Mehmood of Ghazna's Military Achievements and Empire Building

Sir Irfan Waheed Usmani-GC University Lahore
Character and achievements of Mehmood of Ghazna
Outline
1) Introduction
2) Character of Mehmood of Ghazna
1. Personality
2. Bravery and chivalry
3. As a general
4. A born leader of man
5. A just sovereign / sense of justice
6. As a tolerant ruler
7. Religious inclination
8. Generosity
9. Man of refined taste/aesthetic sense
3) Achievements of Mehmood of Ghazna
1. Establishment of vast empire extending from Iraq and Caspian to Ganges
2. Remarkable military achievements throughout his long military career – never
suffered a defeat in India
3. His invasion paved the way for the propagation of Islam
4. Transformation of heterogeneous army into an invincible war machine
5. Development of Ghazni
6. Able to establish very efficient administrative system
7. Era known for his works of public utility
8. First ruler to establish a museum in Ghazni
9. Built new city of Lahore, called Mansurpura
10. Great patron of art and learning
_________________________________
Baihaqui says; “No mother shall give birth to another one like Mehmood.”
Gibbon says; “Mehmood was, undoubtedly one of the greatest kings of the world”
1) Achievements of Mehmood of Ghazna

1. Establishment of vast empire extending from Iraq and Caspian to Ganges:
Mehmood found Ghazni a petty kingdom but turned it into a vast empire.
During his 32 years reign, he extended his rule over the area known as Afghanistan,
vast part of Persia, Transoxiana and Punjab. The empire of Sultan Mehmood
extended from Iraq and Ural Sea to Ganges and Rajputana Desert. Its greatest length
from East to West was 2000 miles and from North to South, it was about 1400 miles.
Sri Vastava is of the view that Mehmood‟s empire was far larger than the empire of
Caliph of Baghdad. Before Mehmood, no Arab or Turkish ruler could conquer
further than Herat, Kabul and Ghazni
2. Remarkable military achievements throughout his long military career –
never suffered a defeat in India:
Throughout his distinguished military career, Mehmood never suffered a
defeat during his 32 years of active warfare. His field of action ranged from Iraq to
Ganges Doab. Mehmood‟s military expeditions were mostly towards the East and these
fades the glories of Alexander‟s conquests from the minds of many (Abdul Qadir). His
uniform career, brilliant conquests bears ample testimony of his greatness as one of
the leading military generals of the world.
3. His invasion paved the way for the propagation of Islam
4. Transformation of heterogeneous army into an invincible war machine
Mehmood’s army comprised of Hindu, Turkish, Afghan and Persian
elements. He transformed it into an invincible war machine by his unflinching,
disciplined and inspiring leadership. His army fought under his command as a unit
from Khwarzim to Somnath from Iraq to Jumna. Mehmood used to keep the morale
of his army high even during the thickest part of the war. He is known for his rapid
advances. During the course of a single winter, he defeated Karanthians in Multan,
then went to Balkh to defeat Tatars and then captured a rebellious Governor in
Jhelum. Mehmood made a bridge of ships and 1400 ships were joined to cross the
river to win from Sindhi Jatts.
5. Development of Ghazni
Ghazni became an important cultural centre. Mathematicians, astrologers,
poets, scholars, historians from all over the Muslim world came to his court in
Ghazni. According to a historian; “Napoleon imported choicest works of art from the
countries he subdued to adorn his palace. Mehmood did better. He brought artistes and
poets to illuminate his court.”
6. Able to establish very efficient administrative system
i) Mehmood kept a very watchful eye on the doings of his high command,
particularly his military commanders. He personally directed his foreign policy
and he himself directed correspondence. He was not bound to consult his
ministers, as his government was personal government. But, Mehmood followed
divine commandments in state matters whenever he was confronted with a
serious problem. He called a council of all civil and military officers to hear their
opinion and advice.
ii) Mehmood had 5 important ministers who were in charge of important
departments which are as following:
a) Finance (Aiwan-e-Wizarat): Its head was Wazir.
b) War (Dewan-e-Ard): Its head was Ard.
c) Correspondence (Dewan-e-Risalaat): It was repository of secrets and its
head was called Sahe-e-Diwan-e-Risalaat and his Musharif had to write
letters to the Caliph and princes.
d) Dewan-e-Shugal-e-Ashraf-e-Mamlukat: It was a spy department.
e) Household (Dewan-e-Wakalat)
iii) Mehmood established provincial governments and these governments were
divided into 3 important branches i.e. civil, military and judiciary.
a) Chief of Civil Branch was Sahb-e- Dewan. He had Amils under him and was
in charge of revenue collection
b) Chief of Military branch was highest official and these Civil and Military
departments worked independently.
c) Highest judiciary officer was Qazi-ul-Kuza.
iv) Another feature of Mehmood’s administration was town system; every town
was protected by a fort. The Commander of the fort was called Kotwal (Chief
Commanding Officer of the locality).
v) Religious, educational institutions were administered by a separate office and
these were called ‘Ashraf-e-Awqaf’.
vi) Mehmood also instituted a censorship of religious beliefs of his Muslim subjects.
