PROTOCOLS, PACKETS AND

STANDARDS
Packets
All data that is transmitted across the network is put into packets
containing information about the source and destination of the data.
These packets are created using standards or protocols. Since there
are many different network configurations, there are many different
protocols. By having a variety of protocols, you can choose the one
that best fulfills the needs of your network.
Function of packets

The function of a packet is to carry data from one point to another.

Protocols require that packet contain some basic information about
their source and their destination and in many cases, protocols require
that the packet include a checksum. A checksum is a number that
can be used to verify that the packet has been transferred across the
network without being corrupted.
Packet Structure

The structure of the packet is extremely important. Useless a packet is

structured exactly as it is supposed to be; it is ignored by the receiving
party and assumed to be corrupted. Basic packet structure requires
that the packet include a header section, a data section, and in most
cases, a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) section (also called a trailer).
Not every protocol requires that a CRC be attached.
Packet Structure (Continue)
Header
The header section of a packet contains the routing information. This
information includes the source and destination of the packet. The header
also contains the number of the packet, which is generated when the
packet is created. In addition, the header can contain a protocol version
number, the length of the header, the type of service, the length of the
entire packet, and other information.
Data
The data is the actual information that is being transmitted over the
network from one application to another. Each protocol has a predefined
maximum data size. If the data is larger than this maximum data size, the
data is broken into smaller pieces and transmitted in multiple packets.
CRC
A CRC (Cyclic redundancy check) is calculated prior to the data being
sent and attached to the bottom of a packet. At the destination, a new
CRC is computed and compared to the original to verify that the packet
was not corrupted. A CRC is usually attached to the bottom of a packet,
but some protocols include CRC within the header.
Creating packets
Before data is transmitted across the network, it is broken into smaller,
more manageable pieces called packets. All packets are numbered
so they can be put back together when they reach their destination.
The header, which contains the source address, destination address,
and packet number, along with other information, is attached to the
beginning of the packet. A CRC is then calculated and added to the
end of the packet.
Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the process of encoding data for transmitting it across
the network. Once a packet is created as described previously, in
order for the packet to be transmitted to its final destination, it may
need to use a protocol in addition to the one that it is currently using. A
header and CRC are then added to the newly created packet. This
packet is an encapsulated packet. Figure 1 illustrates an encapsulated
packet.
Protocols
In computer networking, communication occurs between entities in
different systems. An entity is anything capable of sending or receiving
information. However, two entities cannot simply send bit streams to
each other and expect to be understood. For communication to
occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of
nodes that govern data communications. A protocol defines what is
communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated.
Standards
Standards play an important role in our everyday lives and facilitate
the operation of products produced by different manufacturers. For
example:
Countries adopt a standard type of mains plug and socket. Without
such a standard, we would find that we had to continually rewire
mains plugs or employ some form of adaptor. This provides an
example of national standard.
Car manufacturers adopt a standard for the relative placement of the
clutch, brake and accelerator pedals. This provides an example of
global standard.
Computers are equipped with standard interface sockets (e.g. serial,
parallel and USB) via which they are able to connect to peripheral
devices. This provides an example of global standard.
Standards (Continue)
Many official computer-related standards are defined by the following organizations:
• ANSI (America National Standards Institute)
• ITU (International Telecommunication Union)
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)
• ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
Car drivers generally use agreed signals when turning left or right. Aero plane pilots
follow specific standardized rules for communicating throughout the world. Similarly, for
any computer-based systems to communicate successfully, they need to use ‘the same
language’. This means that what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated must conform to some mutually acceptable conventions agreed between
the parties involved. These conventions are known as a ‘protocol’, which can be defined
as a set of rules governing the exchange of data between two or more devices.