CHAPTER 4

REALIZATION OF SECOND–ORDER
FUNCTIONS

4.1 Feedback system

The connection of blocks in the form of Fig. 4.1 is known as an elementary feedback
system. Here v1 is the input and v2 the output, and feedback is accomplished by
feeding back v2 through block H. Then Hv2 is either added or subtracted from v1 to
form e. A negative sign implies negative feedback, a positive sign positive feedback.
If H = 1 and negative feedback is used, then e is the difference between input and
output, or the error. Many feedback systems are designed to minimize this error so
that the output will follow the input with small error.
Two equations describe the block diagram system of Fig. 4.1:

v2 = Ae
and
e = v1 ∓ H v 2

Active Networks, First Edition. 35

By Osama A. Alkishriwo Copyright
c 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
36 REALIZATION OF SECOND–ORDER FUNCTIONS

𝑒
𝑣1 + 𝐴 𝑣2

Figure 4.1 Elementary feedback system.

Substituting the second of these equations into the first and rearranging the result,
we have
v2 A
= (4.1)
v1 1±AH

4.2 The General Second-Order Filter Function

The general form of the second–order transfer function is

Ωz
b2 s2 + b1 s + b0 s2 + Qz s + Ω2z
H(s) = =H Ωp
(4.2)
a2 s2 + a1 s + a0 s2 + + Ω2p
Qp s

where H = b2 /a2 . The zero and pole locations are given by

s
Ωz 1
z1 , z2 = − ± jΩz 1 − (4.3)
2Qz 4Q2z

and
s
Ωp 1
p1 , p2 = − ± jΩp 1− (4.4)
2Qp 4Q2p

where Qz and Qp are the quality factors of the zeros and poles respectively. The
zeros described by the numerator of Eq. 4.2 strongly influence the magnitude re-
sponse of the biquadratic transfer function and determine the filter type (low-pass,
high-pass, etc.). It is common to use Ω0 instead of Ωp and Ωz and Q instead of Qp
and Qz , and we will adopt these symbols here, too. Let the real and imaginary parts
of Eq. 4.4 be
r
Ω0 1
α= and β = Ω0 1 −
2Q 4Q2
 THE BIQUAD CIRCUIT 37

𝑗Ω

𝜓
𝜎

Figure 4.2 Relation between α, β, Ω0 , and ψ.

If we define the angle ψ with respect to the negative real axis as shown in Fig. 4.2,
then

   
α 1
ψ = cos−1 = cos−1 (4.5)
Ω0 2Q

4.3 The Biquad Circuit

The transfer function for the low-pass filter derived as Eq. (4.2) if we set b2 and b1
to zero. Such a transfer function is
±HΩ20
H(s) = (4.6)
s2 + (Ω0 /Q)s + Ω20

We scale frequency so that s = Ωs0 . We also choose the negative sign in Eq. (4.6),
meaning that we anticipate an inverting realization from the transfer function. Then
Eq. (4.6) becomes

V2 −H
H(s) = = 2 (4.7)
V1 s + (1/Q)s + 1

We wish to manipulate this equation until it has a form that can be identified with
simple circuits which have been studied in past chapters. We rewrite Eq. (4.7) as

 
1
s2 + s + 1 V2 = −H V1
Q

If we divide this equation by the factor s(s + 1/Q), it becomes

 
1 −H
1+ V2 = V1
s(s + 1/Q) s(s + 1/Q)
38 REALIZATION OF SECOND–ORDER FUNCTIONS

We may now manipulate this equation to the form

   
−1 −H −1
V2 = V2 + V1 (−1) (4.8)
s + 1/Q s + 1/Q s

Starting at the right–hand side of this equation, we recognize that the (−1) term
may be realized by an inverting circuit of gain 1. Similarly, the factor (−1/s) is
realized by an inverting integrator. Two operations are indicated by the remaining
factor. The circuit realization must produce a sum of voltages, and it must have a
transfer function of the form 1/(s + 1/Q). The three circuits that provide for these
three operations are shown in Fig. 4.3. The circuit marked H1 , sums voltages V1 and
V2 with appropriate multiplication, and also realizes the first–order transfer function
with a circuit that is called a lossy integrator. The circuit marked H2 is the standard
inverting integrator circuit, and the circuit marked H3 is an inverting circuit of unity
gain. If we connect the three circuits together, including a feedback connection of
the output V2 to the input, the result is the circuit shown in Fig. 4.4. This is a scaled
version of the circuit called the biquad circuit or the ring of 3 circuit, or sometimes
the Tow-Thomas biquad.