He appointed efficient officials who punished heresy and delinquency.
vii) By keeping in mind the above administrative capabilities, despite of his long
absence from the Centre, Mehmood reigned supreme over his subjects.
7. Era known for his works of public utility
The wealth accumulated by his campaigns was used for beautification of his
empire. A large mosque was made at Ghazni with marble. A university was also
established at Ghazni and rich endowments were allocated for the salaries of
teachers, expenditures and stipends for students. A market was also established in
Balkh. A bridge was built on River Oxus. A dam named Band-e-Sultan was built 18
miles of Ghazni on River Nawar. A library was made in Ghazni.
8. First ruler to establish a museum in Ghazni
9. Built new city of Lahore, called Mansurpura
10. Great patron of art and learning
Deen-e-Ilahi
1) Introduction:
Deen-e-Ilahi was the manifestation of Akbar’s heightened liberalism. It was an
amalgamation of various religious faiths and intended to overcome the religious controversies
and create a harmonious relationship among the various religious groups. It was initiated to
complement the policy of reconciliation towards the non-Muslim subjects. On account of
political considerations Deen-e-Ilahi failed as a policy. Controversy surrounds the Deen-e-Ilahi
whether it was a religion, order or a political policy.
According to Srivastava, “Opinion is sharply divided regarding the nature of Deen-e-Ilahi.
Europeans writers, contemporary and modern, have called it a religion. The historian Badauni is of
the same view. The court biographer Abu al-Fazl is silent on the point. Almost all modern Indian
writers are of the opinion that Deen-e-Ilahi was not a religion”.
2) Formative factors/ Background:
1. Akbar’s religious views:
Akbar’s religious views passed through 3 distinct phases. From his childhood to
youth, Akbar was devout orthodox, God fearing person. His religious outlook was
influenced by his religious mother and grandmother. He held religious personalities in
high esteem particularly, the two principal religious leaders i.e. Makhdoom-ul-Mulk
Sheikh Abdunnabi and Sheikh Gadai. Akbar was also devoted to Khawaja Moin-ud-Din
ChistiRA. He was a disciple of Sheikh Saleem ChistiRA. He paid visit to the houses of Ulema
to hear their sermons.
2. Influence of his Rajput wives:
Akbar’s religious views were further influenced after his marriages with Hindu
wives. These marriages had great liberalizing impact on Akbar’s religious views. These
wives were allowed to worship openly in their palaces. Consequently, Akbar showed
similar tolerance to the Hindus all over the country.
3. Akbar’s liberal inclination and inquisitive nature:
Despite his religiosity, Akbar was liberal. He was against the blind following
(‫ )دیلقت‬and always took delight in religious debate. His sittings and company with his
teachers developed in him a critical insights and broadmindedness. Though his teachers
belonged to various sects, but made Akbar liberal.
4. Political considerations:
Akbar also devised a liberal religious policy to complement his political ideals
and strategy. It was through his religious policy, he tried to bridge the gulf between
Hindus and Muslims. He tried to develop the harmonious relations between Hindus and
Muslims to realize his vision of nationalism and consolidation of the state.
5. Conducive religious atmosphere:
The reign of Akbar was very conducive for the dissemination of new religious
ideas. This period witnessed the proliferation of various religious movements, ideas,
influences e.g. popularization of Bakhti movement and Wahdat-ul-Wajood etc.
6. Debates of Ibadat Khana:
Akbar built a building named Ibadat Khana near the tomb of Sheikh Saleem
Chisti and set apart this building for religious discussion on every Friday. Though
RA
Akbar established this building for religious debate, but gradually these debates drove
him away from Islam. In the initial years, these debates were between religious leaders
of Islam, but later on the scholars from other religions like Christianity, Brahmanism,
Jainism and Zoroastrianism started taking part in these debates. Resultantly, Akbar had
to arrange separate seats for different religious scholars. Hence, his belief decreased in
religion.
7. Infallibility decree:
At the suggestion of Sheikh Mubarak, Akbar decided to become Mujtahid. He
was to act as the supreme arbiter in religious matters. In September, 1579, Sheikh
Mubarak produced a document in his own handwriting which was drafted in such a way
that Akbar became the supreme arbiter in civil and ecclesiastical matters. Akbar was to
act as the Imam-e-Adil or the final interpreter of Muslim Law. This document was signed
by Makhdoom-ul-Mulk Sheikh Abdunnabi, Sheikh Mubarak and others. V. A. Smith calls
it the ‘infallibility decree’.
3) Features of Deen-e-Ilahi:
1. Monotheism with the tinge of pantheism
‫خ‬ ‫خ‬ ‫خ‬
‫د ا یک رسایئ ہر ذمہب ےک درےعی نکممےہ‬ ‫د ا ایکےہ‬
2. Emperor is the vicegerent of the God filled with special grace.
3. The adoration of the Sun.
4. Veneration of fire and artificial lights
5. New etiquette of salutation replaced Assalam-o-Alaikum. According to Din-e- Ilahi,
members, on seeing each other, observed ‘Allah-u-Akbar’ and the other responded, Jalla
Jalaluhu.
