 4{18 u,675

D.ro : BoiLr d{iga plo-uto U.$ LgIoBr gt, opoEttag (druE) ptr-Erc 7.03 Lg/oor ga,
rotd tubo boilor, .tok6s-dsod. Eeotlag.ud.oo. 209.4 El ,.tot rsU, {0.$ ar. lf,ednua
nte of evaporation, 8166 L8 l,er hr. AsEume 3 valves are to be used,
I'rom the above, PL - SIOE sDd trr = tf06; altemrtaly, If, - Sg,06(2d0.{-
46.a5) +6t.60 xa0.{6-lr,{Xr. Use tr,: U,ISO }* per hr since F,q 1&4 gives the
greater value.

lf lhe lor-.6t eolv. i. rot to otr.D aC ,.18 Lg/oel. thcD th. higho.t v.le. L lidlt d to
 BOILER SATETY VALYES 59I
approiiooroly 1070, or 0. Lg/o6r higbor. trrcE thi. th! ..tting. sro dpsoif,od st ?.t8, 7.?4
.ad t l2 l8/oar 9., rhiob oooplio. vith .ll th. Oodc !6qlri!!Eoat6 hcrotoforo o6otior.d-
The following combiu&tions from the available valv€s provide the tequisite capacity,
but only B meets the specification, item 3, quot€d b€fore.
.d On6 88.1 x 60.8 BE sot fo! 7.t8 kg/oDl. oDo 101.0 x l6t 4 mrE se6 for 7.?6 Lg/odt
Total B6-y- = t2,3t{ tE Der hr.
B, One 03.6 x 101.0 mE 8et, for 7,rt kSloal one ?0,2 x 10l.6 mut 8et for ?.75 LgoDt etrd
oDe 7C2 x!01.6 Eio set for E.r2 ka/cmr.
Tot&l ,Fr.v. = l!,98I La per hr.
Examplc 2; Assume that the udt of Ex 1 now has a zuperheater for producing
st€aE of 9f.8.ro Euperheat, all other data remaiDing the Eame. Superheater pre86ure
loss at full rating is O.t6 Lflroot. A complemcat of safety valves i8 to be 8peci6ed.
Sidce the zuperheater valve usually is given the lowest setting, it probably should be
.6t t otwo€! 6,80 .Ddl7 kg/oml (lqrothsetor h.odor prEs.lre i. 6.08 Lg/omt) if wo wsot to
7.
u65 7.38 Lg/omt otr tho lop-sot alrullr v6lvo, for tbo ditroBnoo betl,ooa sottiogs on supo!-
hostar snd [0r-r€6 drurrl vslvs .hould b6 sbout 0.15 Lg/omr. E€noe 7,03 Lg/or[t i. tokeD
aa th6 s6ttitrg. Prcooodiog oo ths adaurrlPtiotr of tto drurE vilv6!, otro vould bo s6t .t
7.38 kg/oE and tbo othor rot to etooed f03/o of ll.8t kg/cml, brt olso not to produoc
moro thsE l0% diEer6tr66 bo6wosn hiSh6st .a d lor6st. T60 porooEt ofr,75 kg/o6l is
O.?8 kg/oml ; hotroe, los strd hiSh 3606iag3 of7.03.trd 7.75 kg/ont coa6 pithio this lirlic.
Drura valvei mueC totol 0.75 X 11,430:8573 kg Po! hr ospsoity. fhir ladic.t6s tvo
?6.rxlol.6 eavstvd; tot6l lyr.v. :8E38 k8 p6r hr, st€sm rsting of tho 6ulrorhootsr
v&lvo is ll4m-E836:2504 ka p6r h!. Menufaotursrs ilsuo coreotiotr fsotors whioh
indicate the relative discharge capacity if used with suDerheat. For tbe valvee used in
this slrd Ex l, tho msoufacturer's corr6ctioE for 7.03 kg/(fot, O3.3qC, is 0.00. Tho 6quivs-
l6nt soturstod st€om csprcity r€quirodof the suporhestd v.lv6 is theroforo 259q0.00, or
2882 kg p6r hr (63 5x 10l'6 mtn valv6)

lho ssfoty valvo specif,cstion is : One 83.6x 10l,6 mrn volve on thg auporhoot€r, .6t
for ?.03 kg/cal ;ono 76.2xl0l.0 ,'B altutE vtlv6 6ot for 7.38 kg/oo!; otro m.2xl0l.0 arD
drura vslv6 sot for7.?6 k8lcE1 f'.v.:3126x.90+44t8 *4418:u.640 kg por h!. (Not6 |
Diachargo rctiagr st 7,03 kglcm! ga hs96 b6sn osod but wor6 dischstgo tobloi svsil6bl6,
th6 sotual 8ottitr88 oftbe valves would detorDioe thoir ratiag,)
The safety valves are sometimes arranged to discharge upward in the boiler
room. However, the noise, humidity, and possibility of scalding someone inad-
vertently near the discharge when the valve opens are good reasons for convey-
. ing the discharge above the roof in a pipe; in fact, open discharge ought not to
be used for any boiler operating above 3.5 kg/cmr.
Safety valve discharge piping should be independently Bupported snd be
free of contact with the safety valve discharge nozzle. It should project through
flat roofs far enough to eliminate the possibility of the unwary looking into it
and must be open (no rain hoods). Rain and condensation can be caught by a
drip elbow fitting on Jhe discharge nozzle, which fitting is piped for drainage.
There must be no chance that part of the discliarge piping weight could come
to rest on the drip elbow, for that could strain the valve body. Even if uot over-
strained, this can cause the valve to increase its blowdown range.
Discharge piping should be otraight if possible; at least right-angle beuds
should be avoided, and where bends &re necessary special lateral bracing is
needed to withstand steam thrust. Preferably each valve's discharge should be
piped separately; however, a manifold is often lecessary. Its area should be
fully.cqual to the sum of all inlets into the manifold. The designer must con
Eg) THE PIPING SYSTEM
sider expansion of discharge piping as the steam hits it and provide the necessary
flexibility and clearance that will prevent stressing the valve.
l4-8 Thermal Expansion. Pipes have the property possessed by materials
of expanding with increase of temperature. If they were constrained to s fixed
length, a reaction equivalent to the force required to compress the pipe through
a deformation equal to the prevented expansion would be set up. For all but
very short steam lines this force is too large to incorporate in.the piping system.
The same force would be present, theoretically, in the short line, but the supports
would have enough elasticity to take the small expansion. In long lines the ex-
pansion is perrnitted by the use of suitable joints or bend8. The expansion of a
straight run of pipe can be treated as pure linear expansion resulting from
temperature change. The following equation is applicable to problems of ex-
pansioD.
AL: KLAI (r+6)
where AZ : Change (m) in length of a pipe, Z m long.
AI = Temperature chaage, 'C.
.K : A const&nt,* Yalues to use for I{ are:
Cast iron, t0.62 X l0--c
Wrought iron,l2.42 X l0{
Carbon steel, 12.6 X ff
Alloy steel, 12.96 X l0d
Brass, 17.,16 X l0r{
Er.oDlc l.: lyhot ic ths 6rto!!io! of a elroight ruo of Btral plF SIL 6 lorg t lastallo-
tjo! t@poroture 4.4rc, lormal opor&tioa oD .t€oe ot 8.D Eg/omt ga, .sturat€d sto.E.
Tho saturatioD temperature
= 176.?"C, A,-11A.1 -1-1-172.tr,
'Ar- -0.tX00 E:4.90 @.
0.0000120 x 172.8 x 29.86
Pukl eqnnion joinle *c urcd up to 17.6 Lg/cat saturatcd ateam. High
lcm.pcraturo Lae a deteriorating efiect on packlog; hor&cvcr, packcd jointr hav_c
been designed for high temperature by protecting the packrng by air-cooled

X6riall-Warlne
tr'rc. 1&14 Packed slip joints for expaasiou. (Single+qd joiat ahown lor welded cou-
nectionl double-end joiat is flanged.)
I There is coasiderable variatio!. i! the coeficie! of erpaasion reported from difrerent
source6. Probsbly the dats ot EolburD, aDdDay, Smithso an Physiccl Tdbbs,'tth EA, vrll
be best for very sccuste celculatiols of erpaooiol.
TEERMAL ED(PANSION 60:I
6leeves. Expansion joints take up expaneion at one point by allowing relative
rnotio_n of the two sections of pipe connected by the joint. Usually one pipe end
is anchored by a rigid connection to the body of the joint, but occasionally the
double slip joint in which both pipe ends are free to move in the joint is used.
Fig. f4-14 illustrates the packed expansion joint.
Low-pressure expansion ioints rely on flexibility of a bellowslike section
or the slight movement of screwed pipe threads in the fittings, which is the
action in a sulng jor.zC. These are shown in Fig. 14-15. Copper bellous jotnts are
often used to connect large low-preesure conduits such as exhaust piping, turbine
to condenser, etc.
When expansion is to be taken by the flexibility of the pipe itself, various
forms of pipe bends as illustrated in Fig. 14-16 may be used. This way of caring
for expansion is free of the temperature-pres-
sure limitations of the expansion ioints and
a'lso of any maintenance work such as the
repacking of joints. Consequently, it has been
the standard for boiler and turbine leads and
1x long runs of high-pressure piping of all
crts. Its principal drawbacks are the added
I rict ion losses, the expense of fabrication (most
,,ends are special iobs), and the space required. Fro. 14-15 Low-pressure expan-
()riginally these bends were designed by em- siou joiats.
pirical rules, but more rebently the progress in
;his field has led to rational methods ol stress calculation in preference to rules
of thumb. A stress-strain study of pipe bends is important because:
1. The reaction of the pipe on turbines, boilers, headers, etc., must be knowa
and kept within bounds.
2. The anchorages should be calculated from known reactions.
3. The safe stress of the pipe metal should not be exceeded m the bends.
4. The flanged connections oi the bends to tangents Bhould not transmit
moments large enough to spring leaks or damage loints.
The use of higher steam pressures &nd temperaturee has complicated the
design of expansion bands. Heavier, stifrer pipe is used, while the higher tem-
peratutes produce more expansion and decrease the elastic shength of metal.
Loops in larger diameter pipe are quite expensive. This warrants the application
of considerable engineering to the economic design of expansion bends. The
design problem is primarily one of etress in a deflected structursl member, but
a number of conditions peculiar to this fleld (such as the flattening of the pipe
bend to an oval shspe while subject to expansion forces) make the mathematical
analysis highly complicated. Investigations have been made and epecial methods
.of analysis have been evolved' which, however, are set forth in s series of
charts or tables for which space is not availeble in thie book. Several pipe
* E. W. Shipmau, t'DesiSE oI St€sE Piping to Care lor Expaaoiot," ?rane . ASME, Yo].
51, No. 52.
F. Peiter and M. J. Fish; "Method for DeterDination of fi,eactioae and Stlesse6 i! Er-
pansioa Pipe Betda," Combustion, December lS8,
Crocker, PiVin4 E and,book.
Wirt, Smith, oud Cope, Mantal lor Dedry o! Pipin4 lot FbxibiUay b! U8e oJ Gtaplls.
594 TIIE PIPING SYSTESI

l-t
Ouorl r 8.nd

+
u Doubl. Offset
Bend
Exponsion U 8€nd

s
F
,-$
Single Offset
U Bond
o
Exponsion U Bend

Doubl6 Offs€{
U 8.nd

AdviSable Minimum
Si:e of Pipe R a Lensth of Length of
Iueide Advisable MiDimum Radius to which Tangent. oi TaEgetrt, or
Diameter Radius of Pipe Cau Bc Bert, o Straigbi Pipe Straight Pipe
ort! Bends on End6 oI on Ends of
t! Extm lleavy Beads, u Berds , D
r[
U
0.181
o.a67
Staodard Pipe
0.2,61
0.a)6
Pipe
0.ut
0.t00
0.306
0.305
0.070
0.0?0
ot, 0.6lit oJO,
q{! otuL 0.306 lr.llg
l[.a 0.010 0,&6 0,38 0.t0
t? 0.70i, of,lt o.t8r 0.405 0.19,
tLt o,eta o,ei0 0.a6t 0-466 o.t5
l.fie o.8lt o.!l0 0,6I 0J0
fl 1.62t 1.0I0 0rta 0.0r 0.26
rtt 1.8t0 t.t'' LIe 0,cI

tr'rs. 1+16 Fabricated pipe bends

..1 - Git6 R.rd,rti.r.d6

I L4rh.rPh r B.d - D -v
:L l"'i:{!"
t-y$-,'l
I

l6;i I
I'ro. 14-17 Three methode oi layiag out exyunsion U bends.
TIIERMAL EXPANSION 595
fabricating marufacturers have excelleat eugineering sections in their catalogues
covering this same problem. The reader is refered to this literature for equa-
tions and methods which are beyond the scope of this chapter. Wheu a cousider-
ation of the expansion problem by these more involved methods is not war-
ranted, the dimensions of an expansiou bend can be determined from Table
14-4.
Colil spring is the initial reversed stress applied to piping during erection by
eutting the lengths a little ehort and joining them by tensile forces. When it is
later heated, the pipe will overcome the cold spring and go into the normal com-
pressive and bending stresses expected from thermal expansion. Any initial cold
spring, up to half the computed expansion, is helpful in reducing thermal stress.
Example 2: Illustratiug the layout of a double ofrset expansiotr U bend to accom-
@d.t6 88,0 mm oxlroBlioD i! s Soh6dul6 10, 101,6 EE st6ot pipo osrryiag 7.03 Lg/ooreterm,
it ia ooo€idorod tbst tho us6 of Tablo l4-,1 ia ro.soDsble ia this o.so.
tr'irst divide the expansiorr by 5 according to trhe footnute of the table, This gives

Table 1,!4. EXPANSION CARED IOR BY WROUGHT STBEL

QUARTEB BENDS- rora.
(The Crane Co.)

Mean Radius of Bend, m,

Size of
Pipu,
(--) 0.306 0.s81 0.608 0.762 1,010 1.27 1,624 t.778 2.0s2 2.2AA 2.6& 2.791 3.06

7j,1 0.{ 0.5 l9.l 4,6 79.4

50.8 0.4 t2,7 26.1 a4.6 60.0 0B.r lu.6
09.6 4.4 9.6 3&r 67.2 42,8 I4.3 r40.1
7A.2 8.2 0.5 l6.s 28.6 17.4 68.7 02,1tx.1 163.4
88.0 4,1 15.0 25.4 4r.3 60.3 n.1 ru.8 t38.a
101.0 0.4 t2,7 25.1 88.1 60.8 78.0 06.t rm.7 l{o,t
ltr.t t2.7 34.0 ct.G 68.6 t6., t0E 13t.4
tn 9.6 rc.t 28.0 41.3 67.2 7C.2 05,? 1t7.6 14I,0
162.a 0.6 16.0 26,1 34.9 g.a 69.6 7g.a 9t.!a t,n.7 rto.0
tn .2 ,. t2.7 r0.l 25.4 8&r 17,6 oit.6 78,2 0ar ru.l
,u 2r.0 3t.l 50.t 0q3 7t t8.0
l04J l, 26,4 34.9 41.3 60.E 08.6 73
t65.6 . t:: x2.2 tt.6 84.0 41.6 64 03.6
381 26-1 s4.9 41.8 50.8 00.it
{o8.l ..... u: :18.1 u.a at.2
$1., ...'. 4t.3 47.6
608 ,.. ,. :1: 4.6
The above values, bared on aelual iest$, are recommended as allowing a good safety
Iactor.
Cold cpringing hes not been laken into &count rl preparing this tsble.
The tbove vslues &re for g0' bends. I-ot "U" beads, multiply by 2. For siugle ofisct,'U,,
beo& or expansion "U" bends, multiply by {. For double ofiset expeDsiotr "U', beads or
circle bends, multiply by 5.
596 TIIE PIPING SYSTEM
lr,t De. Irso thi. in tho tsbl6 for o 101.6 ee pipo. By iatorpolBtiotr, th6 b6Dd rsdilr i6
0.801 E, Ch€oking tbi6 .Aeialt Fi8. 14-10 it L soen to bo obovo the minimuro..
A taJlgeDt leagtb of 0.381 E is r€leot d, thsa th6 b6Dd oa! b€ laid out by oDo of tho
methods of Fig. 1,1-U.
Expansion joints are now being made in welded piping by building up a
flexible loop such as that shown in Fig. l4-18, using stand*rd tums manufactured
especially for welded piping. The chart is based upon a flexure theoryf and is
sonstructed so that the maximum fiber stress in the loop, drre to bending, will be
approximafely I l2skg/cml This value is conservative for low carbon steel to
232'C but should be deoeased at higher temperatures.
Since fiber stress is proportional to expansion, the chart may be used for
difierent ma>rimum fi.ber strees by making a suitable correction of expansion.

---i-
,t
_-r
L
'lVelded
expaasion loop

N \\\\ \
T
__-l I]II
lrt#
3U)

ffi
N
l
=
-t
260

\ \
#
2&
n
-l i
20oE

\ reo !
.-\
v\+r ffi lmt
rto E
\ \'$F rof,
*-xx \\
.-c-
==
---+-- tm
80
xrN
N
- 80
()
--1
<r -g}a m
F \\ .ITII 0

g a
tlt
50 78
xllltrrr 30S10t5506070
9t0l2lll6t8a) 25
IIIII
0 tm 2!0 300 oo 50o 600
.lI-in Pip€ Dl.m.ter. ,-,n r,* D,a.fur,,_.
,*.
f'ro. 14-18 Welded expansiou loop deaign cbart.
,The "advisable" radiue in tr'ig. 1+16 is us€d ia caeee where erpeasion ir lot the
Spvemilg qusutity.
t Crocker ard Mccutchao, "Frictiotr&l Reoistalce and Flexibility of Sea,mleee-Tube
Fittitg. Us€d in Pipe Welding," ASIVIE, FSP p8per, 63-17, December 19iX),
HEAT INSULATION 507
For examplc, an cxpansion of 100 mm in a 152.{ mm Ppc lincat,182,2'C, fc
ruhich maximum 6bcr strcts ir taten to bc 843.7 lq/cmr, would bc cntercd on
thechartat
=!p.
152.4* 11?5=:o.es pipc diameta.
843.7
The lengths I7 and If can be limited to any constnrction requirement, or 7
even reduced to 0 by use of a retum bend. When using the chart, for the solution
of an expansion problem, ttre amount of expansion is first calculated by equa-
tion. This requires knowing the distance between anchor points, the tempera-
tures, and the material ol the pipe, Either W or Il is then arbitrarily selected,
depending on the limiting conditions of construction. The one not arbitrarily
selected can then be found from the chart. All dimensions in the chart are ex-
pressed in nominal pipe sizes.
Examplc 3: Design a welded expausion loop for the pipe line of Ex 1, when I/ is
liaited to 1,32 m ond tho pilre Bire fu 152.4 mm. First, stl di6oa6ioas must b€ ootrvoltod
itrto pipo dioootars, siDoo all diootrsioos oD th€ ohort ore so expressod.
NoDxual pipe size is 1624 rDa
L =# = 150 pipe diameters.

Expaasion = #i = 0.32 pipe diameter.

w =#= 8 PiPe diameters

From the iotersection of [ = 8 and ,:
150 on the chart, proiect horizontally to 0.32
expansion, then vertically downward, reading.Fl from the horizontal axis. If = 15 pipe
diameters. Hence I/ = t6X0.152-2.28 D.
14-9 Heat Insulation. Bare pipes carrying steam or water at temperatures
considerably above atmospheric lose much heat to the atmosphere. Several
experimenters have determined the loss of
heat from bare pipe. Heilman's data is . 50
//,
shown in Fig.14-19. The calories perhrloss
€ro
/l ,/
from bare plpo may not, on first- tliought, // ,/
seem to amount to much, but if it be
',:.

remembered that this Ioss is suflered .: !o ., 7 '/

t).

throughout the year, and tha,t, in the case 2.7. 7,t

of the boiler leads at least, the calorics so '/2 .,.
lost are high potential heat and therefore
more valuable thanthe average kcal in a kg it0 'z v
of sieam, it will be understood why prac-
tically every hot pipe in the modern power .
plant is covered. Cold pipes are also in- 0 !00 200 300 a00 500
sulated to,keep heat out, but though "-*"lT'.jl'.,i'li"'"i;, ":il"I '""'"'
insulation for this service is co
refrigeration plants, it is r*r" i, tT"T;;*"l ['f ,#,13.,C";f*:f:l i:]"?:ITf;
plant. By keeping heat in the hot lines not surface of horizonial iron cylinders.
only ir there a conservation of calorics which
hsve at considerable expense and trouble been transferred to the fluid, but also
there is the avoidance of an uncomfortably overheated atmoepherc in the
598 THE PIPING SYSTEA4
vicinity of the pipe. Besides the pipe itself, fittings, valves, ducts, boiler drums,'
tanks and heaters are insulated.
A good pipe covering should, of course, be non-conducting. Commercial
insulations are materials of very low conductivity. Insulation should be able
permanently to withstand the temperature to which it will be subjected; that is,
it should be stable and resist deterioration over the working life of the pipe. It
should be eaeily molded and applied and have the requisite mechanical strength.
No insulation commercially procurable will overload the pipe by its dead weight,

S.r.d jock.l wi..!

Golvonized
Oular saghadol lllsuloling

Inn.. loy.r
R.sin-!irad popar
Wir6 loopa
Pip. intulolion inrrlalion

Frc. 14-20 Insulation details. Pipe rvith double layer of insulation ani canvas iacket,
Insulation of a high-temper&ture valye.

for density is not one of the attributes of a good insulator. In fact, the non-con-
ducting properties seem chiefly to be derived from the presence of lorge numbers
of air cells. The materials most commonly used are asllestos, "magnesia" (car-
bonate), cork, hair {elt, wool felt, rock wool, and diatomaceous earths. Most
commercial insulationp are either built'up from cormgated asbestoe paper, or
laminated as[estos paper artificially roughened to produce air spaces, or are
molded, or lelted with asbestos, or blanketed. A very common and efrective
insulation for temperatur$ upto315oCis the m olded t'85/o magnesia,', so called
Table 145. TRADE STANDARDS I'OR 85% MAGNESIA
SECTIONAI PIPE INSUI.{TION

Double Double
Pipe Standard Standard Pipe Standard Standard
size thick thick stze thick thick
(*.) ( --.) (--.) ( --.) (--.) ( --.)
lr.7 22 Q t62.4 29 6e
l9.l ,, ag y7.a ,2 0{
.l ,r a0 208.' 32 u
tr.8 tl0 328.8 a2 04
t&r z, 40 2 32 6a
60,t 26 66 &x.8 38 7n
6t.6 20 66 ,66.0 3e 7A
76.2 x 66 {{}0.4 38 7A
84.0 a 67 {67.t 38 7A
lot.6 20 61 6@ 38 1A
tl4.t N 60 000.6 38 7A
lr7 2C t0 7S,, 3E 76
 HEAT INSULATION 599
E5ft carbonate of magnesium and 15ft hinder. Pipe insulation for
because it, is
higher temperatures should havc an inner laycr of sorne slrecitl higl-tcrn1rcra-
ture insulation, since 85/o magnesia alone will tlctcliorttr,. Starrrlard irrsulating
sections of magnesia are 3 ft in length, held togcthol by cauvas jackets and
metal bsnds. Fittings and flanges are covered by spccially molded forms or by
plastic insulating cement. Sometimes the flanges sre left bare, trut that practice
wastes so much heat on superhcated steam lines that flanges also are covered.
Magnesia insulation has been the standard lor mcdium temperature Bec-
tional insulation, but is bei4g ehal.lenged by several exccllcnt competitors. The

.t
IIITIII
IIIIIII I
E
.t2
TII Iaan2=a
z- ITIIIII
r
=
tza I
IIIT , II
IIIT
0.0t !lr I ITITIII a2
rTr trt
2

t,
'-r-fi III
o06

II
tr -t2
=== rrlrr
IITII
0. 03
tl
rIIII
IIITI
E

o0
I -tt ttrtlltl
I lo0 t50 TIITIIII
200 2to 301) 311
M.on l.mp.roiur.-d.9. C

Curoe Se?o,lirnit M aterial

hot tace, "O
1 .. 6ilrl . ... Felted asbestoe ffber
2 .. u9... . Corrugatod asbestos peper
3 . 638 or... Glass wool in blanket form
3r5 iI Glass wool moldcd wilh lhermosetl,iDg bioder
4 .. 816 ..... Diatdmaceous eanh bonded with asbestos nbre
5 .. 315 ..... 857a magnesia molded sectional insulation
6 .. 6:18 ..... Ilydrous calcium silicate bonded with osbestos fiber
.['rs. 14-21 Conductivity of some commercial pipe insulating materials. (As reported
by manufecturers of same.)

trade practice of firms supplying 85/o magnesia prcformed pipe insulation is to

mold it to Standard and Double Standard thickness. Other molded pipe insula-
tion is gencrally offered in thickness varying by 12.7 mm increments from 25.4
mE to 101.6 rDm atrd in scctions 0.61 or 0.91 m long.
Molded sectional insulation is applied to the pipe with wire loops or by past-
ing a flap of lightweight cloth rvhich backs the insulation. This then receives a
cover treatment according to the ideas of the plant designer or owner. Medium-
duty pipe covering for a power plant could be specified as follows:
" Apply 85/o magnesia sectional insulation of Standard thickness tightlv
butted together, each section being held in place by.nr.,i less than three Ioops of
l.29mm irrin wire. Encloee, the, iuaulation in a jacket of 8- canvas, sewed over
600 TEE PIPING SYSTEM
iesin-sized paper. Paint the canvas with one coat of glue sizing, after which
paint it with two coats of first quality lead and oil paint of specified color."
In some cases flanges and valve bodies are covered; in others they are lelt
bare for maintenance convenience. Supply firms manufacture several grades of
insulating cement fol the purpose of molding in place an insulation over irregu-
lar surface. These can be finished with pasted canvas or troweled with hard-
fi nishing insulating cement.
Blanket insulation, such as rock wool, comes in a roll, sandwiched between
mdsh reinforcement to give it body. It is cut to fit the pipe, wrapped snugly on
and wired in place. After that it receives a finish of plastic insulating cement
and a cover to suit.
Manqfacturers publish "insulatirn efficiency" tables for the various standgrd
thicknesses of their difrerent grades of insulation. Such tables usually present
percent efficieney against two variables: pipe size end temperature difrerence
L - t.. The " efi.ciencE" ol an insulating rnatertal is erpressed as the percent
heat saued by using the insuLation, compared, to uhat uould haue been lost hod
t.i..e pipe been leJt bare.
Like many other power plant design problems, the amount'of insulation to
apply is, basically, an economic problem. The cost ol the covering must be
r.-eighcd against the saving of heat. The economic studies are tedious because
of thc largc number of variables, the efrects of which must be included in the
rnalysis. The chari of Fig. 14-22 shows what these variables are and arranges
rhcrir so that, if they are known, or can be estimated, the economic insulation
'lricknnss can ho quickly found.
H eo"t Loss. Transfer of heat through pipe insulation is a case of conduction
tlrrough a curved wall and the discharge of heat by convection and radiation
from thc outside surface. The inner surface is presumed to be at the same
tcmpcraturc as the fluid in the pipe. The final temperature is that of the ambient
atmosphere. The equation for heat loss, derived from Eq 9-9, is

(14:7)

i(".,';) * I
An empirical equation* for coefficient of heat tranefer from the usual outer
surface, a canvas jacket, is

i-7613/[Dntl5l.{--Q] lrcal pcr hr.Ec.drt C (148)

li, l" = fansr and outer surface tempera,tures of the insulation, oQ,
L : Ambient atmospheric temperature, qq.
0:t.-t.
rr, r, : In!.er &nd outer radii of the insulatioa, n.
D = Outer diameter of pipe covering, m,
k : Conductivity of insulation, lc.l F br-B.deg G
*"Eeat Loeses from B&re oad Covered lyroqht Iron Pipq at ?emperutures up to
dtqo (tD. ?t," ?rdrrl{. ASttE. tcn-
,

HEAT INSULATION 601

E.o|romi.6l riiGln.tt ol lnr!lotlon mft

0 50 r00

I-: I
- ,. I
IIII - :l
=I=I
S \-
,/7

Ill \
-
/, /z
7
Z
-II II- rl\lllr
t\rf,I
PEFCENI
FI)(EO CHASOE
[\I / rHrcr(NEss
-
EcoNorrcil
foR
'//
rl
I
$ ,/
VARIOUS PIPE SIZES

\ v
N D Z
t 1.1
9_
I ) 3r

(l (ri
$
t\
I /,
//
/L ,,/ 11

\\ ///. /7
!0., .\ N f, tt, qt 7. d.or?