Figure 4.3

As a different approach to the study of this circuit, suppose that we start with the
circuit itself, with the elements identified by R0 s and C 0 s as in Fig. 4.4. Thinking of
this circuit would be quite natural for an engineer with a background in analog com-
puters since the three modules involved are familiar in analog computers. Routine
analysis of the circuit gives us

V2 −1/R3 R4 C1 C2
H(s) = = 2 (4.9)
V1 s + (1/R1 C1 )s + 1/R2 R4 C1 C2

We may identify this result with the standard form of the low–pass filter transfer
function by equating the appropriate coefficients here to those of Eq. (4.6):
1
Ω20 = (4.10)
R2 R4 C1 C2
 THE BIQUAD CIRCUIT 39

Figure 4.4 Tow-Thomas biquad.

s
R12 C1
Q= (4.11)
R2 R4 C 2

R2
H= (4.12)
R3

We wish to design to satisfy the parameters Ω0 , Q, and H, and we have six circuit
elements to adjust to satisfy these parameters. This is a typical situation in design,
and our approach will always be to arbitrarily select any three and then examine
the consequences on the remaining three. Since we intend to use both frequency
and magnitude scaling, we have no hesitation in selecting unit values for the circuit
elements. Let us make the following choices:

C1 = C2 = 1 and R4 = 1 (4.13)

Let us also decide that we will scale frequency so that Ω0 = 1. Then we may
solve Eqs. (4.10)-(4.13) to obtain the values

1
R1 = Q, R2 = 1, and R3 = (4.14)
H
Example 4-1
We want to design a low–pass filter which has the poles at −577 ± j816.5 and
a dc gain of 2. Find

(a) The transfer function of the filter.

(b) Realize the normalized transfer function.
(c) Realize the denormalized transfer function.

Solution
40 REALIZATION OF SECOND–ORDER FUNCTIONS

(a)

HΩ20
H(s) =
s2 + ΩQ0 s + Ω20
D(s) = (s + 577 + j816.5)(s + 577 − j816.5) = s2 + 1.154 × 103 s + 106

So, we get

Ω0 = 103 Q = 0.866 H = 2
2 × 106
H(s) = 2
s + 1.154 × 103 s + 106

(b) To normalize a transfer function, change every s by s = s/Ω0 , we

acquire the normalized transfer function as

2
H(s) =
s2 + 1.154s + 1

Figure 4.5

(c) The denormalized transfer function is given as

2 × 106
H(s) =
s2 + 1.154 × 103 s + 106

We have kf = 103 and we choose km = 104

One other voltage in the biquad circuit is of special interest. Referring to Fig. 4.4,
observe that V2 /V3 = −1, so that

V3 V2 V3 V2
= × =− (4.15)
V1 V1 V2 V1
 THE BIQUAD CIRCUIT 41

Figure 4.6

This tells us that the transfer function V3 /V1 represents a noninverting low–pass
/
filter. Moving back one module in the circuit, we see that V3 is related to V2 by the
transfer function
V3 1
/
= (4.16)
V2 R4 C 2 s

From the chain rule

/ /
V2 V3 V2 V
× × = 2
V3 V2 V1 V1
We also obtain the result,
/
V2 (−1/R3 C1 )s
= 2 (4.17)
V1 s + (1/R1 C1 )s + 1/R2 R4 C1 C2

Equation (4.17) is the transfer function of a bandpass filter. This transfer function
differs from that for the low–pass case in that it has a zero at the origin. The denom-
inators of the two transfer functions are identical, of course. The general transfer
function for which Eq. (4.17) is a special case must have a form patterned as

