MASINDE MULIRO UNIVERSITY (MMUST) BACHELOR OF CIVIL ENGINEERING COURSE CSE 562: BUILDING SERVICES ENGINEERING TOPIC 4: BUILDING THERMAL ENVIRONMENT/HEAT: LECTURER: EDWIN K’0YOO A) Definition of terms: -Heat: is thermal energy transferred from a hotter system to a cooler system that is in contactthermal energy transferred between two systems at different temperatures that come in contact. Heat has units of energy and its SI unit is Joules (J). -Temperature: is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules in the system, Its SI unit is degrees Celsius (eC) or Kelvin (K). Solar radiation: Solar radiation is all of the light and energy that comes from the sun, and there are many different forms. The electromagnetic spectrum explains the different types of light waves that are emitted from the sun. -Greenhouse effect: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere -Thermal conductivity (K): Is a material’s ability to conduct heat. Each material has a characteristic rate at which heat will flow through it. The faster heat flows through a material, the more conductive it is. Conductivity (I) is a material property given for homogeneous solids under steady state conditions. Examples of thermal conductivity of common building materials is listed in the table below: Matei Thermal conductivity (Wimk) “Acoustic plasterboard 025 ‘Aluminium 237 Concrete general 1.28 Copper 390 External render sand/eement finish 1.00 Glass 0.93 Timber (650 ke/m3) 014 Roof tile (1900kg/m3) 0.84 Plywood (950 kg/m3) 016 “Concrete slab (aerated 500kg/m3) __—| 0.16 -Thermal conductance (C): Conductance is a material's conductivity per unit area for the object's thickness (in units of W/m? for metric), In basic building materials, heat flow is usually measured by conductance (C), not conductivity. Conductance is an object property and depends on both the material and its thickness. Many solid building materials such as common brick, wood siding, batt or board insulation, and gypsum board are widely available in standard 1 Scanned with CamScannerthickn; tes F ices ie and compositions, For such common materials, Pai faa thickness instead of the rate per inch. sation nie the overall conductance of a building element. Used for layered building . ered assemblies, conductances are combined into a single number called the "U-factor" 01 i 4 en im Saas the “U-value”), Lower U-factors mean less conduction, which means Fori =n instance, the overall U-factor of a window includes the conductances of the glass panes, the air inside, the framing mater ioestone Gee taterial, and any other materials in their different thicknesses and ToT aePt in special cases, the conductances of the materials camnot be added to determine U-factor of the assembly. The U-factor is an overall coefficient of heat transfer, and includes the effects of all elements in an assembly and all sensible modes of heat transfer (conduction, convection, and radiation), but not latent heat transfer (moisture related). The term U-factor should be used only where heat flow is from air on the outside of the envelope, through the envelope assembly to air on the inside. It should not be used on basement walls, for example, -Thermal resistivity: Thermal resistivity is the reciprocal of thermal conductivity and can be expressed as r=1/k where r = thermal resistivity , k = thermal conductivity -Thermal resistance (R-value = 1/U): Is a materials ability to resist heat flow. Designated as R (R-value), thermal resistance indicates how effective any material is as an insulator. Insulation, which prevents heat flow through the building envelope, is often measured by its R- value. A higher R-value indicates a better insulating performance. When looking at spec sheets, be sure you are reading the R-value in the right units, as the units are not always explicitly written. ‘Thermal resistance values are sometimes tabulated for both unit thicknesses and for a sample of material with a known thickness. -Thermal capacity (Thermal Mass): Thermal capacity is an indicator of the ability of a material to store heat per unit volume. The greater the thermal capacity of a material, the more heat it can store in a given volume per degree of temperature increase, Thermal capacity for a material is obtained by taking the product of density and specific heat. Units are /K. it is usefull to know the rate of heat Higher thermal capacity can (but will not always) reduce heat flow from the outside to the inside environment by storing the heat within the material, Heat entering a wall construction during the daytime, for example, can be stored within the wall for several hours until it flows back out to the cool night air—assuming appropriate weather conditions and adequate thermal capacity. B)_Modes of heat transfer: Conduction. This is the transfer of heat between substances which are in direct contact with each other. Conduction occurs when heat