Foreign Language Publications

Modern Chinese Literature and Culture

Body, Space, and Power: Reading the Cultural Images of Concubines in the Works of Su Tong
and Zhang Yimou
Author(s): Hsiu-Chuang Deppman
Source: Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol. 15, No. 2 (FALL, 2003), pp. 121-153
Published by: Foreign Language Publications
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41490906
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Body, Space, and Power: Reading
the Cultural Images of Concubines

in the Works of Su Tona and Zhang

Yimou1

Deppman
Hsiu-Chuang

AlthoughSu Tong'snovellaWivesand Concubines(Qiqie chengqun,1987) 11wishtothank

theeditorandthe
and ZhangYimou'sfamousadaptationof it,Raise the Red Lantern(Da anonymousreviewers
ofMCLC for
their comments
insightful onan
hongdenglonggaogao gua#1991),are two ofthe mostcommonly taught earlier
draft
ofthisessay.
Chinesestoriesand filmsincollegeclassroomstoday thereis presently no
critical
textcomparingand contrasting them.Teachersand studentsalike
have longbeen attractedto the storyitselfbecause itisa spectacularand
approachablecharacterizationofa feudalChinathatseemsmoredramati-
cally"Chinese" than most previouscreations(Chow 1995: 143-144,Lee
1993:361-362).A carefulcomparisonofthe novellaand thefilmrevealsa
furiouscompetitionbetweentwo keyaestheticmovementsof the mid-
1980s:criticalrealisminfilmversusmodernist experimentalism infiction.
Eachofthesemovements a
configured very differentrelationshipbetween
genderpoliticsand Chinesemodernity.
2Recent
studiesofChinese
film
and
Myessaybeginswitha comparativeoverviewof the literaryand cin-
literature
havedrawnoutthe
ematictraditionsthat Su Tong and ZhangYimourepresentand help to ofrethinking
importance the
transform.I showthatintheirworksabout 1920sChina- a criticalperiod between
relationship genderand
Chinese See,forexample,
modernity.
followingthe MayFourthmovementof 1919- theyoftenalignthedilem- Shih2001,
Zhong Yeh2000,
2000,
masinwomen'squestsforfreedomwiththeideologicalobstaclesinChina's SheldonLu1997,Chow1995,Tonglin
Lu1995,Barlow Yue1993,
1993,
searchformodernity.2
We see thatthisconsciousalignmentis especially Widmer/Wang 1993.

Modern Chinese Literature and Culture • 121

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 elucidatedin Wivesand Concubinesand Raise the
trueand meticulously
Red Lantern.Thesetwo worksshowthe waysin whichartistsin the late
1980ssharewithsuchkeyMayFourthwritersas Lu Xunand Ding Linga
profoundunderstanding of howwomen'sstruggleforpowerhas become
an important gauge ofChina'smodernization(LydiaLiu1993;Larson1993;
Brown1993). These two eras have in commonseveralcrucialattributes:
(1) because of increasedEast-Westculturalexchange,the influenceof
WesterncultureinChinareacheddecisivepeaksinthe mid-1 920sand late
1980s;(2) the influxof Westerncultureencouragedwritersand artiststo
make the "woman question" (fundwenti)both a salientillustration of
China'soppressivepatriarchal systemand a criticalissue in intellectuals'
broaderstruggle for nationbuilding.
Inthe second partof myessay,I offera detailedcomparisonof how
Su and Zhang use different aestheticstrategiesto investigatethe power
and hiswomen.Carefulstudyof bothart-
relationbetweenthe patriarch
results:thereemergesintheir
and instructive
ists'worksyieldsimportant
writtenwordsand camerashotstwo contrastingtypesof imagery- a de-
functwell inthe backgardenin Su'stextthatinsinuatessubversive femi-
ninityand a darktowerchamberon the roofof the familycompoundin
Zhang'sfilmthatrepresentsphallicdominance.Thesetwo metaphorssig-
naltheiroppositionalapproachto characterizingthe limitsand potentials
ofwomen'sself-liberation. I argue,Su Tong'sexperimental
Ultimately, aes-
theticoffershisfemalecharactersmorespace fornegotiatingideological
independence,whereasZhangYimou'scritical-realist
approachshowsthe
limitsof femininerebellion.As a result,Su providesthe readera more
unsettlingvisionofthewayswomenare able to challengethe objectif ¡ca-
tionoftheirexistencethandoes Zhang,for,despitehiscreativityand new
cinematictechniques,the directorgivesa moreconventionaland realist
sexualdynamicwithina feudalsociety.
expositionof hierarchical

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Su Tong's Aesthetic Theory
of a new generationof artiststhatemergedin
Su Tongis representative
the post-Maoera, and hiswritingis partof the "experimental fiction"
(shiyanxiaoshuo)(TonglinLu 1995) movementor "'modernistic' experi-
mentalism"(Lee 1990b,1993)thatbegan inthe mid-1980s. The worksof
hisgroup,Leo Ou-fanLee and TonglinLu suggest,striveto subvertthe
narrativeconventions ofsocialistrealism, state-sanctioned
theofficial arts
policythatdominatedliterary expression inmainlandChinafromthe 1940s
to the 1980s(Lu 1995:13).Theseyoung"experimentalists" are oftenchar-
acterizedbytheircommonrejectionof communist collectivismand bya
thatthe Selfis trappedwithinsocialistreality.They
sense of frustration
initiated
an experiment theirworks
witha "poetic"languageto depoliticize
and to deconstruct realistaestheticproperties,namely,"itsreflectionism,
itslinearnarrative and 'present'timeframe,itslifelikeor positivecharac-
ters,and above all itscloseand criticallinkagewithexternalsocialreality"
(Lee 1993:376).
Time
Su Tong'saesthetictheorysupportsthese criticalobservations.
and again, he praises the adventurousspiritof "real" avant-gardes
challengethe existingculturalorderand
(xianfengpai) who aggressively
endorsea Nietzscheandialecticof destruction and creation(Su 1990: 8-
11). Infact,we findinSu's consciousbreakingand reconfiguring of com-
munist/realistrealitya consistentpursuitof aestheticfreedomand a de-
sireto liberatewritingfromitsrepresentational function.Giventhe con-
straintsof socialistrealistaesthetic,itis notsurprisingthatSu would look
formodelsoutsidethe Chineseliterary tradition:he embracesa certain
Westernmodernistaesthetic(e.g., Baudelaire,Kafka,Woolf)that ques-
tionsthe mimeticrelationbetweenfictionand reality, on the one hand,
creativefreedom,on the other.
and celebratesa writer's

Whatis past?Whatis history? To me,itisa stackoftornpiecesof

paper;sinceitisso torn,I can use myown styleto pickitup,patch
itup,and folditup to reconstruct a worldof myown. I can either

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 examineor not examinerealityfroma historicalperspective;I
or not reconstruct
can eitherreconstruct realityfroma historical
pointof view.SinceI award myselfsucha distanceto approach
timeand space, mywritingcreatesa verywide open world.(Su
1997:38; myemphasisand translation)

Thisisan important manifesto. Su seeksto freethe writerfromthe moral

burdenof representing historyas an unquestionedformof reality.This
freedomenablesthe novelistto examinepasteventswitha moreexperi-
mentaland criticalapproach.It also implicitly attacksthe traditionalist
and argues that novelistsare no
view of a writer'ssocial responsibility
longer bound by(communist Confucian)ideologyto act as the exem-
and
Su Tongflikemanyof hiscontemporaries
plaryconsciencesofsociety. (e.g.,
Mo Yan# A Cheng,ZhangChengzhi,Can Xue,Wang Anyi),advocatesthis
freeformof imaginingto resistpoliticalintervention in literary
produc-
tion.Thisbeliefstemsfrom hisrejectionof boththe socialistrealismand
revolutionaryromanticism sanctionedbythe Communistparty.Su Tong
practiceshisown creativetenetnot onlyin Wivesand Concubinesbut in
suchimportant worksas Rice(Mi,1991),DecadenceoftheSouth(Nanfang
de duoluo, 1992),MyLifeas an Emperor(Wo de diwangshengya,1992),
TheNorthern Partof the Town(Chengbeididai,1995),and Angel'sFood
(Tianshide liangshi,1997).
On thewhole,itisSu Tong'sreimagining ofthe pastthathas received
the mostcriticalattention.Hisaccountsof the southernChinesewaysof
lifeare saturatedwitha strongsenseof nostalgiathatlinkshiswritingto
the lyricalfictionof ShenCongweninthe 1930sand to the storiesofsuch
popularroot-searching as ZhengWanlong,A Cheng,ShiTiesheng,
writers
and ZhaxiDawa inthe 1980s(Lee 1993:377). WangDewei (1997: 15) char-
acterizesSuTong's"imaginary nostalgia"as a formof"southernism,"
which
refersto the legendarydepravity and enchantment ofJiangnanas wellas
to Su's narrativestyle,forit shareswith "southernism" an addictionto
excess,expenditure, and self-indulgence. Ultimately, can read Su's
we

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"southernism" - it frees
as a modernist"correction"of socialistrealism
humanexperiencefromthe limitations
of politicallogic,humanrational-
ity,and moralresponsibility.