6. The members were to celebrate the Iranian festival of ‘Nauroz’.
7. The members were to abstain from meat-eating but they were not to hate the meat-
eaters. During the month of their birth they were not allowed even to approach meat.
8. Instead of the dinner usually given in remembrance of a man after death, each member
should prepare a dinner during his lifetime, and thus gather provisions for his last
journey.
9. The members should not cohabit with pregnant, old, and barren women. Nor with girls
under the age of puberty.
10. If any of the disciple died, whether man or woman, they should have some uncooked
grains and a burnt brick round the neck of the corpse, and throw in into the river, and
then they should take out the corpse, and burn it at a place where there was no water.
11. The members were to sleep with their heads towards the east, and their feet towards
the west.
4) Controversy surrounding Deen-e-Ilahi:

Controversy surrounds Deen-e-Ilahi whether it was a religion, order or a political strategy.
1. Vincent A. Smith, Srivastava, Allama Abdullah Yousaf Ali, and Aziz Ahmed views
that Deen-e-Ilahi was an Order (silsila).
2. According to V. A. Smith, “the organization of the adherents of the Deen-e-Ilahi was that
of an Order rather than of a church”.
3. Sri Ram Sharma, Malleson, and Michael Prawdin have interpreted it as a political
strategy.
4. Sri Ram Sharma says in his book ‘Religious Policy of the Mughals’ that, “it is a gross
exaggeration to give the Deen-e-Ilahi the rank of a religion. It had no book, no priests, no
ceremonies, and practically no religious beliefs. It was an order rather than a religion and
more akin to free masonry than any religious movement”.
5. Srivastava says that, “Almost all Indian historians are of the view that Deen-e-Ilahi was
not a religion and that Akbar never intended to establish a Church ... the Deen-e-Ilahi
remained from its very inception a kind of socio-religious cum political brotherhood”.
6. Allama Abdullah Yousaf Ali says that, “Deen-e-Ilahi was not a religion but it was a
sect...his (Akbar‟s) breach with Church didn‟t amount to a formal repudiation of Islam”.
7. Aziz Ahmed opines that, “Neither in its exaggerated pre-occupation with light, sun and
fire nor in its other principles of worship or ritual was there much which could place
Akbar‟s heretical seat in a different category from other miscellaneous heresies within
Islam”.
8. Is it a political strategy? – Sri Ram Sharma opines, “The Deen-e-Ilahi was the crowning
expression of the emperor‟s national idealism”.
9. Srivastava maintains that, “it aimed at bringing together enlightened and liberal minded
Indians, who looked upon Akbar as their spiritual as well as political leader”.
10. Michael Prawdin says that, “Akbar‟s promulgation of Deen-e-Ilahi should not be taken
as the half-insane act of vain-glorious autocrat, imagining himself to be God‟s
representative on earth, but as an effort to introduce some framework of law and custom
which would justify his rule and make him the righteous sovereign of a foreign country in
which he was making his empire”.
11. R. P. Tripathi says, “the Deen-e-Ilahi was not a religion and Akbar never intended the
establishment of a Church”.
5) Reasons behind its failure:

The numbers of the followers of the Deen-e-Ilahi was not large. That was partly due to
the fact that Akbar was not a missionary. The Deen-e-Ilahi failed to attract popular imagination
given Akbar’s confidants like Raja Bhagwan Das, Man Singh and Todar Mal refused to join Deen-
e-Ilahi. Among Akbar’s Nau Ratan (nine jewels) Birbal was the only Hindu who joined the new
faith. Akbar was not prepared to use force or pressure to convert people to Deen-e-Ilahi.
1. Lack of public support.
2. Qanungo says, “Akbar‟s fancy to be the prophet of new religion and become the religious
as well as the temporal head of his subjects proved the ruin of his noble scheme”.
3. Lane Poole describes, “Of course an eclectic religion never takes hold of the people and
Akbar‟s curiously interesting hotchpotch of philosophy, mysticism and nature worship
practically died with him”.
4. Opposition of orthodox Ulema like Sheikh Fareed and Mujadid Alf Sani RA. With their
untiring efforts Akbar’s religion could not become popular.
5. The religions are not imposed but assimilation of any religion is the part of sociological
and historical process. These cannot be imposed on the whims of the rulers. V. A. Smith
opines that, “The whole scheme was the outcome of ridiculous vanity; a monstrous growth
of unrestrained autocracy ...The Divine Faith was a monument of Akbar‟s folly, not of his
wisdom”.
6. He did injustice to Islam and unnecessarily humiliated her, for which history cannot
forgive him as this was done not in the interest of the state but in pursuit of a personal
hobby, however pious it may be.