flows through a solid. In order for the heat to be conducted, there should be physical contact between particles and some temperature difference. Scanned with CamScannerTherefore, thermal conductivity is th particle, The rate of heat flow throu F Measure of the speed of heat flow passed from particle to temperature and by its thermal es specific material will be influenced by the difference of Convection. This is the movement of ge ‘cui liguid is heated, it warm nt BSS a Hg caused by heat transfer. As a gas or convection, By thi ' expands and rises because it is less dense resulting in natural y this mode, heat is transferred when a heated air/gas or liquid place to another, carrying its heat with i. 7 a heated air/gas or liquid moves from one — wry AL with it. The rate of heat flow will depend on the temperature of pines B28 or liquid and on its rate of flow. R ean Hea energy is transmitted in the form of light, as infrared radiation or another form os waves. This energy emanates from a hot body and can travel freely only igh completely transparent media. When electromagnetic waves travel through space, itis called radiation, When these waves (from the sun, for example) hit an object, they transfer their heat to that object. The atmosphere, glass and translucent materials pass a significant amount of radiant heat, which can be absorbed when it falls on a surface. It is a well-known fact that light- coloured or shiny surfaces reflect more radiant heat than black or dark surfaces, therefore the former will be heated more slowly. Heat transfer in buildings: Conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer take place almost everywhere we look. In a building envelope, conduction primarily takes place through opaque _ envelope assemblies, convection is usually the result of wind or pressure-driven air movement, and radiant hheat transfer is primarily from the sun through fenestrations. Building HVAC systems are typically designed to provide comfort using convective or radiant modes of heat transfer. Heat storage is a function of the density of a material and its specific heat; the product of these two properties is known as thermal capacity (or Thermal Mass). Building materials gain or lose heat energy over time as ambient conditions change and these heat storage properties determine how much energy can be stored within a given material, and how quickly that energy will be gained or released, Understanding fundamental heat flows from conduction, convection, and radiation is key to creating energy efficient buildings. Moisture flows are also important because moisture holds energy as “latent heat.” Sensible vs. Latent Heat Flows There are d two forms of heat flows: sensible heat and latent heat. Sensible heat flow results in a change in temperature. Latent heat flow results in a change in moisture content (often humidity of the ait), Total heat flow is the sum of sensible and latent flows. Human comfort depends on providing acceptable levels of both temperature (sensible heat) and humidity (latent heat). D) Greenhouse effec Ifa planet's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases (ie., greenhouse gases) they will radiate energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it. The intensity of the downward radiation — that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect — will depend Scanned with CamScanneron the atmosphere's Caine spl temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere Earth’s nature ‘ foniiy at Goatees Sa is critical to supporting life. Human activities, mainly the caused global warming, Theses nie OF forest, have strengthened the greenhouse effet and of sunlight passing thnann cen feenhouse eet” arose fom a faulty analogy withthe effec is fundamentally differe t glass and warming a greenhouse. The way a greenhouse retains heat kept inside, By the 2S teenhouse works mostly by reducing airflow so that warm aris eet 7 "ir percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on Earth the four major + water vapor, 36-70% * carbon dioxide, 9-26% + methane, 4.9% * ozone, 3-7% It is not possible to assign a specific percentage to each gas because the absorption and emission bands of the gases overlap (hence the ranges given above). Clouds also absorb and emit infrared Tadiation and thus affect the radiative properties of the atmosphere of thermal insulation/heat insulation of a building is to conserve a constant heat or temperature inside building, irrespective of temperature changes outside. Methods of Heat Insulation or Thermal Insulation The heat in a building structure is mainly transmitted through the roofs, exposed walls and exposed wall openings, such as windows, doors, ventilators, etc. and accordingly the methods of heat insulation usually adopted are as follows: 1. Methods of heat insulation of roofs 2. Methods of heat insulation of exposed walls 3. Methods of insulation of exposed windows, doors & ventilators etc. 1. Methods of Heat Insulation of Roofs It is desirable from comfort considerations that thermal transmittance ‘U of exposed roofs should not exceed 2k.cal. per m? h°C. Hence, methods are adopted to bring down the excess of “U” value by treating the roofs. The following methods of thermal or heat insulation for treating the internal and external surfaces are generally employed. 