Zhang Yimou and the FifthGeneration Movement

The riseof ZhangYimouto internationalprominencehas broughtinto
the limelight
the FifthGenerationfilmmakers.
One ofthe 1982graduates
fromthe Beijing FilmAcademy,Zhang and his famous cohortsTian
Zhuangzhuang, ChenKaige,Wu Ziniu,Hu Mei,and otherswerethe "fifth
classto graduatefromthe school'sDirectingDepartment"(Rayns1991:
104)and weretherefore tagged "The FifthGeneration."The influenceof
this"new wave" movementon worldcinemaand cultureis important,
and itis usefulto summarizesome of itsmostsalientcharacteristics.
Allof the FifthGenerationdirectorswere bornafter1949- the year
ofthefoundingofthe People'sRepublicof China- and laterbecamedis-
illusionedwiththeverypoliticalsystemwithwhichtheygrewup. Theyall
sharedthe experienceof beingsentto the countrysideto "learnfromthe
people" duringtheCulturalRevolution between1966and 1976.Theirfirst-
hand knowledgeof impoverished ruralcommunities had an important
impacton theirworks.3Althoughtrainedin the cultureof socialistreal- 3Chen famous
Kaige's debutYellow
ism,thesedirectors are all "unitedagainstdidacticism" Earth with
(1985), Zhang Yimouashis
(Rayns1991: 112). forexample,
isa
cinematographer,
Theircriticism of Communistpolicies,focuson creatinga distinct"Chi- poignant ofthechance
portrayal
nese" cinema,emphasison the symbolicuse of images,and reflection on encounter
between intellectuals
and
ina rural
peasants farming
the "ambiguity"of socialistideologyall makethesedirectors a new gen- This
community. filmwasan
erationof "experimentalists" who not onlytestthe boundariesof politi- important fortheFifth
breakthrough
Generation when
directors itwas
cal tolerancebutseekto changethe cultureof conformism. wellreceived
very atthe1985Hong
On the whole,itwould seem thatZhangYimouand Su Tong have a KongFilmFestival.
lot incommon.Theirriseto fameand popularity coincidedwiththe liter-
ary and cinematic movements ofthe mid-1980s.
Both movements rejected
socialistrealism,
incorporated Western narrativeand cinematic
techniques
intotheirworks,and shareda disillusionment withthe Communistre-

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 gime.Perhapsmostmanifestof ail istheircommonsearchforthe ethno-
graphicalfeaturesofa "real"China(Chow1995;Wang1997:11-36).How-
ever,it is also fairto saythatZhangdiffers
fromSu on issuesconcerning
the "use" of artas a mediumforsocialchange.
Judgingfromthe enormouscommercialsuccessesin ZhangYimou's
career,some mightarguethathiscreativevaluesare moredrivenbythe
marketthanbyideas. However,in interviews, Zhanghas expressedstrong
concernsforthe evolutionof Chinaas a mod-
humanistand critical-realist
ern nation (Yang 1993: 300-302). His firstmovie,Red Sorghum(Hong
gaoliang; 1987),an adaptationof Mo Yan's novel,was an impressivesuc-
cess(YuejinWang 1991:80-103).Thefilm,likethe novel,isset duringthe
Sino-Japanese the patrioticallianceof
war (1937-1945),and it highlights
peasantswithworkers(in a winery)to fightagainstthe Japaneseinva-
of hisfame began withJuDou (1989) and
sion.The internationalization
RaisetheRedLantern - two moviesthatcriticizethetyranny of patriarchy
and thesexualoppressionofwomen.TheywerebothnominatedforAcad-
emyawards in the categoryof BestForeignFilm.His laterfilms,To Live
(Huozhe; 1992),TheStoryof Qiuju (Qiuju da guansi;1994),Not One Less
(Yige ye bunengshao; 1999),and HappyTimes(Xingfushiguang;2002),
underscorethe beautyof humanityembodied in ordinarypeople's con-
tinuousstruggleforsurvival, pursuitofjustice,a peas-
a woman'srelentless
and a blindgirl'strialsand
appeal to socialsympathy,
ant girl'spersistent
tribulationsinthe new marketeconomy,respectively.Thesefilmshave in
commonhumanistconcernsabout the well-beingof a cultureand a na-
approachto denouncethewaysinwhich
tion.Zhangusesa critical-realist
the "littlepeople" have been exploitedbyoppressivetraditionand bu-
reaucraticcorruption.Thisdenouncementassertsthat a directorbears
important to make manifestculturalills,
socialand moralresponsibilities
and speakforthe oppressed.
reflectsocialinjustice,
AlthoughZhang's"ideological"beliefsmaywellhavebeen guidedby
a keen marketing vision,we neverthelesswitnessa stronginfluenceof

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lyiayFourthhumanisminhiswork.Infact,Zhangisexplicitabout hisown
humanistbentina 1992 interview:

"Usingliterature to transmittheTao" (wenyizai dao) isa habitof

thoughtinliterary and artistic
creationthathas been sedimented
{jidian) in MainlandChinaforthousandsof years.Therefore, the
worksfromthe Mainlandhavea heavilyliterary quality,and their
mainobjectiveis to embodya humanistic content.The famous
worksofthe Fifth-Generation directorsare basicallythe awaken-
ingsof culturalreflection and culturalawarenessin thisbroad
humanistic background.Fromthisstandpoint,the artisticmeth-
ods usuallycarrya necessarily rebelliousspirit.Sucha pursuitof
ours is not onlyaimed at the innovationof cinematiclanguage
and methods,but also to meet the strongdemands of social
change,(in SheldonLu 1997: 109-110)

Zhang'savant-gardespiritand artistic experiment reveala moralistvision

of "using"artto producea criticalconsciousnessand achievegreaterso-
cialgood. Thisvisionsituateshisfilmsinthe realistand humanisttradition
of LuXun,GeorgLukács,and ErichAuerbach.Hischoiceof suchcharged 4There isa fundamental difference
wordsas "awakenings,""reflection,"
and "awareness"to characterizehis between critical
realismandsocialist
worksstronglyremindsus of the May Fourthcritical-realist
tradition:it realism.Critical
realism,accordingto
Lee(1993) andAnderson (1990),
makesan important"distinction betweenselfand society"that "carries makes thedistinction between "I"
withita perspectivismanchoredinthesenseoftruthfulness to bothexter- and"they," andinthecontext ofthe
MayFourth movement, it"may infact
nal realityand the author'sinternalself.Simplyput, it meansthat the havebeenpart ofa manifestation of
of the authormustbe a precondition of the techniqueof real- individualism"(Lee1993: 364).
sincerity Meanwhile, socialist
realismsignaled
ism"(Lee 1993: 364). Ifwe agree withLeo Ou-fanLee's description,
an a "greatreturn" tothe"communal,"
overviewof Zhang'sworksshowsthatthe directorhas boththe sincerity foritsnarrativesubject isthe
"collective
we."Asa result, socialist
and the cinematictechniquesto generatea sense of moralclarityand realismwaslater transformed intoa
narrativecoherencein hismovies.4 kindofrevolutionary romanticism
beforeandduring theCultural
Thefollowingcomparisonof Wivesand Concubinesand RaisetheRed Revolution.Both experimental
Lanternshoulddemonstrate thatZhang'sconscientious forces novelistsandtheFifth Generation
filmmaking directors the
strongly oppose
himto replacesomeofthe moreambiguous,polemical,and perhapsrevo- didacticismofsocialistrealism.

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 detailsinSu Tong'soriginaltextwithmorestructured
narrative
lutionary
and interpretable
symbols.