7. S. M. Ikram says ‫'' اس یک تگج رگو ینعی وعام اک رواحین وشیپا ےننبیک وکشش ایک یطلغ اور دبیتمسق ےک وسا ھچک ہن ۔‬
''‫یھت‬
6) Analysis:
1. The erroneous translation of Persian text and unscientific handling of subject by
Blochman (an imperfect Persian scholar according to S. M. Ikram) and V. A. Smith has
greatly increased the controversy about Deen-e-Ilahi. The crucial question about
Akbar’s religious activity is that whether he established a new religion or a new spiritual
order.
2. The expression which both Abu al-Fazl and Badauni normally used in this connection
is „iradat’ or „muridi‟ (discipleship) but, Blochman intentionally mistranslated these
expressions as ‘Divine Faith’, and converts a religious order (or even a bond of loyalty)
into a ‘Faith’.
3. Occasionally his mistranslation borders on fabrication. While translating the relevant
chapter in Ain-i-Akbari, Blochman translated the expression ‘Ain-i-iradat gazinan’ which
correctly means ‘Rules for the (royal) disciples’ as the ‘Principles of Divine Faith’, and
gives the sub-section a heading of ‘The Ordinances of the Divine Faith’, although there is
no such heading in the original text.
4. Similarly, he omitted important qualifying phrases (taqlidi wa majazi).
5. It is not surprising that those who do not know Persian and have to rely on Blochman’s
translation have been misled.
7) Conclusion:
1. Certain historians describe Deen-e-Ilahi as a hotchpotch (a mixture of several unrelated
things) of eclectic faiths.
2. Ishwari Prasad says that, “the Deen-e-Ilahi was an eclectic pantheism containing the
good points of all religions – a combination of mysticism, philosophy and nature-worship”.
3. Shams-ud-Din says that, “It was natural product of the principles of Sulhe-e-Qul and
universal tolerance”.
4. Deen-e-Ilahi ended up with the death of Akbar. It must have strengthened the hand of
Akbar by adding a spiritual halo around his throne. Through it Akbar became popular
among Hindus.
5. The ideas of Akbar in this field inspired two generations of his descendents. Prince
Khusro and Prince Dara belonged to his school of thought.
6. Shams-ud-Din says that, “The real motives were political and mundane not religious”.
Analysis of Akbar’s Deen-e-Ilahi
1) It would be wrong to assume that it was a religion as it had neither a prophet, church nor
any religious book. Similarly had it been a religion Akbar would have attempted to
implement it through the use of force or by using state machinery. Furthermore, Abu al-
Fazl mentions that only 18 members of Akbar‟s internal coterie embraced Deen-e-Ilahi.
2) Ray Chaudhry highlighting this aspect opines that, it is certainly wrong to allege as has been
done by certain scholars that Akbar wanted to become a prophet --- he simply wanted to bring
about a fusion between Islam and Hinduism with a view to bring about cultural and political
unity.
3) Dr A.L. Srivastava also holds the same opinion, he is of the view that, “the innovation was
the outcome of his policy of universal toleration and a brilliant testimony to his national
idealism”.
4) On the other hand Srivastava places the onus on the treatment or accounts of Abdul Qadir
Badauni whom he describes as boycotted as well as disappointed Jesuit missionaries.
5) This misconception regarding Deen-e-Ilahi mainly arouse on account of or because of
erroneous translation of Persian text and unprofessional treatment of the subject by
Blochman and V.A. Smith. The expression which both Abu al-Fazl and Badauni normally
used in this connection is ‘iradat’ or ‘muridi’ (discipleship) but, Blochman intentionally
mistranslated these expressions as ‘Divine Faith’, and converts a religious order (or even a
bond of loyalty) into a ‘Faith’. The words which both the contemporary historians wrote
were muridi and iradat i.e. Ain-i-Iradat Gazinan which correctly means ‘rules for the (royal)
disciples’ was mistakenly translated as Deen-e-Ilahi by Blochman. Abu al-Fazl describes it
as Ain-i-Rehmoohni – the principles of guidance.
6) Some historians like Shams-ud-Din and Jamil Yousaf also criticize Blochman and Smith
on account that they tried to understand this phenomenon through the statements of
Badauni and Christian missionaries. Jamil Yousaf in his book describes it as a sort of
spiritual club. Even other historians like Beveridge, Muhammad Hussain Azad, Shibli
Naumani, Dr Tripathi and S.M. Ikram are also unanimous in this opinion that Akbar did
not found or initiate any new religion.
Akbar’s Mansabdari System
Outline:
1) Introduction
2) Background
3) Features
4) Merits
5) Demerits
6) Conclusion
1) Introduction:
The Mansabdari system was the outstanding feature of Akbar’s administration.
Through this system the revenue and military system were integrated. It was a noble
manifestation of administrative improvisation under Akbar. It immensely contributed
towards consolidation of Mughal rule as it proved to be mainstay of the two Mughal systems
– revenue and military. It served as an important instrument of administrative
centralization.
2) Background:
1. According to Ray Chaudhry, this system was evolved with the help of Mir Bakshi
(Shahbaz Khan) in 1571.
2. The other view is that Akbar was not the originator of Mansabdari system and
certain elements of this system were present during the period of Babur and
Humayun.