H(Ω0 /Q)s
H(s) = (4.18)
s2 + (Ω0 /Q)s + Ω20

If we now return to Eq. (4.17), we see that

1
Ω20 = (4.19)
R2 R4 C1 C2

s
R12 C1
Q= (4.20)
R2 R4 C 2
42 REALIZATION OF SECOND–ORDER FUNCTIONS

R1
H=− (4.21)
R3
If we define the half power frequencies of the band–pass filter as Ω1 and Ω2 ,
then the logarithmic average of these two frequencies is equal to the logarithm of the
frequency Ω0 , i.e.
Ω20 = Ω1 Ω2 (4.22)
The frequency difference between Ω1 and Ω2 is defined as the bandwidth (BW );
so we see that
Ω0
BW = Ω2 − Ω1 = (4.23)
Q
Example 4-2
Design a bandpass filter with a center frequency at Ω0 = 1000 rad/s, a band-
width of 200 rad/s, and a maximum gain of 1 using the biquad circuit. Find
also the half power frequencies.
Solution
The normalized band–pass transfer function is

−(H/Q)s
H(s) = 1
s2 + Q s+1
Ω0 1000
Q= = =5
BW 200

Since maximum gain is 1, then

1 1
H = 1, = = 0.2
Q 5
If we choose km = 104 and kf = 103 , then the denormalized circuit can be
drawn as shown in Fig. 4.7
The denormalized transfer function is given by

−200 s
H(s) =
s2 + 200 s + 106
The half power frequencies can be found as

1
Ω1 Ω2 = 1 and Ω2 − Ω1 =
Q
1 1 1
Ω1 = Ω2 − Ω1 = Ω22 − Ω2 − 1 = 0
Ω2 5 5
 THE BIQUAD CIRCUIT 43

10 𝑘Ω

50 𝑘Ω 0.1 𝜇𝐹
10 𝑘Ω
0.1 𝜇𝐹
10 𝑘Ω
10 𝑘Ω 10 𝑘Ω
𝑉1
/
𝑉2

Figure 4.7

(
1.1
Ω2 =
−0.9

we choose Ω2 = 1.1, so Ω1 = Ω12 = 0.9

Ω1 = 0.9 × 103 rad/sec and Ω2 = 1.1 × 103 rad/sec

The addition of a fourth op amp to the biquad circuit shown in Fig. 4.4 gives it
versatility in the kinds of filtering it can provide. Since it is common to manufacture
op amps with four units on a chip the quad op amp the fourth unit is available to the
designer. We use the extra op amp to add voltages taken from the biquad circuit. In
terms of the quantities in Fig. 4.8 we see that

// /
V2 = −(V2 + V1 ) (4.24)

Dividing by V1 , we have a new transfer function:

!
// /
V2 V2 V1
=− + (4.25)
V1 V1 V1

If we merge the circuit of Fig. 4.8 with that for the biquad circuit given in Fig.
/
4.4, the result is the circuit of Fig. 4.9. If we substitute Eq. (4.17) for V2 /V1 into
the last equation, there results

//
V2 −(1/R3 C1 )s s2 + (1/R1 C1 )s + l/R2 R4 C1 C2
=− 2 + 2 (4.26)
V1 s + (1/R1 C1 )s + 1/R2 R4 C1 C2 s + (1/R1 C1 )s + l/R2 R4 C1 C2

Combining the two equations gives us

//
V2 s2 + (1/R1 C1 − 1/R3 C1 )s + 1/R2 R4 C1 C2
=− (4.27)
V1 s2 + (1/R1 C1 )s + 1/R2 R4 C1 C2
44 REALIZATION OF SECOND–ORDER FUNCTIONS

This equation reduces to an especially simple form if we let R1 = R3 . The

consequence of this choice is seen from Eqs. (4.14) to be that the gain is specified

1
H=
Q
Under this condition, Eq. (4.27) becomes

//
V2 s2 + 1/R2 R4 C1 C2
=− 2 (4.28)
V1 s + (1/R1 C1 )s + 1/R2 R4 C1 C2

Figure 4.8

The denominator has already been identified in terms of the parameters Ω0 and
Q and from the equation we see that the constant of the numerator is Ω20 The minus
sign indicates that the circuit is an inverting one and will be omitted until later. Then
Eq. (4.28) becomes