Titles and Entitlement

The story,whichis roughlythe same in both works,is about an aging
patriarchwho triesto controlthe squabblesamong hiswivesand concu-
binesin a 1920sfeudalhousehold.The storyis told fromthe perspective
of a youngwoman,Songlian(Lotus),who entersthe householdat the
beginningof bothstoryand filmas thefourth"wife"(orthethirdconcu-
bine). Lotusis a moderngirlwho has attendedone yearof college but is
forcedbycircumstances thefifty-year-old
to marry ChenZuoqian.Shebrings
intothisconservativefamilya youthful,rebelliousenergyand an inquisi-
to the conflictsbetween modernity
tivesensitivity and tradition,young
and old.
Su Tongframesthispowerstruggleas an allegoryforChina'scentu-
ries-oldbattleforgenderand intellectualreform(TonglinLu 1995; Kang
Liu1993:23-55): Su'sstoryusesthe Chenhouseholdas a metaphorforan
oppressiveold Chinathatisshakenbutnotshatteredbythe progressively
urgentdemandsforwomen'sliberationinthe 1920s.Infact,Lotus'sfight
forindependenceremindsthe readerof two otherfamousfemalepro-
- Lu Xun'sZijunin "Regretforthe Past" (Shangshi;1925) and
tagonists
Ding Ling'sSophie in "Miss Sophie's Diary"(Shafeinüshide riji;1928).
Thesewomen'ssearchforSelfshowsa tighteningconnectionbetweena
nation'smodernizing projectand a woman's"discovery" of hersubjectiv-
ity.Althoughtheyare workinginthissame basicvein,Su Tongand Zhang
dynamicsbetweenwomenand the patriarchal
Yimouconfiguredifferent
systemthroughtheiruse of different
titles,distinctsymbolicstrategies,
and unique narrativeemphases.
Su Tong'schoice of titleshows an importantrecognitionof female
and revealshisexperimental
subjectivity modernist
approachto storytelling.
Qi qie chengqun literallymeans "wivesand concubinesforma crowd."

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 thestorythematizeswivesand concubinesas a singleself-
On thesurface,
determining subject.Thesewomenactivelyinstigate,
narrative shape,and
Su explainsthatthe
take partinwhateverwarfarethereis inthe family.
ifhe had written
novellamightwellhavebeen morelivelyand interesting
about howa manisable to mediateamongthesewomento controlthem.
But he is muchmoreconcernedabout "the waysthese fourwomen tie
themselves togetherto the neckof the guyand furiouslyfightwitheach
otherto competeforwhateverlittlebreathing airthereiswithinthespace"
(Su 1997: 38). Su's focuson women'sperspectivegivesthe concubinesa
muchstrongervoice and morenoticeablepresencein the story.As a re-
sult,the existentialstruggleof these women- the uncontrollablemulti-
plicationof theirsubjectivities in a crowd- producesa formidablethreat
to the stabilityofthe feudalhierarchy and overwhelms of
the singularity
the patriarch's ideologicalstanding.
Su Tong'smodernist celebrationof subversiveness, and
transgression,
fragmentation isalso in
steeped irony. The use ofthe verb cheng("form")
in the titleis deceptive,forit seemsto indicatea transformation of the
5Chen's four wives come from
womenfromindividual membersoftheirdiversesocialcastes5intoa make-
differentsocialbackgrounds.Chen's
shiftcommunity. Infact,theverbcheng- withitssuggestiveconnotations oldestwife, Joy,isfrom a privileged
of becomingcohesiveand harmonized - caricaturesthe ever-expanding socialclass;hissecond wife.
Cloud,
still
has"theappearance ofa cultured
riftsamongthe women,whose bickerings are worsenedbythe addition young woman from a goodfamily"
ofeach newmember;moreover, the impliedunionofchengcontrasts
with (Su1993b: 15-16); thethird
Coral,
wife,isa famous operasinger;and
the progressive
disintegration and dissolutionof MasterChen'smasculin- fourth wife,Lotus,comes fromthe
On the Su's titleforeshadowsthe cacophonicfemininethreats middle class.
ity. whole,
to theauthorityofa feudalhouseholdinwhich,as W. B.Yeats'scharacter- 6SuzieYoung-SauFong(1995) offers
izationof modernchaosgoes, "thingsfallapart:the centercannothold;/ a veryinteresting ofZhang's
analysis
title.
Hertranslation
ofthetitle,
"Big
Mereanarchyis loosed uponthe world." RedLantern HangingHigh,"isslightly
Incomparison, thetitleofZhang'sfilmDahongdenglonggaogao gua different
frommine.Shesuggests
thatthe"hanging"inactionindicates
"big red lantern(s)hang high"or translatedintoRaise the Red
(literally a Barthian
"inthemiddleofthings"
andthereforeintroduces
tothe
Lantern)6 suggestsa verydifferentpowerdynamicbetweenthe man/sys- audienceaninterruptive
violence of
temand hiswomen:the Master,thoughabsentinthetitle,clearlyhasthe thefilm.

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 upperhand to controlthe actionof hisfemalesubjects.Raisingthe red
lantern,as myanalysisof the filmshows,not onlyworksto lightup the
of hisacquisitionbut also makesthe bodyof hisconcubines
desirability
speakclearly,
uniformly, forthehierarchy
and visibly oftheirpowerrelation.
Althoughthese lanternsare conspicuously absent in Su Tong'stext,
Zhangjustifieshisdivergencefromthe storybyarguingthatthe devices
"givea concreteform"to women'soppression(Yang 1993:304). The lan-
festivecolorto the screen:red becomes
ternsalso add a moreironically
morea signof disasterthan a signof celebration.The director'scritical-
concreteness
realistsearchfornarrative and stylistic of vision,criti-
clarity
cizedbyDavidEdelstein(1988:64), H.С. Li(1989: 113),and QingDai (1993:
333-337)asa lackofdepthand hailedbyReyChow(1995:150)and Sheldon
Lu (1997) as "theforceofsurfaces"(Chow1995: 142-172),seemsto make
a powerfulstatementabout the immutablegendergap in feudalChina.
In fact,Zhang'stitleis emblematicof the whole filmin the way that it
eliminatesthethreatof a femalecrowdinSu'stext:womenare explicitly
identified whichcan be managed,litup,
withthe disposableredlanterns,
or extinguishedat the Master'spleasure.
The contrastbetweendefianceand passivity, and sub-
transgression
mission,is further
developedby the different
waysSu and Zhangempha-
size bodylanguage.ForSu,ChenZuoqian'sbodyiscaricatured as a siteof
To achievewomen'ssexual liberationisto colonize
femaleeroticfantasy.
Chen'sbody,consumehismasculinityand,furthermore, attackhisvirility.
Atthesametime,Zhangunequivocally makesLotus'sbodythefocalpoint
indulgenceinclose-upsand
ofall viewingsubjects.Thecamera'srelentless
longtakesofGongLi'sbodymakesthesexualizedconcubinea scopophilic
abuse of power.
symbolforthe patriarch's

Body Languages
ThroughoutWivesand Concubines, Su Tongmakesthe partition
ofChen's
bodya habitualexerciseof poweramongthe concubines.Lotus,likethe

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others,findsthe securityof respectand envyin her abilityto stimulate
and controlChen'ssexualdesire.She oftenhasto competewithCoral,the
third"wife,"forChen'sattention.On herweddingnight,Lotus'smeticu-
ofChen'sbodymakeshertheall-seeingSubjectandthegroom
lousscrutiny
theseen Object.Thebride'sunconventionallyactivegaze offers
thereader
desireand depletion:
exposureof the patriarch's
an objectifying

When the nightcame, Chen Zuoqian came to Lotus'sroomto

spendthenight.Lotushelpedhimtakehisclothesoffand handed
himsomenightclothes, butChenZuoqiansaid,"I don'twearany-
thing.I liketo sleep naked." . . . Thiswas the firsttimeshe had a
clearlookat ChenZuoqian'sbody.ChenZuoqian had a bodylike
a red-crowned Manchuriancrane,bonyand skinny, and hispenis
was as tautas a well-drawnbow. Lotusfelta littleout of breath,
and she asked,"Why'reyouso skinny?"
ChenZuoqianclimbedontothe bed,crawledunderthequilt,
and answered,"They'vewornme out." (Su 1993b: 16-17)

Lotusis engaged inveryimportant activitiesinthe scene.The privileging

of hersightgivesheran activevoice.Su Tongalso uses free,indirectdis-
course,and the powerof herrhetoricenablesherto textualizehisbodyas
"a red-crowned Manchurian crane,bonyand skinny." Thecombinationof
vision and voice thus gives Lotus the agency to expose Chen's frail
masculinity.
The exhibitionof the Patriarch's underscores
bodycarefully the con-
nectionbetweenvisibility forthe displayof sexuality
and vulnerability,
but hisexhaustion.Revealedin hisemaciation
exacerbatesnot hisvirility
prowessbuta confessionof
is nota feudalvisionofthe Father'sinvincible
hisburdens.The description of MasterChen'sbedtimeactionwithverbs
suchas "climbed"(pa) and "crawled"(zuan) givesthe readeran impres-
sionof hisbeing"underneath"and "subordinate,"morelikea lizard,per-
haps,thana craneafterall. Thesetwo verbsalso reducehimto an infan-
stage;hisdependenceon the nurturing
tileand primitive ofthe all-seeing

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 motherfigure(who "helped himtake hisclothesoff")is clearlysatirical.
His acknowledgmentof being "wornout" by hiswivesand concubines
further
anticipatesan ultimatedefeat.Again,Lotusis the witnessto the
profoundtransformation of Chen'sbody.

