The Science of Water Extinguishment

20/2/23, 16:37 The Science of Water Extinguishment | Firehouse
OPERATIONS & TRAINING HOSELINES & WATER APPLIANCES
The Science of Water Extinguishment

John McDonough shares insight into how firefighters can be most effective and efficient on the fireground.
John McDonough
March 1, 2018
LATEST IN HOSELINES & WATER

APPLIANCES
Operations & Training

Hot Shots 2/23
Firehouse Feb. 6,
Staff 2023

Polish fire instructors "gas cool" as they advance.
Fire Studies: Modern
Operations in
View Image Gallery Residential and…
Michael Feb. 6,
Daley 2023

In May 2015, I joined 22 American firefighters as part of the technical
First Due: Data
panel for the UL “Study of the Impact of Fire Attack Utilizing Interior and Matters on the
Fireground
Exterior Streams on Firefighter Safety and Occupant Survival.” Myself and
John Oates Feb. 1, 2023
three others composed the international contingent from Australia,
SPONSORED CONTENT
Ireland, the Netherlands and Canada. Learn More
Free NFPA 1500 PTSD
One of the first issues placed before the panel was what nozzle and hose and NFPA 1854
Training Available…
combination should be chosen for the research burns as representative of
the U.S. fire service. It soon became apparent to those of us in the Hot Shots 1/23
international contingent that the selected combinations (smoothbore and Firehouse Jan. 9,
Staff 2023
combination fog) flowed, on average, up to six times more than our
firefighters were using for a similarly sized residential structure.
https://www.firehouse.com/operations-training/hoselines-water-appliances/article/12395735/the-science-of-water-extinguishment-international-in… 1/13
During the many discussions that followed, we also realized that the way
in which we applied the water was also fundamentally different. For
handline use, smoothbore nozzles are basically non-existent in Australia
and Europe. Interior fighting is performed utilizing combination fog
nozzles and using techniques switching between straight stream and fog as
the situation demands, in both cases aiming for maximum efficiency.
ADVERTISEMENT
These techniques are based on those developed by the Swedish during the
early 1980s (and somewhat earlier by U.S. Chief Lloyd Layman). They
involve a sound understanding of the science behind the prevailing fire
conditions and, in particular, those conditions that lead to rapid fire
progression.
The following article explains the science behind these techniques and
hopefully provides an insight into how Australian and European
firefighters approach the use of water.
Extinguishment with water
Alongside effective search and rescue, the ability to extinguish a fire is

considered a benchmark from which firefighters are judged by both
themselves and their peers. But how do we judge if a firefighter has been
as effective as they could have been during the extinguishment process,
given the circumstances and equipment at their disposal? If a firefighter
appears to perform poorly at an incident, is it fair to say they were
insufficiently trained or did they do the best given the circumstances
confronting them?
There are times when fires go out quickly with what seems to be a
surprisingly small amount of water. Some firefighters are able to do
amazing things with a stored water extinguisher or a small low-flow, high-
pressure line, but at other times are forced from a structure despite
flowing large volumes of water. It soon becomes obvious that there is more
to extinguishment than volume alone.
ADVERTISEMENT
Water is an amazing extinguishing agent, but we must put the right

amount, in the right format, in the right place if we are to be truly efficient.
Being efficient with water means we can utilize smaller, more
maneuverable hoselines, thereby offsetting staffing limitations. Smaller
hoselines can be moved more quickly to apply water faster for greater
safety. In our modern fire environment, our time to put water on the fire
becomes one of our most critical success factors. Using less water means
that our water supply lasts longer—an equally critical factor in some areas.
Assuming we apply the water in the correct format and put it in the right
place, the key question then becomes: How much water is needed to
extinguish a certain amount of fire? And this is where we can turn to
science for some clear-cut answers.
To simplify the process and help us conceptualize what is occurring as the