II i-- \ N\ I [t /4
,l Vz
-\ \ \
cosl 0F rNsuLaloN //'l coNouCTtvtry
Fi9u..! ih .ir.l.! or. l, OF
.o.t 9.r loo.d n.t.. J I
I
INSULATION

\.- \ I
\ N\ \. I
I EMPERAT URE
yl D F EFE NCE
\
u \\ N I
If t\
i
+[
VALUE I I
OF
HEA'I ;\
I
tt.!. ot Op.rotion t.. ylor ,760
rr r \

Fto, lLt2 Uhart for economical thickness of insulation. (From fleoi lnathting
Prootice in the Modern Steam Pl.o*, L.B. McMillaa, Mechgnical Erqinzering, May,
l.)
@2 THE PIPING SYSTEM
Eq 14-8 applies to insulation located in "still" air; that is, the convection
ia produced only through the natural levity. of heated air.
In case there are two layers of insulation of difrering conductivities, the
denominator of Eq 14-7 becomes
l/ ,,\ + l/ j/a\ + I
-h
\" '";/ F' \r' 'n ;
(kr is for the inner layer, k2 the outer, rvhile ri is at r.'.)
r,-aplc I : Ao 203.2 alrr pip6 osrq/ing 6to.rl! st 282.29C through .a atmo3phoro at
i2.8C should be host insBtetsd. trig. u-22 ie to bo usod to 6stimot6 th6 oooaomia thioLlro8a
ofs typ6 6 (Fig. l,{'21) pip€ oovorhg whos€ oo6t i. 40. f psr board metro, Doro : opors-
tioa, 72OO hr p€r yosl; oost of h66t, 168.? Gper IO' kc.l ; 6xed chsrS.s oh 20o/o.
An spplorimstioo of a froE I'ig. 14-21 would be 0.06eri-r.-2501 Now €ntor th6
obsrt st 7200 hr, sDd prooeed Srophically to I,687, to 250p, to 0.452, ta 2oyo, sDd 6raUy to
2oil., Em pip6 si!e, wher€ tho required iasutstiod thickness is fouid to b6 76,2 mm.
Examplc 2: The heat lo6s per.aotrs of pipe, and the insulation efhciency will bc
calculated for the case in Ex 1.
An assrrmption for r" wilt be necessary. After some preliminary trials, this is taken
to be 54.4rc. Then mean temperatrue of the insulation is @4.1+2s2.2112 = r68.3f , al
vhich & = 0.066.
A 203.2 llm pipo i! 219.08 mE OD so D-215.@+2x76.2-371.48 !t!m; rt-185,7 mI! .
.r-109.6 Em. a :61.4-32.2-22.tC,
l-?61.3/[0.37160'D(l 61.1-22.2)l-7.1A kcal I]6l hr.at-d6g C
2tL2-12.2
: 164.1 Lool por h!-ml
t t/ 0.1857 tn o.rs57 \t- r
0.068 \ oJo96 / 7.t28
-
Verifying the assumptioo of t" = iq :
64.46 7.l2,lt x22.2
-15a.2 discharged from cover,
while
282.2-54.4
:r63.3
u o tss?
--l-
0.060 o-tesz
0.1095

transmitted through the covering. These are in cloee enough agreement,

Heat loss per E6tr.- 153.3 x r! x 0.3715:178.7 kcet pcr hr.
Coefficient for bare pipe at d : o"C is 20.15.
Heat loss per m6tte bare pipre : 29.75 >( r5O X n x O.2I9l -35?0.3 kosl por hr.
: ,.rrn *-tr11 :6.953.
Insulation efficiency
,rrrJ
The principles of pipe insulation apply also to the insulation of tanks, such
as feedwater heaters, storage, etc. Much the same materials are used as for
pipe covering. I\{ethod of application may be somewhat diflelent, as the binding
of the insulation closely to the.tank may be more of a problem, especially under
the belly of the tank, where the insulation will have thc tcndency to sag away
from tlre tank surface, due to its own weight. Lacing wire attached to velded-on
clips or studs and tied in with circumferentially applied wire netting will rnakc
a permanently attached insulating jacket. Tanks may bc covered with moHod
 DETERMINING PIPE SIZE 608
segmentel blocks, narrow rectangular blocks, or blanket insulation. The final
covering is usually hard finish insulating cement, and some prefer to apply a
cover of c&nva8 over that-
A development in the iusulation field is the use of reflectivo insulation. This
is composed of a series of aluminum alloy sheets, separated at intervals by
spaced blocks providing multiple dead air spaces. Advantages claimed are
r€latiy€ clesnliness during construction,' expdnsion without cracking the sur-
fate, and smooth, clean finished appearance without paint. This has been used
throughout a power statien, i.e., to covcr pipes, tanks, ducts, and breechings.
14-10 Determining lipe Size. Most of the problems of this nature arising
in power plant design will involve pipes carrying only water or steaml hence
this section is devoted mainly to problems of water aud steam lines. Engineers -
will appreciate that pipe size is not determined alone by weight or volume to be
traosportcd. For iostance, thcre i! no onc lize that rnzo! bc sclcctcd to carry
lSmr steam pcr nrin, At 1500 m/min velocity a pipc of 0.01 mr cross"scctional
arca is requircd; at 5000 m/min it i! 0.005 mt. But when both vclocity and
8ow volumc arc ap€ci6cd, Ihe pipc rizc is fixcd, according to the rclation
Volu,me = V elocitA x cross-sectionol area
The law of continuity is more useful than the above-mentioned relation, for
mass flow is a constant anywhere in a pipe hsving no side-branched flows.
Weight fl.owing = Vetocttg x areq x densitu 04-;)
To determine the correct size for a pipe of relatively short length and moder-
8te cost (typical of interior plant piping) knowing the quantity of fluid to be
carried, the usual practice is to assume a velocity based on satisfactory prior
experience and to determine the area irom Eq 14-9. Diameters can then be cal-
culated and the pipe of the nearest or, in some cases, the next larger standard
size selected. Table 14-6 is fumished as a guide to represent&tive practice in
flow velocities. Having so determined the pipe size, resulting friction losses can
be computed by mcthods to follow. In some cgses a predetermined maximum al-
loweble friction loss sets the pipe'size rather than average flow practice.
Table 14-6. AVERAGE PRACTICE IN FLOW VELOCITIES,I\4/MIN
General water flow 0l-f5t
Plant waler sqrvices (misc) g1-l8t
Pump lines, discharge gl-ltt
Pump lirles, suction El-l5t
Boiler leed lines 162.18ll
High-pressure saturated steam ISrslN8
Low-pressure satureted steam lzl&l8ng
High-pressurcsuperheatedsteam 3O!E.4672
Iligh-vacuum exh&ust steam 0006-?316

Long runs of pipe, or shorter ones of expensive, thick-walled, alloy steel

high-pressure pipc may create the nced for an economic analysis of optimurr.i
pipe size. The higher the velocity, the smaller the required size of pipe, but rrn-
* IDsulators tend to shower & plant iaterior lrith d st, and spots from cutting insulstion
:rnd.applyiug pleslic cement.
 q4 THE PIPING SYSTEM
fortunately the friction loes increases about as the square of the velocity. In-an
oconomic analysis a search is made for that pipe size lor which the annual fixed
cost, including insulation if used, plus the annual operating cost resulting from
frictio4 loss is a minimum. Power plant pipe sizing doee not often warrant a
least-cost economic analysis.
r--plc I : The eilo of Sohoddo t() pipe vhioh rill oorry 6444 kg st€oE por ht
rt t.79 Lg/cEt gs, 0.97 dry, eill b6 burd rith th6 .id of ihe t bls ofovo!.ge flov velooily.
This steam has a specifc volume oI 0.10a7 Dl po! L8. Cross-sectional area for the
pipe, assuming velocity of 2136D/EiD is

A - Ue, x0,lg47lfl0x 2135-0.008268 mr:82.68 cdar.

The inside diameter of a 10l.6 eE piF i.

1U.80-2 x0.02-89.66 t6ln. Area = 82.13 oml.
This is obviousiy the nearest pipe size, fqr the velocity is almost exactly ,136 rn/Ei!,
. One of the most thoroughly investigated subjects in engineering is the Jnc-
I tfon of fluid flow in pipes. Formulae are sufrciently numerous to bewilder the
beginner, and dozens of manulacturers' catalogues carry data seitions wherein
are excellent tables or charts of friction factors. Most practicing engineers have
a favorite, well-thumbed source of such dat&, usually sufficiently extensive to
obviate any need for calculation on their pari. With that practice this author
has no quarrel, but he cannot find the space in this volume to include this hand-
book feature. Furthermore, a, few basic calculations practiced by the neophyte
will bring to Iight the influential factors in fluid friction. Having mastered these
then let him locate the short-cut tables or charts to suit. Here we intend to sub-
mit a basic equation for friction of liquid flow, and one for steam flow.
The following symbols are employed:
Il = Friction head, m of the fluid.
Ap : Friction loss,kg/cmt
I = Coeficient of friction.
Z = Pipe length, m
Y = Flow velocity, m/scc.
D = Intemal diameter of pipe,m.
z = Fluid viscosity, centipoises.
d = Density of the fluid, kg/m!.
S = Specific gravity, rbferred to w&ter.
I = 9.81 m PGr secr.
For the flow of liquids:
H = |lLV2/sD m (14-10)
DT]TERMIMNG PIPE SIZE 605
For the flow of rteam or air:
Lp = llilvz/ sffioDrs}rrr (r4-u)
Theae are two comparatively simple equations, but each riquiree implemen-
tation with a coefi,cient ol lrtction which unfortunately ia aubject to several
irifluencing factors. Since it is not a conBtant, investigators have been st soru
pains to express it as a function of the controlling quantities, snd therein ha8
arisen the multiplicity of forrnula ofrerings.
Table 1rl-7. FRICTION FACTORS,, FOR WATER FLOW
IN IRON AND STEEL PIPE
New Pipe Old Pipo
Diameter of 0.014 a./.€o 1.820 6/r.0 3.048 tD/s.o 0,011 rD/eoo 1.820 D/s6c 3.0a8 E/co
Pip6, eD (.iD) (3 fpsl (0 fpE) (r0 fp€ ) (3 fpe I (6 tp6) (!g fps)
.4 (t) 0.00i 5 0.0066 0.0061 0.0112 0.m99 0.0091
60.E (2) 0.0071 0.0065 0.0059 0.0107 0.0097 0.0088
Iff.a (A) 0.0070 0.0064 0.0058 0.0105 0.0096 0.m87
l0r.((dl 0.0066 0.0062 0.0057 0.0099 0.0093 0.0085
t27 (5't 0.0064 0.0060 0.m56 0.0096 0.0090 0.m84
ts2.1G ) 0.0063 0.0057 0.0055 0.0094 0.0085 0.0082
s03.2 (8) 0.0060 0.0055 0.0054 0.0090 0.0082 0.0081
,54 (10) 0.m58 0.0054 0.0052 0.0087 0.0081 0.0078
304.8 ( 12 ) 0.0056 0.0052 0.0050 :o.oo84 0.0078 0.0075

In the field of liquid flow, investigators have found it necessary to plaee

fractional exponents on 7 and D, or to express f as a lunction of Y and D.
Here we Iollow the latter school. fn this field also there are two distinct fric-
tional cases, i.e., uiscous flow and turbulent flolr. These require difrerent
coefficients. Only very slow velocities are viscous in water. One criterion for
determining the characteristic of flow is to evaluate z/DVS. L flow is turbulent
il z/DVS q I163.5; otherviso, it is viscous.
Friction coefficientsr for turbulent liquid flow in clean pipe are:
Copper, brass, and leed. I = 0.00181 + 0.0gll78i(z/DVS)0.8!6 (14-12)
Iron and steel. .. . I = 0.0035 + 0.0@7562[2/DVS) o.rr. (14-13)
For viscous liquid flow in all pipes:

/: 0000016026 (r/DY,Y) (r4-t4)

On account oI the lrequency of cases of water flow in the 0.9t4 to 3.048 m/:cc
r8age, a table is included, giving the / factor againet 7 and D.
For the flow of steam and air in prpes: t

/: 0.0054 4 s.0465 Q/DVt) (1+15)

To use these equations lor the prediction of friction loss in a given piping
coifiguration, two supplementary studies are required. T[e first is the value of
* Wilson, McAdems and Setzler, Jotrurl ltldustrinl and, Erqilr,qin7 Cbemistrg, I.eL
ruary 1922.
t McAdams aud Sherwood, Mechanicol Er.Ornoerin4, Octobcr fO20.
606 THE PIPING SYSTEM
viscosity, z; the second, a method of allowing for the efrects of fittings and
valves. The first item is supplied by Eq 14-16 and Table 14-8; the Becond, by
Fig. 14-23.
Viecosity of steam a :0.0089{*3.6x l0-t (14-16)

in which t= Stesm temperature, ' C. Also, see Fig. 9{,

Table L!8. VISCO,SITIES--CENIIPOISES

Ternpera-
sturc, Crude Oil Fuel Oil Fuet Oil Lubricating Lubricating
(.o ) Wcter l5 Deg. B 24Deg,. B Bunker C Oil, Turbine Oil, Engine
(
(r5.0.r )) 1.0
1.0
5000
30m
50
40 6600
10G250
7G180
300
m
(tG?) 0.9 1000 30 100
(rrr) 0.8 600 25 80
(tr.8) 0.7 450 18 bm 3S75 60
(.'.r) 0.65 3m t7 50
(r8.e)
(
0.6 N l5 605 21-46 40
6r.r ) 0.5 120 12
( oo-o) 0.45 90 10
(o6.0) 0.42 8 220 12-24
($J) 0.3 li 18
8

The following examples will illustrate some of the cases of frictional flow
these formulae will solve.

Erraptr 2 : Tho etotio hcod et e oort la .tstlon oq r 101.6 86. Soh.dulc $, ol..o,
eat r pit 6 i. 00.98 E Tho .t tlo hcsd ir to bc dcteroiuod for o .t tioD 163.{ t!
h.ori, oold
f.rthor slong lho pipo i! th. dir€otiotr of f,orr, loal rhote tho pipo ls0.l4lo bighor th.6
station 1. Betweetr the stations are three elbows. Flow rate, 13!6l/Eitr,
I'lrc 10t.6 E!! pipe hs8 slo2.4 EE int€msl diameteri aay D = lo2 Enr.
Flow area ,{ = !/ax0.lott-0.0or88tt rEt.
Florv velocity y = l3r6/(td xo.0oz886 x 0O):r.8 EFoo.
From Table L4-7, get | = 0.0058, while with Fig. 14-23 determine that pipe tength
equivalent to 3 elbows is 10.00 m. Then ue Eq 14,10-
]/ : , xO.OO6t x (162.{ + l0.OO) x tE /g.tl xO.l02-It.tE m
Static heod ot station 2 - 60.0E-0.14-l4.ot-87.r4 n
Examplc 3: In this example a pipe size is to be deterrnined such that [,6E !/Ei!r cold
water flow will Dot sufrer more than 0.060 h8/o6t loss per lio m of pipe.
Flow volume, : 60tlr0rx00-o.oo0a67 mq..d .
0
L =0.0e E\r'henr: $o.Aesume/= 0.006.
V -or({[,67l+,,.-o.orqx,/irr E/-o .

Using Eq 4'10; 0.0-t x 0.000 x tx(o.or$6/D.)t/0,stD

D = 0[ on Select r tot,0 mo. flpo. D - tot Ero .
A more exact volue for y is now jocaipte. y : o.mes.
)

DE?ERMINING PIPE SIZE 60'

The velocitv in a l0r.6dE pi1,e II X fo.1O*y,-
will he U@eaf,r 1.166 -L*
It : 2 X o.fiXi5 X 30 X l.!6eri 0.Et X o.to2 - o.6t8l D.
AP : o.otz W@1.
Examplc il: This-is an exemple oI tlrc debrminction of 6t€am pipe size needed to
pass e given flo$' \rithout exceetling a specified prcssure loss. Giveu liorv of
of steam rt !?LtqO in a pipe ofBt.(aDtotal eqirilElcot length. Average prcssurb,1;r;tf
f{/fa0l,
ta1Gor.b; Ap limited to 0.l a tar@|. Schedute tb pipe.
From tables u : O.006Ot alkg; hence d - r5.!o.Lg/or.
Florv ratc = :l p,.' 5o X 0.00potr,.36{It
- lut tor/.co .

E4.r.: T}l &.ud hft *-rr riar

irE oI r 6-,*h SEdrd El-
t r 'erE
b @jv.Lnt b rporotim&ly'6
fd oa Gnrh S.nd.rd Pip..
trd.: Fq.d&. alr!ffiE e !ui,.
&r, d, m rh. plp. ri& a.l.

@
,/:\
r|+ tr
L_=-
ffi i f
I
qB -tI
E
i
ts
h
t I
ia I a
Itr
1",
q@ t.-
E4E'
r
Sm A
,(

ftc. 14.23 Resistance of valves aud fittings to Ao, ot noia.. ?Ji"t "vulve types show!
do not include check valves. The reoist&nce of swiug checks is approximately the same
u lot $e clow rcturn berl4 while that of verticat lift check valvei is a_.proimated by
tb oper glottc oahte.
 608 THE PIPING SYETEM
FIow velocity V = r.Mt+,,.-r.te DE,l*5,
A-e on approximotion ofJ uae 0.0031 from Eq 1,L16. TteD, Eince Ap-0.taF,q l+U
becomea
0.14-0.m6{ x i}}.6S x r6.304(3.3,10r/D!f/6000 x o.tlD .
D: 0.1d68 0-t16.8 mE,
D for E66.0 E6
OD pipo iE frrt.6-(2 x 10.06)-!17.6 mo .
D lor {00.l rna OD pip€ is am.a-(s x3r.{):t63.0 mE.
1\e.o6.a rEE. OD sir6 is !6loctod gince it wiU limit the prcure loe to kE thrn
o-l4 kg/oEr.
Y : 3.:lgrl0.363t1t: .n 16,l!4..
lte correct,f ia next calculatod, usiDg r - 0.00804*3.6x371.I x lN - 0.O22X1.

, = 0.006{ +0.0{65 x 0.0223/(0.3636 x 25.17 x 16,3e4) -0,0{X'4r.

Ap = 0,00 1 x 36.6E x 16.304 x 25.g7ri(6000 x 8.81 x 0.30: r)-0.I00 k8/oqr.
Example 5: The flow ol a viscous liquid is illustraied by a calculation of the rste
of oil flow through a 70.2 DD" Schedule {O iron pipe. Arsume o Bulker C oil of 0.962
g.C st 4E.0"c to be flowing throuSh pip6 of 41.t6 to. equivslot ldngth, with a,D erpeDd
sbl€ h€8d of 1.62 16 of oil s,nd let it be r€quired to fnd the rste of tiow.
Expecting the flow to be viscous in nature, uee Eq 14-14.
With o viscosity from Tnble 148, / = o.oooor0028 x 0o5/(o.oz $xo.o6zn-o.tt22lv.

F'rom Eq 1,!10,1.62 :2yoff ya1.161.1(9.8l xo.o?8) i I/-o.lo? m/.oo.

The viscous coodition is now verified: 60610.0?8 x O.lo? x 0.002 > I l6it,6,
., Oil fiow = 0.078! x 0.107 x IOOO x 0,002 x 00-20.6 kg per rdo.
+
14-11 Pipe Support. Steam and water pipes sre usually Bupported int€r-
mittently by hangars, brackets, rollers, etc. This results in the pipe acting aB a
- coutinuously loaded beam over several supports. However, the configuration and
support of a pipe line might be such that it bore more resemblance to a beam
with free ends. Thus there are two extremes of end-fixity assumption. Weight
of the pipe, its covering, and its contents will produce a bending stress that may
need calculation snd comparison with sale values (Table 14-1). The deflection
between supports msy.need calculation, for steam lines must be graded down
enough to avoid pockets of condensstion.
The average gmdient is the Bpsn in mctrel
divided by the difference in elevation at
thc supports and is expressed as "1 in
In general, when condensate
flows with the steam the gradient should
FIc. 14-24 Pipe gradient. not be flatter than I in 240. Conden-
sate flow against the steam should be
avoided if possible, but where necessary the gradient should not be less than
1 in 96, and st€sm velocities ehould be held. to moderate valueg. Further-
more, the downstream support needs to be placed below the upstream at
least, enough to produce a horizontal tangent or, preferably, a positive sngle as
 PIPE BIIPPORT 600
ahown in Fig. 14-24. This criterionwill require that Y exceed 4y. Most designers
will prefer to acce[tust€ the drainage by making Y equal 6 to 8 times y.
The followiag equatione are for the maximum deflection, y, and the.maxi-
mum beam tensile stress, S, i" pipe lines Ior either free or ffxed ends at the
suPPorts.

f,'or free eude : ! = $tLIBSEI cm. (1+17)

Blso, & : wllD"/t6l Lglqr. (14-18)
For continuoua apans, y : wA/@UEI) (14-19)
rlso, $: wIlDJ24I (t4-n)
Theee are theoretical formulae, based on the elostic flexure theory.r
Symbob represent the following quantities:
u - Weigbt of pipe, covering, and c@tents, kg per cm.
f, - Digtanco b€two@ arpports,cm.
f = Mment of in€rtiB, 0.U0\(D". - Dr.) cm1
D"' Dr - Pipe diameters, cm.
.E - Modnlus of elasticity of the pifr; kg/crnt at operating temperature.
.E - (20.5-0.0076r)x l0 kg/c@t , beiry"C, Yalid for corbon stcel up
to3l5'C, and alloy st€el to 427'C, Ccnsult rcfercn€€ sourcee for
higher t€mPeratures.
A pipe wall may be stressed by the simultaneous action of:
1. Dead weight deflectioas. 81 of Eqe 14-18 and 14-20.
2. Intemal fluid pressure:
Iloop tension, &: pDt/2& kglcm2 (14-21)

Longitudinal tension, S3 : pDl/(D"2 - D?)2 (L4-22)

3. Torsion and bending, &, arising from the action of pipe bende, and other
configurations, taking up therrnal expansion.
Stress of the S1 form is not likely io be important where Sa stress predomi.
nates, for the pipe bends are ordinarily closdly and carefully supported. Only
in lsrge pipes will 33 assume an important magnitude, and only in pipes con-
taining considerable fluid pressure will hoop tension become of moment in stand-
ard weight pipe. Therefore, exclpt for the use of high-pressure, closely de-
signed pipe bends, the rational analysis of which has already been set outside
the scope of this book, the principal pipe stresses are Sr and 32. These occur
across normal planes and are independently considered (no combined stress
calculations). Each is required to be less than the safe working stress, S. A
determination of schedule number by formula is usually assurance of safety
.One series of tests oE Schedule 40 pipe indieatcd thst the test deflectioEs approached
rrlu{ o.loulotod froB Eq l4,l7 for pipd .Esller thao 60.8 oo, .,ud Eq 14-10 fo! Llza.
pip...
610 TrrE PTPTNG SYSTEI'
agsinst hoop strees. Only in the case of unuaually long spans in low-preesure
pipiug ie Sr liable to exceed 8a.
Blqrl. I : Thc pipc .pooli6iloo, of . 43.2 Lg/oolg., tll30, hoELot l ddq
ll!! !s. I 16&l larD l8A toGA pipo, r.ld.4 oovlFd rith ioluLtl@ ,rigLhg 0,071Lgr(E
tor, lh. pip r.U di6.[rio& .upport qrsiu& o,ad dt L.go gr.dicnt 616 to bo lo@d.
(hdq-ic E dtt.otlo !. da,E 0or.
Table 14-l gves S - 84t ? for this grade of pipe. Calculated Schedule number
=
1000 x at r/8a3., = 50. Next deter@ine whether Schedute 40 or 80 muet be eelected.
The mininum wall thickn€Bs for Schedule ,10 is lr,ll-o.tr6x?.U = 0.2! nD.
8ti€es, by fh l+t is ?0 tg/@r: hence, Schedule 40 iE strorg eDough for the intenai
pr€68urc.
lhe next step is to determine whether & ory govenul the spon by comparing com-
puted & with A I6&a lr. Schedutre 40 pipe veigha !8.tlrg/b har D.= roS,:t oo.,
^9.
Dr:l06.8lmro" I :f0$.6 our,Theae prcporties a,rt bosed on d. =0.!t roo EiDwater
cohnts - t rul)t x omr - o.raa Ltla, r, - otar + o.o,r + o.rta - oJts rr! per
f,
@.Pipe is takeD to be full of rater iu calculstilrg speu, for conditiona might 8riEc thst
the pipo bocame fillod. UdnC Eq ll20,Sr- x17- 0.!t8x lcSE !rFax.t0!G6- Ult @"
Epon 4 for & - 8, is, tbercfor€, tr.I n
Eq 14.19: ,, - OllI x UIAl(8r x lOA0 D . AJt€r cslculntiug E to be rrt x rO
Itif6r, S - Goa @. Miuimum F - a x a.oa - lcta@, repleenthg l6ltEGta c I t!
f"g gradient A gradient of I il ,[l is a,mple lor drainage, so obviously deflection, not
bendiry atrtss, govems tho spon.
tr'or drainage gradient calculatiom bave pipe empty, cnd f- 6y. u - r"UfOO + 00rl
- o aa tdo . Aasune tr -
el!, rcaO strd rut ; th€n q
, -0.*'{ iffi }7*,,*.rxrz.oxrorr-{
Y : fu snd sversge gradient : L/Y : Lpg.
[..ffi ]"-
Gradientsere, u'rrore,r -{ S }r*.l" [ ;|;il]-*".
Ttia ehow8 thct a Estisfactory Bpsn i8to.l E, with F = t a0 oE.
While the arratrg€ment of supports for plant pipes caD be delegated to thc
installation foreman by appending to piping drawings Bome note euch as
"Pipe supports to be located in field," this practice can be recommended only
for emall-sized pipes of limited temperature range. Certainly the lerge and the
hot pipes should receive careful etteution is to curyott, anchorcge, ecpawtaq
arrd ilreinage, and the'drawiags should 8how method of support in Bufficient
detail that these importaat matters are designed in the ofrce and not during
ffeld erection.
Direction of expansion, weights to be supported, convenient points of at-
taching hangars to building stmctue, etc., are correlated to provide e plan of
support. Manufacturerr hsve many difierent types of pipe supports as reguler
oatalogue equipment, a smell sampling of which appears,in Fig. 14-25. Points
of anchorage must be sufrciently rigid not to yield under the pipe thrust, while
intermediate supports must be able to accommdate pipe movement either by
long hangar rode, pipe rolls, or slides. Sway bracing and vibration dampers
are required on occasion. Spring or counter-weighted supports will be needed
where the thermal-cxpansion worrld tcnd to lift thc pipe ofi a ffxed support.
DRIPS AND DRAINS 611

7 \
\l
.a \

r \ fl
\ I I

E fr
obcd
Frc. 14-25 Forms of pipe supports. (a) Spring hanger. (b) Bracket-supported anchor
cbair. (c) Adjustable roll support. (d) Brccket-supported hangers.