As a sexuallyexperiencedwoman,Lotuscould neverforgetwhat
happened next.Chen Zuoqian's back was alreadydrenchedin
sweat, but his effortswere stillin vain. She was acutelyaware
thathe had a deep lookoffearand confusionin hiseyes.What's
going on? She heard his voice becomingtimorousand weak.
Lotus'sfingers traveledup and down hisbodylikeflowingwater,
butthe bodyunderherhandsseemed to have rippedapartand
gone utterly limp;itgrewmoreand moredistantfromhers.She
understoodthatChenZuoqian'sbodyhad suffered a tragictrans-
71havemade modifications
slight to formation and she feltverystrange.(1993b:69)7
Michael
Duke's
translation.
Thisisthe beginningof Chen'slibidinousdownfall.Hisimpotencehintsat
the realitythatthe masteris notonlyoutnumberedbyhismistresses, but
also unmannedbytheirsexual aggression.The liquidimagery("sweat"
and "flowingwater") reflectboth the futility of Chen'seffortsand the
dissolutionof hismasculinity.
Thesceneisalso fullof imagesofdisintegra-
tion: Chen's body is being "rippedapart" and growing"distant"from
Lotus'sin a fashionthat registersa symboliccollapse of hiscontrolover
herand offersLotusan opportunity to defyherassignedroleas a sexual
object.
Coral,the mostexplosivecharacterinthe story,
findsa cosmological
reasonforChen'sills."Thefemaleprincipleistoo powerfulinthisgarden;
itwouldonlybe whatfateordainsifitinjuresthe masculineprinciple"(Su
1993b:74). Hercommentsummarizes Su'sthematicemphasison thetrans-
of
gressée possibility concubines
who bringto theChenhouseholda curse
ofthe hauntingpast.Theambiguityofthe "femaleprinciple"{yinqi) aptly
capturesthe unmanageablethreatof these sociallyindefinablewomen.
The conceptyinnot onlyrefersto femininity but also oftenevokesthe

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 thatis beyondthe controlof
and ghostlyaura of an underworld
invisible
rationality.
Thisreferenceto illegitimacy bringsspecialattentionto
and obscurity
the culturalambiguity of concubineswho occupyan intriguing,crossover
speaking,theyare nei-
positionintraditionalChinesesociety.Technically
therservantsnorwives:thisin-betweenness createsan ambivalentsocial
standingthat forcesthemto negotiatea femininespace forsurvivalin
feudalhouseholds.Theirstruggleforpositioningin Su's story,neverthe-
less,is greatlysubdued in Zhang'smovie.Further
comparisonshowsthat
inSu Tong'sportrait ofthesemysteriousand unstableconcubines,we find
a responseto the cinematicproductionof knowledgeabout women,a
production that,inthe moviesof ZhangYimou,stressesthe linkbetween
seeingand ownership.
Zhang'smovieeliminatesLotus'sprivilegedgaze. Contraryto Su's ex-
ofChen'sbodyas a parodyofwaningpatriarchal
hibition power,themovie 8Again,
Zhang's focusonthe
carefullyconcealsthe Instead,
sexuality.
patriarch's Lotus'sbody is now ofwomen's
exploitation bodies
is
bya humanist
guided concern
forthe
thefocalpointof all sexualattention,forithas becomea symbolic
siteof ofa critical
production consciousness.
masculineconquest.8Repeatedshotsof herbodyconfineherto thecarnal Heexplainsinaninterview:"WhatI
wanttoexpress istheChinese
fantasyof the patriarchand the audience,and chained by the marital people's
oppression andconfinement,
bond to the enclosedcourtyard, the weddingchamber,and finallyher whichhasbeengoing onfor
thousands
ofyears. Women express
weddingbed. Meanwhile,ChenZuoqian remainsan elusive,shadowyfig- thismore
clearlyontheir bodies
ure whose threateningoppressiveness is magnifiedbythe secrecyof his because
they beara heavier
burden
thanmen" (inSheldon Lu1997:110).
presence:thecameraneveronce gives him a frontalshotto fullyrevealhis
features.Rather,hisidentity
isconsistentlyobscuredbylighting, distance,
cameraangles,and metonymical of hisbody.
representation
lightwithdarkness,exposurewith
Zhang'stechniqueof contrasting
disguiseisespeciallyeffectiveinthefollowingfiveshots,whichmagnifies
of Lotusand the mystiqueof the Master.The firstshot (fig.
the visibility
1.1) isa longtakeof Lotusat the beginningofthestory;hereshe is immo-
bilizedbyboththe cameraand the circumstances of herlife.The persis-
1.1:Opening
Figure shot: of
close-up
a
tence of the close-upshowsthe inertiaof resignednineteen-year-old Lotus.

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 college studentwho has just agreed to be the fourthwifeof a wealthy
man.She isframedbythecameraas a commodity,
fifty-year-old a woman
on the markettradedto the highestbidder.
In the secondshot(fig.1.2),we briefly see a mediumclose-upof an
expressionless brideon herweddingnight,all dressedup in the well-lit
chamber.The patternof hercolorfulweddinggown,as we discoverlater,
corresponds to the patternof the bed frameand thusconfirmsthe struc-
1.2:Lotus
Figure atthewedding
chamber. turalbondage betweenherbodyand the Chenproperty.
Inthefollowingshot(fig.1.3),thefilmcutsto theentryofthe Master
(ChenZuoqian)fromthe right,whoseindistinctimage,carefullyconcealed
bylightingand the cameraangles,conveysa strongsense ofjudgmental
authority.Hiscommandfirmly dictatesthatconcubinesexist"to servethe
manbetter."
In the fourthshot (fig.1.4),the cameracutsto a close-upof Lotus,
oftheMaster/Groom
1.3:Entry
Figure beingorderedto raisethe red lanternto helpthe patriarchevaluate his
theright.
from "investment." and perhapsshameof Lotusare evidentinthe
The passivity
waythatshe avoidsmakingeyecontactwiththegroomand theaudience.
Chen'scommentary, commingledwithhis(and the camera's)sexualizing
with his ownershipand a narcissistic
gaze, revealsa strongsatisfaction
pridein histaste.
inthefifth
Finally, are positionedinthe
shot(fig.1.5),bothcharacters
foreground.However,Lotustakes up morethan three quartersof the
1.4:Medium
Figure ofLotus
close-up
bylanterns.
besieged frame,and the Masteris exposed onlymetonymically inthe scene- part
of hisarmwavinginthe airto implythathe istakingoffhisclothes.This
imbalancedpresentation furthercontrasts withChen's
Lotus'svulnerability
disembodiedthreat.
The narrativeeffectofthesefiveshotsisto makethefeudalhierarchy
of powerrelationsinthe householdappear morerigidand consolidated;
the shiftoffocusfromthe expositionof Chen'sbodyinthe novellato the
Figure shotofLotus
1.5:Frontal of Lotus'ssexualizedimageinthemoviemakesthe patriarch
fetishization
with
contrasts thedisembodied
oftheMaster.
presence a muchmorepotentand menacingpresenceinZhang'swork.Atthesame