water is applied, it is often beneficial to scale down and concentrate on
what is happening at the most basic level. So let’s see what happens to a
single droplet as it leaves the nozzle and travels through hot smoke and
flames or lands on hot or burning surfaces. It soon becomes apparent how
incredibly effective water can be as an extinguishing agent—if used with
skill. Conversely, we can see how incredibly wasteful we can be if we don’t
understand the processes occurring.
There are also some basic physical principles that are occurring that help
explain how water extinguishes. Simply put, gases will always flow from
higher pressure areas to areas of lower pressure and heat energy will
always flow from higher temperature (hotter) objects into lower
temperature (colder) objects until a state of equilibrium is reached. This
“flow” of energy is described by the second law of thermodynamics. Also,
the ideal gas law, as well as mechanisms for heat transfer, are useful tools
for understanding how water extinguishes.
ADVERTISEMENT
Talking about heat
A fire produces heat (energy), and the heat release rate (HRR) is a
measure of the fire’s intensity. Heat is measured in joules (J). 1,000 J is a
kilojoule (kJ) and 1,000 kJ is a megajoule (MJ). A joule per second is a
watt (W).
Fires release heat over time, so it is more useful to measure energy from a
fire in watts or, as in our case with structure fires, in MW (i.e., megajoules
per second or MJ/s). To put it simply, for extinguishment, heat being
released has to be transferred to the extinguishing media (in this case
water). Consequently, the water application rate must match (and
preferably overcome) the heat release rate.
To get a gauge of what these terms represent, we can look at a small

bedroom. The HRR needed to bring a compartment of this size to full
involvement via flashover is generally accepted to be approximately 2
MW. Given sufficient ventilation, this HRR could be provided by a large
single-seat sofa on fire. It is sobering to note that any given room in a
normal residence has enough fuel to reach full involvement, becoming
unsurvivable for residents and firefighters alike.
Water heats up
Let’s assume that as a droplet that’s 10 degrees C (50 degrees F) leaves the
nozzle, it travels into a layer of hot fire gases that are approximately 600
degrees C (1,112 degrees F). This represents a temperature where fire
gases (composed of pyrolysis product and unburnt products of
combustion) are approaching their auto-ignition temperature and will
become fuel for rapid fire progress. Firefighters moving through or
operating beneath these gases without cooling them do so at great risk.
Even with modern PPE, radiant heat alone will limit their ability to remain
in this area for long. This is an environment that firefighters must
immediately remove themselves from or aggressively control (cool).
ADVERTISEMENT
Heat will move from the higher temperature (smoke) to the lower
temperature (water droplet), and the temperature of the water will, in an
instant, rise to 100 degrees C (212 degrees F). The energy necessary to
raise the temperature of 1 kilogram (kg) of water 1 degree C is known as
the specific heat of water. Water has a higher specific heat than most
common substances, and this is one of the reasons it is such an effective
extinguishing agent. Think of how much energy it takes to heat a liter of
water to a boiling point every time you put on a kettle. Sometimes it seems
like forever waiting for that first coffee of the morning.
To raise the temperature of 1 kg of water 1 degree C, it requires 4,186 J (or

4.2 kJ). [Note: This is the same concept as the British thermal unit (Btu),
which is the amount of energy required to raise a pound of water by one
degree F.]
Another important aspect of heat transfer that must be considered is

surface area to mass ratio. By increasing the surface area of our water, we
expose much more of it to heat, and absorption is faster. Many thousands
of separate droplets injected into the hot fire gases will absorb more
energy, more quickly than a straight stream that penetrates straight
through with only the water on the outside of the stream exposed.
Smaller water droplets have larger surface area to mass of water, which
means each droplet has more surface to absorb heat energy while having
less water to heat up. These two factors mean small water droplets heat up
faster. In terms of understanding that small objects heat up the fastest, we
see this same concept applied when starting fires. Small pieces of wood
(kindling) are used as the fuel when starting fires instead of large ones,
because they have more surface area to absorb heat and less wood to heat
up to their ignition temperature.
Water turns to steam
So for a split second, our droplet of water has been heated to 100 degrees
C (212 degrees F). Though our hot fire gases have also cooled a
corresponding amount, they are still much hotter than 100 degrees C (212
degrees F), so the transfer of heat will continue from the fire gases to the
water, which will vaporize and, for another split second, become 100
degrees C (212 degrees F) steam.
This is where we have maximum energy absorption as the water changes

