Final Exam Assignment

Modern Political Theories

MA Political Science Semester IV

Submitted by
Nayyar Ul Hassan
1219-MAPS-2018
1. JEREMY BENTHUM:
Introduction:
Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher. He tried to bring legal and
political reforms in Britain through his philosophy. He tried to base politics and
ethics on scientific principles. He gave the principle of greatest happiness of
greatest number of people. He founded the utilitarian philosophy. His aim is to
found a philosophy which ensures a maximum happiness for maximum
number of people. According to Bentham, individuals view their interests
accordingly to pleasure and pain. They seek to maximize their happiness over
pain. Every action has negative and positive effects so individuals are looking
to achieve that bring the most happiness.
Theory of Jeremy Bentham:
Jeremy Bentham theory holds that actions are morally right if they tend to
promote happiness or pleasure and morally wrong if they tend to promote
unhappiness or pain among all those affected by them.
Notable Works:
The most notable works of Jeremy Bentham are presented below:
Utilitarianism:
Utilitarianism is the most notable work of Benthum. Utilitarianism is called for
maximisation of goodness in society and greatest amount of happiness for
greater number of people. According to Jeremy Bentham the actions and
behaviours are right if they promote happiness or pleasure and wrong if they
promote unhappiness or pain. Similarly, an act is right if and only if it results in
as good as any available.
From above discussion we can conclude the features of Utilitarianism:
1. Pleasure or happiness is the only thing that has true value.
2. Actions are right if they promote happiness, wrong if they produce
unhappiness.
3. Everyone’s happiness counts equally.
Pain and Pleasure Theory:
According to Bentham human beings are basically pleasure seeking and pain
avoiding animals. They do those things which gives them pleasure and avoid
those things which gives them pain. Pain and Pleasure theory explains that
how people actually behave and how people should behave.
Felicific Calculus:
Highest principle of morality is to maximize the happiness. In considering
whether an action is good we must consider how much pleasure it would
produce. Felicific Calculus is basically a formula developed by Jeremy Bentham
for calculating the amount of pleasure that a specific action is likely to cause.
The moral rightness and wrongness of an action can be determined by the
amount of pleasure it produces.

Panopticon:
The Panopticon is a system of control designed by the English philosopher
Jeremy Bentham. The concept of the design is to allow all prisoners of an
institution to be observed by a single security guard, without being able to tell
whether they are being watched or observed.

a) Bentham on Punishment:
For Jeremy Bentham punishment itself is a evil. Therefor he was not in favour
of revenge. He says that punishment an evil only be used to prevent a greater
evil. Punishment should not be used when no evidence against the wrongdoer
is found and punishments are more expensive than crime. According to him
the main aim of punishment should be to prevent crimes from society and
objective of punishment should not be cruelty. Very severe punishment should
not be given for very minor offences. And Punishment should be impartial.
b) Benthum on Sovereignty:
According to Jeremy Bentham the Sovereignty is the most supreme and
complete power. i.e. To execute, to legislate and to adjudicate. Rights are
protected in the state and state is managed by the powerful sovereign.
c) Diminishing Marginal Utility:
Bentham connects happiness with the means to happiness. The more rich a
person is, the greater the happiness he can attain. However, he also
recognized the principle of diminishing marginal utility, i.e. according to
Jeremy Bentham that the greater the amount of utility a person already has,
the smaller will be the utility gain of extra gain of wealth.
d) Later Improvements:
Later Improvements concepts of Jeremy Bentham can be understood as
below:
1) Disappointment-prevention Principle: For Bentham, the loss of something to
a person who is rich enough will not create that amount of pain to the
happiness of a poor person who gain some wealth. The unhappiness created
by the loss of something will have a greater impact on a person than the
happiness brought about by its gain to someone else.
2) Greatest Happiness Principle: Actions are right if and only if the produce
greatest amount of happiness (pleasure) to the greatest number of people.
Maximisation of happiness (utility) is the only moral goal.
3) Universal Interest: The universal interest relates to interests that are shared
by everyone. Universal interest is an idea stated in parliamentary reforms
where it produces greatest happiness principle aimed to maximising happiness
or pleasure. It is only impossible for government to legislate policies to achieve
this end is a distribution of happiness.
1. MONTESQUIEU:
Introduction:
Montesquieu was a French political philosopher. According to Montesquieu
the best form of government was one in which the legislative, executive, and
judicial powers were separate and kept each other in check to prevent any
branch from becoming more powerful than others. He believed that uniting
these powers in one hand would lead to a despotism. Montesquieu called the
idea of dividing government power into three branches. That are executive,
legislature and judicial branches.
Theory of Montesquieu:
Montesquieu concludes that the best form of government was one in which
the legislative, executive, and judicial powers were separate and kept each
other in check to prevent any branch from becoming too powerful. He
believed that uniting these powers would lead to despotism.
Notable Works:
The notebale works of Montesquieu are presented below:
a) The Persian Letters:
The Persian letters were written in 1721 by the Montesquieu, the Persian
Letters is about two Persian noble fictional characters journeying through
France. They describe about daily life in Europe. Letters were 32 in number. He
paid great attention to the treatment of women and the place of wives in
European society. The letters also portray that what European society would
look like to a traveller from outside of Europe and the problem they would
face. The Persian Letters gained immediately significance in France. The work
provided a cultural critique and gave insight into different customs. He was
heavily influenced by the diversity of laws and forms of governments in
Europe.
b) The Spirit of Laws:
The spirit of laws was written by Montesquieu in 1748. Montesquieu argues
that the government can be saved from corruption by setting up a system in
which different branches exercise legislative, executive and judicial powers. He
also argues that the system of checks and balances should be developed in
which one branch has power to check the other branches so one does not
become more powerful.
c) Doctrine of Separation of Powers:
In his book the spirit of laws. Montesquieu for the first time, discussed the
doctrine of separation of powers.
According to Monstesquieu's theory of separation of power that no person or
body should be vested with all three types of powers.
In every state there are three kinds of powers:
1. The Legislative Power.
2. The Executive Power
3. The Judicial Power
There must be a division of functions on the following basis:
1. The legislature should make laws not enforce or administer them.
2. The executive must administer the made laws but neither influence the
legislature in the making of the laws nor stand in the judgment of the same.
3. And the judiciary must determine rights and uphold justice without taking
over the functions of law making or administration.