Ileavy vertigal runs of pipe Bre supported at the base by anchorage fittings
8nd at intermediate points by Bpring suspension hangars.
1{-12 Drips and D.ains. All steani lines must be adequately drained of
condensation. Even superheoted steam lines need drainage since condensation
forms duriag the warming up period, and while the line is hot but having no
flow. Also, slugs of vater may come over from the boiler. Fig. 14-26 shore
methods of caring for the condensatiot in a high-pressure st€am rnain. The
points to be drained are the low points in the line, separators, drip pockets,
globe valves, and valves in vertical lines. Draining of a high-pressure steam

dtotttfrt ttp lt atatflt

l'flt,|,'trT
*v'^'^'^ -"

Fro. 14-26 M€tbods of caring for the condensation in high-prcesurc steem linoo. Plln
drawn to larger sc8!e tbsn floor level equipm€nt.
612 THE PIPING SYSTEM
linc rcquircs that the drainage equipment be able to draw,ofr the condgnsale
and hold bsck the steam. This can be done by msnuslly operrting vslves oo
a drip tank, by a steam trap, snd by s pump. These methods are aleo illustrat€d.
The standard code for pressure piping contains some specifications on the
inetallation ol drips and drains which can be summsrised thue:
l. Drip lines to be taken from all points where condeneate may collect and
drain lines lrom points that will drain all water-bearing equipment. Each drip
or drain line to be manually valved.
2. Pressure steam should be drsined through traps.
3. Drips from steam regions at difrerent prqssureB should be drained
through difrerent traps.
4. If eeveral traps discharge into a common headel which may have some
pressure, each trap discharge line should have a hand and check valve.
6. Trap discharge lines should be protected against freezing.
6. A point oI discharge to the atmoBphere ehould be properly eafeguarded
for human protection.

BAFFLE

STEAM
FLOW

C"dne Co. Ar,rt r@A Uaahhv WorL.

(A) (B)
Frc. 14-27 Steam line accessories. (A) Stfam or oil Beparator. (B) Steam tmp.

To collect the condensate from the bottom of steam lines, a drip pocket
msde of pipe fittings as shown in Fig. 14-26 is desirable. When located \rhere
dirt and scale are likely to settle, it becomes a sediment pocket and should be
provided with a valved discharge to waste. The steam Bep&rator will not only
divert a condensation stream from the piping, but will also remove suspended
drops or plugs of water.
The principles upon which separation is based are: (a) reverse current,
(b) centrifugal force, and (c) wet baffies. The separator should provide for.an
enlarged path for the steam since it has been fouad that separation ie more
efrective at, lower steam vclocities.
The simple separator shown in Fig. 14-27 A uses a reverring chamber for
gravitational separation. Units with multiple bafles for the steam to flow over
csn separste more of the finer drops of water from the steam. Elowever, they
are more'expeneive, create more line pressure drop, and may be an unneces:aty
refinement in many cases. Separators ought to be placed in all prime mover
st€am lesds.
Exheust st,eam lines fmm eagines and rcciprocati[g .ste&m pump6 cont.i!
DRITS AND DRAINS 613
qssside!(hle qil s.s a. re*\l! o( (he l(ett\sd, s( \.sbricsiis\. lt (\is s(erl\ is (o he
used in heating systems, to heat feedwater, or for industrial processes, the oil
conieni is o6;tcirona6le. dn oil separator, 6uilt much on {he same pnncrp(es as
the steam separator, should form part of the exhaust line lrom such eluipment.
Steam Traps. Condensate that is to be removed from a steam region where
there is gauge pressure must be passed through some automatic valve that will
let the condensate pass but hold back the steam. The alternate to this is to
pass it through a fixed orilice which, if large enough to carry the maximum
condensate load, will be blowing steam at lower retes of condensation. How-
ever, this may be satislactory for draining condensate that is produced only
during warm-ups oI pipe lines.
Removal of condensate from a vacuum region by traps is possible only if
there is a region of still greater yacuum for the trap discharge because a trap
works on a pressure difrerence.

-rt

auci.l tnraltad bu.l.i Tha.hortoiic

Frc. 14-28 Types of steam tmps.

Probably because of the varicty of circumstances under rrhich condensate

is removed (low, high, or variable pressure; small or large flow; airfree or
otherwise; etc.), a large and somervhat bewildering assortment of traps is
built and oflered by the many menufacturers of these devices. Some of the
pinciples ol operation' will be described here, bui the reader is directed to
manufacturers' bulletins for explanations of details of construction and opera-
tion. The major principles seem to be float, thermostatic, and expansion action.
Float traps are classifiable'as continuous or intermittent. The lollowing brief
descriptions are to be associated with Fig. 14-28.
l. C ontinuous float traps. These are primarily a float-operated valve, quite
simple in principle and operation. They are suitable for low pressure, but
should have a thermostatic air vent auxiliary if air can accumulate in the
trap. At high pressures and light loads the valve, floating on its seat, may be
cut and channeled by the discharge.
2. Intermittent float traps. The bucket trap is a well-known example, this
being seen in upright and inverted bucket types. The upright bucket floats on
the incoming condensation and holds the discharge valve closed until the accu-
mulating water rises in the trap body far enough to srrill into thc bucket. \Yhen
nearly full, the bucket loses its buoyancy and sinks, pulling open the discharge
.ralve. Tbe steam pressure can then force the water from the bucket through
the valve into the discharge. The bucket can then float again and close the dis-
charge. Separate air vent valves must be provided if air enters the trap.
* No claim is made of nn a.ll-inehrsive zurvey.
614 THE PIPING SYSTEIVI
"fhe inoerteil buckel type of trap vents both the condensate and air through
the main valve. With the bucket down the discharge valve is open, snd water
flows out oI the trap until the following steam reaches it. The steam risos up
under the brrcket, making it buoyant and causing it to rise. This clores the
discharge valve. Condensate then rises in the bucket, the steam condenses or
leaks out through a small upper hole, and eventually the bucket weight sinks
it and opens the valve for another cycle of discharge. The bucket mrist hsve
some provision to keep air from accumulating in it, but no separate air vent
is needed in the body of the trap. Upright buekets prime themsolves; inverted
buckets may have to be fflled with water wben first installed in order to start
working.
3. Thermostatit ,rops. A temperature-seneitive element is used to detect
whether steam or condensgte surmunds it. Therefore the condensate must be
a little cooler than the steam. It would not do to install such s trap close to
the point of condcnsation-a condensation cooling leg is needed. However, for
draining heating coils, heater's, kettles, and the like, the thermostatic principle
is very practical and the traps have the advantage of p&ssing water or air
equally well.
Temperature elements caa be gas-filled bellows, bimetdlic strips, or other
devices which respond to temperature difrertnce with a mechanical movement.
Some thermostatic traps must be used only at the appropriate saturation tem-
prrature for which the element is designed; others have compound elements
thgt enalle them to operate efrectively over a range of pressures. Depending on
mcchani6al design, 6uch trapb may tend to become either continuous discharge
or semi-intermittent.
4. Draan$on, or oificd, trops. Such traps have a flash chamber, or expan-
sion chamber, between two restrictions in the flow line. They are built with
and without auxiliary discharge valves operated by flashed
steam. If possessing no moving parts, it is the choking action
of an increased volume oI hot-condensate-flsshed-stesm
mixture through the outlet orifice or maze that controls flow.
Under "no-load" conditions steam will pass through, and
such traps are not suited to some drainage applications.
Howcver, they have the advantage of psssing air and water
cqually well; and some have no modng parts or valv.es.
Thc size of a trap nceds to be detgarined by an estimate
of themaximum rate of condensstion (exclusive of warm-up
if there is a by-pass valve), followed by a selection from
trap manufacturers' rating tables. Traps should, if possible,
be installed bqlow the unit; however, most traps will also
operate if placed abovc the unit they are draining, provided
the pressure diflerential is sufficient to lift the water and
Frc. 14-20 Stcam operate the trap. .In such cases inetall a check Valve in the
trap with bypass. trap inlet line. Traps are generally by-passed rith a manual
valvc to takc carc of initial condensation, and to keep the
*cam unit in servi cc whcn the trap is unserviceable, or being repaired. Notice
in fig. 14-29 thai thrcc valves are rcquired. Every trap should have a dirt
straincr installcd j ust ahead of it in the inlet line. Some prefer to place the
DESIGNING THE PIPING SYSTEM 615
strainer insidc the by-pass; others, outsi(lc. Somc uscri connect a small line and
globe valvc to thc trap on the dischargc side of thc valvc antl use it for a tcll-
tale. If pressure steam blorrs to the atmosphere when the tcll-tale is opened,
then some trap maintcnance is ncerled. A surprising qusntity of steam can bc
lost daily through a leaking trap.
14-13 Designing the Piping System, 'fhc follorving proceduro is sug-
gested.as a guide to thc succcssivc stcps to hc undcrtaken in the design of a
piping systcm, large or small. Start with a diagrammatic representation of the
fl ows-a f ou' diagraw-tllcn :
1. Sclcct the wcight classification and the rnaterials to be used in thc
various scctions of the piping s-,-stcn.
2. Calculate thc diameters required and specify thc nominal sizes.
3. Select and determinc thc thickness of insulation.
4. Provide for expansion.
5. Provide for draininq coudcnsation fronl steatn lines and water from
water lincs.
6. Makc design studics and cxaminc thc layout for clcarances.
7. Examine for accessibility and convenicncc of operation.
8. Consider the visual effcct. \Yill thc piping have a clean-cirt apt)carance,
or will it appcar jumblcrl anrl amatcuri-.h'.'
' 9. Provide for support, and in so doing do not fail to follow up the drainagc
s.,hemc dccidcd upon (itcm 5).
10. Make final drawings.
Selcction of pipe weights and adhcrcnce to the selection will be facilitated
if some thought bc givcn to classilying the piping according to the scrvice it is
to render and cstablishing, at the beginning of the dcsign, the rveight to suit
the neeris of each service. A, Ttipe and fittings schedule is a good form in which
to keep such data. Against difrerent scrvices (feedwater, main steam, etc.)
such a schcdule would list tlre pipe specification, at what pipe size joints change
from screwed to flangerl, flange type, gasket type, fittings specification, etc.
The schedule can be retained as i permanent reference, which can hc very
convenient it times of alteration, addition, or repair.
Problems ol pipe diameter have already been discussetl. \{ost power plant
piping is too limited in length to rarrant an economic study. I{ore frequently,
the solution used is based on thc assumption of velocities which have been
shown by experience to bc lihcral cstimates.
The efiectiveness of a piping system-its appeerance, sernetability, ease
of operation--depends largely on the ability of the designer to visualize the
situation and to select thc best arrangement to cope with it. Arrangemcnt of
large or important pipe should not be left to the installation uew. The dc-
signer should not use the obvious in pipe design but should make several stuclies
of possible arrangements. The clearances he must consider are not only those
between pipes and pipe flanges and vralls, beams, etc., but also the disassembly
clearances of the equipment to which the pipe is conncctcd or pastvhich it runs.
Convenience in operation is not to be overlooked, especiallll whele piping is
congested and valves are thickly strewn. In those vicinities the deslgn shorrld
show the exact position oI cach valve cvcn -to the oricntrtion of thqvah'c stem.
Furthermore the designer must view tle whcle design from the rtandpoint of
O1O TEE PIPING SYSTEM
two other groups of men, i.e. the ingtallation und maintenance crews. For
instance, valves and expaneion joints should be placed where they can be rt-
packed, strainers should be bypassed, etc. The design should permit ordinary
construction methods as far ae possible.
Design of the pipe Bupports may well be left until the last on all but large
or important lines. So many varieties of support are marketed that supports
to meet the demands of the individual problem are readily aelected. One thing
must be remembered: the success of the drainage system oI steam lines depends,
in a large measure, on exact alignment of the pipe rupports and this fact may
influence the designer to select the more expensive adjustable supports in some
caae8.
All valves should be as sccessible as it is possible to arrange them. This is
an important factor contributing to convenience of operation, and avoidance
of mistakes in closing or opening valves.
No rules can be lormulated to insure good appearance. Nicety of judgment
aud design technique on the part of the designers, ability to visualize what the
appearance will be when completed, and o natural sense of proportion are re-
quired.
For operating convenience valves should be tagged with a label showing
their function in the system, and where there is a possibility of some delay in
the selection of the proper valve to operate in times of stress. a schematic flow
diagram of the pipirrg and valves should be conspicuously mounted nearby.
Identification of power house piping by its painted color is embodied in the
ASME Report on the Identiffcation of Poyer Ifouse Piping.
Steamdivision a-Eigh,pressure ........... white
.
b-'Exhaust system .. . . ... buf
Woter division c-Fresh water, low pressure . . blue
d-Fresh water, high pressure, boiler
feed lines . .. blue and white
e--Salt water pipillg ..... green
Oit division ... f-Delivery and discharge . . brasg or bronze
heumatic division ...... C-All pipes .. . *"Iit'o*'
Gas divieion . h-{ity lighting sgrvice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . alumimrm
i-Cas engine service ... ...... ...... . black, red flatges
Fuel oil division . .. i-All piping . .. .. ... ... black
Refrigerating system ... : k-Whit€ aud green stripes alterDately on flauges aud fit-
tings, body of pipe being black.
Electric lises and feeders . . l-Black and red stdped altemately on flanges and 6ttings,
body of pipe being black.
High-Pressure Pipizg. The lead fron boiler to turbine is the most important
element of high-prcssure piping. It is charact€rized by a liberal use of long
radius bends and by thick insulation. Supports should be close together and
rigidly braced. Although the unit system of boiler and turbine arrangement is
growing in popularity, the main steam header continues a prominent feature
in moet plants. These headers gre ol forged, welded, and cast-st€el constructiorr.
Ilpical arrangements are illustratcd. The simplest arrangement is the single
header into which all boilers feed and from which all prime movers obteib their
I

DESIONING TEE PIPING SYSTEM 617

supply. Sectionalizing valves, normally open, increace reliability. Still moro
reliable supply is obtained through the use of the ring, or loop header which also
is sectionalized by stop valves. These header valvee and their counterparts on
the boiler leads are often motorized for remote control. On account oi its cost
the ring header is infrequently used.
centralized single header (or spider) system offers the further advantage
-The
of- bringing the header valves and fittings together for centralized support a;d
control. The manifolds used in the unit system of high-pressurc piping are cross
connected but the cross connections are normally closed. Determinatlon of the
type of high-pressure steam system to use rests mairly with the character of
the plant-the number of boilers and turbines, and their placcment.

D**.
* r@dalqom.tut
* fr.t...*.tu. e .ft.st
,4''4. hll.'
Fro. 14-30 Schematic diagrams of typical steam headers and feedwater oains.

- Feeduater Piping. Feedwater piping ofrers somewhat less difficult problems

than the high-pressure steam piping but its continuous functioning is no less
important. The leedwater line should be covered with insulation and-given good
1n9-horage against vibration. It is not necessarily the same weight plpe as"the
boiler lead but many engineers prefer to make it so. However, due toits srnaller
size, it may be screwed instead of flanged. The ASME Boiler Construction Code
states that the feed pipe shall be provided with a check valve near the boiler
and with a valve or cock between the check valve and the boiler, and when
'tn'o or more boilers are led {rom a common source, there shall also be a globe
valve on the branch to each boiler, between the check valve and the source of
supply. In addition to the valves mentioned, the branch lines will contain the
feedwater regulator valves when automatic regulators are installed. The regu-
lating valve should be bypassed and the bypasi line located so its valve rnaybe
operated r,ranualiy from the firing floor in rimes of derangement or inspection of
the feedwater regulator.
Blow-ofl Piptng. Blow-ofi piping should be of a weight corresponding to
618 THE PIPING SYSTEM
the working steam pressur€. The lines are uaually flenged and uninsulat€d.
Steel fittings are uecd. Long radius ells and laterals are used inetead of standard
ells and tees becauee of the high velocity of the water in the blow-ofi line.
The blow-ofr is disposed of to sewers, to the atmoephere, or to canals, pondp,
lakes, etc.
Where the boiler pressure exceeds 7.03lg/cmr, eithet two slow-opening
valves or one slow-opening valve and one quick-opening valve or cock should
.be used in the blow-off line. Cocks heving the plug held in place by a nut or
other fastening at the bottom should not be used lor blov-off service. Such
fastenings-can become looseB,ed or defective without being observed and permit
the plug to be blown out. Only cocks that have a guard or gland for secruing
the plug should be used.
Where me uow-ofl prprng pa88€8 through the boiler setting, ample spacing
should be.provided arount the pipe to allow for movement duc to expansion
and contraction of the blow-off line and the boiler to which it is connected.
-the
Expansion, and contrsction stressee impoeed upon a pipe' held tightly in
setiing wail or rigidly anchored a short distance from the setting can wealea
the bi-ow-ofi line. It may be caueed to crack 8t the threads of the mud dmm
saddle.
r,Fl{ Pipe Drewings. Originally there must be conceptioa of r'he
-a regenerati-r'e power
principol featirres of fluid flow in a piant. For example, the
plant would be based on a flow plan eet forth by drawings euch as Fig. 8-13.
ifrom the flor plan a schematic diagram of all maior piping (omitting some-
times the drip, drain, by-pass, and control, or pilot, liues) can be drawn. Sueh
a diagrom sfould pay icant attention to the relative physical location of the
equip-ment, but should make it easy to trace flow pattems. and understaod
tbe connections of the plant. Therefore, valves snd tees are important in this
drawing, elbows are not: The echematic shoutd (l) clarify the baeic, plon ol
the pler.:t to sll interested readers, (2) let the contractor bidder pick ofi dl
required quantitiee, types, and sizes of equipment of the.piping system except
foi elbowi and the lengths of pipe needed, and (3) be of tangible assistance
to plant operators. Schematic arrangements in isometric forrn can frequently be

Iliah-F6.@ .tesn.
liw-p!6rur. .t.an.
Jts ,*.
+ Te r@Ii.s up.
# Te looune dtm.
Returr+teh d qt6.
.I*
{F
-{-
+
t_
O+-
Elbow.
E15; bokrns u!" +
+-
Et

Ot- Elbd loolrns d@!. {+ ct*r ".r*.

Fro. 1431 (ilmbola for single{ine piping dmwings.
PIPE DRAWINGS 619

us€d to good advantage as a preliminary to final drarvinga of the piping system.

Following the schemetic, scalcd pipe drawings trre made in whatever detail
the job seems to requirc or iustify.
Drawiugs of a piping systcm consist csscntially of a plan and one or more
elevatione. These may be supplcmcnted by dctail drawings of emall portions,
drawn to a large scale. Isometric drawings are rarely used, except where three
dimensional configuration of somc particularly crowded region is to be shown
on one view. The piping system of almost any plant is sufrciently cxtensive to
warrant drawing a special sct of piping drawings with thc piping shown heavy
(in lunctron\, and the remaining cquipmcnt shown light (out ol lunction) ot
not shown at all. Method of drawing and dimensioning flanged piping has been
covered. Screwed piping is mostly small so that the steam fitters can cut and
fit such piping from a single line drawing. Screwcd pipe so drawn may or msy
not be dimensioned, depending on thc individual case.

dD(F Globe Cate Check

Frc. 14-32 Symbols for ordinary flanged vilves

Pipe can be drawn in singleJine diagram, or in double-line outline' Both

systems should not appear on tlc samc run of piping but can appear on the
same dra$'ing with the large, main piping twc-linc and the auxiliary piping
single line. Syrnbols to use on single line drawings are shown in Fig. 14-31.
Important piping, especially flanged-joint lincs where flange face to face
dimensions are given, is drawn to scale as exactly os possible.
Actual valve outlines can be drawn in on flanged designs but to eliminate
this tedious and usually valqeless u'ork the valve synlbols shown in Fig. 14-32
are used. The final end dimension of a run of flangcd piping is to the flange
face of the equipment served by the pipe. Now since this flange face is dimen-
sioned to the equipment's centerJine in practically all machine layoute, there
can be a column line to column line check on the dimensions of a pipe run if
the method of locating the equipment by building column lines as outlined in
Chapter 4 is followed.
Fig. 14-33 shows a piping plan drautng for the main high-pressure steam
piping in a power station boiler and turbine room. Note the in-function status
oithe pipe, the out-of-function status of equipment and structure. Column-line
reference dimensioning and flanged pipe dimensioning may be studied vith
this drawing.

PROBLEMS
1. Dct€rmim thr spocificstionE of mrteriel .nd wrll thiclo€6s for e &{8 DE pipe
{o crrry rteam st a Btste selectcd from the folloriDg: (s) 2s.r Lgrod g\ floic (b)
,0.? lrrool 8.'!rtur8t4d i (c) 8Aa ft c6r ..6lo!C' (d, 6o-3 Lg/ool g. , t[4.c.
 !atl tlll ltt aa
,
9609 0l E
T
I)l
2? tll
|n
r!a
.4
iir
I
3
o
a.
L
-4
I
:
OE
a 6- lNtl lrtvSls lnv
!
5
665a
E
lq
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2
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E
F- rgzr t6z5
b20
 PROBLEMS 6i}I
2. Iflould Schedule 120, r0t,2 EE pipo uade to A638A Speoifcrtion b€ accoptsble
o s liu€ oporstirg &t 17.0 L8/oar ga 4OO.C?
3. Specily the pipe required to c&rry r2,gro kg Et€smperhr tt t7.g lrg/o6t 8168800,
with velocity approximatiDg 8060 D/Ein
4. What maximum working pressure is advis&ble ia an 402,2 mro OD, &heduls {O
lipe A53$A, operatiol8 Dot to exceed 232.fc ?
5. A certaiu pipe line covered with heat iusuletiou has exposed flanges. Theee are
Ioud to be steel and to measure 270.4 EDdisxlB,Ammfbiok, a,Dd to brve 8 bolts.With-
out removing sny of the insulation, it is desired.to detfrEinc wbether it would be
pmper to put 2{.6 Lg/omt ga steam through thi8 liao, AssuDe lrae is carbon steel with
flalr8€s properly E€lected ,or the pipe weight,
6. Detail to scale s ioint ol ,03.2 IulE Schedule 80 pipiug cousbtiDg of a welded elbow
8nd two 1.22 ro,lstrgeDt8 termil8t€d by 28.1 trgToorroieed laco slipon-eud-weld typo flangea.
7. Detail to scale a t,3, m ofi8et iD a t59.4 mo screwed pipe liae (iacludiag the 45"
elbow8).8.8 kg/oBr WSP. Specify correct cut leugth for the ofiset pipe.
8. Repeat Prob. 7 but for (a) flanged joint, piping with lap joirt facer and (b) oll
welded joiuts.
9. Fig. l4-9P gives the coofiguration of I certaiD pipe
liue in isometric. Detail it to scale in plan and elevation. Pipe e:!y "ry'EqS
, "-