state to a vapor. It takes an enormous amount of energy to change the
state of matter. The energy necessary to turn water to steam is known as
the latent heat of (water) vaporization.
To turn 1 kg of water to steam requires 2,260 kJ of energy.
Steam heats up
When the steam is dispersed into the smoke layer, more energy will be
transferred from the smoke layer, as the smoke is still likely to be hotter
than the 100 degrees C (212 degrees F). The result will be a rise in steam
temperature. This process will continue until a thermal equilibrium exists
between the steam and the smoke. This energy absorption is known the
specific heat of steam.
Steam has a different value for the “specific heat” than water. This value is
dependent on the temperature of the steam. For this calculation, an
average value is used (300 degrees C; 572 degrees F). This process will
continue until a thermal equilibrium exists between the steam and the
smoke.
To raise the temperature of 1 kg of steam 1 degree C, it requires 2,080

joules (or 2.1 kJ).
Add it all up
Based on 1 liter of water with a starting temperature of 10 degrees C and a

final steam temperature of 300 degrees C:
1. Take the water in the hose 10 degrees C to 100 degrees C (specific

heat of water) = 376.74 kJ (Q1)
2. Turn that into steam (latent heat of water) = 2,260 kJ (Q2)
3. Take the steam from 100 degrees C to 300 degrees C (specific heat of
steam) = 416 kJ (Q3)
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
= 376.74 + 2,260 + 416 kJ
= 3,052.74 kJ
Q = 3.05 MJ
When both values (Q1 and Q2) are compared, it is clear that the transition
from 100 degrees C water into 100 degrees C steam absorbs more energy
than the heating of the water until it reaches 100 degrees C. In this case,
six times more energy is needed to transform the water into steam, than is
needed to heat the water. In other words, if your water droplets are not
turning into steam, you are leaving over 75 percent of the heat-absorbing
capacity of the water unused.
It can be observed that the influence of the starting temperature is limited.

In order to simplify our calculations, we will use 3 MJ/kg as default value
for the amount of energy that one liter of water can absorb. Realistically,
when the fire service uses water, it will rarely lead to such a high value and
we will never be 100 percent effective. We must also understand that the
extinguishing mechanism is fairly complex and more processes are
involved than discussed above.
Displacement and inerting
The above calculations deal only with the absorption of heat energy. When
we introduce an amount of steam into hot smoke (or fire), there are
additional processes occurring that also enhance extinguishment. Most
firefighters would know that water increases greatly in volume as it turns
to steam. Most could also relate the expansion figures of 1,700 times at
100 degrees C, but few would also know that this increases with
temperature. In fact, the expansion rate at 600 degrees C (1,112 degrees F)
is 3,980 times!
This volume of steam causes two things to occur: displacement of air

within the compartment and “inertion” of the fire gases. Steam is an inert
gas. This is an important factor in firefighting. When steam is added to a
gas mixture, its flammability range shrinks. At a certain point, the mixture
will no longer be flammable and therefore rendered inert. While inerting
depends on fuel composition and temperature, by introducing
approximately 45 percent steam into an enclosure, flaming combustion
will be unlikely to continue.
It is very important to realize that the water vapor contributes greatly to

the extinguishment effect. We utilize this when we perform an indirect
attack. The intent with this form of water application is to produce enough
steam within an area to absorb maximum energy from the fire while
inerting the area, making it impossible for the fire to continue to burn.
This type of attack was pioneered by American Fire Chief Lloyd Layman in
the early 1950s.
An indirect attack is capable of extinguishing fires with a HRR that is