1. Heat insulating materials described are applied externally to the roofs. In case of external application, heat insulating materials may be installed over the roof but below a waterproof course. In case of internal application, heat insulating materials may be fixed by adhesives or otherwise, on the underside of roofs from within the rooms. . The false ceiling of insulating materials may be provided below the roof with air gaps in between, . Shining and reflective insulation materials may be installed or laid on the top of the roof. . An air space may be created on top of flat roofs by arranging sheets of asbestos cement or corrugated galvanized iron over the bricks. Scanned with CamScanner5. Flat roofs may be kept cool by flooded water either by storing or by spraying regularly. This helps in reducing the outside temperature considerably. Water loss due to evaporation in such cases can be compensated by installing make up arrangements. 6. White washing of the roof before onset of each summer also helps in heat insulation. 7. Suitable shading of roof on the exposed surfaces also reduces the surface temperature, 2, Methods of Heat Insulation of Exposed Walls For walls, also in view of comfort consideration, itis desirable to have the thermal transmittance (U) of exposed walls not greater than 2 k.el pet m? °C. To achieve this objective the following 5 methods are adopted for thermal insulation of exposed walls: 1, The thickness of the walls may be increased, depending upon derived. 2, Hollow wall or cavity wall construction may be adopted. 3. The walls may be constructed out of suitable heat insulating materials provided structural requirements are met. 4, The heat insulating materials of different types can outside of the exposed wall in order to reduce the limits. In case external application, overall water proofing should be done. 5. For pation walls, an air space may be created by fixing the sheathing of hard boards or battens on cither side of the walls. 6. Light colored white-wash or distemper may be app! to increase thermal insulation value. 3. Methods of Thermal Insulation of Exposed Windows, D ‘All windows, doors, ventilators etc. which are exposed, transmit The following methods can be suitably used to achieve heat ins doors etc. Reduction of Incidence of Solar Heat The incidence of solar heat on exposed doors and win ‘means + By use of sheds. By adopting internal shading, such as curtains in heavy folds, Venetian blinds ete the extent of insu be installed or fixed on the inside and thermal transmittance to the desired ied on the exposed surface of the wall joors, Ventilators ete it heat to a considerable extent. sulation of exposed windows, dows can be reduced by the following external shading, such as louvered shutters, sun breaker and chajjas or weather Reduction of Heat Transmission Where glazed windows and doors are provided, the reduction of heat transmission may be achieved by insulating glass or double glass with air space in between or by any other suitable means. Al Scanned with CamScannerGLASS PANE. wosay | Heat transmission and radiation from a window Glazing Properties Heat transfer through a window involves all three modes of heat transfer; conduction, convection, and radiation. The dominant mode of heat transfer is always changing and depends on the time, the ambient and interior temperatures, the exterior wind speed, and the amount and angle of solar radiation that strikes the window. The insulation capabilities of windows are usually measured by their U-factors. The U-factor for a window is primarily a metric used to calculate the conductive portion of the heat transfer through the window. Because windows (“glazing”) let light and radiation through, there are a host of properties that ‘must be considered to optimize their thermal and visual performance. For example, a simplified ‘metric used to specify radiant heat transfer through the window when solar energy strikes the window is called the solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC). The SHGC is a value between 0 — 1.0 and is a measure of how much radiant heat transfer will occur relative to an unglazed opening. F) Sun/Solar protection in buildings: Sunlight admitted into a building impacts on the building energy consumption in different ways in different seasons. In summer, excessive solar heat gain results in greater energy consumption due to the increased cooling load requirement; in winter, sunlight reaching the south-facing facade can provide