3. It is said that Humayun brought it from Persia. This fact cannot be denied that it was
Akbar who further perfected and systemised Mansabdari system.
Akbar had started working on the system since the decline of Behram Khan.
However it was introduced in 1575.
4. Moreland and Irfan Habib said that they traced its origin only to 1575. Mansabdari
system was not present before this. This system came into existence with the word of
Mansab. This impression is also viewed by Moreland, both seems to agree that
prior to 1575 the Mughal Assignment (to allot land) system were not found to
collect revenue eminently different from the permanent administrative cum
revenue changes during the Lodhi period.
5. Iqtidar Alam Khan wrote an article ‘Mughal Assignment System in between the years
1556-1575’. He traces its evolution in the backdrop of administrative experiments
made by Akbar during 1556-1575. He considers 1561 as a turning point for Akbar.
In this context he accords great value to the year 1561 in the Mansabdari System.
According to him it was a turning point for Akbar because certain far reaching
changes in the working and functioning of Jagir System were introduced in the very
year. These became conspicuous later. These changes were more significant in the
manner in which Jagirs were assigned. These changes may be regarded as precursor
or formative influences on Mansabdari System. For instance, from the 2nd half of
1560s onward the Jagirs of great nobles came to be awarded in fragments scattered
over number of Parganas (‫ )داہیت اک ومجمہع‬which were located at a considerable distance
from each other. According to Iqtidar Alam Khan, it was done as a matter of
consciously decided policy. This change of policy appears to have coincided with the
emergence of new Assignments in post 1571 period. Now Assignments were
considered as pre-sanctioned income determined according to the status and
obligation of assignee. Previously, the Jagirs were considered administrative
jurisdiction of assignee. According to Iqtidar Alam Khan, the changes made in
Mughal Assignment System i.e. linking the nobles‟ income with his status and
obligation and fragmentation of Jagir and a clear demarcation of Jagir jurisdiction
from routine administrative jurisdiction were a considerable departure from the system
inherited by Akbar from Humayun.
3) Features:
1. What is a Mansab?
Mansab is an Arabic word meaning rank, dignity or office. This was a system
of categorization of gradation of officers, fixation of their salaries and specification
of their duties according to their position and status.
2. The Mansabdars were supposed to perform dual tasks – maintaining the army and
to collect the revenue. He had to serve as a military officer and in the other capacity
he had to work as a civil officer. According to William Irvine, “The object of
Mansabdari system was to settle precedence (seniority) and fixed gradation of pay”.
3. Categorization of Mansabdars:
These Mansabs varied from 10 to 12,000. Some historians say that it varied
from 20 to 20,000. According to pro-Akbar Abu al-Fazl, the lowest grade was 20
and the highest grade was 12,000, but Abdul Qadir Badauni an anti-Akbar, the
highest grade of Akbar’s Mansabdari system in the later period of Akbar’s reign was
12,000. Under his successors the strength raised to 20,000. Despite this gradation,
the Mansabdars were divided into two categories.
i) Ordinary Mansabdars
ii) Umrah or Nobles
Ordinary Mansabdars were those who had rank in between 20 to 1000 and
while the Mansabdars holding rank above 1000 or more were called Umrah. There 4
basic categories of Mansabdars. The Mansabdars holding ranks in between 10 to
400 were called Mansur Mansabdar. The Mansabdars holding ranks in between 400
to 2500 were called Ameer. The Mansabdars holding ranks in between 2500-5000
were called Umrah-e- Azam, Umrah-e-Kuban or Grand Umrah. The ranks of above
5000 were given to the royal family. Francis Bernier (French physician) said that
Mansabdars were inferior Umrahs.
4. Number of grades:
There is no unanimity among the historians regarding the number of grades
in the Akbar’s Mansabdari system. According to Abu al-Fazl there were 66 grades of
Mansabdars but in the actual filed there were 33 grades ranging from commanders of
10 to commanders of 10,000. The highest three grades, ranging from 7000 to 10,000
were reserved for the members for the Royal family. But an exception was made in the
case of certain officers like Man Singh, Todar Mal, Mirza Shahrukh and Qulich Khan.
5. Debate of Zaat and Sawar:
i) The word Zaat denoted the rank of Mansabdar whereas Sawar suggested the
actual number of horses. The historians are also not unanimous about the
distinction between Zaat and Sawar.
ii) Blochman translated ‘Ain-e-Akbari’ into English. He mistakenly translated
‘Deen-e-Ilahi’ as a new religion. Moreover, in his view the word Zaat indicated
the number of troops which a Mansabdar was expected to maintain, while Sawar
indicated the actual number of horses under the command of a Mansabdar. If a
Mansabdar held the rank of 1000 Zaat and 500 Sawar, then he had a rank of
1000 while he actually commanded 500 horses.
iii) Irvine says Zaat denoted salary whereas Sawar was an ordinary title. Similarly,
according to the article which was presented in Indian historical records
commission, it is highlighted that till 1603, the word Sawar was not evolved
whereas Zaat denoted allowance which were given to Mansabdars.
iv) According to S.K. Rao “the Zaat rank of a Mansabdar indicated the number of
infantry while the Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalry under him”.
v) Father of K.K. Aziz, Abdul Aziz said that “Zaat denoted obligation upon
Mansabdar to ensure a fix number of elephants, horses, and beasts of burden and
carts whereas Sawar suggested the actual number of soldiers”.
vi) Tripathi is of the view that “the Sawar rank implied an additional honour but
there was no obligation on the part of Mansabdar to maintain the number of
horsemen indicated by it. However, he was paid and extra allowance for that”.
vii) Majority of the historians said that the Zaat determined the salary and the Sawar
was an ordinary title.