higher than the amount of heat that can be absorbed solely by the heat
LOGIN
absorption capacity of the flow. During an indirect attack, the two effects JOIN
SUBSCRIBE BUYER'S GUIDE IN PRINT ADVERTISE FIREHOUSE EXPO STATION DESIGN CONFERENCE
(cooling and inerting/diluting) are both playing an important role.
LEADERSHIP APPARATUS RESCUE SAFETY & HEALTH OPS & TRAINING CAREERS & EDU COMMUNITY RISK TECH & COMM STATIONS EMS
Conversely, a direct attack is limited to the energy that can be absorbed by

surface cooling. If we take our previous example of a room fully involved,
only the outside of the stream is in contact with the flames filling the
room, which are burning in the gaseous phase. In this format, there is
insufficient surface area to cause rapid vaporization, and as a result, most
of the water will penetrate through the flames, remaining in a liquid state.
While this can be advantageous in some circumstances, only the water

that actually falls on burning surfaces will change state and absorb
maximum energy. Any water on the floor, still in unvaporized liquid form,
is essentially wasted, having used, at most, less than a quarter of its
cooling capacity. Ultimately, more water will be needed to extinguish the
same fire, as extinguishment is limited to the time it takes to apply water
to all the burning surfaces and cool them below the temperature at which
auto-ignition will occur. In many cases, this may not be such an issue, but
in some, it may be the difference between gaining control or not, especially
if the seat of the fire is in anyway shielded.
That said, an effective indirect attack should always be followed up during

overhaul with a direct attack to ensure that burning surfaces are
sufficiently cooled and saturated to prevent re-ignition. Similarly, a direct
attack is the best technique for a developing fire in the growth stage (or
separate burning fuel packages), where fire is essentially confined to the
burning fuel surfaces.
Influence of droplet size
The size of the droplet is an important parameter. If the droplets are very
small, they will evaporate too soon after leaving the nozzle and only the
smoke layer closest to the firefighter will be cooled. If the droplets are too
large, they will pass through the smoke layer without evaporating
completely. Some may hit the ceiling and will evaporate there, absorbing
heat from the ceiling. Another possibility is that they drop to the ground.
In this case, they will travel through the smoke layer a second time. The
number suggested as the ideal size for such a droplet is 0.3 mm.1 Droplets
this size should be large enough to provide penetration into the hot smoke
and yet small enough to vaporize readily.
A combination fog nozzle is required to produce effective droplets, and

their size is dictated by several factors, including flow rate and pressure.
Generally, an increase in flow rate will mean larger droplets, as will a
decrease in pressure, but this also depends on the nozzle. Droplet size is
less critical when extinguishing a fire, as contact with burning surfaces is
beneficial for localized steam production and surface cooling. Conversely,
when gas cooling, best practices dictate that we should try to place the
droplets solely into the fire gases for maximum heat absorption. For this
purpose, large droplets produced by high flow rates and low pressure are
not best suited. For gas cooling, flows in the 26- to 60-gpm range (100 to
230 liters per minute, lpm) at 100 psi (700 kiloPascal, kPa) are normally
used for maximum effect. On reaching the fire, the firefighter may decide
then to increase the flow during extinguishment in order to match the
intensity of the fire.
Extinguishing a room on fire
Water can be used to extinguish fire or cool hot fire gases en route to the
fire. Although the objective in both cases is to absorb energy, the
application technique differs considerably in regards to where water is

placed and how much steam is produced. In the following example, we
will look at extinguishment of a fully involved room where the firefighter
attacks the fire from outside the room on fire, in this case the hallway.
From this position the firefighter is protected from the effects of the
steam, with the room itself being non-survivable for any persons trapped
within due to the fully involved nature of the fire. Inside the room we have
a mixture of flaming combustion and unburnt fire gases and for both, the
effect is the same once we apply our water droplets.
Let’s imagine this is a well-furnished lounge room with the following