is got aro with 2t,l kg/cer rais€d face flanges. Fro. l.-sp
10. Repeat Prob. 9, assuming lol,8 EIn Ecrewed pipiug forlT.6 ka/oo! wortsiDg
prwure witb flenge end cotrnectioDE.
11. Repeat Prob. 9, ss8uminl ,00.f trl!
weided pipe, 2l.l Lg/oEl worhDg pr6sut€.
o 12. The configuration of a certail
pipe line in isometric is seen in lig. 14-
12P. Detail it to scale in plan and eleva-
tior for 2tl.l La/o&t clas8, raired faoe
flauged joints.
Ee
E
13. Repeat Prob. 12, but asgume
6E Schedule 80 welded pipiug except for end
I con[ectiots and valve, which are flanged.
14. A portion of a manufacturer's
safety valve rating iable is reproduced
herewith. From this line specily 3 safety
Frc. 14-lrP valves and settings suitable for use on a
stoker-fired, water-tube boiler generating at tZ.6 Lg/c,o. go Boiler heating surfaoe,
427.4 E inciudilg 55.? ml weter wall&rea. St€an lating, tOB8,0 kg per hr; deaign presaure,
2l.l kg/oml ga
Valve sir€: mm ,8.1x60.8 m.8x78.2 6il.5xl0l.B 76.2x101.6 101.0 x 162.4
Ratrd IPs.y 1to.e ts/cmr ga {I90 C895 0843 1624t 9320r
kg p€r hr J 17.8 Ls/cmr ga 4in4 7t49 t0206 16830 24rr3
at pres- ) 18.3 ttg/om, gs {521 74:ng 106t4 tM47 22e
zures of I rg.o kg/c@r so 4896 77tt 10986 17055 i50ta
15. A unit to produce steam at I?.0 tig/ortr! ga 139.C zuperhest wiu b€ rst€d 8t68og0
kgper hr. Pulveriz€d coal, l2ng m! boiler, zurfacc oJ which 5?6 Inr ore m water
walls. 0,7 kg/omr ioss in sup€rheater. S€lect 3 drue v.rlvee ald one auperheatet valve.
Vrlve diecbsrge faaior fo! I I lrc superhe&t = 0.83. Using rati4t lrom prob. 14, epecify
sites strd settings of tbe four yalves.
16. Aol Blong str&ight steam line is anchored oue end and terminates iu a packed
expansion joint at the oiher. It holds stc!,m Et 10.6 kg/c!a. gs. Bpeasion ioirts G!,D.br
6N TIIE PIPING SYSTEM
bougbt in various capdoitiee gBnerelly ir ircr€m€nts of lo arn of dio. II the minimrm
oold t€mperaturc is olc wh&t slip length ehould thd Duchs8ed expansion joint bave?
Show by dimeuioned sk€tah how the st€se fitter8 should 8et i,he alip when meoaudng
to cut pipe for the eonaection on a.day when tbe pipe teEperrturs islt09c.
17. Axrrao Schedule 80 A-6il rtcel pipe ia ela,mped betwe€n two dgid pports !.r
6 sport wher its t€mpentute is!6.0tc. A liquid at 08.fC u then puu@ through the
lirc. Whst thnst force is developed at the reactious?
t8. Deeign snd aletail to ecale a double ofrset e:rpaosioa U beod (Wpe 1, Fig. l+17)
iD I pipe suitable for couveying GtolOL3 per hr ruperheated steem st ]f.. tgrai.b,
Or.r.O, Instaltstion 6t !s.7.{:; no cold spring. Pipe liue is atraight between r,rchors
locst€d {6.7 E spert,
19. Deeign ald det&il trr .rcale a double ofrset expansion U b€nd (Tlpe 2, Fis. l+U,
lt =lp6{E)iD a, gL.o!!C.Mo st€el pipe for6ro.o 08.1 t3r@r 6r,nges. Straight rul ber
tE€eo anchors =30.5 E,Expected inetsllstion t€mpersture, ro.zrc ; expected miaimum
temperature,{?.toc.Cold sprilg of ya total erpansion, cdrrrated for tenperature oD day
of iastallation, is to be applied. What cold spring will steala fitten aotudly epply?
20. Solve Prob. 19 for a velded U bend expausiou joint having f (Fig. f&18)
= D-
l.6E
21. De€i$r a welded U bend to absorb the thernal expangio! iD ar,.r.ol€ogth of
3oAbnAloosteclpipe(sA)operated rtf$r8no. Itr8tsllsti@ t€Dper&turr l6.0fo, no eold
eprhg. Assume ,1 (Fig. frL18) = 3.06 E.
22. Eow much condensation i8 produced per hour by heat leakagp frq a Schedule
{0 steel pipe t5r,O ooOD Xf6.}D long. gsturst d rt am st ttl klrEr.b i smbirot
troperqture,la0.c. Cover is Doublo Stondard thick eectional magnesia.
23. Find the kcsl heat locs per br per Dfrom st0l.coo pfre line carrying a f,uid et
170.7t wh€n covered withuEDof insuletio No.6, Fig. 14-21. Ambi€nt temper8ture,
-C.tFr].
a. 8t€am at!o,, tglco!, adr.at ir 0owing tirough a26a B,txSo"3-Dipe line at the
ratr oI o,823kg per hr. Whst thicfreE8 ot insul&tion (diatomaceous esrth with aabestoE
ffbers) ia ueeded if ihe heat leakage from thie pipe is to be reduced to 0.0157o of the
heet flowing? t6.6t ambient tdmper&ture.
25. Solve Ex 24 il a surface t€mpemture of a3.0oc i8 the criterion oI irsulation
thicknees ratber- tha,n heat loss.
.26. Suppose tbe pipe line of Prob.'24 had this covering inste&d of t&e one given:
6l rom inaulotiou No. 1 over Ehich i8 6l mo inmlation No. 5. Fid the Lo.l p€r h,
per tn heat loss.
27. A ,0t.2 lDlr msin Et€rm header iE to receivelan"economic" thicheas of iosulation
No. 4, FIg. 1+21. gteam temperature, 8rr.l'c; hesder in continuous use, Insulation
cost ?0, per bd 6; steam cost, $0, p€r 106 kcs[. Fixed charges, l2/o. Fmd lb
thickness sud calculnte the heat lose per E of pipe.
26. Il the aDawer to Prob. 27 is gr6,6l.3sl per hr per o', what is the hsulatioti
"efficiency" ?
29. A mft no pipe csrdeE s&turat€d 8t€am at7.N Lgrcor go. Fild the heat loss
per hr Der 80 r length if tbe pipe is (a) bare, (b) covered witb Staudord TbhL
Magcaig. ADbient t€Bperetue, s7.8Pc .
30. UsiDB &vera,ge flow practice determiae siTe of pipe ne€ded to couvey one ot
the following fluids.
(s) 2&680 l.g per hr Eaturated stea.E at 12.? kg/oEl gs.
(b) t?,100 k8 p€r hr wet stea.m at t 7 kg/cniz ab, .95 dry.
(c) l6,s70 Lg per hr of leedwater at 137.8rc.
(d) 0,o7, ts per hr saturated steam at0.36 kg/om! 8p'
3f. FiDd the leagt size ol Scbedule 80 pipe that $il[ conveylS2S Uain\rater a short
distarce, imluding four S)' dborr aad one g8t€ valve, without Ap exceeding 0.8! kg/.6!.
 PROBLEMS 623
32. A {0 pipe line gt.4E long coDvel,e mza Uain of cold sater
u2.a n$.gchedule
fmB s pum! to a Domt of dirhsrgerAr L higher than the pump. There sre four 90'
elbowE itr the li!e. Find the pump's dynemic discharge head.
3. Calculate the probable heeter pressure for
tle pipe line shown in Fig. 1433P when tbe flow
i80t!o kgp€rhr. Steom st tulbim,0.69 ksl@r .b,o =
0.938. Line is m4,8 eDx,t aE Bchedule {0. Verticaf
tift tylx check vslve.
34. Predict the dpamic discharge head on tht,
Ieedwater pump of Fig. 14-34P when boiler No. 1
i8 takiDg 4?t t/Ein and No. 2 2r, I/aiD.Temp€r&turc, Haolar
187.8qC, All litr€s 60.8Db Scbedule 80. Drum preEsures,
ftc. l4-3gP
7.03 tg/omr ge. Feedw&ter regul&tor Ap =0.t4 kg/oDzminimum. Srving checks.
35. tr'ind the kglcmr friction lo6E of 30.6 E copp€r pipe, l0.l mrm ID, iu which there
is a flow of 644 kg per hr of 24' Bd fuet oil &t 21.1rc,
36. How large a Schedule 40 steel pipe is needed to move T6T litros ofBuoker C oil
(16' 86) per hr through 45.?rR long pipe linecontainingthree gate v&lvee, two swiDg
check valves, and seven 90'elbows.
Oil is heated to 48.9?c srd hsso.l rr
4.6 static head available to overcome
pipe friction.
!.05 37. The pipe specifications of a
o!l long horizontal line are Schedule 80,
1.2 293 o -- ASA 106-lr, s€lded joints,
0 6lm
itrs.,iotlng over wergbiDg 0.134 kg/ctD
llo.t No.2 !un. Line c&rnes sterm &t 3!.6 k8/cE
8s 315'6rc' Findl and Y' Fig' ll-24'
given f = 6y ani minimum gradient r in 3oo.
38. Find the maimum support spacing safe to use with a. Iong horiro[tal t52.4
mo Schedule 40 bare cold w&ter pipe of A-72-BW material. What is the maximum de-
flection of this pipe rvhen so supported?
39. Hor lar apart can the hangars of I0.l mm. Schedule.,lo water pipe be placed
without the central deflection exceeding 3.81 mm ?
40. A certainl8.SD section of in [&ted r54 mm ScLedule t0 eteel pipe when warmed
to oper&ti[g temperature Irom a cold itate of4.4.C produces initial coDden8&tioD tr'hich
a trap shoulil draiD out as the line heats up. Assume this takes 5 min. Steam saturated
at 28.1 kg/cmr 86. Estimate the discharge capacity of the trsp, kg per hr.
41. A til dr run oI 203.2 mD pip€ carryiDg 7.03 ka/cmr g" steam is drailed by one
st€am trap. Fitrd the c&p&city, kg per hr for n,nning operatioo. Tlre pipe iE covered
with insulationof 0.962efficiency and is laid in a trench where ambietrt air is probably
5,1.4"C.
42. Sketch a steam trap, from olc of the figures in Fig. 14-28, iu positions for
beginning of tlischarge, ldl discharge, end, ol rlischarge. Show water, steam bubbles
(if any), and vah,e Dosition.
 CHAPTER 15

NNSTR.UMENTATNON

15-1 Purpose of Instrumenting the Power Plant. The term instru-

rzanl describes a wide range of objects, but, from a technical standpoint, an
inetrument is a tool or mechanism for scientific and professional service. A
great many measuring devices, meters, gauges, and trhe like, in their con-
etruction, will satisfy this definition of instrument. Many meters and gauges
are called instruments, although in some cases there is reaeonable doubt as to
whether they are rightfully so designated.
Metgr and instrument have frequently been used interchangeably, but now
there is a tendency to restrict the use of rzeter to instruments which record and/
or iategrate as well as indicate. These devicee in various forrns are used exten-
sively in research and instruction, as well as in commercial installations euch
ag fsctories and power plants.
The inetrument or meter is of real importance to every power plant, large or
small. Meters of all types are so extensively used in large modern power stations
that their installation is tacitly accepted on the basis of economic justification.-
But central stations always have been prominent users of adequate metering
equipment. It is in the small plant where formerly only those meters or instru-
ments prescribed by law were used that an increased uge of inetruments and
meters is mogt noticeable. Closer attention to power co8t8, increasing competi-
tion for business, and especially rising fuel cost hsve etimulated achievementa in
economies of design and operation tLat hive been builded on a liberal uee of
measuring equipment.
Instruments are installed in a power plant for a number of reasons. To
operate a power plant rnost efficiently, the opeiating force must know the con-
ditions of pressure, temperature, and flow throughout the plant. This is ee-
pecially true of a plant operating on a complicated heat balance such as an
industrial plant supplying both heat and power. Instruments replace guesswork
on the part of attendants with accurate information for guidance to safe,
continuous, and proper plant operation. They give those charged with the
aupervision of the plant a basis upon which to direct its operation so as to
achieve the best performance possible and furnish data for the calculation of the
performance of the plant or any part of the plant so that results may be com-
pared from time to time. Cost accounting systems will be based on adequate
rueter readings and correct cost allocations msy point towards possible econ-
@4
 Q
l
L
r i
,]
c
I .a
,I
+
I
I
'6
A
d
.:
ti!5
626 INSTRUMENTATION
omies to bc cffectcd. Furthermorc, they may be used to check on the internal
condition o{ equipmcnt and indicatc when and whcrc maintenance or repair
is needed. An operating crew learns to knov approximately what readings arc
normal and readily detects any appreciable deviation lrom normal.
The functions oI instruments are thus summarized:
1. Operating guidance.
2. Economical supcrvision.
3. Perlormance calculations.
4. Costs and cost allocation.
5. Maintenance guidance.
l5-2 Classification of Instruments. A useful classification is a division
into those measuring mechanical quantities and those measuring electrical
quantities. This classification should not be confused with a division into me-
chanically operated and electrically operated instruments, for there are several
instmments recording mechanical quantities that are electrically operated.
M echanital I nstntments.
1. Temperature measurement
c. Glass tube melcury thermometers.
These are used for installation in thermometer nvells in flow lines; measuring
telxrperature of coodensate, ciiculating water, ,eedwater, bearing oil, etc.
They are necessarily local reariing but sre often installed as a check on
remote rcading bulb arrrl trrbe thermomete$.
Cas-lilled Dulb and tube thermomet€rc.
These can be applied to measure tempelature oI gases or liquids up to
5ao' c End indicite or record same at point as far distaut as loo m lrom
the location of tbe bulb.
c. Vapor pressurc thermometer.
A type used to measut) temperatures up to 200P C. It cousists of a brib
partially filled rvith a liquid connected to a length oI tubing. It has fewer
power plant applications than the gas-filled type.
d. Electrical lesistance thermometer.
A thermometer for accurate measurement oI leedwater aud condensate
temperatures, ard for measurement of the temper&ture of wiudings of
electrical machines.
e. Thermocouple thermometer or pyrometer.
The thermocouple is used to measure high-range tempeletures such as
furnace, flue gaq preheated air, or superheated steam tempelatures. Nlulti-
ple station automatic indicating and recording potentiometers are available.

2. Pressure measurernent.
o. St-andard, Bourdon tube type, steam pressure gauge.
Extensively used for measuring the pressure of moderate aod high-pressure
steam. Rcmote indieating qr recording types may be placed on panel
boards but primary information is always taken from a standard sho -
lead gauge mounted on the boiler itself.
6. Helical tube or diaphragm type low steam pressure gruge,
Such arc uscd to measure bleeder stcam pressures, exhaust pressures, etc.
c. Vacuum gauges and m&nomcters.
These are used to mclsure condenser vacuums and heater pressures.
 CLASSIUCATION OF INSTRUMENTS 627
d Draft. gauges (inclined glass tube, diaphragur, and liquid-sealed bell types)
The draft gauge is employerl to obtain and maintain the best lumace
coDditions, to check tbe operstion of automatic combustior €quipment,,
end to check the condition of the boiler setting and flrree. Draft gauges
&lso measure the performance of draft Ians and of chimneys.
e. Miscellaneous pressure gauges on oil, air, and water lines.
3. tr'low measurement.
a. Steam flow meters.
The steam flow meter is used to measure individual boiler output, grorrl
boiler output, turbine supplS', cuxiliary sterm and industri&l steam.
D. Water IlolY mete$.
Measure condensate, feedwater, pump discharge, etc.
c, Air flow meterc.
When these ale used, they are generally in the fom of a differential draft
gauge. Air florv is metered only occasionally outside of the,,gas loop.,,

4. l-uel measure.ment.
a. Coal.
Coal is usually weighed in batches, although belt colveyor weighers and
some pulverized coal weighers are continuous. Chain grate stokers may be
equipped with continuous coal volume measuriirg meters.
6. Gas meters.
These are eith€r the positive displacemelt o! differential head type. Tbe
latter type predominates.
c. Oil meters.
Positive displacement type.
5. Gas analysis.*
Otsat epparatus and CO2 or 02 iDstrumelts.
The types of CO2 metels in present use employ one of tbe following
principles:
Chemical-Modificatrions of the Orsat apparatus.
Electrical-Based oD measurement of the conductivity of flue gas.
Mechanical-Flue gad density balanced against air.
6. Speed measurement.
a. Vibrating reed tachomcter.
b. Electrical tachometer.
c. Clock type tachomet€r.
d. Centrifugal tachometer.
e. Stroboscopc.
l. Reyolution counter.
?achometers are employed to gaugc turbine speed; also the speed of some
of the larger planr auxiliaries.
7. Levp-l recorders.
Liquid level in boilets, tanks, canals, etc.
Coal level in pulverized coal bin.
* Alted to Co1 meters are the instluments for. nreasuring smoke density. The RiDgel-
nl.! chart is o primary reference standard. OFerating instrumeEts are electronic and re-
spood to the light received by a photocell.
028 INSTRUMENTATION
8. Gong tlrrms.
Gong alarms, with or withoui aurunciators, are used to give warDing of
high geDerator or trausformer coil tempemtures, generator cooling air temper-
&ture, lubricating oil temp€Iature, of high water in the hotwell, or of lorv
$,&ter iD the boiler feed tank. The ennunciator sy6tem, when used, is usually
mourted on the maiu switcb or panel board.

9. Calorimeters, 6teem and fuel.

These are not ordinarily used for operating supervision or guidance but arc
put in service during the course of special tests. 'llowever, their use necessi-
tates inclusioD of proper fittings to \ hich they may be connected when in use.

10. Atmosphedc measurements.

Barometer, hygrometer, themometer

Electical Instruttuents
1. Ammeters.
Ammeterc are used in generator leads, feeder circuits, auxiliary power circuits,
and field circuits.
2. Voltmeters.
Voltmeters are used to maiutain proper voltage, check automatic voltage regu-
lators, synchronize, and, with proper connection, detect grounds.
3. Wattmeters.
Show power in gen€rator or feeder circuits.
4. Synchroscope.
Used to parallel alternalors.
5- Porver factor meters-
These meters are used in alternator leads to check excitation and load divisioa,
or on the bus bars if a.synchronous condenser i! used to meintain powet
factor.
6. Reactive volt ampere meterc.
7. Ground detector.
Another classification is:
1. Indicating. Used chiefly for operating guidance.
2. Recording. Used for operating supervision and lor calculation of per-
formance.
3. Indicating and recording. Combining the functions of the two previously
named.
4. Indicating and integrating. For operating guidance, calculal,ion oI per-
Iormance, and allocation of cost.
5. Indicating, recording, and integra,ting. Combining the separate functions.
Unless a record is needed for operating supervision or for plant calculations,
the initial expense and maintenance of recording instruments, plus the fact that
ildex instruments are more easily.read, precludes the use of recording instrir-
rDents &s operating guides alone. However, many spplications will be found
for s'hich recording instruments will be selected, especislly if the station is to
havc a skilled tcchnical stafr cap&ble of pirtting to good use the information
rccorded on charts. There are two types of recording instruments: those using
circular charts, and those using strip charts. The circulgr charts must be re-
 ,{
P
iiiliiiiiiliriilii,i
E
&
,Liiii,iiiiii ff iiii ii tiiii,
! n
t aa * di E I d d ; d i t g
E
=
! I Irr, ,l rll I li
a
i,iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiL
.4.
lr!
.........4. .t.al.
I t I : t : i i i i : . :i I : I
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IliiitlllliiIl: :!iilIIli !tta
ll: It.. ..4ar.-a=!r ta
a
o
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a
d
620
 690 INSTRUMENTATION
pl&ced each day; the strip charts last several daye. The circular chart may have
two or even three records on it, each record in a difrerent color. The strip chart
riay hrve several difrerent records cn it, es many aa 6ve to eight noi being
uncornmon. Strip ehart instrumentg arc usually electrically operated; circuler
chart instruments usually mechanically operated. Compering the two forma
with pnrticular reference to power plant service, the following points are noted.
Circular charts are (l) less expensive than strip charts, (2) more easily planim-
etercd, (3) rugged and easily filed, (4) of a form to expose a full day,s record
at all times, (5) accurately held in position by the centering point. Considering
pointe in favor of the strip chart (t) they are more suitable than circular charti
when many records are to be centralized or when multiple records of draft,
temperature, etc., sre to be put on one chart. (2) Being electrically operated,
strip chart meters are, as a rule, more accurste than circular chart meters.
(3) The chart speed may be changed. This is desirable when accurate data are
wanied during periods of large pointer swings without iucurring excessive use
of chart at other times-
Diverse meclranical principles are uscd.in the various mechanically operated
meters, but most electrically operated typcs make use of the attraction between
magnetic fields. There are some exceptions to this; for instance, the potentiometer
and the elcctrical tachometer. Some of the principles of meters will be explained
in succceding paraglaphs.
Mechanically operatcd instruments will require one or more leads from the
point being metered to the position of the meter on the meter board. These leads
are either flexible tubing or rigid pipe. The instrument piping is small in size
(most of it being 9.5 mm or 12.7 mm nominal internal diaDcter) and ir not
difEcult to care for unlcss cenralizcd cdntrol rcquires that many irutrumen8 be
compactcd into thc small spa.cc ofan ordinary control room. Thc convcrging of
many instrument pipe lincs upon a unall control r@xn may then bccomc a dir-
advantag€ sufficicnt to promotc thc wc of clcctrically opcratcd mctcrr, scrrcral of
which can bc scrvcd through one multi-conductor control cablc. Elcctrically
opcratcd metcrs add complications to the elcctrical syltcm that thc mcchanically
opcratcd do not bccausc ncarly all must bc tupplicd with elcctrical cnergy from
a ll0 or 220 v Bource. AIso, electrical meters are less mgged than the meohaniool
a-nd must be better protected against vibrations or shockB which might put
them out of adjustment.
l5-3 Temperature and Pressure Measurement. No clasE of instrument€
in the power etation is more frequently consulted than that which records the
pressure and temperature of a fluid. KnowleJge of the magnitude of these two
physical characteristics qf fluid flow is considered indispensable to intelligent
operations. In addition, pressurc and temperature are frequently required for
the other purposes for which instrumentation is applied. Operation of the large,
modern, vapor power cycle requires thesi measuremente to be made at dozsns
of difrerent points, some idea of which has been conveyed by text illustratione.
On account of the great range of fluid pressures and temperatures in the
advanced vapor cycle, a variety of pressure and tempersture-sensitive instru-
ments is needed.
Temperature Meayrrement. Varied devices have been employed for tem-
 IEMPERATURE AND PRESIIURE MEATIUREMENT O3I
perature measurements, the principles inv.olved being therrnal expanaion, elec-
trical resistance, incandescent color, fusion of solids, and Seebeck efiect.
Mogt low- and medium-temperiture measurements are made *ith deyices
operating on thermal expansion of either e solid, liquid or gas. Electricsl resist-
a4ce is employed for cases requiring remote reading. The otherg are used
mainly for high temperature. Pgrometry is the science of high-temperature
messurem€nt. The Seebeck efrect is used for permanent installations in the
pyrometer field, for portability in testing and research, and for determining
temperatures at points normally insccessible to the other instruments, Only
the small.thermocouple it*lf needs to be at the point of measurement.
The thermocouple is the joined ends of the wires of dissimilar metals. There
will, of course, be two junctions. One is placed at the point whose temperature
is to be measured; the other, at a knorD or relercnce tcmpenture, 0 C being
generally used where an absolute standsrd is needed. The ,,cold,, junction,
however, is frequently the junction o! the thermocouple lead to the instrument.
.Iunction conoensaiion is provided within the instrument-
A number of instruments used to indicate or record temperatures.are shorvn
in Fig. l5-3. At (A) and (B) are industrial type thermometers and at (C) an
engraved stem thermometer for standardizing and checking. Thc industrial types
may be screwcd into the flow line with their bulbs in contact with thc liquid,
or they may be used with a thermometer well. The engraved stem thermornetcr
would be inserted in a thermometer well, For readingror recording temperaturcs
at a point remote from the bulb, instruments such as those shown at (D) and
(F) are used. A satisfactory way of installing the thcrmometer bulb in a small
pipe line is ehown at (E). The thermocouple pyrometer is convenient fot
measuring a number of high-range temperatures. By means of a rotary switch,
a number of thermocouplcs may be connected in turq, to the indicator. The
indicating instrument shown in Fig. 15-3 is essentially a millivolt meter. The
thermocouple itself is delicate and is encased in a tube, or otherwise protected.
Some metal pairings used for thcrmocouplcs are copper-constantan, copper-
iron, chromel-alumel, and platinum-iridium. Calibrated leads must be used
between the thermocouple and the millivolt rnctcr', for the calibration of thc
meter in terms of the thennocouple tempcrature involves the resistanccs of the
leads and ol the voltmeter. By using rnillivolt meters of high internal resistance
(therefore eostly) the importance of constant rcsistance leads is diminished.
Neverthclcss the calibrated leads are required.
For laboratory and test work a rnanually opcrated potcntiometer is usually
cmployed. This balances internal voltagc against thcrmocouple voltage; thele-
fore no-currcnt flows in the.leads and calibrated leads are unnecessary. The
resistance bridges of such instmments are hand rnanipulated and reference is
made to thernxocouple tables lor an interpretation of millivolts as tem.peroture.
Electronic continuous balancing potentioneters arc available as panel boartl
instruments. Many central stations and industrial plants norv use the automatic
potentiometer to record on a strip chart the temp-eratures at a number ol
thertnocouple stations. Although nrorc cxpensivc than thc rnillivolt instr,rment,
this has thc advantagc of using uucalibratcrl lcatls.
The simple potentiometer circuit apl,.cars in Fig. 15-4a. Currcnt from
,tl

a9

.. lc ,A
\
I
,a
;

A B c D E
Mercury Thermometers
Bulh Thprn:;mctcrs

! ,:"

r::i:r;]
.]
%
dJ
\ l/ltft' lotPlF

E
Thermocouple Ptrrometer

A-D Tdylo? IBt mat Co.

F E-C Brlrrol Co.
Recording Bulb Thermometer
Frc, 15-3 Temperatuns meaflrdng iDstrumelts
632
TEMPERATT'BE AND PRESST'RE MEASUREMENT 633
I bstt€ry flowa through the main circuit in which there is a high quality elide
wire resistance AB. The vsriable resistance .R m8y be adjusted to create a
voltage between / and I apptopriate to the thermocouple used. The slide wirc
brush picks ofr e voltage r{C which is adjusted until it equals the thermocoupic
generated voltage, shown by zero galvanometer deflection. Note that, rvhik
the diagram shows only one ?C jruction, actually there are always two, though
one may be hidden in the inetrument connectiona. This explanation does not
indicate how the numerical value of the millivolts generatcd at IC is detcr-
mined. For this one must study the circuit of an actual potentiometer, such
as the circuit of Fig. 15-4b, representing a laboratory type potentiometer.
Basically the action is the same ae in the simple circuit, but with complications
due to the need of standardizing the current flow and compensating for the
cold junction.

R Bott R Boll.

TC sc

o. Si.npla circuil b.Indruftant circuil

Frc. 15-4 Themocouples in circuit with potentiomete!

For standardizing, the evitch is thrown to contact 2 which incorporates the

standard cell SC in the galvanometer circuit. Then E is adjusted so that the
current flow produces a voltage between A afi, E exactly equal to that of
the standard cell, as evidenced by zero galvanometer deflection. By this opcra-
tion the current in the main circuit has been standardized snd millivolts .4-C arc
readable from the calibrgted dial over which the slide arm moves. Then by
switching to point 1 the potentiometer is ready to measure the gencrated
voltage E.
Table 1&1. oIIARACTERISTI"t coMMoN TIIERMoCoUPLE
|Xr*!ru
Couple N{v st 687.tfc Remarks
+
IroD-CoDstoDtsnt 29.7 Relatively high voltage, medium
temp.

Copper-Constontan Close tolerance, low tempemture

Chromel-Atumel Stable (for base metal) , high temp.