passive solar heating; in all seasons of the year the sun improves daylight quality. Well-designed shading devices can significantly reduce building peak cooling load and corresponding energy consumption and enhance daylight utilization in buildings. Shading 6 — Scanned with CamScannerdevices can also avoid glare by reducing contrast ratios of building interior. There are maty different reasons to want to control the amount of sunlight that is admited into a bulking, Un warm, sunny climates excess solar gnin may result in high cooling energy consumption; in cold and temperate climates winter sun entering south-facing windows can positively contribute (0 passive solar heating; and in nearly all climates controlling and diffusing natural ilumination will improve daylighting. Well-designed sun control and shading devices ean dramatically reduce building peak heat gain and cooling requirements and improve the natural lighting quality of building interiors. Depending on the amount and locaton of fenestration, redutions in annual cooling ene consumption of 5% to 15% have been reported, Sun control and shading devices can also improve user visual comfort by controling glare and reducing contrast ratios. This often leads to increased stisoction and productivity. Shading devices offer the opportunity of differentiating one building facade from another. This can provide interest and human scale to an otherwise undistinguished design. | The use of sun control and shading devices is an important aspect of many energy-cfficient building design strategies. In particular, buildings that employ passive solar heating oF daylighting often depend on well-designed sun control and shading devices. In passive solar building design, windows, walls, nd floors are made to collect, store, and distribute solar energy inthe form of heat inthe winter and eject solar heat in the summer. This is called passive Solar design because, unlike active solar heating systems, it does not involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices. The key to design a passive solar performing an accurate site analysis. El size, and glazing type, thermal insulation, techniques can be applied most easily to new buildings, “retrofitted”. During cooling seasons, heat gain from entering a conditione by building elements such as awnings, function as reflectors, called light shelves, building interiors. building is to best take advantage of the local climate fements to be considered include window placement and thermal mass, and shading. Passive solar design but existing buildings can be adapted or extemal window shading is an excellent way to prevent unwanted solar od space. Shading can be provided by natural landscaping or ‘overhangs, and trellises. Some shading devices can also ‘which bounce natural light for day lighting deep into ading devices will depend on the solar orientation of a particular building facade. For example, simple fixed overhangs are very effective at shading south-facing ‘windows in the summer when sun angles are high. However, the same horizontal device is ineffective at blocking low aftemoon sun from entering west-facing windows during peak heat gain periods in the summer, Exterior shading devices are particularly effective in conjunction with clear glass facades. However, high-performance glazings are now available that have very The design of effective shi Scanned with CamScanner aJow shading coefficients (SC). When specified, these new glass products reduce the need for exterior shading devices, ‘Thus, solar control and shading can be provided by a wide range of building components including: + Landscape features such as mature tees of hedge rows; + Exterior elements such as overhangs or vertical fins; ‘+ Horizontal reflecting surfaces called light shelves; + Low shading coefficient (SC) glass; and, + Interior glare control devices such as Venetian blinds or adjustable louvers. Shading devices can have a dramatic impact on building appearance. This impact canbe for 7 better or for the worse. The earlier in the design process that shading devices are considered they more likely they are to be attractive and ‘well-integrated in the overall architecture of a project. \ | ‘The design of the shading strategy will depend on the size and orientation of the window openings. Shading devices can also affect the building appearance. Although the design of external shading devices involves a number of factors. In recent years, there has been a dramatic. increase in the variety of shading devices and glazing available for use in buildings. A wide ‘Aluminum architectural sun shade, horizontal sun control device, vertical fins 8 Scanned with CamScannerof adjustable shading products is commercially available from canvas awnings to solar roll-down blinds, shutters, and vertical louvers. While they often perform well, their practicality is limited by the need for manual or