dimensions: 4 m x 5 m x 2.5 m, or 50 m³ (1,762 ft.³). The main furnishings
include a single- and two-seater foam sofa, a large bookcase, coffee table,
TV, carpet and curtains. Given normal ventilation of one window and an
open doorway, this fire is capable of full involvement releasing
approximately 5 MW.2
When we use the calculations above to estimate the effect of an indirect

attack on a burning room, the following result is found when a firefighter
uses a low-pressure nozzle with a flow rate of 230 lpm. The flow rate in
kg/s is calculated as follows for use in our equation.3
230 lpm = 3.83 liters per second (lps) = 3.83 kg/s
= 3 MJ/kg × 3.83 kg/s
= 11.49 MJ/s
= 11.49 MW
When working at a 100 percent efficiency, the following amount of steam

is produced, where 2.61 m³ is the quantity of steam vapor produced at 300
degrees C per liter of applied water.
Steam production = 2.61 × 3.83 = 10 m³/s
When water application is 100 percent efficient, a steam volume of 50 m³

will be generated after 5 seconds of applying water. This will aid in the
extinguishment of the fire because the generated steam will have displaced
all the oxygen and the remaining fire gases will be inert.
This example shows that a flow of 60 gpm (230 lpm) should be capable of
quickly suppressing at least 11 MW of fire, based on energy absorption
alone. But this requires a very high percentage of efficiency, which, for
many reasons, may not be possible. Needless to say, in this example,
firefighters operating at only 50 percent efficiency should still achieve
rapid extinguishment.
Being effective with water

In reality, firefighter efficiency will rarely, if ever, be 100 percent. Values

as low as 50 percent or even 25 percent are more likely. Notably, less
efficient firefighters can lack serious capability. Lower efficiencies are
caused by water that flows away before being transformed into steam. The
creation of steam is where most energy is absorbed and the subsequent
presence of steam dilutes and inerts the flammable mixture—an extremely
effective extinguishment combination.
If we can identify a lack of efficiency, we can attempt to deal with this in

several ways. One is to provide more training in an effort to increase the
skill level of the firefighters applying the water so that more water is in the
right format and applied in the right place. Some would argue that the
easiest solution is to just apply more water. Even in a less efficient format,
a large volume of water may ensure that enough water hits the fire
regardless of the skill of the firefighter. Despite the issues that may occur
with hose maneuverability, excessive water damage, crew fatigue and
water supply, there is a part of me that objects to this, if for no other
reason than a belief that efficiency and skill will create a safer fireground
and should be our goal in all our fire service endeavours.
Many fires—due to size, access issues and fuel type—will always need
significant amounts of water as our ability to place our water where it can
be most efficient is limited. Other fires, confined within an enclosure with
limited access to air, will need water to safely cool hot fire gases if we are
to enter and get close enough to attack the seat of the fire. Either way, a
sound understanding of the theory of water extinguishment will go a long
way to helping a firefighter choose the most efficient technique in order to
make the most of the water they have.
Endnotes
1. Grimwood, P, Hartin, E, McDonough, J, Raffel, S. “3D Fire Fighting:

Training, Techniques and Tactics.” 2005. Page 77.Fire Protection
Publication, Stillwater.
2. Drysdale, D. “Introduction to Fire Dynamics, Second Edition.” 1999.

Page 335. John Wiley & Sons, UK.
3. Lambert, K, McDonough, J. “Training with Intent – Effective Hose

stream Techniques.” 2014. cfbt-
be.com/images/artikelen/Training%20with%20intent_ENG.pdf.
Additional References
Bengtsson, L. “Enclosure Fires.” 2001. Swedish Rescue Service Agency.