Plathum Platinum 4.6 Expensive (noble metals). Stable,

with 10% Rhodiun High temperature, Iow voltage

. Also called C,opaic:. N/o coppe.,4070 nickel

634 INSTRIIMENTATION
Cold junction compmsation is introduced by an additional slide and arm
making contact at D. This arm is eet to the &aown temperature of the reference
junction which is in the instrument and can be considered to be the temperature
of the inetrument csse. Then when arrn C has been set to produce zero deflec-
tion the reading will be voltage referred to standard reference junction tem-
perature, i.e., ready fm. direct use in the Tables.
Presstre Measuremmt. Theee are Bome of the reasons for diversification of
pressure instrumenhs: Ilange-gatge pressure, plenum, and vacuum; rzellrod
ol intlication-local vs remote, and pointer ve liquid meniscusl acanacV-
highly sensitive vs rugged, vibration-resistaat compact designs. This has led
kg/cmr ga
7CD

2rS

I
70

35 I
1 l
2
I
@
o35

oo7
o
trrc. lE-5 Typic{l prcssure meuudng elemears and ,u"ii ffl#"*' "'
to a varietl of pressure gauges snd manometers. The gauges are mostly actuat€d
by variations of the well-known Bourdon tube, but bellows gnd diaphragn
typee are elso seen for sensitive Feasurement of the emaller gauge pressrlres and
vacua. Draft gauges sre examples of the small pressure8 for which glass tube
manometers or mechanical pointer types Bre employ€d. For the latter purpoee
invertcd oil-sealed bells, sensitive diaphragms, and weak bellows are used to
Iumish mechanical movement to the pointer.
Pressure gauges should be selected of s rsnge that will place the norual
pointer indioation about at mid-scale. For example, s g€uge on a boiler ex-
pcctcd to operatc normally at 10.5 kg/crirr ga should be a 0-21 Lg/cmr rangc
gauge. When irutaling stcam prclsurc gaug6, a cock and riphon or condcnrai
tion chanbcr should always bc ured ifthc gaugc ir located abovc thc tap poinli
in ordcr that hcat bc kept from the tubc. With installation below thc tap point
thc pipc lcad will always bc fillcd with watcr protccting the tubc+nd dro
imporing on it somc hydrostatic watcr hcad. Thc lattcr should.bc allowcd for
TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE MEASUREMDNT 635

in Etting thc gaugc pointa D thlt truc ttcan prcturc witl bc !c.d. Ttrc boiltr
rtarm prcrrurc geugc ir usually inst llcd hr bclow thc drum for itt aial rhould
bc clcrrly viriblc to opcraton. Tbc lcad *ould
hrvc a tcc lcar thc g.Wc with ddc branch
cl6cd by a 6.,1 m6 globc vdvc. Thir L fc the
il4cctor'r ulG-to rttach r tctt gaugc. Stan-
dard pmrurc gaugc conncction ir 6.,1 n-'
mdc pipc thrcad, ,,
Examplc l: A ststion operator is to set a mss-
ter stetioD pressure gauge so that header pressure
$ill r€ad directly on the gsuge. The gauge is loccted
0.8o dm. belon, the highest poirt of its lead from
th6 h6dcr. Norael hcadct prcuro 1t.06 kg/orutgc.
Norbal sobi6nt teElror.tur6 t7.8"C.
After cheikiug the gauge for accuracy ou a
comparator or dead rveight tester and making any Frc. li-6 Ashton master
htemal adjustmeuts trecessary to accuracy, the op- pilot pressure gauge, with
eretor would calculate the hydrostatic hcad of tbe ' - double dial3.'
lcod, Thir ig 0.080 kg/omt. Tho gauSo vould thor b.
loldod tdl3.8! La/arDr ts ptoseulc, tho poirt6! irrlt6d
oad roe6t io 12.01t L8/omi 8.. Oa s d6od eeigbt toBtor prorsurea osa ba appliod only i!
ironcmoots of0.5 ot I kg/col. In thst 0..6 tho loadiug w6u16 be to tt.06 kg/oEr aDd th.
pointor .6t to.12,07 tg/cEl.
!ig. 15-6 shows g master pilot pressure gauge. This is provided with
double dials so that, when hunr. in a firing aisle, it can be read from both di-

c:-_)
Li=-]
B'.!.ol co
Fro. 15-7 Iiecording pressure gaug€.
6i[ INSTRUMENTATION
rectionB. A gauge for this purpose is made with sensitive movement so that
emall pressule fluctuations will be clearly visible. The gauge illustrated has
a I klcoe rtue bth ridc d roal.
FE. 15-? is=a recordiog pressure gauge, using chcular charts. The actuating
elerlents for such g&uges can be Bourdon tubes or helical coils for high preseure,
and diaphragms for low pressure. A clock movement is employed to revolve the
charts. the charts are divided into time arcs; thus it is poseible to know the
exact time st which certain conditione occurred. One complete revolution in
24 hr is the standard chart speed for power station work, though a few applica-
tione call for one revolution in soven days

I ilt'

'1

l'rc. lS-ti Nlulti-Pointe!, verticsl scale dralt gauge

Draft gauges were considered in Sec 12-9, especielly manometer types.

Panel board types are likely to be mechanical pointer instruments. One such
is illustrated in Fig. 15-8. This is a type that can be built nith as many side-
by-side elements as desired, producing a compact gauge for assembling gas loop
p.us"ures for reading at one st&tion. A liquid-sealed bell float rises and falls
with change of prcssure communicated to its interior lrom the region being
mcasured. The motion of the bell is conveyed to a fulcrum level which is
counter-weiglrted with an inverse incrementsl gravity loading designed mathe-
matically to give true arithmetical indication of the actuating pressure over
the entiie range of straight line scale of uniform spacings. trIotion for the
straight line pointer movcment is taken from one end of the fulcrunr. Draft
gluge lines should be installed with plugged tees instead of elbot's at turns
io that accun,ulations of dust which might clog them can be blown out by
compressed air. A word of caution, however, is to isolate the gauge lrom the
line by hand valve or disconnection before applying any compressed air.
The measurement of very low pressures by cistern mercury manometers
was mentioned in Sec 12-9.
15-4 Measurement oI Fluid Flow Elsewhere in this book the pitot
static method for gas flow in ducts has been covered.
Water l:lotr. Among common methods of measurement of wgter flows such
 MEASTIREMENT OF FLIIID FI,OW 63?
as might be encountercd in the average power plant are the rotary displocement
Bet€r, the V-notch meter, the Venturi meter, and the orifice Eeter. As the
orifice meter is also adaptable to the ffow of steam and gas, it will be separately
considered.
The Venturi meter is shown in Fig. 15-9. The instrument ia eseentially a
maaomctcr dcvice calibratcd to read Ilow in mtAcc, litcr:/min, ctc. Rccordina
end rcgirtcring feature! uray bc oddd. Thc opciating principlc ir that a rcaucl
tion ofprcsurc accompanics an incrcasc ofvclocity (Bernoulli'r principlc). 'f[6
velocity is incrcaled by inrcrting a fitting which convcrgcs to aminimuur rcction
and then divergee to the notmal ptpe sire. Leads are brought from the low-
pr.essule rcgion aod from the nonnal-presurc rcgion to the manometer of the
inrtrument The theory of the Venturi meter, foun{,in all dandard worLe otr
\ydraulice, yields the equation for theoreticd head:

E: s#s-l(d)._,] uo,,
in which E is thc mctrc water diffcrential hcad produced by a flow of Q mt/sec
wat6. D, Di arc pipc and throat intcrn?.l diamctcrs (mctrc). When thi! cquation ir
rolvcd lbr Q, in a calculation of actual flow from measrrcd prcxurcdiffcrential,
a dircharge coefficient of0.96 to 0.99 shoutd be used and Ilmust be intcrprrtcd
ar head of a col umn of watcr of thc same tcmpcrature lu that flowiog.
The Y-notch meter is most often used ai atmospheric pressure and tem-

@
.9
o

Etuer. Ifon po,{,,,4tr

Fto. 16.0 Voturi tube connected_to panel witb indieetirg, int€grsting,
and recording
flolr instrum€nt€.
6:18 INSTRUMENTATION
p€ratures less than 93.3qC. The discharge through a notch varies aa l}lre 5/2
power of the depth of flow through the notch. That is,

Q: Kfr a.ft* (le2)

l( is aboutl.4 for a 90'notch, 0.805 for a 60o notch, d bcing clprcsed ln mctr..
The V-notch meter is most admirably sdapted for the megsurement of s
qrrantity which varies greatly, &s it gives moderate heads for the highest ratcs
of flow. Its accuracy is well within l/o error over the whole range, provided
corrections are msde for density and viscosity when the temperature of the
water varies. Descriptively, it is an crea-heail meter.
steam Ftow' rhe now or steam'
ffisiJ:,';J"':":lftffiffi*,i',1#;:
Pipa flohga as a primary element. This is ieod measure-
ment, requiring a primary element and a
Orific. plct.
meter. T{re primary element is the orifice,
available to any would-be user. It is in the
meters, which infer the rate of flow from the
orifice difrerential head, that instrument dif-

r
ferences arise. The meters often have patented
features.
If in
a fluid considered incompressible
flow is caused to pass through 1p orifice, it
will acquire & momentary higher velocity and
lower pressure as it
passes the orifice. Al-
Frc. 15-10 Flow of an incom- though the fluid subsequently difiuses arld
pressible 0uid thrcugh an orificer regains nearly all the pressure deficiency cre-
ated'by the orifice, the difrerence between
upstream and downstream fluid pressures on either side of the orifice, if meas-
ured, can be interpreted to give the rate of flow.
Although water-loaded manometers will not suffice for the differential pres-
sule measurements of steam flow, the theory of flofr meters is usually developed
in tcrms of cm of watcr hcad.
It will be noted from the following theory that the fluid measured is not
specified to be steam. The principles involved and equations employed are
valid for any flrrid which may be considered to be substantially ineompressible
in its flow. Stcam or air under high presrurer, say 3.5 kg/cm! ga andup, with
manomct€r dbplaccncnts ofup to 508 cm watcr may be so considcrcd. Air
flowing undcr light plcnums, such as 0.07 kg/cmr ga or les,couldbc conridcrcd
incomprcssiblc ifthc manomctcr diffcrential were limited to thc ordcr of 2.54 cm
ofwatcr.
Nomenclature to be employed:
D, D" : Inside pipe and orifico ,lirrncterr s1q.
F - Dierheter rrtio, i.e., DJD.
Ir - In. meumetcr hcad, as wator, - cm, if mercury.
fl : Equivd€rt head of the f,uid, ra"
. Abo u!.d lor thie purpa, but kr tquently, i! thG lo!t-r8diu! [orrle.
MEASUREMENT OF FLUID FLOW 630
,: Specific yolume of the fluid, m! pcr kg,
C : Velocity coefrcient of the orifice.
ru : Fluid flow rate, kg pcr hr.
The measurement of flow by orifice difierential is diagrammed in Fig. 1F10.
Beginning with Bernoulli'e equation, and recalling that velocity through the
oifice: CJifr, it may be readily shown that
u :2.96(Cgr)D2hv2D--!, (15_Ba)

As the coefrcient C depends principally on B, CB2 may be considered aB a f,ut)

coefrcienl K dependent on B. Fig. 15-11 gives the relation between K and B
for thin plate orifices, and long radius nozzles. Then
u :l.96KDrhtt\rrl, kg per hr (1ts3b)

o.7
I IT II I IT F I edg. T aaa2zaIIIII
It I I II II I I
TT I I IT IT II I
- JZLaartrt
!2 ATIIII
.Sqe €.e
I

rlfr
o.6 II ! I II II IT I r T
II I T II rT I! I I I .Z r II IT I! IIIIII'Z
II TI II rl IT I I I Z' I F T IT aaaar-:.aa
I II II rI I I !.a II r I az l2=aaaaa
I I II TI II I 2 I IT rI az 1) ZITIITIT
B O.5 r
IIIII II II IT Zar r II , Z
I

I II II Z I T I ,.2 I I
t -
IlIltrrI
aodiur II III
II !rr
Long
IIII
o.4 ITII I TI
I II l7z rIl AJ z a! r
7/l III ?ia I rr I II t II
III
III
rr IIIT lt 7/l
II a7/ II T rII rrr II TI II rtr rrrr
IT rI III rTTI II IEII rl IIII
ll lt 17/ TI r IIT I II II III IITT II ITII
o.3 II rI 7ta II IIT IT I IT III IIII
, o.o5 o.to o.t5 o.2o o.es o.3o o.35 0.40
K
t'rc, 15-11 Relatioa between flow coefteient and diameter ratio, conientric ori6ce,

Since i =
13.6[', Eq l5-3b is readily modified for use with a mercury
manometer. Where the fluid is steam, condensate will fill the manometer al-.ove
the mercury levels giving a small difrerential manometer action for which
h = 12.6h'. We finally have, for steam flow measurement with a mercury col-
umn, the equation:
u :l4ffiiKD\'Lt2h"/'Lgper hr (lffi)
This equation explains rvhy a multiplier to instrument reading ie required if
the specific volume of the Bteam actually florving is different (because of its
pressure and tempera,ture) from that a^ssumed for the p3lpose of oriice size
selection. lI K, D, h'rrere to rernain the same, w-!l/o. In other words,
the greater the specific volume, the less the weight, flo\v. The comection mr.rltiplier
is, therefore,
 6'0 INSTRI'MENTATION
Eramplc 1: An orifice ia to be specified for ure in s$chodule40,I6g cmstea.E pipc,
in which the maximum rat€ of flow is predicted to be go?gkg p6l hrtt 7.o3ka/oDr g.,
.98 dry. The meter to be used with it accoDmod&t€s s msxim,u$ equiualerrt difreruntial
of .zri cm water for full-scale poiater deflectiou. A recommeudetion is w&nted fot
orifice size, i.e., D".
Ftom stesm tables the specific volume of the steam is 0.24 mt per kg. D, lor
s t6.rl om prpe --ro.ea - o.7l = lrj.l2oD, Substitute iD Eq l5-3b,
00?t = t96K x r0.ll X {251\x (0.21)-LA
K = O.295.
From Fig. 15-11, B = 0.660
fhen Do = .6,9 X 0.66 = 16.64 6-.
The location of ptessure taps is either very closc to the orifice so that the
leads may be built into flanges which arc installed to hold the orifice, or they
may be what are known a8 throat, or.vena contracta," taps. In the latter
case the upstream tap is usually placed one pipe diameter upstream from the
orifrce, but the downstream tap distance varies with pipe sizg. However, it
ayerages O.iD, and "Radius Tap" is often substituted for vena contracta with
but, little error.
For results to be accurate, the interior pipe opening to the pressure Ieads
must be smooth, flush, and horizontally
radial. Small reservoirs io hold con-
densed steam are installed in the leadd
as close as practicable to the stcam pipe.
These serve to maintain constant hydro-
static head in the leads in times of
-.4-{=
I L_;J.L
fluct'rating flow (i.e., fluctuating dif-
ferential pressure). The leads must be
i carefully installed in accordance with
practicc that has been found to be satis-
L-c factory as to :rir venting and sediment
collection.
,:r.EIE The length of straight pipc upstream
and do.,vnstream of the orifice also in-
fluences the accuracy of oriflce aeters.
About 10 pipe diameters straight flow
upstreiim and 4 diameters downstream
wrll be necded for uniform flow through
the,rrifice. More specifir,ally the infbi-
o ro 20 !o.o 50 60 70 00t mation of Fig. 15-12r applies to the ad-
orai.rri ..rlo jacdht pipe.
Frc. 15-12 Requirements for sl,.aight Other Flow Insh"urnents. There are
pipe adjoining an od6ce. several other systems of measuring rate
of flow.
For measuring small steam flows, as, for instance, to auxiliaries, or to
process work, inexpensive, self-contained stesm flow mei"rs a"e availabie. One
a Trans. ASME, July 1945.
MEASI]REMENT OF FLUID FLOW 641
type, the Bhunt 8te&m flow mea€r, is shown in Fig. lE-I4. As the steam enters
the meter, a portion of it is deflected upward through nozzles and rotates the
small steam turbine. A dampiag vane, revolving in a chamber filled with water
of condensation, is mounted near the lower end of the turbine shaft through
a p€rmanent magnet. Thus thure is no stuffing box to keep trght. The manu-
facturert calibrate this instruruent by sdjustment of the chord-type orifice
which deflects part of the steam flow through the shunt path.

Frc, 15-13 A[ orifice station.

TURBINE ROIOR

N()ZzLES lN
SHUNT CIRCTUl
MAIN STEAM
PIPE

rdtllt]]flt
= -1lY-'
ORIFICE

WATER IMAIIiTAINED 8Y
COOLINO FlNs CONDENSATION FROM
THE STEAM)

DAMPINC fAN
II
I! REDUSTION TRAIN
MAONETIC DRIVE

DIAL FACE

COUNTER
Buillds tron Founitry
G. 15-14 Shunt steam meter.
W INSTRIIMENTATION
Rotary rneters having intemal vancd rotors work on a semi-positive-dis-
plecement principle. They sre used for. condensation meters and for gas meters.
The accuracy can be quite high. A wet-type gas meter is part of the equipment
of Fig. 5-4. The principle is explained by Fig. 15-15. A cylindrical casing en-
closes a rotsting drum which is partitioned iato four chambers as shown. The
drum is partly submerged in water. Its axle is connected
to e gear train counter by which the volume of g&s
passed through the meter is registered. This is a quantity
meter, and rate of flow does not appear cxccpt by tim-
ing the quantity and caleulating the ratc. Gas enters at
the center and fills the compartments above the water,
which is carried at a level that permits only one com-
padment to be filling at a timc-and only one to be
emptying, as at C. A small pressure difrerence betwcen
inlet and outlet causes v/ater level at ,4 to be slightly
frc- t5_15 p"inni.,t" hi8her thsn at B, so that the rotating force on the drum
of the wet - can be explained hydrostatically. Thc .quantity dis-
";r;;,:". charged per rcvolution is aflectod lry position of the
watcr level. Calibration can be accomplished rvith a volumctric meter-provcl
by adjusting the water level until thc rncter reading agrees rvith thc prover.
The capacity of this form of wet gas metcr is small cornpared to rneter bulii.
It is considerably modified in mechanical detail whcn used as a lqrge-capacity-
gas meter, although retaining the basic principle of positive displacement over
\rrater,
15-5 Commercial Fluid Flow Meters. The secondary elernents of flow
measuring systems of lhe head type are to be described. The primary element
of such systems is the thin plate orifice. The secondary clemcnt might be a
rrercury-loaded glass manometcr as employed to explain the underlying theory
in Sec I5-4; howevcr, such ulould be of limited value, employcd only for special
test'ing or verifying. Its disadvantages are:
1. Need for a glass pressure clement.
2. Reading index not directly proportioned to flon.
3. Meniscus levcls lcss convenient than pointcr and scalc.
4.Sediment in condensate obscures meniscus lcvcl.
5.No reeording or integraling fcatures.
Consequcntly, manufacturers have devclopcti sevelal typcs of flou meters
that intcrpret thc oriflce differential pressure itr tcmrs of angular lrrovcutel.It
of a shaft. A pointer carried by the shaft can registcr on a scalc of florv, or.it
can be equipped lvith a pen and inkwell to record flow ou a moving cbart bear-
ing a printcd scale. Intcgrating action is derivable from this rnotion by a sup-
plementary mechanism.
In general such meters receive the orifice difrercntial on rnercury. The
manner in which the mercury level displacement is convertcd into pcn uroveruent
is the feature wherein these instruments difrer. These mechanical or electrical
features are largely proprictary-and obviously compctitive. Somc of thc princi-
plcs eniployed in high-pressure meters arc diagrammed in Fig. 15-16, In the
clectrical type tho differential pressutc is transmitted to the cquivalent of a
cistern manomcter in onc leg of which are a large numbcr of gradcd length
COMMERCIAL FLUID FLOII/ METERS 643
contsct rods conDected to resistanoes. A f,ow of Bteam cauaeg a certain prersur€
head ou the manometer and a correeponding rise of the mercury level in tho
contact rod chamber. The riee of mercury cutE out a definite amount of rs-
sistance, depending on the gteam dow. The recorder itself is sn.electdcal
instmment which measurea the varying conductance in the inetrument cirodit,
reading directly in units of flow. The flow meter is operated on ordinary alter-
nating current and ie unafrected by slight voltage variatiooe. The large number
of rods in the manometer.chsmb€r insureg that the meter will respond to emall.
changes in the pipe line flow. By grading the rod lengths, the resistances, or
both, the electric instrument can be caused to give straight line indication of
flow.

l..d

E
Ladou r piv6t
= b.l I I

ELECTRICAL CONTAO' BELL PIVOT€O RII{G

'I{VERTEO
Frc. 15-16 Some principles used in secondary mete trg elements of mercutyJorrded.
head-type flow meterc.Iigure illustrates principle of Republic, Bailey, aqd llagan steam
flow meters.

The Ledoux bell is a specially shaped vessel, installed invertcd in a pres-

sure-tight chamber. It floats in the mercury, being buoyed up by the mercury
it displaces and the high pressure which is admitted to its interior. The low
pressure is admitted to the chamber. By shaping the bell and controlling its
volume by variable wall thickness, the action transmitted to the pivot shaft
can be made such that equal increments of flow velocity cause thc pointer to
travel over equal increrricnts of flow scale.
A pivoted ring manometer will srving around its pivot shaft as the differen-
tial pressure applied to the two sides increascs. This is because thc ring tends
to assunie a position such that the center of gravity of thc mercury and ring
lies below the pivot. The rotation of the pivot canies a pointer over the scale
oI the meter.
Another form of difrerential head flow meter is shorvn in Fig. 15-17. The
orifice diflerential is conveyed by pipe leads to a rr.rercury chambcl containing
an inverted bell floating in mercury. In this c,ase the los'prcssure is applied to
the bell's interior so that increasing flow mr1vcs the bell rlownward. Shapcs of
the bell and the attached "displacer" alo [tsigucrl to charactcrize thc instru-
W INSTRUMENTATION
ment for B uniform pen movement-ratc of flow relation. The take-off of float
movement is electrical, the inductance bridge principle being here employed.
A transmitter coil is connected by three wires to an identical coil in the re-
ceiying instrument which indicates, records, and integrates rate of flow. Within
esch coil are identical magnetic armatures. The one in the transmitting coil is
directly moved by the bell in the mercury chamber. This movement temporarily
imposes on the electrical circuit an unbalance which is automatically relieved
by a corresponding movement of the armature in the receiving coil. This arma-
ture comes into balance in a position duplicating that in the transmitting coil.
The receiver armature, being suspended from one end of a counterweighted
rocker arm linked to the instrument pointer, thus produces the visual indication
of rate of flow on the meter chart.

Br@n Insttuments Dlo. Minn.apolb ,Ioncgueli

Frc. 15-17 Difrerential heacl flolv meter using electdcal inductance bridge transmission

By specifying a proper diameter ratio B {or the orifice station, various mad-
mum flows in piping can be measured with the same secondary meter.* How-
ever, most manufacturers have a series of meters which, although appearing
identical from the outside, neyertheless have changes in vital interior elements
that give them maximum pointer tnovement on different orifice heads. Con-
scquently, we might find a manufacturcr abtc ro offer 127-,254-,38i., and
508-cm mcters, meaning that a diffcrential hcad eqqivalcnt to 127 cm, ctc., of
cold watcr applicd to the metcrwill cause a full.rcalc dcliection of thc pointcr.
Thus with relatively few basic designs, but with proper B specrfication, the
manufacturer can ofrer flow measurement equipment for a variety of fluids
and a lsrEe range of maximum rates of flow.
The accuracy of head type meters is usually claiiued ta be within * lYz%
of {ull-scale reading. Means of checking the secondary element at one or more
* See Ex 1, Sec l&,4.
GAS ANALYSS 645
positions by cslibrated weights, etc., are provided. However, these verify only
the meter itself, not the primary element or the interconnecting piping. Some-
times the failure of a newly installcd head meter to indicate true flow is difr-
cult to trace to the source. lleters that havc been correctly indicating flow may
sometimes require expert attention either because affiicted with a shifting
zero, sluggish operation, etc., or bccause reading high or low Blthough checking
"OK" on zero and on spot displacement.with rveights furnished for the purpose.
A number of causes must be investigated, such as sediment in the lines, leaky
lines, air accumulation in lines or meter body, corroded or dirty meter pivots,
orifice cut or warped, and others.
15-6 Gas Analysis. Important informatiou for the guidance of operators
of steam generators is derived from analyses of the products of combustion. Thie
rarely needs to extend beyond a breakdown into COr, 02, and CO. The remain$er
is usually called Nz, although it may include small quantities of other gases-
The three-chamber Orsat apparatu.s is the primary standard for volumetric
analysis ol products of combustion. The principle is selectiue chemical absorp-
tion. "Ibe apparatus is described in texts on elementary heat power. Since CO2
alone is indicative of combustion conditions, manual and automatic COu -testing
chemical absorbers are marketed for plant use. The manual types are simple
to use and more rapid in operation than the standard Orsat and, hence, are
favored by service engineers and others rvho set combustion controls and per-
form other plant adjustments that are intended to produce optimum CO2
content in the products.
The Oreat and the CO2 tester are poitable devices. Many plant ownen be-

aL(ncrr.li-t I

t
I
Porrntd& Co

Frc. i5-18 Ranarex CO2 Indicator and Recorder.

046 INSTIiUMENT4JTION
lievc that a permanent self-rea{ing instrument that can give opcrators an index
to ga. .omp'osition is worth the iniestment. Thcsc tske the form of automatic
CCi, u.a O, meters. The lstter are the more expcnsive, but are believed to give
a rnorc consistcntly realistic appraisal of excess air than CO2 can'
Several different principles are employed by the manufacturers of COz
ructers. Among thcse arc chcmical absorption, gas dcnsity, and electrical or
thcnnal co^rdtictivity. Thc chcrnical absoiption tylrcs do automatically what
thc opcrBtor does as hc manipulates the Orsat, and instrumcnts of great in-
genuiiy have bcen deviscd. One chemical typc has a tank containing a potash
solution capable of absorbing COz gas bubbled through it. A small motor oper-

>\
<
I .-",tEEk* -
'!i :;r ri )ll))I W,"
*

,o, '.,{ffii}: ! 0,i

I
't \c-
P: \ ,l rar
2.