//
V2 s2 + Ω20
=− 2 (4.29)
V1 s + (Ω0 /Q)s + Ω20

We next return to Eq. (4.27) and select the value of R3 = R1 /2. This causes
the multiplier of s in the numerator to be the negative of the multiplier of s in the
denominator. Then the general form of the transfer function of Eq. 4.27 in terms of
Ω0 and Q is

s2 − (Ω0 /Q)s + Ω20

H(s) = (4.30)
s2 + (Ω0 /Q)s + Ω20
Following the same pattern in modifying the biquad circuit that was used to obtain
the notch and allpass circuits, we modify the circuit by adding a connection to V2 , as
shown in Fig. 4.10 such that
 THE BIQUAD CIRCUIT 45

// /
V2 = −(V1 + V2 + V2 ) (4.31)
Dividing by V1 gives the required transfer function
!
// /
V2 V V2
=− 1+ 2 + (4.32)
V1 V1 V1

Figure 4.9

Figure 4.10

To Eq. (4.27) we add the transfer function V2 /V1 of Eq. (4.9) so that
//  2 
V s + (1/R1 C1 − 1/R3 C1 )s + (1/R2 R4 C1 C2 − 1/R3 R4 C1 C2 )
HHP (s) = 2 = − (4.33)
V1 s2 + (1/R1 C1 )s + 1/R2 R4 C1 C2
46 REALIZATION OF SECOND–ORDER FUNCTIONS

Now the choices R1 = R3 and R2 = R3 cause the second and third terms in the
numerator to vanish, leaving only the s2 term. Writing this result in general for Ω0
and Q, we have

s2
HHP (s) = (4.34)
s2 + (Ω0 /Q)s + Ω20
In summary, we can write the general form of the biquadratic transfer function as

k1 s2 + k2 (Ω0 /Q)s + k3 Ω20

H(s) = (4.35)
s2 + (Ω0 /Q)s + Ω20
in which the constants k1 , k2 , and k3 , are ±1 or 0. The possibilities and names
associated with the cases are given in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1
Case k1 k2 k3 Name
a 0 0 1 Lowpass
b 1 0 0 Highpass
c 0 1 0 Bandpass
d 1 0 1 Bandstop
E 1 −1 1 Allpass
f 0 1 1 Lowpass
g 1 1 0 Bandpass

Figure 4.11
 THE SALLEN AND KEY BIQUAD CIRCUIT 47

4.4 The Sallen and Key Biquad Circuit

Sallen and Key produced a list of active filters in 1954. The circuit of Fig. 4.12
is a lowpass Sallen and Key biquad. In the circuit the noninverting op amp circuit
provides a constant relationship between V2 and V1 which is
V2 RB
=1+ =k (4.36)
Va RA

Figure 4.12

We can write two node equations as

At node a:
Vb − Va
= Va C2 s (4.37)
R2
At node b:
V1 − Vb Vb − Va
= + (Vb − V2 )C1 s (4.38)
R1 R2
Solving for the ratio H(s) = V2 /V1 . The result is
V2 k/R1 R2 C1 C2
H(s) = = 2
V1 s + (1/R1 C1 + 1/R2 C1 , +1/R2 C2 − K/R2 C2 )s + 1/R1 R2 C1 C2
This transfer function is recognized as being of the general form,
kΩ20
H(s) =
s2 + (Ω0 /Q)s + Ω20
which is that of a lowpass filter. Our objective is to find a design strategy to
determine k and the four circuit elements, given the design parameters Ω0 and Q.
48 REALIZATION OF SECOND–ORDER FUNCTIONS

The design of Sallen and Key circuit with noninverting unity gain can be achieved
by replacing the noninverting op amp in Fig. 4.12 with a voltage follower as shown
in Fig. 4.13.

Figure 4.13

For k = 1,
V2 1/R1 R2 C1 C2
H(s) = = 2 (4.39)
V1 s + (1/R1 C1 + 1/R2 C1 ) s + 1/R1 R2 C1 C2

1
Ω20 = 1 = (4.40)
R1 R2 C1 C2

Ω0 1 1 1
= = + (4.41)
Q Q R1 C 1 R2 C1
Assume R1 = R2 = 1, then we obtain
1
C1 = 2Q and C2 =
2Q
Remarks

1. Advantages: unity gain and has voltage follower.

2. Disadvantage: C1 and C2 vary widely for large Q.
3. Transfer function is given by:
1
H(s) =
s2 + 1/Qs + 1