Karlstad, Sweden.
https://www.firehouse.com/operations-training/hoselines-water-appliances/article/12395735/the-science-of-water-extinguishment-international-i… 10/13
Liu, L, Kim, AK. “A Review of Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems—

Fundamental Studies.” Journal of Fire Protection Engineering. 10:3
(2000), p. 32-50. Fire Risk Management Program Institute for Research
in Construction. National Research Council, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Sardqvist, S. “Water and other extinguishing agents.” 2002. Swedish

Rescue Service Agency. Karlstad, Sweden.
https://www.msb.se/RibData/Filer/pdf/23061.pdf.
Hoselines & Water Appliances Hoselines & Water Appliances
Product of the Day: Kochek®

SPONSORED CONTENT
Product of the Day: KrakenEXO
PVC Suction HoseLearn More SUPER II
Kochek Company’s PVC suction
Free NFPAhose1500
is PTSD TheandKrakenEXO
NFPA 1854 SUPER II™ from Mercedes
Training
specifically designed for the rural fire Textiles is the most advanced double-
Available from Vectorjacketed
fighting market, when drafting might
Solutionsattack 2-inch hose capable of
provide the only way of getting
Vector the water
Solutions is currently delivering
making two targeted flows
of its top of 210-300
NFPA courses gpm
needed for proper ... available at no cost to the firewith up to
service. 30 percent...
NFPA 1500 PTSD training helps
Kochek Company LLC first responders Feb. recognize
9, 2023 and address Textiles
Mercedes mental Limited
health issues, while
Feb.NFPA
6, 2023
1854 training raises cancer awareness.
Sign up for Firehouse eNewsletters
Email Address SIGN UP
Hoselines & Water Appliances Hoselines & Water Appliances Operations & Training
Product of the Day: RAM XD Command & Control Success:

Rapid Attack Monitor Water on the Fire
Product of the Day: ECO-10 The RAM XD Rapid Attack Portable Monitor Curt Isakson hammers home why
Lightweight Double Jacket from Elkhart Brass can be easily deployed by preparation for fireground attack must take
Attack Hose a single firefighter to flow up to 500 gpm into account all of the elements of the Big
fast! Four: pump, hose, nozzle and water.
The ECO-10 lightweight double jacket attack
Elkhart Brass, a Safe Fleet Brand Feb. 1, 2023 Curt Isakson Dec. 12, 2022
hose from Darley meets NFPA 1963 and is
backed by a 10-year warranty.
W.S. Darley & Co. Feb. 2, 2023
Operations & Training Operations & Training
Hot Shots 12/22 Hot Shots 11/22

Hot Shots includes the New Orleans Fire Hot Shots includes a four-alarm fire at a
Department on scene of a fire at a residence- very large, three-and-a-half-story house;
turned-appliance repair shop, where ultimately, all of the fire building's roof and
members had to deal with an interior space floors and portions of the exterior walls
that was packed... collapsed...
Firehouse Staff Dec. 12, 2022 Firehouse Staff Nov. 14, 2022
Operations & Training Hoselines & Water Appliances Hoselines & Water Appliances
Engine Essentials: Cold-Weather FOL-DA-TANK Acquires EVAC The Fire Scene: Speed Kills—or
Operations Systems Fire and Rescue Does It?
Jonathan Hall tells why engine companies The move means FOL-DA-TANK will be in a John J. Salka Jr. is adamant when it comes
can't allow frigid temperatures to sneak up better position to serve its customers and to rapid fire attack at structural fires, even if
on them. offer an even wider array of smart, reliable it means forgoing widely held beliefs
Jonathan Hall Nov. 14, 2022 products. regarding the second hoseline and the
Fol-Da-Tank Co. Oct. 17, 2022 second...
John J. Salka Jr. Aug. 15, 2022
MA Crews Battle Excavator Fire

All duty companies of the Norwood Fire Department are battling an
excavator fire at the Norwood Hospital construction project site.
July 18, 2022
The Fire Scene: Hoselines & Search Teams

John J. Salka Jr. reminds that if you do anything else on arrival at a
residential fire other than deploy the first attack line, you allow the fire to
extend, spread and grow....
John J. Salka Jr. July 18, 2022
What If They Do Respond: Minimum Standards for