.'. I , -t' '^r Ii t

Corl,ita@tt Poaa Co'

Fro. 15-19 Boiler inslrnmqlt rnrl control p,anel for a central power statioD.

rtcs to purnl) tlrc fluc gts irrto ir rut.asuring chamber, whence a deflnite volume
is dclivercrl lry oil rl isl)lrtrrrr x.n t to tlro tank containing-the potash solution.
Aftcr absorptir,rr o{ tlrc C( ), i}rc rcsirlual gas accumulates undcr a float whicl
tlrr.r't.Ly tlkes up t lxrsitirur corrt'sporrr li ng to thc percent gas volume represented
irr tlrc tlrsorlrr:rl O()1-'flris posrtion is then transferred to an indicating and
rt,cot'rlirrg rncclranisnr, wht.rculnn thc gas is releascd and another cycle of
rrt.lrsurr,rrclrt lrcgur.'l'lrr.tlrsorbing sohrtion must bc periodically renewed.
'l'lrc OO2 rrr(,tcr ilrorvrr itr fig I 5- 18 is rn inst nrrrrcnt of the gas density balance
tylx,. As ( l( )..j s cigl,s rLlrploxirr rglelv l>0/<, rnort. t lra,n nitrogcn per unit of volume,
ri,, lri,:lrr.r rlrr. ;rr rcr'rrl r'l ( '1 )r in t irc lluc grLs, thc grcatcr its density. By blowing
llue g.q; r!r,l rir El p.1ual vclocitics in arljaccnt chambers two lorcei of con-
 COMBINATION METERS U7
siderable magnitude are created whose difrerence is a measurc of the COz
content. This may be registered by an indicating pointer.
In onc makc an clcctrical system is founded on the principle that, as thc
continuously flowing gas sample varies in CO2 content, so does its ability to
conduct heat from an elcctrical resistor mounted in thc measuring cell. As the
temperature changcs in tlris re-"istor', so does its electrical rcsistance. By auto-
matically comparing this resistance with that of an idcntical resistor in a stand-
ard gas-filled eorrtaincr'-both at the sarne temperaturt in a thermostatically
controlled cabinct-the CO2 content of the flue gas is mcasutcd electrically.
\\'hcn srvitclring from onc fucl to anothcr, or l)urning more than one fuel
at a time, thc iutcrprctation of cxccss air by CO,: contcnt nccds rccstablishmcnt
with an Orsat, rvhereas oxygen content docs not. 02 mctcrs can'bc based on a
combu,stion suJ4rortcd by thc oxygcn in a flue gas sanrplc, as I cll as on the fact
that O, is paramagnetic. Thc other gases usually encountered are either dia-
magnctic or apploxiurrtcly nonrrragnctic.
Anolhcr instnrrncnt of consirkrrahle usc to the firemen and plant superin-
tenrlent is t smo|e nrcter. Although this r.locs not analyze thc gas, ifs reading
can lrc userl to sorlrc\\'Lut tlx: samc purpo-*c, i.c., an cstimalc of tltc conltustion
conrlitton. Lr Scc 5-13 tlrc natule of snrokc and the arbitrrry scnlc for its
measurclucl)t, Iii:lgelmtnn :rrrrnhcts, l'as discussetl. It is usually inconvcnicnt
Ior ar opt,r'rrtol to sight the chiuiney tolt cvery time hc wants to knol' thc
surokc sitrratiol. I'urtlrerinorc, at uiglrt this mcthod is haphazard. Smoke meters
'can lrc iustallcrl to give filctrrln contirruous indication of smokc dcnsity.
Thc t1'lrrcal clt,cilonic srnokc inrlicator consists of a light source to project
a bcntrr tlrtorrgh tlit' plorlucts of courbustion, a,photoelectric cell to scan the
Ircanr, anrl i\n i intment to trlnslate thc cell output into movement of a
ln)intcr ovcl l scalc gr':rrluatcrl frorr.r 0 to 5 Ringelmann nutnber. Ilecording and
alattu lcltrrlcs can lrt :rrkk'cl to these instruments. The light source antl photo-
r:icctlic ccll urc nrorrnlcd in ptotcctivc boxes installcd on opposite sides of thc
brt'ceiring anrl conlecterl l ith tlrc instrumcnt, I'hich can hc on thc boiler lrolt
ot luurcl lxrtlri. by clrr.tlic cjtcuiti*. trIost uscrs of thcsc instrumcnts find that
thcl'Irlvc to pipc conrplr."crl ail to lozzlcs placed so as to blorv soot anrl tsh off
thc lc-nscs of thc light anrl plrotrxr,ll lroxcs. Thcsc must be blorvn clttn rt in-
tcrvirls, ot r.ttoncously lrigh strroiiu rk,nsity u'ill be indicated. The instrurncnt is
calibratccl against thc standalrl Ringclmann chart.
15-7 Combination Meters. Thcrc arc seycral well-known courbination
mctcls lhich bring togethcl on onc rccord pertinent information on thc opcra-
tion and condition of somc lriccr of power plant equipment. Thc boiler rnetcr
is an cxaurplc.
Boiler lIeter. An in,.tn:rnent tvhic]r in onc case cont&ins thc sccondary clc-
nents rcrluircd to clctcrrninc thc n'raior itorns of opcrating information ncrdcd
hy the steam gcnultor operutor uriglrt bc callcd a "hoilcr rnctcr." ()nc of tlrcse
is illustratcd by utrr,rr.rlrrnf irrg figrrles. It indicate-. anrl rccor,ds the r,rto of
stearn flon,froru tlrc troi)er. slr(l rrcL,rds the ratc of air'florv t)uouqh the firrnacc
anrl thc avelage fllr('-gas t(,r)rlxlratule. It may al-"o rccrr:'rl tltc rittr: of fuel lecrl,
orthc supcrhcatcrl stctun tcrnlrclatulc, on thc same chart \\'ith tllc ot}tt.t. Iccord-.
if desired. 'Ilrc ltcurr llorar ptlt of thc ntcter rrersul'c.c tlrt, lurount of stculr lrcing
generated at all tuurs.'fhis it shoryn bi'thc rccortl in l'ig. 15-21, and ]ca(I,\ in
648 INIITRIIMENTATION
nerllpnt of boiler rating or kg of steam per hr. The air flow part of the meter
I"""ia" tt u ra.te of flow of air through the furaace' This air flow reading is not
J""" i, t"r.. of m! or weigbt of air but is reletive to the amount oI steam
i-"i'', ,r"nduced. The two records of steam flow and air flow should be to-
Liiri".'tt r" showing proportional readings at all loade being canied by the
f,.ii"".'f'm. indicates that the proper amount df air is being used for com-
i""n"". th" record of flue-gas temperBture which is given by this meter is a
o" tne condition of the boiler baf8es and on the efficiency of heat transfer
"f1""f. tt boiler tubes. It shows whether or not the heating surface is abeorb-
iSiouel
"
i-r,g tn? rn"*irnuln amount of heat
possible at all times'

t,,.i t": ,

{t.o}l )l
ii;flY,il
Eft;l

=,, :a:--'-. . :,'.=2/

Bciley Me.et Co.

Fr;. 15-20 Boiler meter.

The steam flow recordcr of the boiler meter is operated by the difrerential
pressure across a Monel metal orifice inserted between a pair of suitable pipe
flanges in the steam pipe l-retween the boiler and the header. By meaas of l2.7mm
tubing, this pressure differential is applicd to the Iower and upper sides of a
mercury-sealed beil whose rcsultant motion is transmitted mechanically to the
recording arm. The air flow recorder employs the same basic principle as the
steam flow recordcr and is operated by a pressure diflerence which varies as
the ratc of flow. The drop in draft pressure acloss the boiler is applied to two
bells scaled in oil (see Fig. 1i-22). The bells are suspended from knife edges on a
beam which is also supported o knife edges. This mechanism is connecied to a
secoud beam in the upper parb of the recorCer casing attached to the air floq
pen yoke which operates the rrcording pen. A displacing membei, immersed
in mercury, is suspcnded from the upper beam. An increase in rate oI flow of
gases is accompanied by a greater pressLrre difference which, acting on the bells,
produees motioi of the beam, thereby drawing the displacing member out of
COMBINATION METERS 649

Frr;. 15-21 Chart from a "hoiler meter."

Spindle for

Sleom flow - oi.flow

Zero stop
Drive link
displocer ond

Seoling orl

S conn€cliod

&c. 15-22 Air flow mechuisrn of Balley Boiler Meter.

650 INSTRUMENTATION
its mercury resewoir. This moves until its change in buoyancy exactly balanoes
the force produced by the pressure difrerence in thc bells. Thc displacing mern-
ber has a variable cross-sectional area and its pivot is adjustable on the beam,
so that the same stanclard rnctcr can be applied to any lxriler. By changing thc
radius of this displacing member on the beam and by othcr ad,iustments, the
air flow recorder is made to 6how the same reading as the steam flow, as long as
the desired relstion exists between the air used for combustion snd the steam
output.
The flue-gas temperature recorder operates on the principle of a gas ther-
mometer. The expansion of the nitrogen in the bulb due to an increase in tem-

s,
I

I
l
IlxttilYrnt i€aoifit i

rnon are o erA rro*

J

11
w
iEcoio€i mR r€rftn
fl*
^lR

@
@.
F
(]t-

B.ilee Metd Co.

Frc. 15-23 Typical installation oi an individual boiler coutrol panel.
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 65I
peraturc produces an increase in pressure which is balgnced by the uncqual
level of the mercury in thc two sides of a U-tube. The displaced mercury riser
in a reservoir and actuatcs *float rvhich, in turn, moves a pen arm and recordn
thc tempcrature. Fig. 15-23 shows the setup of a panel containing a Bailey
boiler meter and multi-pointer draft gauge. Tlpical arrangement of piping to
the boiler panel is shown in some detail.
l5-8 Electrical Measurem€nts. There are not as many varieties of elec-
trical instruments as of mechanical, but enough to makc a formal classification
of some l,orth.
1- "fhe Eumtity ar.d preszure of an electrical circuit is meaeured with the
ammetcr aruJ \he uoltmeter.
2- Resistance is measured by ammeter-voltmeter combinations or by elec-
trical bridges.
3. Polter is measured with wattmet€r€; or, if d-c, by ammeter-voltmeter;
if a-c, by ammeter-voltmeter-power factor meter combination.
4. Energg measurement requires the watthour meterr or a mes,surement of
pofier vs time.
5. Other electric instruments in common use ate maximum demand (kw)
meter, power factor meter, frequency meter, and synchroscope.
Arnmeters and V oltmeters. These instruments are standard items on
switclrbdards and control panels; also they are found in various portable
patterns. They are basically single-circuit
instmrnents; therefore when three phsses
are to be indicated, either three instru-
ments are rrsed or one with a multipoint
6,pli.r
switch. The ammeter is inseded in series l^E!
with the line; the voltmeter is connected
across the line. Ammeters are accommo-
dated to various ranges with shunts' Frc. 15-24 Ammete! and voltmeter
(ammeter becomes millivoltmeter meas- conDections,
uring drop across the shunt). Yoltmeter
ranges can likewise be vsried with resistors, called voltmeter multipliers. For
very large currents and high voltages, instrument transformers are connected
to the main lines and the instruments connected to their secondaries.

3 Phosc

llllt

3Phose d-c
d-c Sinlle phosc o-c
Wm
ftc. 15-25 Mea.suremeDt of electrical power.
rA shuot ig s short coaductor of preciaiou resistaDce placed in eeries in the line bcing
measured. The amEreier terEi[ol6 are couecled to the erds oI the shult blocl.
 652 INSTRUMENTATIOTY
Wattmeters and Watthour Meters. The measurement of d-c power is made
with a simple ammeter-volmeter hook-up as shown in Fig. 15-25. A-c powet
measurement would rcquire, in addition, a power factor measurement; hence
the a-c wattmeter is employed instead of the ammeter and voltmeter. Single-
phase and three-phase \rattmeters and watthour meters are available in stend-
ard panel instruments. The engineer will sometimes want to check power to
an uninstrumented rnotor. This usually means connecting two eingle-phase
watCmeters, as in Fig. 15-25, and adding their reeding. If, when the coinections

t:,

( I

General Dlecrnc Co.

FrG. 15-26 Case opened, showiag itrte or of the recording wattileter

are made and the load increased, one wattmeter tends to lower readings, its
current connections should be reversed.
l5-9 Remote Readings. Many of the instruments described in this chap-
ter can be used at points remote from the quantity being metered. All elec-
trically operated instruments may be thus treated. On the other hand, there
are some mechanical iastruments which must have the meter neal the operating
app&ratus. Sometimes electrical transmitting systems can be attached to these
instruments, and readings can be transmitted electrically to eny part of the
plant or to adjacent buildings. The principles of such transmitting systems in-
clude the inductsnce balance, the potentiometer, the variable resistance circuit,
the Seleyn motor. Also, all-electronic systems have been developed. Moet of
SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS 653
them will operate on singlc-phase, 110-v a-c. These sysUems are used to indicate
the position of generator rheostats, turbinc governors, water level regulators,
eto., and to signal between switchboard and turtrine room, switchboard and
boiler room, etc.
A very recent innovation in the central station field is the introduction ol
television to enable control operators to "see" critical points, i.e., visua,l ob-
servations that could not otherwise be seen by them either because of remote-
ness or of pcrsonal hazard. For cxample, one utility televises the boiler fumace
to a viewing scrcen at thc station from which fumace burners are etarted and

lf r
t
!
rt
l-
i
li
e:

Frc. 15-27 Sangamo duplex typc owitchboald polyphase meter.

controlled. It is said to be of great assistance to the operator to be sble to see

the results of his controlling, for instance, the pilot torches, the ignition of the
main flames, ctc. Othcr important uses of television in the central power station
will undoubtedly be discovered as time goes on.
15-10 Selection of Instruments. Comparing the schedules of instruments
for Diesel, stcam and hydro plants, we find the steam plant equipped with a
larger complement of mechanical instmments than either of the other two types.
The electrical instruments are about the same for all plants of comparable
capacity. The complex cycle upon which steam plants operate (complex com-
pared to the Diesel or hydro) necessitates the use of more instruments for oper-
ating guidance; also more for calculating plant performance. The present section
is confined mainly to instruments ior the steam plant.
654 INSTRUMENTATION
A certain minimum schedule of metere and instruments is required in an-y
steam plant, There are not mauy; a boiler water gauge and pressure gsuge, a
switchboard voltmeter, and an ammeter to read the load. The author has eeen
plants having no more than this minimum complement of equipment, but has
yet to see one of this type in which the installation of a few more in€truments
would not proye to be a profitatrle investment. Instruments have an established
place in the modern plant of any size. The designing engineer ie not confront€d
with the question of uhether or not tro use instruments, bul how mang insfiu-
ments to use. Between the two dxtremes of having too msny or too few instru-
ments, it is better to err on the side of the latter. The surplus instrument
represents wasted money and unnecessary plant complication. At the same
time, an unused instrument has, upon the minds of some operators, the psycho-
logical efrect of minimizing the value of the othsrs. Au instrument is unnecessary
if its readings are not used for any of the purposes heretofore mentioned, or if
the same data could be had as satisfactorily from another installed instrument.
Indistinct or inaccessible instruments &re worse {han no instruments, {or they
may lead to a false sense of security through the attendants taking erroneous
readings, or no readings at all.
Selection of instruments for operating guidance 'follows natirrally uporr the
selection of the equipment and a knowledge of the operating data essential to its
control in the manner desired. For this reason the instrument plan is best
handled by considering meters and metering problems in the fundamental
station plan. The selection of instruments {or calculation of plant performance
should be based upon the degree of accuracy wanted; also whether the perforrn-
ance of individual machines, gpoups of machines, sections oI the plant, or the
whole plant is desired. At all times, thB size and importance of the plant and
the type of onerators to be employed must be kept in mind. The central station
is usually assuredi of intelligent, skilled supervision and operation, but such
cannot always be assumed for the institutional and industrial type plant.
It is recommended that, in addition to the essential instruments previously
mentioned, even the smallest plants have a pressure gauge on the prime mover
throttle and on the feedwaier main, a thermometer on the feedwater main and
on the steam line, if superheated, a vacuum gauge on the condenser, and a
lubricating olt thermometer. These instruments will not provide information for
the mo6t efficient piant operation, but they will vastly increase the operator's
chances of successfully handling the plant without large waste of fuel.
The lollowing instruments should be added to rhose already mentioned for
calculating plant performance and for maintaining it at a high level. A feed-
water meter or steam flow meter, CO2 indicator or air-flow eteam-flow recorder,
draft, gauge, flue-gas thermometer, fuel meter, watthour meter, or recording
wattmeter. The installation of the recording type instrument to aid operating
supervision will depend on the extent to which it is necessary for the superin-
tendent to have a check record oir the work of his stafr.
There is a tendency toward remote control of power plant equipmenL The
trend toward centralized boiler control has been evident for some time. This
centralization brings all the metering and control of a boiler or group of boilers
to one board. The small plant rarely has more than two metering or control
boards, a mairi switchboard and e boiler gauge bosrd. Ifowever, in the large
BECORDS AND TEEIR USE 656
plaat ole will find individuol or group boiler gauge boarde, individuel turbhe
gauge boards, and central turbine room gauge boards. There may also be eome
individual gauge boards such as the feed pump gauge board,, heater gauge
boud, etc, The electrical instruments are largely in the control room, as are also
many mechanical instruments which duplicate readings on the boiler and
tuibine room gauge boards. Some electrical inetruments may be located on
panelr not in the control room; ior inetance, on motor-generator set panels, sta-
tioa aervice truck-type switchboards, fan motor control panels, etc.
15-11 Records and Their Use, Although, in general, costs have been in-
oreasing, the cost of electric energy has, if anything, decreased. This is due to
the better equipment which has been made available by the manufacturers and
to the more efficient operation of that equipment. To get the most out of each
unit of fuel will continue to be a factor of great importance unless some revolu-
tionary change is made in the present methods of producing power. The place
of the meter as an aid to securing best station economy has been mentioned.
The factors that enter into the final price of electric service to the consumer
have been covered in Chapter 3. Data lrom which station economy may be
computed, and upon which improvements may be based, are all-important. To
supply these data records are kept in nearly all plants, either continuously or
during special test periods. To be of value, records should be concise, giving only
the necessary infoimation and eliminating the collecting and compiling of use-
less data, a proced'ure wasteful both of time and money. Some may feel that
voluminous records of plant perlormance indicate efrcient operation, but such is
not necessarily the case.
Much time is spent in collecting recorde which are almost useless for a guide
in intelligently following plant performance, for giving information which
readily shows where losses are occurring, or for showing the operator how to
correct these conditions. In many systcms standard {orms have been developed
that satisfy the requirements of all stations, and are made not only to contain
the information that is required in the central officc, but also such information
.

as might be termgd pertinent only to tbe station force. These standard {orms are
delivered daily to the central office where necessary records are copied, and are
then retumed to the station where they are kept on file. AII entries in the central
station are made on forms for circulation to those interested and for subsequent
filing as permanent records. fn some cases the complete record is carried out in
great detail, while in others the detail is left for investigatiou in the individual
plants.
Reatlings of indicating or integrating meters are recorded on log sheets at
regular intervals, ofttln hourly. Supplementing these log sheets are the charts of
the recording instruments. These charts should be filed in a systematic and
logieal way.so that the record of any instrument lor any specified day may be
found qrickly. Power plant recorde are put into service in attaining and main-
taining peak plant efrciency. The use may be in connection with a periodic or a
continuous calculation ot plant efficiency. When the efficiency fslls below
normal, the recoids may be employed in the subsequent systematic search for
the source of trouble. A method of checking plant economy as practiced by one
largo company is as follows. Plant operation is compared with a prepared bogey
based on actual plant tcsts of all apparatus. Using these plant terts, hourly heat
666 INSTRUMENTATION
balances arp figured at various loads and circulating water temperaturea with
varying numbers of turbines and boilers; the results of these balances,sre
plotted as hourly cuwea of condensate, plant wster and coal vereus kilowatt
load. From these hourly curves daily curves are constructed based on points
calculated for difrerent peak loads and several load factors. The daily curver
are-ueed-ae a check on operation, and if actusl conditions do not agree closely
with the bogey, the source of trouble can be located. Another company calculates
a daily tabular heat balance from actual operating results whereby the trend of
the losses from day to day may be readily ascertained. The actual economv in
net Joules per kw hr is computed and comparcd with the bogeyJoulc rate which
was calculated from dcsign data for thc station, with slight allowancc for unavoid-
able losses due to varying load factor, etc. A third company bases its calcuh
tions on an ideal coal rate in kg per kw hr determined from manufacturers,
guarantees under fixed conditions of load, vacuum, steam temperature, steam
pressure, etc. This ideal coal rate is corrected for variation lrom standard
operating conditions by means of correction curves, most of which are based on
guarantees. When all necessary corrections have been applied, a coal rate is
obtained, which by comparison shows hov nearly the actual economy ap-
proaches that which might be expected from the station.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

(For Chapt€r 1, see end ol Chapter 1.)

CIIAPIER 2
Application of Diyersity Factor, H. B. Gear, Ptoc. Ndl. El. Light .4ssoc., 1915.
The Electic Power Ind.ustrg, McGraw-Hill, 1949.
W estinghouse Engineer, Jartary 195O.
crrrprm 3

Dcornmics ol Pubkc Utilities, L. R. Nash, McGraw-Eill, 1932

The Electric Power Industry , I\{cGrarv-Hill, 1949.
Potoer Economics lor Engineering Srudents, Pittsburgh Printing Co., 1939.
crragrsR 4
Semi-Outdoor Steam Plants, Gourdon, Friend, and Elliott, Combustion, April 1946.
IIow to Design a tr'oundation, G. Steven, Po?r€r, tr'ebruary 1947.
CHAPAER 5
Fwl Oils Comraerciat Standard, U. S. Dept. Commerce, Govt. Prioting Office.
Diisel Fuels, Standord Oil Co., N. J., 1939.
The Processes of Combustion in a Furnace, Ilenry Kreisinger, Combustion, November
1929.
U. S. Bureau of tr{ines, Bull. Nos. 22,85, 193; Tech. papers Nos.93, 158; Informatiou
Circulars Nos. 6888, 7538.
Fwl re codes' ASTM'
.,,APTER 6
Diesel and, Gae Engine Pouer Plants, G. C. Boyer, IvlcGraw-Ilitl, 1943.
Diesel Engi,neering Hand,book, L. H. Morriscn, Diesel Publications, Inc., 1943.
Modern Diesel Erg!rrcs, Power, April 1948.
Combustiou of Diesel Fuel, M. A. Elliott, Trans. SAE, July 1949.
Stationara Diesel Engine Lubri,catton, Socony-Vacuum Oit Co., 1951.
Diesel Engines-Fuels arul Lubri.cants, Sinclair Refining Co., 1949.
Significance of Diesel Exhaust Gas Analysis, Holtz and Eltiott, ?rons. .48M8, Febru-
ery 1941.
Preliminary Cooling Tower Selection, Foster lVheeler Co., Heat En7inaeing, Marct.
Aprit 1949.
Test Code lor I.C. Engi.ne\ ASME.
CEAPTER 7
flrcory and, Design ol Gas Turbines and ,let Engines, E. T. Vincent, I{cGraw-Hill,
r950.
An Appraisat ol Gas Turbines for Power Pla[ts, A. e. Christie, Combu*tion, Novem'
b€r 1947.
65:
658 BIBLIOGRAPHY
ConveDient Ges Properties and Charts, C. .I. Wrlkcr, ASll paper 50-F98,195O.
A Comparison <rf (hs lrrr'l Sterrn 'firrlrire,s, O. .{. F. llrrnzinger, Cor?6zsrror. Septem-
ber 1948.

ti
CITAPADR
Prtseot and tr'uture Trend of Thermal Prime Nlovcrs, C. W'. E. Chrko, (ombrstion,
Juty 1949.
The Steam Turbtne Regenerutit)e Cyck, J. K. Salisbury, Generrrl Electrit' Co. (Collec-
tion of 3 reftrints.)
Reheat Cycle (Symposium), Tront. ASI*IE, August 1949.
Toppilg at Sherman Crerk, H. Knecht, Combwtion, February 1947.
Modem Mercury-Unit Power-Plant Design, Hackett and Doriglass,'I'ran* ASME.
January 1950.
Theory of Incremental Rates, SteiDburg ard Smith, Electicol Enginceirip. \larch
1934.
CIIAPAEE 9
lleat Trausmission Betweel Fluids and Solids, W'. H. ]IcAdams, )Iechotical Engineer-
Jas, July 1930.
Radiant lleat Transmiseion, E. C. Eottel, Mechanicol Engineering- July 1930.
Elenent$ ol Heat Trunster and lruulation, Jacoh aud Harvkins, John Wiley and Sons,
1942.
Nuclcar Fuel for Porver Produetion, Flagg and Gross, Genzral Electric Eelirte. flarch
1952.
E6timation of Rediant Heat Exchruge in a Roiler Fumnce, Orrok an(l Ortsay, Com:
6r.,rf ion. April 1938.

CHAYTER 10
Cornbusti,on Engineering, O. deloreuzi, Combustion Engineering:Srrperheater Co., lnc.,
1947.
Stpcm Generation, Pouer, December 1946.
Economic Factors Jnvolved in Selection of Industrial Boilers, Patterson and Riker,
Combwtion. August 1949.
Refractories, Pouer, June 1950.
Factors Afrecting Superheat Control, M. Frisch, Iieot Engineeingl. December 1950
Fuels and Firing, Pouer, Dcccmbcr 1948.
Test Code lor Stati,onary SteMn llerwrating Urrrs, ASME.
Development of Pulverized Coal Firing, C. G. Il. Humphreys, Combustion, September,
October, Novcmber 1948.
Design and Opcration of Spleader Stokcrs, W. S. NIajor, Corr.bastioa, July 1949.
The Problem o[ Gcnerating Pure Steam at High Pressrrres (abstract), Frisch and
Lorenzini, Heat Engineeing, May 1950.
CHAPAER II
Statirnary Steam Englne Lubication, Socony-Vacuum Oil Co.
Steam Turbine Lubication, Socony-Vacuum Oil Co.
Steam Turbines, Church, McGraw-Hill, 1950.
Steam Turbines and ?heir Cycles, Salisbury, John Wiley :rnd Sons, 1950.
Steam Turbines, Pooer, Deccmber 1945.
Relative "Engine Efficiencics" of Largc Steam Generator Units, lfarren and Kno$lton,
frans. ASME, Fcbruary 1941.
Modern Extraction Turbines, L. E. Ncwman, Pouer Plant Engineering, Jantary,
February, March, April 1945.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 659
Steam Turbincs for Resuperheat Cycle, E. E. Parker, ?ron.e. ASME, 1948.
Oi[ Syetems for Industrial Steam Turbines, F. C . Linrl., Power Engineering, Apil, May ,
June, August 1949:
Test Code for Stcam Turbines, /8rl1E.
Steam Jet Ejectors-Their Selection and OperatioD, eombu.stion, 1946.
Stsndards of the lle&t Exchange Institute, Condenser Section, 1952.

CHAPaEB 12
Power Plsnt Engineering Fuel llandling, Storage, and Preparation Number, Ja[uary
1, 1929.
Dispersion and Spreading of Gases and Du6ts lrom Chimneys, 'W, F. Davidson, fnd.
Hygiane Fouadation Bull. 13, 1949.
Dust Emission from Coal-fircd Boiler Furnaces, E. R. Kaiser, Combu ion, May 1951.
Fans, Power, October 1951.
Standards of the Natioral Association of tr'an Manufacturers, NAFM Bdl. No.110,!9fi.
Centrifugal Fans, J. R. Darnell, Soatiera Power and /nd?rsrry, .Iune 1948.
Combustion Corlrol, Pouer, December 1949.
Ash Handling Systems, I[. R. Pursel, Pou,,er, May 1950.

crrepren l3
Cha(, Combustion, March 1950.
C,orlo€ion Identification
The Prevention of Embrittlement Cracking, A. A. Berk, ?rorx. ASIIE, 1951.
Trends in Modem Feedrvater Conditioning Equipment, R. S. Applebaum, Poraer
Gmeration, June, July 1948.
Boiler Scale, Its Formation and Prevention, R. H. Hayman, Southem Power qnd
Industry, Jautary, February 1945.
Feedwater Treatment, Power, December 1947.
So You Are Going to Buy a Boiler Feed Pump, L J. I(arrasik, Soztiern Power and
Industry, Aptil, 1942-July 1943.
Standards of the Ileat Exchange Institute, Tubular Exchanger S€ction, Ileat Exehange
Itrstitute, 1948.
Stand,ards ol the Hgdrallic Institute, IJyd a:i\c Institute, 1951.
CI.APTEB 14
ASA, ASf M, and ASME Pipe Cod.es.
Boiler Constnrction Code, ASME.
Piping Hand.booh, S. Crocker, McGraw-Hill, 1945-
Selection and Setting of Safety Valves, J. R. Kruse, ConLbustiorl, July 1949.
Transmission of Heat Through fnsulation, R. H. Heilman, N{echanical Engineering,
July 1930.
Flow ol Fluide, T. P. No. 409, Crane Co., 1942.
 ,{PPENDNX

(r) co r{rcno s. (2) SITAM GEI{TRATORS. (3 ) SURfACS IYPE HEAT EXCHANGEN&

--------Condonsate
1 I I
-ste.m

++
Connsetior NoConflection
Steam
Boiler
Fluo ca3
Roh€at€r
(hterm€diate
Superheater)
Iive St€€m
An outlet

4 CONDENSER (5) PRIME MOVERS, (5) GTNERATOR.

Three.phas€
surface Steam
Turbine Gen6rator
T!rbine

(8) AUTOMATIC RECUI.ATING DEVICES.

(7) SToRACE DEV|CIS.

0pen Clos.d
Fesd Tanl

Roducing Valve Bypass Valve Yalvs Op€raled

(9) iIECHANICAL PUi,tP. ( l0) DYNA}ltc PUMP.