6. Criteria if recruitment, promotion and demotion of a Mansabdar:

The Mansabdars served as long as they enjoyed the pleasure of the King. All
the criteria depended upon the discretion of the King, but there were also some
rules for the recruitment, promotion and demotion of the Mansabdars.
i) Recruitment:
The Mansabdars were recruited on the recommendation of Mansabdar
made by another Mansabdar to Mir Bakshi and Mir Bakshi recommended him
before the Emperor. The Emperor might interview him and if he was convinced
of his ability and competence for serving the state he was appointed as a
Mansabdar.
ii) Promotion:
In this system a complete record of each Mansabdar was maintained. The
promotion of the Mansabdar was made on the record called Haqiqat Nama.
Generally the promotion was granted on the eve of new expedition or successful
completion of an expedition or any auspicious occasion or festivity was utilized
and normally at times promotion was given in case vacancy was lying vacant.
iii) Demotion:
If the King found any Mansabdar to be dishonest, disloyal or immoral he
could be dismissed. The Mansabdar could also be dismissed on the basis of his
physical or mentally incapacity.
7. Salaries of Mansabdars:
The Mansabdars were given very handsome salaries. No doubt, they were
expected to spent necessary amount for the maintenance of soldiers as well as
discharge of the other obligation out of this amount but still they were left with
sufficient money which they spent on luxurious consumption, patronage of art, and
on other activities. Some of the Mansabdars received a pension on retirement. Their
salaries were determined according to their Mansab or rank. There were two
methods of making payments to the Mansabdars. One was of giving them Jagirs
wherefrom they got their salaries. The second method was that of cash payment
from the royal treasury. According to Ray Chaudhry, a Mansabdar was paid 30,000.
According to Irvine and Smith the Mansabdars, after deducting all their
expenditures were left with salaries of 7 to 11 months. Similarly, the Francis Bernier,
accounts that Mansabdars wasted their money in conspicuous activities, consuming
money on the luxuries of life.
i) According to Mandelslo, “there is no king in Europe that has so noble a court as
the Governor of Gujarat.”
ii) According to Manucci, “Daud Khan spent Rs.25,000 a year on his pet birds alone.
Islam Khan, Governor of Bengal in the time of Jahangir, spent Rs. 1lac on
dancing girls alone”.
8. Non-hereditary system – Law of Escheat:
In this system no person could claim a particular Mansab on account of his
birth. The son of a Mansabdar of 5000 did not succeed to his father as a Mansabdar
of 5000. It was of non-hereditary nature. According to the Law of Escheat, when a
Mansabdar died, all his property was confiscated by the King – all the property of
the deceased Mansabdar came to the King like rivers to the sea.
i) According Sir Thomas Roe, “after the death of the Mansabdar the King only
confiscated his Jagir and left to the sons of the Mansabdar horses, stuff and some
stock”.
ii) Manucci said, “Only a trifle was given to their widows for their maintenance”.
iii) According to Bernier, “the King usually gave a small pension to the widow and
also some allowance to the family and the King took possession of all the property”.
iv) According to Tavernier, “the king inherited the property of the Mansabdar and
his jewels were given to Mansabdar‟s widow”.
9. Dakhilis and Ahadis:

The Dakhilis meant a fixed number of troops handed over by the state to the
Mansabdar. The Ahadis were class of brave soldiers who were recruited by the
Emperor himself and were not under control of any Mansabdar rather they came
under direct control of the King. They served him as his bodyguards. Akbar had
appointed a separate Deewan to look after the Ahadis. Abu al-Fazl wrote about
Ahadis that, “There are many brave and worthy persons whom His Majesty does not
appoint to a Mansab, but whom he frees from being under the orders of any one”.
There was a regular system of inspection of Ahadis after the inspection a certificate
signed by Deewan and Bakshi was issued to them. Though at the time of recruitment
Ahadis had to bring his own horse, but after this state used to provide him horses at
very concessional rates or as a gift. These amounts were deducted in instalment.
They were paid more salaries than other soldiers.
10. Miscellaneous:
Upon appointment of a Mansabdar a military inspection was carried out in
which a descriptive rolls of soldiers and of his contingent were rolled with a view to
ensure that state was not deceived. Akbar also introduced a practice of branding
horses. On the right side of each horse the insignia of government was branded and
on the left side the insignia of a Mansabdar was branded.