e) Forms of Government:
According to Montesquieu there are three forms of government.
1. Republican (Democracy or Aristocracy):
It is a form of government in which people are governed by the elected
representatives. In this form of government people are sovereign.
2. Monarchy:
In a monarchy form government one person governs others by fixed and
established laws.
3. Despotism:
In despotic form of government a single person governs with absolute power.
Criticism:
Firstly all the branches are made separate and independent of each other,
each branch will endeavour to safeguard its interests and possibly may
jeopardize other’s interest. Secondly perfect separate power in the functions
of the government is impossible.
Michel Foucault:
Introduction:
Michel Foucault was a French historian and philosopher. He has had strong
influence not only in philosophy but also in a wide range of humanistic and
social scientific disciplines. His philosophy is full of social reforms.
Theory of Michel Foucault:
Foucault’s theories primarily address the relationship between power and
knowledge, and how they are used as a form of social control through societal
institutions.
Notable Works:
The notable works of Michel Foucault are presented below:
Theory of Power:
Foucault’s analysis of power comes in two forms: empirical and theoretical.
The empirical analyses concern themselves with historical form of power and
how these emerged from previous forms of power. Foucault describes three
types of power in his empirical analyses: sovereign power, disciplinary power,
and biopower.
Foucault on Sovereign Power:
According to Foucault sovereign power is a power structure that is similar to a
pyramid, where one person or a group of people at the top of the pyramid
holds the power, while normal and oppressed people are at the bottom of the
pyramid. In the middle parts of the pyramid are the people who enforce the
sovereign’s orders. A typical example of sovereign power is absolute monarchy
Foucault on Disciplinary Power:
According to Foucault disciplinary power aims to use body’s skills as effectively
as possible. The more useful the body becomes, the more obedient it also has
to become. The purpose of this is not only to use the body’s skills, but also
prevent these skills from being used to revolt against the power.
Foucault on Biopower:
Biopower is a technology of power for managing humans in large groups. The
unique quality of this political technology is that it allows for the control of
entire populations. For example in today’s era reproductive rights (abortion,
birth control, etc) is an example of biopower.
Foucault’s Theory of Sexuality:
According to Foucault firstly, since the rise of the bourgeois class pleasurable
activities has been condemned. As a result, sex has been treated as a private,
practical affair that only properly takes place between a husband and a wife.
Sex outside these confines is not simply prohibited also but repressed. That is
why there is not simply an effort to prevent extra marital sex, but also an
effort to make it unspeakable and unthinkable. Sexuality is confined to
marriage. Secondly, We need to break free from this repression, to talk freely
about sex and to enjoy sex, as a part of a larger political rebellion against
bourgeois society.
Michel Foucault Theory of Madness:
According to Michel Foucault madness is an illusion. This is Foucault’s central
idea. Throughout Madness and Civilization, he insists that madness is not a
natural, unchanging thing, but rather depends on the society in which it exists.
Various cultural, intellectual and economic structures determine how madness
is known and experienced within a given society. In this way, society
constructs its experience of madness.
Foucault’s Theory of Medicine:
Michel Foucault talks about how modern day treatments are no less
controlling madnesses than the previous old age methods. He describes that
the modern day treatments are not too helpful in order to treat the mad
people. The treatments were consolidation and purification. He also argues
that modern day treatments are brutal. Patients accept the rounds of clinics as
the part of their necessary service to the state.
Foucault’s Views on Punishment:
According to Foucault in Past punishment was directed at the human body.
Violent torture and cruel executions were a public spectacle aimed at teaching
a lesson and deterring others from committing similar crimes. Michel Foucault
believed that the main goal of penal system should not be to take revenge on
the criminal, but to prevent future crime. The state should now focus on
controlling the potential consequences of a crime, making the punishment less
violent on the bodies of the criminals, while ensuring a stronger effect on their
minds.
Foucault on Governmentality:
According to Foucault, government does not refer only to political structures
or to the management of states rather, it designates the way in which the
conduct of individuals or of groups might be directed. Governmentality,
expression is basically founded by Michel Foucault, it combines the terms
government and rationality. Government in this sense refers to conduct, or an