Today’s Rural Firefighters
Adam Hursh explains why volunteer firefighters should train heavily on
their typical responses, at the very least.
Adam Hursh June 14, 2022
A Systematic Approach to Standpipe Operations

Keith Nieman puts you in prime position to establish or double-check
your department's response to high-rise fires, including the various
scenarios that you could encounter with...
Keith Niemann May 16, 2022
Load More Content
About Us
Contact Us
Advertise
California Do Not Sell
Privacy Policy
Terms & Conditions
© 2023 Endeavor Business Media, LLC. All rights reserved.

The Science of Water Extinguishment - Firehouse

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Science of Water Extinguishment - Firehouse

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

20/2/23, 16:37 The Science of Water Extinguishment | Firehouse

OPERATIONS & TRAINING HOSELINES & WATER APPLIANCES

LATEST IN HOSELINES & WATER

Operations & Training

Operations & Training

Operations & Training

Extinguishment with water

Alongside effective search and rescue, the ability to extinguish a fire is

Water is an amazing extinguishing agent, but we must put the right

To simplify the process and help us conceptualize what is occurring as the

Talking about heat

To get a gauge of what these terms represent, we can look at a small

To raise the temperature of 1 kg of water 1 degree C, it requires 4,186 J (or

Another important aspect of heat transfer that must be considered is

Water turns to steam

This is where we have maximum energy absorption as the water changes

To turn 1 kg of water to steam requires 2,260 kJ of energy.

To raise the temperature of 1 kg of steam 1 degree C, it requires 2,080

Based on 1 liter of water with a starting temperature of 10 degrees C and a

1. Take the water in the hose 10 degrees C to 100 degrees C (specific

= 376.74 + 2,260 + 416 kJ

It can be observed that the influence of the starting temperature is limited.

Displacement and inerting

This volume of steam causes two things to occur: displacement of air

It is very important to realize that the water vapor contributes greatly to

An indirect attack is capable of extinguishing fires with a HRR that is

Conversely, a direct attack is limited to the energy that can be absorbed by

While this can be advantageous in some circumstances, only the water

That said, an effective indirect attack should always be followed up during

Influence of droplet size

A combination fog nozzle is required to produce effective droplets, and

Extinguishing a room on fire

application technique differs considerably in regards to where water is

Let’s imagine this is a well-furnished lounge room with the following

When we use the calculations above to estimate the effect of an indirect

230 lpm = 3.83 liters per second (lps) = 3.83 kg/s

= 3 MJ/kg × 3.83 kg/s

When working at a 100 percent efficiency, the following amount of steam

Steam production = 2.61 × 3.83 = 10 m³/s

When water application is 100 percent efficient, a steam volume of 50 m³

Being effective with water

In reality, firefighter efficiency will rarely, if ever, be 100 percent. Values

If we can identify a lack of efficiency, we can attempt to deal with this in

1. Grimwood, P, Hartin, E, McDonough, J, Raffel, S. “3D Fire Fighting:

2. Drysdale, D. “Introduction to Fire Dynamics, Second Edition.” 1999.

3. Lambert, K, McDonough, J. “Training with Intent – Effective Hose

Bengtsson, L. “Enclosure Fires.” 2001. Swedish Rescue Service Agency.

Liu, L, Kim, AK. “A Review of Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems—

Sardqvist, S. “Water and other extinguishing agents.” 2002. Swedish

Hoselines & Water Appliances Hoselines & Water Appliances

Product of the Day: Kochek®

Sign up for Firehouse eNewsletters

Email Address SIGN UP

Product of the Day: RAM XD Command & Control Success:

Operations & Training Operations & Training

Hot Shots 12/22 Hot Shots 11/22

Operations & Training

MA Crews Battle Excavator Fire

Operations & Training

The Fire Scene: Hoselines & Search Teams

Operations & Training

What If They Do Respond: Minimum Standards for