4) Merits of Mansabdari system:
1. It served the state in more than one manner.
2. It ensured the military maintenance and revenue generation.
3. It weakened the control of Iqtidars and Jagirdars.
4. It threw new leadership. It gave chance to talented people to prove their mettle. For
instance, Nawab Saad Ullah Chinioti became the Prime Minister from a labourer in
Shah Jahan’s reign.
5. It proved to be an effective instrument of Administrative centralization.
6. It enhanced the efficiency and efficacy of the military.
7. It enhanced the writ of the state.
8. It reduced the dependence upon the central army, with the implementation of this
system local army could be called in for the emergency.
9. It was the mainstay of two Mughal systems.
10. It was an effective tool of bureaucratic system.
5) Demerits:
1. Negligence in the system of implementation of rules and regulations.
2. Mansabdars used to cheat the state openly by bringing mercenaries.
3. Lack of cohesiveness and absence of organic centre. The standards were not
uniform and the standards of efficiency were not the same.
4. There was rampant corruption and nepotism in this system.
5. Artillery was the weakest link, they were not provided with it.
6. Defects of Law of Escheat – demobilising impact, it prompted the Mansabdar in
reckless expenditure as a result nothing was found after the death of a Mansabdar in
certain cases.
7. Effect upon the loyalties; the Mansabdars changed their loyalties towards the
winning side in every war of succession or foreign invasion because they knew that
their lands and even personal property were not legally assured to them.
8. They grew into centre of powers. They controlled the states. They were more
exploitative to the peasantry. They assumed an independent behaviour.
9. The revolts against their exploitations resulted in the collapse of the Mansabdari
system which led towards the collapse of two Mughal systems.
10. Chandra said “economic decline was the reason of decline of 18th century”.
11. Irfan Habib attributes it to the political decline.
Akbar’s Rajput Policy
Outline:
1) Introduction
2) Formative influence:
1. Desire to end Rajput rivalry
2. His desire to make use of talents and capabilities of Rajputs
3. An attempt to counterpoise rivalry of Mughal nobles
4. Policy of enlightened self interest
5. Liberal inclinations
3) Features of Rajput policy
4) Positive impacts
5) Negative impacts
1) Introduction:
As Akbar has fully realised that without making peace with Rajputs the Mughal rule could
not be furnished on sound footings. He also used it to legitimise himself before people. This policy
was not free from contradictions. Hindu historians consider it as statesmanship whereas I.H.
Qureshi considers it as the main factor of Mughal decline, as Akbar sold the seats of Mughals to
Rajputs in state.
2) Formative influence:
1. Desire to end Rajput rivalry:
Firstly, Akbar wanted to end Rajput rivalry. It were Rajputs who posed challenges to
Muslim rule. According to Ishwari Prasad there would be no Indian empire without
Rajputs. Moreover, he was also aware with this fact that Rajputana was close to Delhi and
Delhi was exposed to Rajput threat so, Rajput alienation would become a serious threat to
the state.
2. His desire to make use of talents and capabilities of Rajputs:
His desire to make use of talents and capabilities was also the aim of this policy. He
was aware of their talents; they possessed valour, bravery and were dependable friends.
They were men of their words and trustworthy allies.
3) Features:
1. Matrimonial alliances with Rajputs.
2. Many Rajputs were inducted into Mughal service.
3. His religious policy further complemented his strategy.
4. No interference in the religious matters of Rajputs.
5. Two prone policies.
6. He concluded friendly alliances with Rajput states of Amber, Bikaner, Joudh Pur, Jaisal Mir.
Similarly, Ranthambore and Kalinj were offered honourable settlements even though
initially they offered opposition to Akbar.
7. Akbar gave Rajputs more privileges and concessions as compared to other Mansabdars. For
instance, they were assigned with two types of Jagirs:
i) One which they received as Mansabdars
ii) The Jagirs which were located in their territories, they were called Waton Jagirs and
their incomes were also utilized by Rajputs.
8. He did not use them against Rajputs, to fight against their brothers. He took great care of
their sensitivities.
4) Analysis:
Before analysis add this
Basically there is one tradition went to Iran in his exile he was advised by Thamsap Shah of Iran as
Afghans one against Mughals and develop the relations with Rajputs. Humayun could not act upon
this advice. But, Akbar in 1570 when Raja Bihari Mall send message of marriage of his daughter with
Akbar, he did not compel her to embarrass Islam. They replaced by Mughals and they had to
accomplish their self as Rajas, so they took part in government in lieu of their alliances with Mughals.
Akbar’s Religious Policy
Outline
1) Introduction
2) Formative factors
1. Akbar’s religious view
2. Influence of his Rajput wives
3. Political considerations
4. Conducive religious atmosphere
5. Debates of Ibadat Khana
3) Features
4) Impacts
1. Positive impacts
2. Negative impacts
5) Analysis
1) Introduction:
The most distinguishing aspect of Akbar’s reign was his religious policy. Akbar’s
liberalism reached its zenith in his religious policy which may be described as the most
liberal religious policy pursued by the rulers of medieval India. It also complemented
Akbar’s political strategy based on ‘Sulh-e-Kul’ and tolerance which was devised to
consolidate the Mughal Empire.