I
()
I
Soil€, F€€d Pumg Air ejector
ReEodu.ed by pemi$ion of the International Eletrot*bnical Cofrmissiotr from I. E. C. publication
45, Ste.D Tubines, Pan I Speciffcstion, 1931, o$cial copi6 of which can be obrliDed froo the Cental
Ofre of the Cornbission, 2a Victoria Srreet, Wetminst€r, London, S. W. l.
tr'rc, A-1 Graphical symbols for heat poi{er systems,
660
 Enlroo, kcdt/ t9 d.g,C
712 9
,100 I .r20 130 n( J .160 170 .t80 .r9o .20 .2 o

IIT II l-t
660

650
I JI tt I
tl
at
JE
tt t--
/EE/-4 Jar
a-,
],N rlnJD,fi
J-ra-t
ta, ff t- 7
E5-

620

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60

580
g
(/X ix /r U // X,E
.V; x1 // Kr /)
56 0

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500

460 1 lYt IK V!, '/)

,/h /.,/
9tl
tY, //
) Yl' -v *</ 6

120
tx/
t^
v/, W; 't7h TOIAL HEAT - ENTROPY
FOR MERCURY
OIAGRAM

310
/N '{1"s L A Sh.ldon
O€v.lop.d l.om <,otd obioined in
1949 50-

360

u '/l Y
the.eseo..h t dbo.oi o.y
ot lh.
Oene.ol El.cl.ic Compony
340

320
V, //> UI
\
Ul / E nl.opy J/9 deg.C
IIE
0.60-0. t-o ?o-orr-0.60--0 t0.89
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Flr;. A-2 N'lollier dirgnm for rl( r(rrrJ' \'irlx)r.

&il
 Dth6lpr. !rol. ,tr rr.r l4tr6r!,r Jol.. !f,t gr.. d.a C

o.@o? trl,ee 29r.t0i 312.014 o.0a?a 0.?tta 0.ai02 247

0.o1,1 126.00 !?.619 2e6,830 tl,1.350 0.062t 0.7a26 o.106t lta
136.53 2e6.65A 0.0168 o,?2rt o.?ali al
0.00e6 re.0{,5 296.5t2 tl0.21, 0.680 0t7116 0.7717 62
2o.at3 2e6!430 3t8.6,14 0.060? 0.?04t 6o
0.0tb2 lil.ae 2e6.212 31a.04t 0.0613 0.ti0t !,r
22.e21 lce.100 ala.02? 0.065a 0.6T52 0!?346 26
18,t.61 26,10r 206.?t7 3t1.t?,t 0.o?lt o.616l 0!7irt
106.tc 21.tr2 2C6.611 342 !54,a 0,0291 0.?031 9r3
206.5,r 24,242 205,3r4 42t.626 o,ot72 0.6tag ?.1
0.oa52 2L2.76 2e,2t3 29ti.201 i2a.,tao o.6668 5.?t
0.(xge 218.80 io.qlt 296.OCt 326.104 ,4.3!
224.00 30.?40 20,1.e06 ,e6.rt6 0.623 oisrtl 0.076? tt21
0.056, 22A.90 al.a01 291.COg a23.tto 0.0a35 0.58?a 0.6ti3
o10633 23e.?5 ,ar.a32 326.?11 0.09t6 3.30
0.o0t 2t0.60 t2a,I6a 2e4.?60 3a7.r2e a,0!
!63.T,t 35.r47 20,1.!67 0.6,115 1.58
0.210c 2 t0.t0 34.23? 2rt.0rs ,in.l!0 o.5320 1! 09
202.11 30.010 203,il0 t!3.432 0.09ct o.5t08 0.0101
0.a515 ,11.266 2CX.521 alr.?11 0!101? o.a1o! 0.6121
0rt2ra 42.11O 2e3r16,( 33,.111 0.5@5 o.6002 0.5s
0.ir022 314.15 4r.306 291.221 330.123 0.1(t3 o.,tooo or001a 0.60
0.n626 724.72 44.27t 20!r1@ 3a7.0rt otre0a
202.C84 $a.s3 0.1030 0.4452 0.6e0t
0.T03 336.10 ,6.1a, 292 rAaS 0.5001 0.36
314.60 292,16? ua.o2e o.1112 0.{![3 0.5486 0.le
29r.6e? s/f,t.ago o.t222 0.,(338 0.6t00 0.1t
s6,627 20r.l{a tt?.970 o!34?l 0.10,
431.40 2e1.053 trc.6?? ort28t 0.4120 0.e4
t.914 .i46.50 o0.tt6 200.a06 351.1r12 0. t0,11 0.5361 o.o?1
1.722 01i3tt 290.390 t52.!126 0.1320 0.53n1 0!002
5.625 ,168.15 60.172 2CO.3Ol ,5S.5?t o.1t47 0.at17 0.055
6.326 t77.50 6,(.38,1 36,(.6(8 o.1363 0r €66
?.031 200.066 356!t43 o.aat2 0.0,15
?,T34 ,103.8i !a0.o16 466.,(P0 0.61?0 0.042
8.,13' 289.774 gt?.2{a o.a?.r2 0.030
6A.,121 ,ia.oo9 0,1,11t o.st22 0.0s
c.440 289t527 05a.720 orl{24 0.3615 0.03a
10,546 289.llC 3.tt.400 a.t.trl 0.36,16 0.0t2
289.2e0 0.36t8 o.030
11.!52 532.15 2aOt1g,a o.la5, 0. t2a
12t055 ?2.r$ 28C. m4 361.2,12 0.t566 0.5047 o.@1
11.358 12.780 0.5011 0,026
tt.001 51?.36 ?3.40C 288,910 a62.tle o.14t5l 0.3i217
1t,419 244.602 t63.504 0,1,1r18 0.34603 o.ol2
rt.6t? 76.256 488.192 o.r6@ 0.r4241 0,acle?
,70. 15 7t.50? 2aa.ioa 365,a15 o.15226 o.3382? 0,019
0!,18€12 0,01?
21.6A1 505.20 90r822 231.81e 0.155r7 0.127?6
28.123 42.721 2a?.5a0 3?o.20,t 0.15a6 0.4?906 c,0!3
41.634 2e7 t2A2 9?1.?51 0.{?67{ .0.012
2a, r0a2 373.114 0.16166 0r31214 q.011
€.144 2A6.612 il?s r570 0.000
{c,215 286.202 3?7.115 0,16?19 0.20?30
54.2,16 ?07.a5 285.849 o.16945 0,201116
28Jr??5 381!,166 0.t?146 0.2462? 0.45772 0.00o

Sp€cific volumo of tiquid morcury at It0'C - 0.UrlO078 rn3/kg. Voturnelrjc cootiiuioln

of €xpardioD : 0.000182 per d6g. O.
Frc. A-3 Thcnnorl)niunic l)r'oln,rlics of srlurrttr(l ln(rcury ul)oL.i'
. neprintcd from pap€r co-sponsorcd l,r, ti(v'f.h Cotr! ittee on Pn\trrtics of GasA nn(i Gns lli$ues,
Ileat Transfd and Applieal Mechanics Dn.i\ion, AS\IE, for ,rcsentrtior 1949 Annu.l llccting.

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Gr 3? 12.60 H9 t0 M.rcur, 20ojl 1,2
74.9r t.5 rll n.liud ,0.1J9 IJ
Sr 34 ,1.96 2.4.6 ?b !2 Lrrd 207.2t L4
8r !5 ,9.9t6 I Bi !3 iirnu* 20r.00 3.5
X. 36 t!.7 o Polcrioa 210.0 2.a,b
tb 3, lt.at I Al !5 Aldbomi.. 221,0 a
3r 3t !7.63 2 l. t6 RoJoa 2229 0
Y!9 $,?:r I vi !7 Vi.giniuh 2225 I
Z'{o
cb 4t
it.22
92.?t 5
I tq la RrJiun 726.03 2

95.95
A.tiiilh l7r.O 3
Tlt to 'lltoiur 212.12
9r.8 2,1,7
tot.7 6,1 P'.L.ri.i!6 2r l.0o 6
a[ a5 t02.9t l u. 9! Ur.nilm 77a-o, a:6

Ftc. A-5 Table of elcments.

664
 w.ll rlticrn.lr (m6)..d w.ia|lt (ra/nn)
by ..h.dul. n06b..
EEETTT
IB m E
IM m ro m m m
I
RII

,.2 10.19
I t.,-a
o.:ci
6.a 13.72

IMffiD II i.!.r
EEE
Ig l.lt 3.)2

lr.,
17.16

2t.!l
II Iffi
IffiEffi Ircffi II
I
IIER Ir'I
t,ii
:l.Il

t.t;
r.2i
t.t9!
1.74,

IB IB ffi
l.t';
;i{

IEm
ld.o1

IB
rr_r l.sit :1.1,

t5.., :ll t) i.ta .l.ri:l

Iffi
,.50 3.
J.5lt I.?t
tl-8 {!.10 3.40 (l!
38_l .tr_]i

ol.$
Iffi o
,.$l
545
5.08

4.5.,
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7 tr
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3_il
t12

5.t6
63.5 ?r.ot a.0t ll..ll t:t.,'',
?d.:)
7.62 I t.l
t5,tt Iri.tii

@rm
I I.:IE 21.31r

141.60
ffi ffi 8.,i6 I !,1
Iti_:lx
Ll5

l0l.ti I tl.:to :l3.ri3

II
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6,i5 ri,3a
t27 Irl..r0 t0_tt au. I ll.9l
IIIffi ffi ffi m
r 33.1E
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t.r.l I iit_rrt .ll lo,'n7 lr.!a

i1.l'i ffi
I
m 6.3'
xi,tx
ll.1

II ffiMEW
28-18 42.Ut
t19.00 l:l 70 I8.!t n.!t
103.2 lr Lli 6n.9r

ti-t :l73.Ct
ffim
Mm 7.E I t8.2r lt.tl
t3r,6
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ffi ffi ffi
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aori.l oo
ffiffiffi ffi ffi
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ffi ffi ffi @ 2ii.l1, 4.$t
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ffiffiffi
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rn ril

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m
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Ixcinrnl thiclncss .re ,.crdsc. ErFct t.ria(ion of 1l!-5r' wrll lhi.tt'r(
Frt;. A-6 Pipe St:rul,rrrls.

MRi'rcPRE$uRr ct^ss rrc-"

l"'"

fi]l
iitillil

t;rr;. .4,-7 Stecl llange dimens,ons*, rnro. (Abstract of ASA, Bl6e, Standard)D -- tlig
B = bolt cilcle dia., ? = thickne'ss**,.N = nrrmbcr of holes, r/ = bolt holc dia.

@itt
' S.o tr'i8. 14-6. 105,6 kg/cmr 6lrd l?5.t L8/omt clsss6aand &me Pipo size' &f€
d.
- thicLnoc,
?', includ€. rsisod f..e of t.69 mm ir 10 6 kSrcmr sod 2l'l k8lom
SaanCsrd. ; does not 'rdolqdo rsi66d face i! tbo olhsr&
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6d o6o* ots00@.o(o tro l
0l 6a aa.a t! i. |a io F @ o) i o
611

6
-6
A
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. EqEq3.8.4EEE3.
,s5338FeSE55 ill
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Lone n.dl!! {sollbor Tse cro.s {soL!l.l!l Raducar nalgl
Bbof,

Osst I!on-t.8 Lg/cmt WBP CLASS

Sizc A B c D E F G, H

.1 88.e0 t27.00 14,45 107.96 146.05 u.15 D.u

31 76 06.15 130.70 50-80 117.48 t58.76 44,45 12.70
38.r0 r01.00 t 5r.{o 67.lii t27.00 177.80 50.80 t4.29
60.80 I r4.10 105.r0 63.50 t52.48 203.20 83.50 rzr-rm t5.88
63.sO r27.00 r 7?.8O 7A.g) 177.80 241-30 83.50 r39.70 t7.al
78-rO 139,70 t98.85 76.20 l$o.50 264.00 76-tu 152.40 t9.05
t8.s0 t62.44) 216.90 88-00 2r5.9{) 2g2,to 78.20 165.10 20.u
I A5-10 228.@ t0l-80 228.C{} 804.80 78.20 1?7.80 23.81
10r.60
260.35 u4.30 254.00 242.90 88.00 20&20 23.81
l*7.00 190.5{)
228.60
152.44 203.20 292.10 lw.oo us.4n 368.30 88.90 25.40
203.20 228.60 356.60 139.70 3,r2.SO 114.N n4.30 4s.44 28.58
264.00 279.40 419.t0 165.10 406.{o 520.70 127.00 3(N.80 30.16
$4.80 m4 80 482.U) 100.50 482.60 622.30 r3s.70 355.@ 31.76
546.r0 190.5{) 5:I1.40 686.80 t52.0 400.40 &r.03
855,60
406.40
365.60
$81.00 609.60 203.20 596.90 1A2.6 lB5.r0 4.n 38,5r
$7.fi 4t9.t0 673.10 215.90 835.00 812.80 177.80 {82,60 39.60
608.00 451.fi 736.60 241.30 698.60 889.00 203.20 608.00 42,A2
8m_60 658.80 863.60 n0.40 812.80 1028.70 238.60 809.m 47.83
?62.00 385.00 l0r1.l0 3tl.00 084.25 12u.60 254.00 702.00 5S.0f

0!at-st..1-1o.6 tglc!' rsP Glas.. aril ca.! Iron-1?.6 rtlc.2 tsP cl!.."

15.{ 101 .60 13?.OO 50.so ,.23.43 165.10 50.aO 1?.a6

31.?6 10? .95 139.rO 63.50 133.35 144.15 5?.15 19.Ot
38.10 114 .30 152.40 69.45 155.58 215.90 63,5(} 20.8a
50,80 12l.OO 16t.10 76.20 165.10 224.60 43. so 12?.OO 22.2t
63.50 139.?O 17?.aO 44.90 190.50 z?a.70 16.20 139.?O 35.ao
r6.ao 1t2.rlo 196.45 84.90 2O9.55 27 9.10 16.2O 152.{O 34.60
a6.90 166.10 215.90 101.60 228.60 31?.50 76.20 165.10 m.i6
1m,60 17?.aO 22A. OO 114.30 25l.OO 342.90 a8.90 171.8O 31.?5
1t?.oo 203.30 200.35 12?.OO 279.{O 381.O0 101.60 20a.2O 3a.e0
1t2. ao 215.90 392.10 139.rO 3r.7.50 41{.50 L27 .OO 22a.60 36,51
tog.30 36a.OO 355.60 152.4t 3a1.OO t20.70 139.70 3? 9.aO al.8a
35a.OO ae3,10 t19.10 L77.AO a.l,l . tO (x)9.((l 152.40 toa.80 4t.!3
30{.80 303.30 ta2. €o 203.20 520.70 6a8.80 165.10 3J!.@ 50.4o
865.GO 381,O0 t40.10 ?15.90 5a4.m 7a7.St 190.50 oQ.ao !3.S
{o8.ao r10.10 609.60 241,30 oa7.7o a76.30 203.20 45t.lo 61.t5
13? . ao a57 .2O 673.10 254.OO 7LL,2O 9ta. io .,4.q, ao.l3

Frc, A-0 Drnrcnsions oI stan(lrr(l flartgcd fit t ing*-st rlight sizes.a'

. Footnot.s *iI b. found at €nd of tabh-

667
 C.rt 5,:..1-21.1 !9,/=! l'l ir...d /

D E E

12.1
1e.1 For .&.. b.tor !o.a E {.c dlr.o. on. or th. a2.2 tal
h.r. 1.95 .. rrt..d l!c. t! r.q{rr.dr .uttr.ct a.?6
- tr6
2r.a
3!,e l, Br cr E, &d r.

50.S taT.oo 10t.10 7t.20 16!!r0 424.60 63.50 13?.OO 22.24

13rrt0 1Tr.80 a8. to !to.50 266.7O 03 r50 139.70 25.a0
14.2 152.aO 196.90 ao9.5l t?9.ao 76,20 24.64
48.9 r6!.10 216.90 10t.40 22a.CO 31?.50 165.10 30.ta
10t.0 177.4O 224.60 2ta.oo 3ar.9o 76.20 ,.r1.00 31.rt
13?.O 205.20 260.,]o 319.ao 48. co 209,20 3a.93
tt2.a 216.90 a92.to 139.70 31? r5{) 22e.@ 36.1!
204.2 r5a.lo 3!t. r,o t52.,ao 12r.OO 2T9,aO al!aa
254.O laa,i0 Ito9.6{) ,,39.tO 30a,80 rt.6l,
301.s 330,2(} aa2.60 ilo3.2o t20.to 69e.to l52.r(, 355.60 50. ao

llt
C..t StG.l-28.! tald, tsP Cla.o(/

L2.7
t 0.1
25.1
31.8
38.1 For .1t.. b.lor to1.6 ! o.. dl..oalon. ol a2.2 t

6t.i
16.2
a6 -e
101.0 2(J1-ao 13o.ro 209.5t 31.93
ltl.o 324.60 t52.ao 2?9.a0 ax5.{5 1a?.oo 2ta.et
1t2,1 2a7.65 15A!tt 3t?.lo a?6.26 133.35 951.00 ]lt.at
zot.2 298.45 t?1.a5 lal.00 56t.!t ta6,06 3oa,ao at,at
25.1.O 336.55 196r45 a,la.60 654.O5 lta,Tt 3aa.90 53.90
304.4 sat.o0 242.2' 5to.ro 7lt.alt 161.10 347.ll i?tlt

c..t 3t..1-r12.2 r!/-'2 ISP Cli..a/

t2.t a2rtt 50.8 9irat !,a6.ot al.at 12t.OO 14.2t

19. t 9t.2t ct.lo ,,1?!46 ltl.a6 i,O.ao t2r.oo litaa
a!.,r 1(yI.95 a:t.!o 1r3.63 19a.15 17.11 !?t,oo t7.8
t1,e lil.to 49.65 !33.1' ao3.20 as.lo t2r.oo 20.6t
36. r 120.6t r0tro 156.64 aaa.60 69.a! 12?.OO 22.23
50.8 146.06 tor.95 16i.to a0l).3t aa. oo \t2.10 ,t.ax)
63.5 165.10 190.to 20a.to 86.00 11t.a6 2a.!a
111.80 1a?.oo 209.45 32S.35 101 . @ raa.rt 3t.?!t
48.9 100.50 139.?0 aa'.ao a!5.60 1l'r.30 106.4!
lol.6 215.9() L52.aO 473,05 ,r!9.10 222.26 38.10
121 .A 2ll,oo 1?7.4O 33().r0 a96.to 16a.,rO 260.3r
152.4 Ito.l0 ,tt.60 5t5.ao 2A1.13 a?.60
203.2 21t.90 at9.10 l]42.30 ttttao 336,5! 55r64
25a.O 393.TO 2at.3o la9.to 403.20 587.3t 61,50
30a.8 a10.10 a5l.oo 556.AO ala.00 012!?l 06.@

fla. Lg Co.tl!!.<t.
66R
 c..! la..l-a!rt tt/-t ll Ct...,

/l I c D 2 a

a!.4
lr.a
aa.t Ll.r ta.a r r- alD..lor ol tO!.!
!o.a
tt.a
ra.a Ito.llo !la,to ,L1.lo laa.to 1la.to taa.ll! la.!o
rl.t Ir!.ao tta,ltt att.00 ,ata.to tta.$ aaa.rra ll.aa
rol.ao tat.ao 1a!.10 laa.10 t!9.to illtt.t! aa.a!
lar:.oo lta.ao !lo.lo tar.a! l!l.ao 1.l.to aa!.16 !o.to
1at..lo llta.ao lol.ro Lt.tx, rlt.50 1Ct.to llt.lo at.la
x..ao ldl.!o aao.ao aa9.a aa.!o llr.a, l?a.al &t.tll,
ata.@ ata.!o lla.tx, llt.!o tol.r1o 2t!.6 aaa.a! ca.a!
toa.to rtla.ao ttt.ao aoa.ao aa!.ao ala.ao ,a!<r.Elt te.lt
c..t tt..l-t06.! t&/-2 t9 Clr.../
,!.4 ttl.oo !E.t lae.a! 2?/l.qt lil.t0 ir.q) !.q
tt.t tla.ro iot.to 1!t.tl at{.oo ra.lo laa.(!! a6.!a
!t.! !!a.ao tot.aa lar.ao atg.,lO aa.9 l!8.1! It.t!
ro.a lat.t! rao.at alt.t) t3c.!a tot.rp 1L;1! tt.10
a!.t at a.!t tl!!l! tal.aa lat.t! itat9.ta al.at
rt.a ala.0! laa.oa aaa.to alL.!t lat.oo ala.r! a?.at
tot,a tlr.06 taa.tt trl.l! aat ric 1!2.rlo a?!.ol $1.!
tat.o lL.tt aalr.6 !?a.al lao.!t l!.!o Lt.aa ?trott
lla.a t!1.lrlt lla.tl aaa.to tllr! -r4.! llt.to ta.!!
lot.l al!.ql ata.aa .a3ll..o tlt.a! atl.ta Gt1.aa, ca.0
tta.o a5.!o aoa.!o !!a.ao ala.,ao !air.l! tla.!l ll't.I
lot.t !46.a! lga.ll 6?t.to 10tt!.lro loa.ao ra.ao tat.at
tr'' r-9 G'otltt't
. l,l-ar.n L -. ttl. t t& t..r.ta t.rt-.t ti. ta.Lra, .tl.t .aE l.rr...tr6
tl-Ln -a.rtr. ..a rtl.a l-lli l.za-, rt!.a-l Lr!! V-, .I-.;!
.lll aI rr^t, .1... ...r I tr.ti
.rrl rt.a lvor .t... &. tr rli- rr. . rl.r. r-..
Lt ._t,ra - nh.a t... ttl. -t..a ,... r. l&ld.a tr
rU al-l- .r..r. D.
d l Fl..a t.- .a ,.!. l- l*trda t .lt atDl- .n.ti O. ft- tI.{.. .aLr ab. rrae - -h.a
,..r ..n o.a! rL .ia.r t. - ,1.{. .da. ar.Iro .t ll --!. ;.br.a.
r -1..4 l... .l ala t. l}t.a.a l. .!t at-r- ! ra ,. tt n ,1.1.. .at.r ti- rb-
ItlI-.4.4! - ir.- L...n - u.a, .t o!t.r r. ar.B....E.ttarEr.[.i.rr E-l. *b...a.
, ll oa.a-l alttrt,r.n.. ittt! l..lFFr.il l. thi. r.lt..E b!.a - tt t l!;t.a t.a.n..d,
E/-,............,.......rao.o..
ltrt V-.J....................tx.e..
ta.l t/.l|....................ta.a..
at.! la/,-'.......,.,.....,....a5.t..
lil..,.................,..a4r..
V..,....,................r4.r..
i.+a tEdd .., a. ir.d tt rL t..Fna.n Ir tir at- iL .lr.. (ln. lt, atr., i.r.nh-
.- , ----..a It rr. r. lc;. rt..rr rn rFr.r.a r. a.;l.t-r..i;
r--aal- .a- oiltt.Itn..!E
,.t -r, attt rll .-.ta.iUr -iak..Fn
tu tL- rt.ar
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, a.t .n .l --trl. r{sF t r.tt .ta..tl- e aL -- t .. t ,-. at-tE atE a. iL .br.
au. .l alEa- a* ib l.'.* .pt.

06b
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F+ F_+1
i
F]€t r , 4
"t E{
#i

3ir...ai :l a c D E F G E

25.O 36.1 22.23 38 .1O 50.80 101-.60 50 .80 38.10

31.8 4?.43 25.10 4?.oa t0.80 101.00 03.$0 38.t0
38.1 57,16 28.64 ,7.1r 63.tO 101.60 ?3.03 38.10
60.E 76.20 t4.e3 8a.!o 76.20 152.40 92.(B 38.10
83.6 06.26 ,14.{5 76.20 aa.00 152-.10 104. ?8 3a.10
70.! 11a.30 50.80 45,73 88.90 t62.10 12?.00 50.80
84.0 133.35 67.16 05.25 101.60 152.40 13C.?0 03,5
101,6 152.40 03.60 104.?8 10t.60 162.40 1t?.16 03.60
12?.0 re0.60 ?9. ta 123.4t 127.00 203.20 185, ?{ 70.20
16r.{ 224.60 e6.26 1{2.88 1te.?0 203.20 216.90 88.C0
20:1.2 ,ot.80 t2?.00 177.a0 162.40 203.2 0 .900.68 101.00
264.O 3a1.00 - t6a.?6 216.00 r?7.80 254.00 3S3.85 l2?.OO
m,4 {5?.20 1r0.50 264.0O 20t.20 264.00 38r.00 152.40
35i.0 0D 3(X.80 l!2.76 106.10
{06.+ 0D 304.80 {60.90 1??.80
.57,2 0(x.80 633.{O 203.20
6t8.0 304.80 6a4.20 2n4.00
c0e.0 304.80 602.16 266.70

Frc. A-10 Standard (Scherlulc 40) :rnd cxtra heri\\' (Sche(lule S0) Neldir)g fitting
dimensions, inches.