activity meant to shape, guide, or affect the conduct of people. All in all, the
art of governing.
Personal Analysis:
Foucault’s works have exercised a powerful influence over numerous
humanistic and social scientific disciplines. Foucault’s work on biopower has
been widely influential not within the disciplines of philosophy and political
theory but also we can see it happening in contemporary era.
John Stuart Mill:
Introduction:
John Stuart Mill is one of the most important thinker and writer. John Stuart
Mill was also a political activist, involved in struggles for social reform
throughout his life. Mill’s philosophy is based on an empiricist approach to the
world. Mill sees experience as the only true foundation of knowledge, and that
is why his philosophy allows no place for traditional or received ideas of right
and wrong. Although Mill was influenced by utilitarianism, a theory that
directs people to work for the greatest happiness for the greatest number of
people, Mill nevertheless worked to protect the rights of individuals,
particularly women. Mill’s interest in social reform stemmed from his belief
that the majority often denies liberty to individuals, either through laws or
through moral and social judgments. Mill believed that an individual may do
anything he or she wishes, as long as that individual’s actions do not harm
others.
John Stuart Mill on Utilitarianism:
Mill was influenced by utilitarianism, a theory that directs people to work for
the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. Mill defines
utilitarianism as a theory based on the principle that actions are right in
proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce
the reverse of happiness. Mill defines happiness as pleasure and the absence
of pain.
John Stuart Mill on Liberty:
Mill believed that an individual may do anything he or she wishes, as long as
that individual’s actions do not harm others. He maintained that governments
have no right to interfere in an individual’s affairs, even when the
governments make laws that are designed for the good of the individual. In
fact, the only viable reason for any government to exist in the first place is to
protect the individual so that he or she experiences safety in peacetime,
defence in times of war, and security from fraud and cheating. Mill believed
that there is no right to legislate how others ought to live. The liberty of
someone to live however they want, saying and doing whatever they want.
Mill’s Economy Philosophy:
Mill’s early economic philosophy was one of free markets. However he
accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were
sufficient utilitarian grounds. He believed that equality of taxation means
equality of sacrifice, and that progressive taxation penalised those who
worked harder and saved more and was therefore it is a form of robbery.
Mill on Sovereignty:
John Stuart Mill believed that individuals are sovereign. Sovereignty is vested
im entire community. Every citizen not only participates in expressing
sovereign will but also sometimes practically takes part in public affairs. That is
why according to John Stuart Mill the individual is sovereign.
Mill on Parliamentary Spirit:
Mill believed that parliament is composed of territorial representatives those
guarantee individuals liberty.
Mill on Rule of Single Person:
Mill discards the rule of single person as dictatorships. He believed that
dictators interests often contradict with individuals interests.
Mill on Proportional Representative:
Mill believed that for a successful government it is necessary people of
different creed and thoughts to be given representation on the basis of their
numeric strengths. If the power is invested in majority it is then tyranny
against the minority. That is why he demands equal treatment for all races and
creeds.
Mill Believes on Electorates:
Mill believed that electorates should be educated. But non educated voters
should be right to vote but should be gives less weightage. Because it is the
natural right of every individual to vote.
Mill on Universal Adult Suffrage:
Every individual of 21 years of age regardless of sex should be given right to
vote. He disliked the secret ballot system.
Mill Believes on Individualism:
Parliament should have check on government. Executive should constitute few
members on parliament civil services. Freedom of action is necessary for
mental and moral education of individuals. State has no right to intervene and
exercise power over civil life of individuals of community unless it is deemed to
protect others.
Mill on Territorial Representation:
Mill believed that political stability is possible when representation is given to
all areas of a community.
Criticism on the theories of John Stuart Mill:
Firstly, if government does not interfere in individual affairs then there will be
no uniformity. Mill’s believes on liberty is dividing affairs into personal and
general. That is why believes on liberty are not uniform as it divides life into
two. Secondly, Mill’s believes about liberty create government a silent
spectator in anti moral activities.