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time,the camera'sexclusivefocuson Lotus'sface createsa controversial
çinematiclanguagethatseemsto aestheticizevictimhood and vulnerabil-
Hisuse ofsuchsensualcolorsas brightredand yellowcreatesan opti- 9ReyChow (1995:143)mentions
that
ity.9
"these andoften
talesofgothic
calfeastfortheaudiencethatnotonlyvisualizesoppressionbutalso evokes morbid aremarked
oppression by
a conventionalnarrativeappeal to "the visibleas the groundof itspro- their
contrast
withthesensuous
screen
designofthefilms.
Zhang's
ductionoftruth"(Doane 1991:1). MaryAnnDoane'spsychoanalytical prob- film colors
languagedeploysexquisite
ingintosuch"surface"shotsas close-upsis usefulto our of
understanding inthedepiction
of'backwardness.'"
This
"backwardness" refers
mainly to
ZhangYimou'sdeliberatefocuson Lotus'sface. "The face is that bodily thedeprivation
ofwomen's
rights.
partnotaccessibleto thesubject'sown gaze (oraccessibleonlyas a virtual
image in a mirror)/'Doane (1991: 47) writes,and it registersitssignifi-
canceas a "readabletext"createdonly"forthespectator."Hence,frontal
close-upsnot onlyestablisha visiblelinkbetweentextand knowability
but also betweenthe spectator'sgaze and ownership.As Susan Stewart
(1984: 125) bluntlyputs it, "the face is what belongsto the other;it is
unavailableto the womanherself."10 10Alsoquoted
inDoane1991:
48.
Thisprivilegeof sightas a formof epistemologica!controland en-
titlementisa muchmoreconsistentpracticeinZhang'smoviethaninSu's
novella.Su's narrative
consciously of seeing
challengesthe "truthfulness"
the powerofvision.ZhangYimou,on theother
deconstructs
and carefully
hand, is more of howthe ritualof
eager reifya culturalunderstanding
to
of the patriarch's
raisingthe red lanternamountsto a reaffirmation au-
thority womenwithinthe systemof concubinage.
to objectify
potentialof
Su Tongcontinuesto drawattentionto thetransgressive
thesewomenwho threatento bringdown the house.The sheernumber
a fearin bothChenand hisandrogynouseldest
of the concubinesinstills
son,Feipu.Unableto solvethequarrelbetweenLotusand hermaid,Chen
complains:"None of you are easy to deal with;I get a headache every
timeI see one of you" (Su 1993b:80). Chen'sdistressis echoed earlierby
Feipuwhenhe says:"I'm afraidof trouble,afraidof women;womenare
(65).
reallyfrightening"
To some degree,the unmanageable"woman trouble"faced by Su

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 Tong'smalecharacters exposestheirphysical
and mentalweaknesses.Their
anxiety,however,disappearsinZhang'smovie,whichmakesthe presenta-
tion of women'sbodies speak forthe tyranny of male potency.The con-
trastingusesof space and verticalperspective
surroundingthe centralim-
ages of the well (inthe novella)and the enclosedtowerchamberon the
compoundroof(in the film)magnify these differences
betweenthe two
texts.Thesetwo spaces,I suggest,notonlyjuxtaposethe fluidity offemi-
nine ambivalencewiththe solidityof the Patriarch's ironrule,but also
open up very different imaginary spaces forthe readerand the viewer.

Space and Perspective

The storyis about the historicaloppressionof women,and itsclimaxis
structuredaroundthe dramaticmurderof Coral.The thirdconcubineisa
woman of great beautyand defiance.She violatesthe "house rules"by
havingan affairwiththe familydoctor.At the end of the novella,Chen
and his male servantsdrownher in a garden well, whereas in Zhang's
movie,Chen'scohortskillherbyhangingherinthe rooftopchamber.Lo-
tuswitnessesthe murderin boththe novellaand the film,and the family
subsequentlylabelsher"mad" in an effortto discredither.
The welland the rooftopchamberas sitesforpunishment evokevery
distinctimageryand,fortwo reasons,can be treatedas spatialextensions
of Lotus'sand Chen'sbodylanguage,respectively. thetwo sitessug-
First,
gestcontrasting sexualities:
the well is of
suggestive a femalecave thatis
dark and drenchedin inscrutablewater,whereasthe rooftopchamber
a phalluserectedto defendChen'smasculinehonor.Second,their
signifies
different topographicalsymbolisms illustrateimportantChinesecosmo-
of
logica! interpretations sexual difference.The well extendsdeep into
the ground,and initsproximity to the underworld can be associatedwith
"feminine energy"{yinqi). Bythesametoken,therooftopchamberreaches
demonstratively out to the skyand the sun, symbolicembodimentsof
"masculineenergy"(yangqi). The contrastbetweenthese two vertical

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 makesthe movedownwardinSu's storyand the motionup-
perspectives
ward in Zhang's movieveryintriguing
polarizationsof femininity
and
depthand height,invisibility
masculinity, and visibility,
earthand sky,flu-
idityand and
solidity, so on. in
However, spite of theircontrastingout-
looks,we cannotforgetthatthesetwo spaces are fundamentally instru-
mentsofdeath.Theyare bothwalled-in,cell-likespaces,and bothsignala
Allinall,Su'swelland Zhang'scham-
senseofalienationand confinement.
berare effective
sitesof punishment
thatupholdthe hierarchy of gender
relationsbyenforcinga need to preservethe moralintegrityof the fe-
male body.
Su Tong'swell playsmanyroles.Itisan impersonator,
foritembodies
Lotus,Coral,and other anonymous, drowned concubineswho are pun-
ishedfortheirsexual misdeeds.In one of theiridle chatsnearthe well,
LotusasksCoralifshe knowswho died inthe well.Coralresponds:"Who
else could it be? One of themwas you, and one of themwas me" (Su
1993b:73). Coral'sbanterconfirms the well's magicaltouch: it is an en-
chanterthat bewitchesLotusand transforms her intoan unwillingfol-
lowerofthe disenfranchised undergroundfemalecommunity. Whenever
Lotusgoes nearthe well,hermindbeginsto wanderand herspellbound
bodyis immobilized:"it was as ifherwhole bodywere held fastto the
side of the well,willingbut unable to tear itselfaway" (54). Finally,
the
well is also a narrator,foritswateryflowseemsto recountstoriesof the
otherworld.Lotusoftenhears "the water bubblingup deep insidethe
well,carrying to the surfacethe voicesof some lostsoul" (74).
The meaningsof the well are complex,feltas muchas understood.
Thewell'ssecret"mission"makesitsynonymous withillegitimacyand in-
famy,muchlikethe statusof the disposedconcubines.Itssecrecymakes
the space threatening:
what hidesinthe cave are darkreflections
of infi-
and murder,
delity,transgression, the revelationof whichcan instigate
moralconflicts.The unfathomabledepthof the well makesit an indeci-
pherableplace of mystery,a place to storethe tantalizingrumorsthat

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 amountto unofficial
biographiesof namelessvictims.
We can explorethe different
rolesand meaningsofthewellthrough
a moredetailedanalysisof Lotus'svariousencounterswithit.Afterenter-
ing intothe Chencompoundat the beginningof the novella,Lotuspro-
ceeds almostimmediately
to the well:

Lotuswalkedoverto the edge ofthe well and spoketo Swallow,

who was washingyarn."Let me wash myface. I haven'twashed
myface inthreedays."
Swallowdrewa pailofwaterforherand watchedherplunge
herface intothe water;Lotus'sarched-overbodyshook uncon-
likea waistdrumplayedbysomeunseenhands.(1993b:12)
trollably

Thisseeminglyinnocuousexchangebetween Lotusand the maid,Swal-

low,foreshadowstwo of the mostimportantconflictsin the story:the
domesticsquabblesbetweenthesetwowomen,whoseviciousbickering is
emblematicof the concubine'sexistentialand classinsecurity(Lotusfeels
thatherpositionas a mistressisthreatenedbySwallow'saggressivecourt-
ingof Chen),and the enunciationof the ambivalentfunctionof the well
(it is simultaneously
a cleansingdeviceand a sorceress'scrystalball). On
the one hand,Lotus'sact of washingis a metaphoricalcleansingof her
past;marrying Chengivesherhope to eliminatetwo stigmas - the bank-
11Oneofthemost links
important ruptcyof hermiddle-class
family and thesubsequentsuicideof herfather.
among power, and
liberation,
lifeisLotus's
intellectual possession Washingaway her previousidentity, however,also meansgivingup her
oftheflute
thatislaterburnedby educationand autonomy.Asa collegestudentat a timewhenfewwomen
ChenZuoqian. Lotus's fora
nostalgia
carefree
pastisassociated
withthe attendedcollege,Lotusisfilledwiththe idealismofwomen'sliberation.11
freedomoflearning(Su1993
b:38). Butall of herdreamsof freedom,revolution, and educationvanishafter
12This associated
passivity with the marriage.Duringherwashing,the act of "plunging"(mai) bringsto
washingismuch different
from
an mindthe violentimagesof abyssand self-abandon;the identification
of
earlier
episodeinwhich sheshows
tremendouscomposure andcourage herbodywith"a waistdrum"further Lotus's
highlights lossofsovereignty,
towashherhairinthesamepond fornow she is nothingbutan instrument
whereherfatherjustcommitted being"playedbysome unseen
(Su1993b;
suicide 19). hands."12