670
 ir A
1;
ia)
B
SE B
E,t E
c
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66aai.t66 F o It (J
ss8 ; g83B338P ; 5E : 3I PBgg : 3 F 6
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1q9 ''t 1? 9i 91.:1.:': q.:61 e19'1 .l .,1
,=E il
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3Ee:::SS5Cg:S;gaBs:3:C3 .99
" 9- i
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:3-I <
671
rfl
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Praatra ol rotar vapor-lg paa artr2

o oooa 000i ool2 0.016 0120 002a
l, ",1',ii lrrr,l,,, r I' r rr l,', rlr',, lr,,' l,r ' rl, r ' r 1,, r ' l" ',1r,' I

l! ol lloittu.a par lC ol .lry olt

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ar,:]trlt lt rrtrti
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Frc. A-19 Elect c Motor Deta.
877
678
a

NNDEX
I
l/
Accumulglor, hydraulic, 56 Barometric coDden8er, 41,1
stea.m, 54 Baee exchange w&ter softmer, 530-Sgl
A. C. power, measurement of, 651, 652 Baum6 scale, 1lg
Air, combusoion, 137 Belt conveyor, U544, 419-4&, 4b2
excess, 137, 144 Belting, 45O
6lter, 173, 175 Binary vapor cycle, 246
Air-fuet ratio, 139, 144, 159 Blade velocity ratio, 385
Air leakage (condenser), 423 Bleeder turbine. S€e Extraction.
Air preheater, 470-474 Blowdorm, 522
Alkalinity, weter, 520 control, 524
Altitude, deratiBg for, 160 piphs, 617
Ammeter, 651 tark, 525
Ampre, 13 valve, 586, 587
Analyris, feedwater , 579, 522 Boiler, availability, 292
lwl, l2I ca,pacity , 294
proximste, 125, 127, 134, 135 classification, 297
\Limate, 127 , 128 oontrolled circulation, 293
Anchor bolts, 111 economic surface, 286-287
API scale, 119 feed pump, 556-562
Apron con'eyor, 444 furnace,313.318
Architecture, prower plant, 86, 89 high pressure, 263
Ash analysis, 135 horsepower, 294
Ash conveyoi, of, 349
losses, causes
classification, 467 met€r, 647-650
hydraulic, 469-470 trim, 320
pneumatic,468 Boiler Code, ASME, 290
ASME Code, Boiler, 290 Boiler efficlency, definition, 296
boiler test, 348, 350, 351 Boiler feed pump, 556-562
s&fety valves, 589 control, 559-560
turbines, 408 required positive suction head, 558
ASME Short Code (Boiler),351 Boiler heat balance, calculation of, 353-355
Atmospheric reliel valve, 405, 409, 429 Boiler6, bent tube, 299
Atomic energy, 259, 260 6re tube,297,30I-302
Atomrc Energy Commission, 6, 14, 259 water tube, 297, 303-306
Atomizing burner, 344 Brake horsepower, 163, 367
Auxiliaries, condenser, 426-430 Breeching, ga6, 480-483
Diesel, 169. Brick estimating, 90
Auxiliary drive turbine, 401 Brick,.radial chimrey, 100, 497-498
Availability, boiler, 292 speciEcation, 498
BS, 285
Baflcr, 294, 304 Bunker, 444.445
Bagtest sampler, 466 Bumer, oil, 343-347
Belarced draft, 478, 501 pulverized coal, 340-342
Barlow formula, 573 Bypass, tIap,614
Barometer correctious, 412-413 Bypass oriice, pump, 561
619
6C) INDEJ(
Celcium, 512 Column liacc, 91
C-alorific value, fuel, 12 eEoi€,nsy, 367, 380
Cslorimeter, bomb, 181-132 Combuetion, f 35-145, 663
ga,s, 133 approx. calculations, 144
Caiecit factor, 42 Desel engine, 15&161
Capability, 899 equipnetrt (surtmsry), 333
turbine, 377, 378 nature of, 258-259
Carbon dioxide. See CO meters. process, 136
C*ro! 2ll, tfr, 247 requirements, 333
Carryover, 515 aample examples, 14O-144
Caustic €mbrittl€m€Dt, 516 Combustion control, 499-503
Centipoise, 606 elements of, 501
C,entrif ugal fan, 48tt-487 Compreesiou, uaa0ow engine, 373
Ceutrifugal laue, commercial classet of, Compressior iguition, 155, 156
491 Compression ratio, 153, 155
Ceatrifugal pump, 552-563 Concrete, 90
CetaDe number, 120, 160 Condensate depression, 418
Chain grate atoker, 336 Condensate pump, 427, 556
Charts, 630 Condensation, heat transfer, 274-2;7
progress, 24 Condensers, contact, 413-417
psychrouetric, 672 surface, 417-423, 431-433
Cheek valve, 583, 685 Condensing water. See Circulating wtter.
Chemicels (wa,t€r treatmetrt), 5:6 Condition line, turbine, 235. 239, 248, 388,
Chery formula, 674
Chimney, 96, 493-499 Conductarce, coeffi cierls of , 27 6, 277
coDcrete, 90 Conduciion formulae, 267
masonry, 10G105 fumace rvall, 318-320
proportious, 100 hear, 265, 266-267
stsbility, 101-105 Conductivity, toeficient of
stee[.99 I I refracto es, Sl9
Chimaey draft, calc. for, 4b4",19s fumace insulation, 319
principle of, 49{ pipe insulation, 599
Chim;rey foundation, 107 Conductivity (heat insulation), 399, 599
Chlorination, 4ii1 Continuous blorvdown, 523
Circulating pater /condenEer), 427-429 Control, air-fuel ratio, 502
CO meters, 645-64? centrifugal pump, 427, 559-560
Coal, commercial sizing, 130 combustion, 499-503
properties, 121-131 feedwater, 563-567
purchasing Bpecif cations, 130 steam turbine, 375-376, 391-394
ranks, 126 Controllers, combustion, 504
stora8e, 441-145 Controls, dlnft fan, 489-490
typical analyses, 1?7 oil burner, 345-347
Coal buuker, 444-445 turbine, 404
Coal coDveyiDg, Convection, heat, 268-270, 273-27i
cLaasification, 442 Convection coefficient, calculation of, 278
equipment, 44H53 2W
system design, 452 Conveyor design, coal, 449-453
Coe6cient oI conductiotr, 267, 310. 5gg stoker, 336
furnace wall m&terials, Slti Cooling tower, 180-181
pipe insulations, 599 Cooling systems, engine, 177-l7s
Coefrcients of convection, separrtiou of, Corliss,371
433 Correction, orifice florv, 639
Cold spriug, 595 . Correctious, sterm rotc to gueraDtees,4ll
INDEX 081

ft rrrepond€rice, engin€eriu8, 27 Drag ecraper, .!lil

Corroeion, 51,1.515 Drainage devices, pipe, 611-615
Cost elements iD electric rate8, 66 Drainage gradient, pip€, 6(8-609
Creep, 264 Drawiugs, po\f,er plant, 26, 27
Customer cost€, 60 Drum intemals, 327, 329
Cutof, ratio, l53 Drlaess factor, I
Cycle, Carnot, 2ll Ducts, air, 4794t10
claed, S4 velocity in, 480
conventional, 306 Duplex pump, 547
Diesel, 153 Duration, load, 40
gsE turbine pl8nt, 195, 2(}2 Dust collectoro, 46H66
L C. engine, 15&151 sampler, 466
melcury vapor, 2,48 Duty, pump, 550
Rankine, 212 Dtrumic hend, 545
regenerative, 218
reheating, 236 Economizcr, 329-331
steam engine, 365 EDR (Equivalent direct radiation), 295
two vs. four, 157 M€ctiveness, heat excbanger, 202
Cyclea, vapor, 200-212 Efrciency, Diesel engine, 163
CJrclone burner, 341 dust collector, 465
Cyclone dust separator, 4&j-464 gas turbirc, 194, 197
generstor (el€c.), 675
Dacrator, 5ilil536 motor, 677
9econc€ntration of boiler watcr, 522-525 ateam g€nerator, 3,l8
Deinlein'r rule, 493 st€sm turbine, 379, 380
DEMA, 163, 184, 185 variable load, &l
Demaud factor, 41 EfEcieucy formulae, boiler, 296
toble of, 42 Csrnot cycl€,211
Demineralizatiou, 531 Diesel engine, 163
Dinaity, air and flue ges, 495 electric motor, 677
fuel oil, U8, 119 fan, 485
Depreciation, Tl gas turbine, 196, 197
legal ratee, 73 generator, 228
stst€ practices, 74 pump, 5,16
Desuperheat€r, 325 Rankirc cycle, 213, 214
Dirgram factor, 366, 368 regenerative cycle, 219, Zfr
Diemet€r ratio, 638 reheoting cycle, 237
Diesel cycle, 153 steam engiue, 367
Direct-acthgpump, 6-550 steam turbine, 379, 380
Dieengagement area, !94 Ejector, 6team iet, 425
Dissociatiou, 259 Ele€tdc distribution 6ystem, 28, 31, 4l
Dissolved sotids, 521 Electdc r&t€E, 65
Dietribution Byst€m, electdc, 28, 4l Electrical measurementr, 651-6&3
Diversity factor,4l Electrical precipitator, 46.1
tabte oI, 42 Eleetron, 6
Dra,tl, 474479 Elements, table of, 6{i4
componente, 477 Eleva,tor, coal, 4.ltl, ,149, 452
definitions, 474, 478 Embrittlement;516
drawings, power platlt, 26, 27 Emergency t p valve, 376, 394, .()5, .{}6
Draft fans, specification of, 491 Energl', defnition, I
Draft gauge, &j6 nuclerr binding, 7
Drsft 1088, fuel bed, 476 Energr equivalent of mess, l{
me&8urcm€nts,48l Energy costs, direct, 68
 682 INDEX
"Engine" e6ciency, 367, 381-386 f'lyash, 462
Engine 1r. turbine, 360 Fl1'wheel, drive from cngirrc, iJ02
EngiBe6, I. C., 149-l5ii Foaming, Sl5
Entbalpy, defnition, lo Footing, wall, 106
Entropy, definition, l0 tr'orced draft, 478, 486
epm,6t2 Foundation bolts, 111
EPRS, 2A5 Foundation, mass of, 108
Equivaleat ev&poration, 295 turbine, 110
Equivalent radieut heating surface, 285 Foundatione, 105-111
Equivalent weight, 522 Four cyele, 157
Equivalent per million, 522 Friction factor, 604, 605, 607
ERS, 285 w, 477
Evaporative cooling, 170-182 Friction loss, 227
Evaporator, 539-542 chimney, 494
Evaae stack, 497 conden'ser, 428
Excess &ir, 137, 1,14 conduits (large) 674
Excem pressure regulator, 5@ duct, 477
Exhaubt, I. C. engine, 174-176 pipe, 604408
Expansiou, pipe, 592 wat4.I,428429
rstio of, 365 "from and at," 295
thermal,264 Fuel, engine, 118
Expansion bends, pipe, 593-596 definition, 116
Expusion joint, pipe, 592-593 Fuel ignition, Diesel, 156-157
ExtractioD, steam from turbine, 218, 226- Fuel oil, furnace, 122
227,376, 38a,896 Fuels, occurreuce, 3
Furnace arch, 337
Factor of evapolation, 295 Fumace, boiler, 313-320
Fan characteristics, 487 tempereture, SlT
c6trol, 489-490 wall,300
emciency,'485 wall typea, 315-316
power, 485 Furol viscosity, 119,,161
type6, ,185-487
Fads, draft, 484-492 Gas, fuel, 116
Feedwater, definition, 517 analysis, 127
heaters, 532-539 burners, 346
piping systems,6lT heating value t€st, 133-134
regulators, 563-567 loading (dust),,163
treatmcnt summarized, 527 loop, description,,14O-441
Firiog quality, coal, 130 meter, 642
Fission,260,26l occurrence, 116
Fittings, pipe, 580, 532, 666, 667-669, 6?0 supply system, 458-459
Fixed costs, 66 turbine, l9l-192
Flrrnged fittings, 667-669 turbine plants, peak ioad, 53
Fl.rnges, 577-578 Gate valYe, 583, 584
standard dimensions, 665 Generator efficiency, i85-186, 228, 380, 675
l-lash cooler, Sl8 Globe valve, 583, 584, 585
Ffight conveyor, 446, U8, 452 Governor, engine, 158, 364
lilow coefficient, 639 turbine,391-394
Flow meter co[ections, 639 Grindability,. coal, 125
Flow meiers, 6,lii-644 Groutiug, 112
l-lue gas, quantity oI, 14G143, 355,478- Guarante€, correction for steom tate,4l0
479 4tt
rnalysis, 645-647 Cuarantees, turbine, 4 l0-41 1
 INDEX
llangcr, pipe, 608-611
llardness, water, 519
i{eaders, boiler, 297
steam pipe, 617
Heads, definition ol pump, 545-54ri
Heat bahnce, calculations, 187-188
definltion, 210
Diesel, 164
method,352
Rankine cycle, 212-216
regenerative cycle, 230-233
steam ge[erator, 350-355
steam turbine, 389
Heat conductivity. See Conductivity and
Coefficient of conduction.
Ileat Exchange Instittte, 277
Heat insulation, 597-602
breeching,483
specifications, 599-600
Heat loss, bare pipe, 597, 671 (also
Lo6ses).
Heat rate, 249, 380
Ileat release rates, 314
Ileat stream, 210, 216,234
Heat transfer, 264-266
air preheater, 471-473
boiler, 282-284, 291, 292, 307, 310, Bt1
ecoromizer, 330
feedwater heater, 538-539
pipe covering, 600-602
radiart, 13, 282-284, 310, 318, 600
surface condenser, 420-422
waterwall, 310-311
Heaters, feedwater, 222-226, 217, 532-539,
537
Ileating value, fuel, 12
oil, 121, 124
Homologous equations, fan. 488
pump, 554
Hopkinson rate, 77
llorsepower, boiler, 294
Diesel, 163
steam engine, 366, 367
Hotwell,417
IIRT boiler, 300
Humidity, 181, 672
Ilunting, govemor, 393
Hydrarrlic Institute, 554, 556, 5F8, 550
,
Hydraulic ash sluice,469-47O
radius, 477
Ilydroelectric power, 51
Idcntification code, pipe. 616
68:)
Ignition, 136
compressior, 155, 156
temperaturq g
Increment rate, 249
Indicated horsepower, 163, :J67
Indicator card, 161, 162, 184, 185,365,366,
369
Induced draft, 478, 487
Industrial heat-power balance, 211
Initial condensation, 366, 3il
Injection, Diesel oil, 156
Input-output method, 352
Inspection, piping, 58O-582
Instrument, Iocation, 625, 629
selection, 653-654
, 423 Instrumentation, general, 624
Instruments, classifi ed, 626S28
Insulation, heat, 319, 597-603
"Intemal" water treatment, 526
see Ions,521
Iron pipe, wro{ght, 572
Isotope, 6
Jct condenser, 414
Jet eiector, ste&m, 425
kB, 294
Kern radius, 102
Larry, coal, 442, U7 , 451
Leakage, condenser air, 423
Lighting, plant, 93
Lime-soda $ater soft€ner, 528-529
Load curve, 37 , 38, 40, 47 , 49
Load dispatching, 50
Load factor, ,10
Load, variable, 45
Log mhd! 272
Losses, boiler heat, 349
steam engine, 366
steam turbine, 384
Lubrication, I. C. engine, 172-174
pump, 548, 553
steam engine, 36,j
turbine, 376, 402, 407-408
Mach number, 194
Magnesia insulation, 48i1, 503
Manometer, 47 4-476, 638
Mass flow, 273, 322
Master rcgulator, 503
Materials, building, 9l
Maximum demand, 41
684 INDEX
Mean pfrective pre6sure, 3f).5, 366 Performance, Desel engirrc, 16l-165
Mean temp€rature diflerence, 271-273 part load, 397-400
Mechanical drive turbine, 40G401 steam engirc, 364-370
Mercury, h-e chart, 661 steam generotor, 351
pro6rties, 662 steam turbine, 379-390
Mercnry cycle,244247 Perfonnance evaluation, 655-656
Met€ring control, 5@ Permanent hardness, 510
Micron eize, definition, ,162 Petroleum fuel, pmperties, 118
Mills, coal pulverizing, ,15&"157 pII ecale, 519
Moderator, 260, 261 Pipe, commercial, 572-575
Moistur€ efrect, 385, 387 standards, 665
Mollier Diagram, steam, 16 PiJ,e 6ttings, screwed, 576
Mols, 13&139 nangeo, t//
Motor, electric, 677 welded, 578
stsndard size6, 677 Pipe srzc, requiretl, 603
Muffer, I. C. engine, 175-176 Pipe bends, 593-596
Multiple effect, &jg drawings, 618-620
flangcs, 577-578
insulation,598
Nat Assoc. Fan Mfgrs., 400 joints,575-581
Netursl draft, 478
Neutron, 6 sizing, 573
NoJoed factor, 397, 398
standards,574
strength, 573, 575, 609
Nozrle flow, ejector, 4tr2
p&rt load, 396 oupports, 60841I
thread, standard, 576
NPSH,ffi Piping, ste{rm engine, 363
Nuclear energy, 259-261
steam turbine, 402, 403
Nucleus, atomic, 6
turbine oil,.rO4
NuEselt number, 269
syste.m, geleral, 571
oyste.ms, desigu of, 615{18
Oil burner, 343-347 Piston sp€ed, 368
controls, 345347 Pitot tube, 475
Oil, fuel, 116 Pivoted bucket couveyor, 446, ,{47
fuel supply sy6tem, l7l Plutonium,261
lubricating, 174 Polytropic procesees, equations, 676
prehert for fuel, 4ti0 Positioling control, 503
turbine lubricating, 4C8 Potentiomcter, 633
Oil supply system, 458-461 Pots, condemation, 640
Oil qu&litie8, l18-120, 174 Power, electricsl, 14
Open hiater, 533 Pow'er plant engineering, definition, 20
Oriflce, 088, 641 Power pump, 55O
Orifice flow formulac, {liX) Prandtl number, 209
Onok,?.17, 2l!4 Preferred standards, 377, 378
Orsst, 645 Prebeat requircments, oil, ,m
Outdoor-type plant, 96 Preeeure, boiler, 263
Overfeed stoler, 33,{ instrumelts, 6:]4
measurement, &j4-&36
Penlhl operation, 398 ratio, optimum, 197
Part load, draft fans, .180 regulating valve, 566, 587, 588
steam tutbine, 2,l{l, 396-4@ ecales, 9
Pase, condenaer tube, 420 temlxratur€ clurrt, steam, 676
Peak load, carryinl, 5l-17 Prime mover, 359
P.rE"nr hting (boiler), 295 Priming. 515
INDEX
Ilroducts ol combustion, 136
Profits, 70
Propcrty, physical, 8
Process, working, 14, 676
Proton,6
Proximate analysi-., coal, 125, l:17, 134, 135
Psychrometric chart, 672
Pulvcrized coal, 340
central ys, unit system, 454-455
fincncss, 457
see also Grindability
tran"<portation,,154-455
Pulverizer, coal, 455-457
Pump, rir, 425, 426
condensate,42T
characteristics, 553
fuel oil, 170
goYernor, tl[l, 5Cr0
installation of, 544, 562
Iayout,545
.test.563
Pumps, 543-563
Purifier, steam, 329
Pytometry,6iil
\_/
Qualification of welderF, 579
Qu:rlity,9
Radial brick, 497, 498
lladiant energy, 282
Radiant superheater, 322
Radiation, 281-285
energy, l3
(formula),318
loss (boiler cha ), 35:l
Radius, hydraulic, 477
Rankine cycle, 21?-216
engine, 365
Rates, electric, 65
types of electric, 7i
Rating, steam etrEino, 370
stesm turbine, 377
Ratio, compression, I53
cutoff, 153, 154
Il&tio of expausion, 365
appareut,365
Reactor, nuclear, 260, 262
Reciprocating pumps, 546651
Records, power plant, 655-656
Reeatry turbrne, 401
iecuperative he&ter, 470
Eefractories, 316, 320
Itegeneration, gas turbine plant, 201,
685
Ilcgeneral ivc c1' ek', 216-227
steam tnrhinos iot, 226, u,27
part Ioad in, 248
Ilegenerrtil'e heltor, air, 470, 474
Regulating vrlvc, 587, 588
Iieheat, gas l[rbine plant, 202
stage, 385
Reheat frctor,390
lleheat vapor cycle, 4-2ts7
Iteinjection, cinder, 465
, Relative humidity, 18l
Ilcserve oapacity, plant, 48
Reservoir at orifice plate, &0
Rey'nolds number, 269
Ringelmann chafi, 145
Rotary cup hrrncr, 343
Rotor, turhine, 374
Ruth's accumul&tor, 54
) Safc belring power, 105
Safety vaive, 586, 589-592
Saybolt viscosity, 119
I Scaling,5l2-514
Schednlc numlr!, 57ll
Screl'ed fittings, 666
Securities Exchange Commisrion, 30
Soparator,
flyash, 463-4&{
oil, 326
steam;612
Setting, boiler, 312
S€ttling velocity, flyash, 463
Silencer, I. C. engrne exheu-st, 175-176
Silica (feedwater), 531
Sinkiug fund, 7l
Skip boist, ,146, 447
Slagging factor, 285
Slip, pump, 548
Smoke, 145
Smoke meters, 647
Soap test, 519
Soil, bearing powet, 105
Soot blowef, 327.j28
Specifications, 25
Specific bcat, 137, 138
Specifiqspeed, 546, 554, 555
Speed regulation, 371, 393
Spiral conve]'or, ,146, 448, +52
SpoBtaneous conlbustio! in storeC coal,
u2
Sprcader stoker, 335
:[E !lsF, 119
 686
ssu, ll9
Stxck,497
Stagc efficiency, 385-3a8, 300
St{rting, ste.m iurbine, 4O5, 406
gas turbine, l.9g
I. C. r.nginc, 177
Static draft, 4{15
Static head, pump, 545-546
Steom consumption, oil hurner,
reciprocating pump, 547, 550
steam engine, 369, 370,372
steam turbine, 399
Steam engine, 360-373
Steam fow meier, 638-644
Steam generator, 290
Steanr rate, 367, 37!, 379, 380, 399
engine, 369, 370
St€am Bpeed, 362
Steam temperature, high vacuunf, 676
Steam turbine, advantages, 374
blade friction, 384, 385, 386
bleeder,226,227
claUification, 376
compound,375
condition line, 388, 673
eflect of change of throttle stare,396,
397
elcments,374
engine efficiency, 382
extraction valve gear, 402
gland,375
govemor,391,396
heat r&te, 380
in parallel, 393
losses, 384
lubrication, 376, N7 48
moisture-loss, 386, 387
no-Jos.d steam, 397, 398
overload, 376, S77
part load, 396-400
prtdiction of condition line, 248, 388
prelcred staDdads, 263, 378
rege\erutive, n6,227
stage efficiency, 385
standard sizes, 263, 378
starting and stopping, 405-{06
steam ratc, 379
te.st6,408-412
thermal effi ciency, i]79-i]90
velocity ratio, bladc6, 386
lVillans line. 397
StokerE, 334-339
Supecharge, eDgine, 160-176
INDEX
Sullerhert cont rol, 324-326
steam, 320-326
Strperheater, 322, 32ts, 324
Superheater heat trsn6fe!, 278-280
Superposition, thermal, 238
Support, pipe, 608-611
Strrface condenser, 417 423, Ljl-4g}
Surface heater, feedwater, 536-539
344 Symbols, flow diagrams, 660
gas turbine plaut, 200
pipe drawings, 618" 619
st€am plant, 660
Synchronous speed of motors, 677
System, see system in quesiion.
Tan&s, blowofr, 525
fuel, 169, 170
storage, 459
Taps, oipe (flowrneter), 640
TDII, 540
TDS, 521
Temperature, high, 26.1
Temperature diference, heat tEnsfer, ?7I-
273
Temperature mcasurement, 630-634
Tem;rrature scales, 9
Temporary hardness, 5lg
Terminal temperaturc difrerence,227, .
415, 422
feedwater heater, 536, 538
Test, condenser, 431-433
ptrmp, 563
turbine,408-412
Test stations, boiler, 350
Tests, draft fan, 493
seter,517-524
Thermal efficiency. See Eftciency.
Thermocouples, 167, 631- 532, 633
Thermometer types, 632
Total draft, 485
Tramp iron separator, 448, 450
Tr&p installatiou, 614
Tr&ps, principles of, 6liJ
6team,613-614
Traveling grate, stoker, 336
Trim, boiler, 326
Triplex pump, 550551
Tube cleoning, condenser, 431
Tube sheets, 4tO
Tubes, condenser, 41&419
Turbine. See Steam turbine.
Turbine f oundation, 110
686 INDEX
ssu, ll9 Srrperhcrt control, 324-326
Stxck,497 steam,320326
Stagc emciency, 385-388, 390 Srrperhcater, 322, 323, 324
Stnrting, steflm turbine, 405, 406 Superheater heat tr&Dsfer, 278-280
gas trrrbine, 1.99 Superposition, thermal, 238
I. C. r,nginr:, 177 Support, pipe, 608-611
Static draft, 485 Surface condenser, 417-423, 431-433
Static head, pump, 545-546 Surface heater, feedwater, 536-539
Steam consumptioD, oil burner, 344 Symbols, flow diagrams, 660
reciprocoting pump, 54?, 550 gas iurbine plant, 200
stcam engine, 369, 370, 372 pipe drawings, 618, 619
steam trubine, 399 steam plant, 660
Stcam engine, 360-373 Syncbronous speed of motom, 677
Stenm flow meter, 638-6,14 System, see system in question.
Steam generator, 290
steanr r&te, 367, 371, 379, 380, 390
engine,369,370 Tanks, blowofi, 525
Steam speed, 362 fuel, 169, 170
Steam temperature, high vacurrrd, 676 storage, 459
Steam turbine, advantages, 374 Taps, oipe (flowmeter), 640
blade friction, 384, 385, 386 TDII, 546
bleeder, 226,227 TDS, 521
ciassificatior, 376 Temperature, hiqh.264
compound, 375 Temperature difierence, heat transfer, 271-
condition line, 388, 673
effect of change of throttle s[&re, 396, Temperature meisurPmcnt, 630-634
Temperature scales, I
elcments,374 Temporary hardness,5l9
engine efficiency, 382 Terminal temperature difference, 227, 229-
cxtraction valve gear, 402 415, 422
gland,375 feedwater heater, 536, 538
govemor,391,396 Test, condenser, 431-433
heat raie, 380 pump, 563
in parallel, 393 turbine,408-412
losses,384 Test stations, boiler, 350
lubrication, 376, 407-408 Test6, drafl fan, 493
moistule loss, 386, 387 $ater , 517 -524
no.to*d steam, 397, 398 Thermal efficiency. See Efficiency.
overload, 376, 377 Thermocouples, 167, 631, 532, 633
part load, 396-400 Thermometer types, 632
prerliction of condrtion line, 248, 388 Total draft, 485
preferred standards, 263, 378 Tramp iron separator, 448, 450
regeterative, 226, 22? Trap installatiou, 614
stage efficiency, 385 Traps, principles of, 61li
Ntandard sizes, 263, 378 steam,613-614
stafiirg and stopping, 405-106 Traveling grete, stoker, 336
steam ratc, 370 Trim, boiler, 326
tests,,()&412 Triglex pump, 55O-551
thermal efficiency, l)79-i390 Tube cleaning, condenser, 431
velocity ratio, blades, 38ti Tube sheets, 419
Willans line. 397 Tubes, condenser, 41&419
Stokers, 334-339 Turbine. See Steam turbine.
Supocharge, engine, 160-176 .Turbine f oundation, 110
INDEX
hrbine bstallation,,(I2-4(X
punp, 652
typ€s, 375, 376
T\fbine vs. engine, 360
Turbulence, 136, 341
Two-cycle, 157
U-bcnds, 593-596
Ultimate analysis, coal, 127,
iUnaflow engine, 871373
Uuderfeed stoker, 338-330
Uaion, pipe, 577
Uranium, 2@
U. S. degree (hardness),519
Uae faetoE rll
Useful lives, 73
Utility company, 29, 30
Vacuum, 412-413
Vecutua breaker, 409
pump,
425-
Valves, common, 5&j-586
Van Stone joint, 577
Vapor oycle. See Cycle.
Variable load, ,15
l'elocity, averag€ pipe flow, 60ts
Velocity by pitot static, 475-4?6
Velocity head, 477
VeDa contracts, 640
Ventu meter, 637
Vircooity, da.ta, 27Q 6O8
fucl oil, ll9
687
Volatil€ mstter, coal, l?, l:t4
V-notch meter, 63?
Vott, l3
Voltneter, 651
Volunetric efficiency, 549
Watcr. natural impurities ir, 5l l-512
Water column, 327
!!8 W'ater loop, described, 5i0-511
Water horsepower. 546
softeners, 528-531
testiDg, SU-524
treatment, 525-532
Waterrvall, boiler, 306-311
circrrlation, 306
hesi tra[6fer, 3lu
lvatt, 13
\Vatthour meter, 76, 78
Wattmeters, 651-652, 653
Weishine, coal, W, Ug
l{elded pipe, 578, 579
fittitrgs,670
Welding control, pipe, 579
Willaus line, 367; 397, 399, lm
Wind power, 5
Wiud pressurg oD chimney, 98
Wind stress, chimney, 101
Work, mechanical, l0
Wrought iron pipe, 572
Zcotit , 530-531
688
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