mechanical manipulation. Durability and maintenance issues are also a concer. ‘When designing shading devices, carefully evaluate all operations and mai safety implications. In some locations, hazards such as nesting birds or eartl the viability of incorporating exterior shading devices in the design. The need to | clean shading devices, particularly operable ones, must be factored into any life~ intenance (O&M) and hquakes may reduce .d to maintain and cycle cost analysis of their use. Designing Shading Systems | F Given the wide variety of buildings and the range of climates in which they can be fount difficult to make sweeping generalizations about the design id, it is of shading devices. However, the following design recommendations generally hold true: To the greatest extent possible, limit the amount of east and west glass since it is harder to shade than south glass. Consider the use of landscaping to shade east and west exposures. Remember that shading effects day lighting; consider both simultaneously. For example, ‘a light shelf bounces natural light deeply into a room through high windows while shading lower windows. Do not expect interior shading devices such as Venetian blinds or vertical louvers to reduce cooling loads since the solar gain has already been admitted into the work space. However, these interior devices do offer glare control and can contribute to visual acuity and visual comfort in the work place. Carefully consider the durability of shading devices. Over time, operable shading devices can require a considerable amount of maintenance and repair. When relying on landscape elements for shading, be sure to consider the cost of landscape maintenance and upkeep on life-cycle cost. Shading strategies that work well at one latitude, may be completely inappropriate for other sites at different latitudes. Be careful when applying shading ideas from one project to another, Interior shading devices such as Venetian blinds or vertical louvers do not reduce cooling load since the solar gain has already been admitted into the indoors. However these interior devices do offer glare control. Scanned with CamScannertypes of shading device Gia ae lows, greatly influence the thermal conditions within a building. ; several elements, some of are adjustable. These elements perform various functions, including the following: ventilation © day lighting * provision of privacy and security * prevention of glare exclusion of rainfall © allowing a view out * exclusion of dust, noises, pollution and insects * Exclusion of direct solar radiation. Extemal shading devices are only one of these elements. Others include curtains, glass, solid or louvred shutters, security bars and mosquito screens. The functions of external shading devices include: «allowing a view out ‘© protection from rain «protection from direct solar radiation ‘© protection from sky glare Various shading devices and their geometries: ‘There are three types of sun-shading devices. They are: © Vertical devices ‘© Horizontal devices * Egg-erate devices In describing the characteristics of shading shading device are considered as one unit. 1g devices it should be noted that the window and the Vertical swing devices Vertical Shading Devices consist of pilasters, louvre blades or projecting fins in a vertical position. Their performance is measured by the horizontal shadow on westem and eastern ‘levations. They are commonly referred to as fins and are most effective on eastern and western elevations. 10 Scanned with CamScanneri Horizontal shading devices Horizontal Shading Devices are usually in the form of canopies, long verandas, movable horizontal louvre blades or roof overhangs. ‘They are best suited to southern and northem elevations and their performance is measured by the vertical shadow angle Egg-crate devices Are combinations of vertical and horizontal devices. They are usually in the form of grill blocks or decorative sercens, Their performance is determined by both the horizontal and vertical shadow angles, mary: ‘The design of sun shading devices for thermal comfort involves four steps: determination of when shading is required; determination of the position of the sun at the times when shading is required; determination of the dimensions and proportions of the required shading device and finally the actual design of the shading device. External shading devices are particularly effective in conjunetion with clear glass facades. However, high-performance glazings such as Jow-e glass ‘re now available that have very low shading coefficient (SC), which indicates the amount of solar heat gain that is admitted into a building relative to a single-glazed reference glass. These new glass products reduce the need for external shading devices. However, well-designed fixed shading devices are the most effective installation for minimizing direct solar heat gain. 1 Scanned with CamScanner