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 do notbelongto MasterChen;
Theseunseenhands,veryinterestingly,
instead,theybeara metonymical to themurdered
relationship concubines
who make Lotustheircollectivevoice of vengeance.In herapproachto
thisforbiddenground,Lotus"seemedto see a pale whitehand,dripping
wet,reachingout to coverhereyesfromthe unfathomable depthsat the
bottomofthewell" (Su 1993b: 54).The blindingof Lotusbythe imaginary
of "sight"as a mode
handhelpsthe storysubvertitspreviousprivileging
of knowing.Thisis a veryimportanttransformative
momentat whichSu
Tong'snarrative
transports Lotusfromthe masculinedomainofthe ratio-
naland thevisibleto thefemininesphereofthefantastic
and theobscure.
Thistransportation enablesthe protagonistto set herselfapartfromthe
homogeneousproductionof the Father's"truth"and to explorethe un-
writtenhistory of the repressedancestresses,
fornow she is able to see
withhermind'seyesand to hearwithherimaginative ears.
These sensuousadjustmentsforegroundLotus'sagencyas a witness
to the use ofwomenas a sacrificial
offeringto theassertionof patriarchal
power.ForChenZuoqian,the wellfunctionsas a mirror
of hisdeadlyau-
the birthofhersubjectivity.
ForLotus,itrepresents
thority. Inherrepeated
confrontations withChenZuoqian about the well'sambivalentfunction,
Lotusidentifiesherselfas a tragicseer: "No one told me. I saw formyself.
I walkedoverto the side of thatwell and immediately saw two women
floatingon the bottom;one of themlooked likeme,and the otherone
also looked likeme" (Su 1993b:36). The replicationof Lotus'simagesig-
nals herawarenessof how women mustmounta collectiveresistanceto
the suppressionoftheirvisionand voice.
Su Tong'sambivalentuse of the well as an instrument
of oppression
and a tool ofoppositionraisesa largerissueaboutthevariousapproaches
to the "womanquestion"(fundwenti).Inthe periodfollowingthe May
Fourthmovement, muchwritingon genderinequalitymanifested a male-
centeredconcernaboutwomen'sliberation. Suchwritings,
critics
contend,
are oftenmoreself-serving in constructing "a new [male] subjectivity"

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 thanuncovering the socialand culturalsignificance
ofthe "new woman"
(Chan 1993: 13). As result,writersof reformliterature
duringthisperiod,
Ming-BaoYue (1993: 52) notes,"were preoccupiedwiththe construction
narrativepatternthatwould presentwomenas victims
of a cause-effect
vis-à-vis
societyas the victimizer.
Notably,it is alwaysa male intellectual
narratorwho recounts thetragicfatesofa lower-class,
uneducatedwoman,
and oftennamelesswoman,whosesad existencereinscribes herhistorical
13Tosubstantiate
hercritique,
Ming- Su'swritingbreaksawayfromthismonologicnarra-
statusas an object."13
BaoYuelooks byYe
atfiction tivestructurethathighlights the objectification
ofwomento advancethe
Shengtao, andYeZi.We
XiaoQian,
couldalsoaddLuXun's"NewYear male narrator's iconoclasticpolitics.
Sacrifice"
(Zhufu). UnlikehisMayFourthpredecessors, Su Tongenables hisfemalechar-
actersto be narrative and
subjects Lotusistheedu-
independentthinkers.
catedSelfwhose mindMasterChentriesto decipherand colonize.Intheir
firsttimetogether,"ChenZuoqian thoughtto himselfthatsince[Lotus]
was a college studentshe would naturallybe different frommostvulgar
she
youngwomen";moreover, "possessed a kindof elusive yetbeguiling
power" (Su 1993b: 20-21). This of
recognition Lotus's intellectual
vigor
has importantimplications: itchallengesthe privilegeof a masculineor-
der that makesman the onlysubjectof metaphysical but it
inquisition,
also confirms
Lotus'sabilityto articulateand interpret
herown emotions.
Hence the existentialidentificationof the well with Lotussuggestsan
ambitiousfemininequest forthe representation of her self.Thisquest,
daringin itsvisionand persistence,
transforms the wellfroma manifesta-
tionof feudalpowerintoa barrenwombto deridethe Patriarch's desire
to reproducehimself physically
throughoffspring and symbolicallythrough
culturalpractice.
bentisoftenignoredbycritics
Su Tong'sfeminist who see hiswritings
as an endorsementfor"misogynistictendenciesin contemporary China"
(TonglinLu 1995: 14). Myanalysisof Wivesand Concubineschallenges
thisassertionand suggeststhat his use of the well is morethan just a
symbolofself-destructive ordeath(Tonglin
femininity Lu1995:139).Rather,

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the well containsall the subversivepotentialsof what LuceIrigaraychar-
acterizesas a cavethatillustrates
the "twisted,reversed, inverted"charac-
terof phallictheoryabout genderrelations(1985a: 279). Irigaray's cave
functions likethe femalebody,whichis spokenthrough a "femininelan-
guage" thatcomprises discourse.The mystery
a multivalent ofthisgrotto/
writes,is like"a shadowtheaterwhereonlythe shakiestof
body,Irigaray
are produced
certainties - phantompresences,dimmemories, expectations
-
of somethingunforeseen whichdisappear as fast as theyappear and
reappear"(1985a: 354-355).The cave's unpredictable and unfathomable
"definitions"
controversial
natureissimilarto Irigaray's of "femininelan-
guage" that highlightsthe discursiveand variantcharacteristics of a
woman'sspeech: "She sets offin all directions,leaving'him' unable to
discernthecoherenceofanymeaning.Hersarecontradictory words,some-
whatmadfromthestandpointof reason,inaudibleforwhoeverlistensto
themwithreadymadegrids,witha fullyelaboratedcode inhand"(Irigaray
1985Ь:29). Likethecave/body/well, "femininelanguage"asserts
Irigaray's
comparablyirregularand illegiblesignsthat defythe Father'slinguistic
theoryare debatable(Silverman
rules.Althoughaspectsof Irigaray's 1988:
141-186),hereI simplywantto pointout that hercave specula(riza)tion
helpsus understand thatSu Tong'swell notonlyembodiesthesetraitsof
ambivalenceand indecipherability, but also buildsan important connec-
tionbetweenfemalebodyand hervoice.
Returning to Lotus'squest forself-representation,herfrequentvisits
to the well are a signof defiance and a continuous search foran escape
froman oppressivereality.In return, the well offershera vitallinkto the
femalecommunity.
underground

The walls of the well were coveredwithmoss.Lotusbent over

and lookeddownintothewell;thewaterwas a bluish-black color,
and therewere some ancientdryleavesfloatingon the surface.
Lotussaw thebrokenreflection ofherfaceinthewaterand heard
thesoundof herbreathingbeingsuckeddown intothewell and

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 amplified,weak yetoppressively deep and low. A gustof wind
rushedup; Lotus'sskirtbillowedout likea birdtakingflight,
and
at thatinstantshe felta coldnessas hardas stonerubbingslowly
againstherbody.(Su 1993b:22)
Thisencountershows Lotus'sinvoluntary immersionintothe enigmatic
worldofthewell.A forgotten and forbiddenplace,thewellalluresLotus
to penetrateintothe "bluish-black"- perhapssuggestingthatthe water
- to establisha primordial
isblood-stained contactwitha mysteriouscom-
munity ofdisplacedwomen.Thiscontactisa bodilyexperience:Lotussees
herbrokenreflection,hearsheramplifiedbreathing,and feelsherbody
beingchilledbythe wind.Su's emphasison naturalimagery(e.g., moss,
water,leaves,and wind)- elementsthatall existoutsidehumancontrol
-
enhancesthe sensualityof her experience.In fact,thisparagraphillus-
tratesthe esotericpowerofthe well,whichallowsLotusto standbeyond
thetyrannicalruleofthefamily: she sees inthe watera brokenreflection
of herface that mimicsthe interrupted lifeof the drownedconcubines.
- as an educated and outspokencriticof
The aliennessof her existence
how women are mistreatedat the Chens'- is the gatewayof herfusion
withthe forceof vengeance.
Su Tong'splaywiththefantasticslowlyexhumesthevoiceoftheother
women.The well not onlymakesthe role of Lotusinscrutablebut also
harborsa clandestinecommunication
betweenthe dead and the living.

Blowingin the wind,[thewitheredwisteriavine]emittedsome

sortofdesolatemurmur; thewellwas stilleerilycallingher.Lotus
coveredherchest.She feltas thoughshe was hearingan apoca-
lypticvoicefromout of the void. Lotuswalkedtowardthe well.
She feltincomparably light,as thoughwalkingin a dream.. . .
She feltherselflean over helplesslyand stareintothe well,like
the stemof a flowerbrokenbythe wind.In anothermomentof
vertigoshe saw the waterinthe well suddenlybubbleup as the
soundofa vague and verydistantvoicepenetratedherears:"Lo-
tus .. . come down here,Lotus.Lotus. . . come down here,Lo-
tus." (Su 1993b:53-54)

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ThealluringbabbleofthewellgivesLotusa different outlookon life,one
thatis lessconfinedto rulesand reasonand moreattunedto the blissof
an imaginary escape. Sufslanguage createsvariousseductive,equivocal,
and forebodingvoices.Fromthe vine'sdesolate murmur, to the well'see-
to the apocalypticvoice fromthe void,and finallyto the
rie invitation,
enticingcallof otherconcubines,Lotusfacesall theseindistinct
and inde-
finableurgesto connectherselfto the domainofthe unknown.The den-
sityand obscurity
ofSu'simagery renderthewellan opaque space inwhich
all different of a woman'sselfbreakloose.
reflections
A numberofcriticshave noticeda connectionbetweenLotusand the
well. TonglinLu writes:"The world of the well is also a metaphorfor
world:morbid,lonely,
[Lotus's]subjective and,at thesametime,
friendless,
mysteriousand seductive"(1995: 138). Morerelevanthereisthatthereis
an "objective"and "rational"worldthatexistsoutsidethe well and the
mindof Lotus.When these two worldscollide in Lotus'sconsciousness,
new visionsof Selfemerge.It is the Selfthattriesto negotiatea livable
space betweenrealityand fantasy,to amendthe narrative gap betweena
concubine'spastand future,and to finda pathfora womanto resistpa-
triarchaldominance."Who knewthe meaningof thatwell?" Lotusasks
(Su 1993b:55). The voicesofthe well and Lotushave incommona strong
resistanceto being penetratedby logic,reason,and measurement, and
theirimperviousnessmakesthemlivebeyondthegovernanceoftheFather's
law.UltimatelySu Tong'snarrativemakesthewella bewitching pool that
projectsa fusionbetween Selfand Other:Lotusand the drownedconcu-
binesare indistinguishable
twins,"lawbreakers"who striveto make"the
voicesof some lostsouls"surfaceand be heard(73).
WhereasSu Tongusesthewellto createa femininespace ofa defiant
fantasy,Zhang Yimou'sfilmbuildsa masculinehouse of reasonto em-
blematizean unchanginggenderhierarchy. Zhang'scinematographyem-
phasizesthe claustrophobicconfinement of the Chencompound.The in-
ward-turning structure
of the well is now replacedbythe imposingverti-

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 calityof the building.
Thedirectorannouncesthisrevisionveryearlyinthe movie.Aswe see
in figure2.1, as Lotusentersthe Chen compound,behindher is a wall
coveredwithlargeChinesecharacters writteninan ancientstyle.Thisim-
conveyshow she is marriedintoa systemof rules,orders,
age symbolically
signs,and conventions.The image also showsthat ZhangYimouhas an
importantintellectualand aestheticinvestment in the structureof the
mansion.He explainstheculturalsignificance
ofthisvisualrepresentation:
2.1:Lotus
Figure isimprisoned
bythe
ofChen
scriptures traditions.
I was so excitedwhen I discoveredthe walled, gentrymansion
[whereRaise the Red Lanternwas filmed],whichis hundredsof
yearsold in ShanxiProvince.Itshighwallsformeda rigidsquare
gridpatternthat perfectlyexpressesthe age-old obsessionwith
strictorder.The Chinesepeople have fora long time confined
themselveswithina restricted walled space. (Sheldon Lu 1997:
108)

Hiscameraeloquentlyexpressesthe psychological and physicaltorments

of the concubinesin a sequence of shotsthathighlight
a systematic
con-
finementof theirmindsand bodies.Inthe fourshotsfollowingherentry
intothe compound,Zhangjuxtaposesthe courtyardwiththe wedding
chamberto underscorethe oppressiveness of the new bride'scell-likeex-
istence.Inthe firstshot(fig.3.1),the high-anglelongtake of an enclosed
quarteroffersa concreteview of the bride'sphysicalsurroundings: the
3.1:Confinement
Figure ofthe courtyard is encircledbyimposingroofs,whichstrikeone as menacingin
enclosed
quarter.
the approachingdusk.In the second shot (fig.3.2), the filmcutsto the
weddingchamberwherethe brideiswaitingpassively forthegroom.The
physicalityofthe courtyardis now seen inthe bodyofthe bride,whichis
framedbytheweddingbed and attachedto it.Makingthe identification
betweenbrideand property even moreexplicitare the waysthe patterns
on Lotus'sdresscloselymirrorthe patternson the bed frame.Thismimicry,
as I mentionedearlier,createsa structuralbond between Lotusand her
3.2:Lotus
Figure a part
hasbecome of
Chenproperty. new roleas a concubine.

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 Inthethirdshot(fig.3.3)#beforedaybreak,a longtake ofthe court-
yardsuggestsa slightchange of mood. In the finalshot inthissequence
(fig.3.4)#we see the bed chamberagain, but thistimethe bed itselfis
muchcloserand the bed curtainsobscurethe audience'sviewofthe bride
betweenLotusand herenvironment
and groom.The integration suggests
boththe mentaland the physicalconsummation of her marriage:she is takeoftheoppressive
3.3:Long
Figure
now a partofthe Chenproperty withinwhichhervalue is determined. before
courtyard daybreak.
show Lotus'simprisonment
Alltheseshotseffectively inthe environ-
ment,whichleavesthe new brideverylittlebreathingroom."ForZhang,"
ReyChow(1995: 143) writes,"woman is verymucha typicalsexual body
that is bound bysocialchainsand that needs to be liberated."Nowhere
are these "socialchains"moremanifestthan in Zhang'suse of architec-
ture as an oppressiveapparatus.As the movie progresses,the director
achieveseven greaternarrativeefficacyin the displayof a roomon the 3.4:Viewoftheconfining
Figure bed
mimics
theimprisoning
courtyard.
rooftopas a symbolforthe pinnacleof masculinepowerand as a pitfall
women.
forthe sexuallytransgressive
The open and sprawlingstructure withthe
of the roof,contrasting
constraint givesan illusory
ofthe courtyards, senseoffreedom.Similarto
Su Tong'suse of the back garden,the roofis the forbiddengroundfor
womeninthe house,and yetCoraland Lotusrepeatedlygo thereto as-
speaking,the roof,beingcloserto the
serttheirdefiance.Topographically
sky,offersa possiblechannelforhumansto communicate withthe divine
and therefore ofdivinejudgment.Notsurprisingly,
to assertthe authority
the rooflaterbecomesthe center all punitiveactions.
for
Some criticsdisagreewithZhang'seffortto makethe roofa space of
controversy."In traditionalChinesecosmography,"Qing Dai (1993: 335)
argues,"theskywas sacred,and, byextension,so was the roofor 'top' of
anybuilding.Itisthusinconceivablethatanyfamily,no matterhow pow-
the wrathof heaven bycarrying
erful,would riskincurring out a private
executionon the rooftop."To someextent,one mightsuggestthatZhang
shareswithDai thisunderstandingofthe roof'ssacredness.The reasonhe

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14Su'sstory alsoshows howwomen's deemed sacred
has all the "criminal"actstake place at a sitetraditionally
ambition of"going up"isprohibited. isto reinforce the perceptionof impropriety. Inthissense,fora concubine
Inhisattack onCoral'sunruliness,
Chen Zuoqian characterizes her to go up on the roofposes a problematicchallengeto the hierarchical
transgression asfollows:"'Shewants structure of the feudalsystem;the veryact of climbingup performs vari-
toclimb ontothetopofmyhead.'
'Willyoulether?' askedLotus. Chen ous kindsof bordercrossingsand turfinvasions.14
Zuoqian waved hishand dismissively, inten-
Thefilm'sambivalentuse ofthe roofas a sacredspace isfurther
'Never! Women cannever climbonto
thetopofmen's heads'"(Su sifiedbythe functionof the chamberon the rooftop,whichextendsinto
1990:165).Mytranslation ofthis
isdifferentfrom thatof
the skyand symbolizes the patriarch's power.Zhang'svisualconstruction
exchange
Michael Duke. Inthisdialogue isveryeffective.In Lotus'sfirstencounterwiththe room,Zhangcarefully
between Chen andLotus about Coral,
Dukeremoves Su'svertical sojournto
createsan aura similarto thatof a visitto a temple;hersolitary
imagery
thatpoints toCoral'saggressive the siteof crimeand punishment cultivatesan aestheticof mystiqueand
"climbing up"or"ascending to" the protruding edificeinsearch
diminishesher Standingalone, Lotusconfronts
curiosity.
{padao) andtherefore
act/Vechallenge to Chen'sauthority. ofan escape fromthephysicaland psychological ofherquar-
constrictions
Duke'soriginal translationgoes:"'She shot(fig.4.1),
ters. Inthisparticular the sprawlingChen compoundtakes
wants tobemore important thanI
am''Areyougoing tolether?' Chen up morethanthreequartersof the frameand overwhelms the presence
Zuoqian waved hishand andsaid, of boththe skyand Lotuson the roofapproachingthe mysterious room.
'Don'tberidiculous! Women can
never bemore importantthanmen'" ofspace intheframeshowshowthe patriarch,
Thedistribution morethan
(Su1993b: 16). whichis con-
divineforcesperhaps,is the architectof woman'sdestiny,
trolledmorebyhis environments In the
than byfatefulpredestination.
nextshot(fig.4.2), Lotusstandsrightnextto the chamberwhose impos-
towersoveritsvisitor.
ingstructure Thesetwo shotsconfirm the imageof
the towerchamberas a symbolic establishmentthat trumpetsthe reign-
ingauthorityofthe patriarch.
stillisthefinalsceneon the roof,inwhichtheexecu-
Moresignificant
tionof Coralmakesthe roomnot onlya death chamberbutalso an ulti-
matedefenseformasculinehonor.Inthethirdshot(fig.4.3),theaudience's
architecture
4.1:Overpowering
Figure viewpointcoincideswithLotus'sperspective.We see fromafartheflowof
ofthemansion. menstreaming inand out ofthechamberto assistinCoral's"suicide."The
overcastskyand the snow-coveredroofcreatea tragicmood of sacrifice:
to the egoismembodied in the towerroom.In the
Coralis the offering
finalfew shotsof the roofscene (fig.4.4), Lotus'sviewpointguidesthe

146 • Body, Space , and Power

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audienceto confront
the nightmarish Herheavybreath-
realityof murder.
ing,coupled withthe jerkymovementof the camera,cues an exclusive
emphasison hersubjectiveviewof the chamber,clearlystagedas a men-
acingphallicsymbolthatfillsup the whole screen.As she getscloserand
closerto it,the oppressivenessof the buildingbecomesmoreand more
pronounced.Finally,thereis a cutto a longshotof the cabinwhen Lotus
releasesherscream:"Murder!Murder!" 4.2:Phallic
Figure dominance
ofthe
tower
chamber.

Conclusion
AlthoughLotushas the last word in the scene,the endingof the film
transforms herintoa Cassandrafigurewhose accuratepredictionof the
futureis tragicallyignored.Zhang'scriticalrealismexposesthe brutality
and corruption of the system,and yetexerciseslittleinterventionin the
narrativeto challengethe dominanceof the feudal space, as Su Tong's 4.3:Lotus's
Figure viewof
subjective
themurder.
storyattemptsto do. These different approachesto the exploitationof
womenthusconfigure verydistinctrelationsbetweenartand society.For
Su, writinghas subversive potentialbecause it problematizesa conven-
tionalpowerhierarchy betweenmanand womanand disrupts the subor-
Zhang,on the otherhand,treatsfilm
dinaterelationof fictionto reality.
as a mediumofsocialchangeand considerscriticalrealismthe mosteffec-
tivemodeto disclosethe "backwardness"of "a 'China'thatissupposedly
past butwhose ideologicalpowerstilllingers"(Chow 1995: 144). On the 4.4:Useofsubjective
camera
to
Figure
whole,Su'scynicism worksto dis-
about a deep-rootedculturalcorruption Lotus's
highlight fear
ofapproaching
the
creditthe revivalof any moralistvision,whereasZhang'srealistfaithin tower
menacing chamber.
the powerofcriticalconsciousnesscommitshimto helpingshape the nar-
rativecoherenceof a changingChinesesociety.15 15OneofSu'sinnuendoes
thatZhang
Su'sand Zhang'sdifferentaestheticstrategiespresenttwo refuses
toentertain
isthepresence
of
Ultimately, InSu'sstory.
ghosts. Lotus's
repeated
visionsof Chinesemodernity embeddedindifferent characters'bodies.In "hallucinations"
abouttheconcubines
Su'sstory,the progressivedeactivationofthe patriarch's murderedinside
thewellhavecreated
bodysymbolizes anauraofmysticismthatreveres
the
the dismantling of an agingfeudalsystemwithinwhichwomenbeginto existènce
oftheotherworld.
Meanwhile,inZhang's the
movie,
be heard,ifnotseen. InZhang'smovie,however,the relentlessdisplayof

Modern Chinese Literature and Culture • 147

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ghostscare
inCoral'sroom after
she Lotus'sbodyspectacularizes
the oppressiveness
ofan old bartering
hasbeenmurdered isimmediately system
bythepresence
demystified ofa inwhichthe objectification
ofwomen'ssexualityintimatesChina'slackof
vengeful, Lotus.
torch-bearing In
other theghostlyambivalence progress.
words,
inSu'sstory
iseliminatedinZhang's To some extent,theirdifferent
approachesto the "womanquestion"
movie because inits
thelatter, are due to theirchosenmedia.Ifwe agree withSergeiEisenstein's (1977:
critical-realist
fashion,follows
a script
that
strives
forclarity
andcoherence. 39) idea thatcinemais "a spectaclecalculatedfora spectator"whose pur-
pose isto influencethe audienceina "desireddirection/' thenfilmicrep-
resentationof fictionwillalwaysreconstruct storiesso as to producevi-
sual and emotionalinterest.WhereasSu Tong'smodernist experimental-
ismcan maintainan ambiguity about howsubordinatevictims reallywere
to victimizes,Zhang'sfilmmoredecisively showshow Chinesewomenin
the 1920sdeserveto be watched,understood,and pitied.

148 • Body, Space , and Power

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Glossary
A Cheng
CanXue ЩЩ
ChenKaige IÜS15K
Chengbeididai ШЫЙ®
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LuXun ШШ
mai Ш
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pa 1Ш
padao ШШ
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shiyanxiaoshuo М&Фай
Shafei
"Shafeinüshide riji" S>ÍĚ&±0*JB§B
ShiTiesheng >&8tíÈ
SuTong ШШ
TianZhuangzhuang ШтШИ:
WangAnyi
wen yizai dao ЗШШШ
Wodediwangshengya SsÈfàSŒâ:;!
Wu Ziniu
xianfengpai 9сШ:Ж
XiaoQian SSfë

Modern Chinese Literature and Culture • 149

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Xingfushiguang
yangq¡ ИМ
Ye Shengtao HEPÍI
Ye Zi ШШ
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Yigeye bunengshao
yinqi ШШ
Yu Dafu ШШЗ*.
ZhaxiDawa ЯйШ±
ZhangChengzhi ЗИтР(л5
ZhangYimou ШШШ
ZhengWanlong SßÄPi
Zhou Lei mm
"Zhufu" ШШ
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