2) Formative factors:
1. Akbar’s religious views:
Akbar’s religious views passed through 3 distinct phases. From his
childhood to youth, Akbar was devout orthodox, God fearing person. His religious
outlook was influenced by his religious mother and grandmother. He held religious
personalities in high esteem particularly, the two principal religious leaders i.e.
Makhdoom-ul-Mulk Sheikh Abdunnabi and Sheikh Gadai. Akbar was also devoted to
Khawaja Moin-ud-Din ChistiRA. He was a disciple of Sheikh Saleem ChistiRA. He paid
visit to the houses of Ulema to hear their sermons. Budauni opines that “the
Emperor had so much reverence for the Ulema like Sheikh Gadai that he would bring
his shoes and would place them before him”.
2. Influence of his Rajput wives:
Akbar’s religious views were further influenced after his marriages with
Hindu wives. These marriages had great liberalizing impact on Akbar’s religious
views. These wives were allowed to worship openly in their palaces. Consequently,
Akbar showed similar tolerance to the Hindus all over the country.
3. Akbar’s liberal inclination and inquisitive nature:
Despite his religiosity, Akbar was liberal. He was against the blind following
(‫ )دیلقت‬and always took delight in religious debate. Though he was illiterate, but he
quenched his intellectual thirsts through his tutors who read books before him. His
sittings and company with his teachers developed in him a critical insights and
broadmindedness. Among his teachers Bazaid, Moanam Khan were Sunni and
Bairam Khan and Mir Abdul Aziz Kazvini were Shia. Though his teachers belonged
to various sects, but made Akbar liberal.
4. Political considerations:
Akbar also devised a liberal religious policy to complement his political
ideals and strategy. It was through his religious policy, he tried to bridge the gulf
between Hindus and Muslims. He tried to develop the harmonious relations
between Hindus and Muslims to realize his vision of nationalism and consolidation
of the state. Moreover, this religious policy could also be conducive to rein in the
influence of Ulema and break their power, who could be a threat to the state.
Similarly, Akbar also used religion according to the practice of medieval period ------
---------used to enjoy religious powers as well for legitimacy.
5. Conducive religious atmosphere:
The reign of Akbar was very conducive for the dissemination of new
religious ideas. This period witnessed the proliferation of various religious
movements, ideas, influences e.g. popularization of Bakhti movement and Wahdat-
ul-Wajood etc.
The sycophants were floating new religious ideas. Haji Abrahim Sarhindi
conducted a research on beard that clean shaven people would go to heaven. Muta,
prostration to king was also validated (‫)دجسہ یمیظعت‬.
6. Debates of Ibadat Khana:
Akbar had always showed keen interest in the religious debate, so he built a
building named Ibadat Khana near the tomb of Sheikh Saleem ChistiRA and set apart
this building for religious discussion on every Friday. The discussion on religious
issues were mostly took place in the presence of Akbar. Though Akbar established
this building for religious debate, but gradually these debates drove him away from
Islam. In the initial years, these debates were between religious leaders, but later on
the scholars from other religions like Christianity, Brahmanism, Jainism and
Zoroastrianism started taking part in these debates. This further led to the acrimony
and tussle. Resultantly, Akbar had to arrange separate seats for different religious
scholars. Hence, his belief decreased in religion.
7. Infallibility decree:
At the suggestion of Sheikh Mubarak, Akbar decided to become Mujtahid. He
was to act as the supreme arbiter in religious matters. In September, 1579, Sheikh
Mubarak produced a document in his own handwriting which was drafted in such a
way that Akbar became the supreme arbiter in civil and ecclesiastical matters.
Akbar was to act as the Imam-e-Adil or the final interpreter of Muslim Law. This
document was signed by Makhdoom-ul-Mulk Sheikh Abdunnabi, Sheikh Mubarak
and others. Dr. Smith calls it the ‘infallibility decree’.
As was to be expected, the orthodox Muslims detested the issuing of so-
called infallibility decree. Akbar was misunderstood and it was believed that he had
rejected Islam, Prophet (SAW), Quran, tradition and all.
3) Features of religious policy of Akbar:
1. Matrimonial alliances with Hindu Rajput women:
a) In 1562, Akbar married the eldest daughter of Raja Behari Mal of Jaipur. As
a result of this marriage, Akbar took Raja Bhugwan Das and Man Singh
under his services.
b) In 1570, Akbar married the daughters of Rajas of Bakernar and Jaisalmir.
c) In 1584, Prince Saleem married the daughter of Raja Bhugwan Das.
2. Abolition of Jizya:
In 1564, Akbar abolished Jizya. In 1563, he went to Mithra and abolished
pilgrimage tax.
3. Translation of Hindu Scripts:
Akbar set up a translation department for translating Hindu books in
Persian language. Its object was to establish cultural link between Hindus and
Muslims.
4. Hindu Rajputs in Mughal services:
Akbar inducted Rajputs in the Mughal services. Todarmal was appointed as
Finance Minister and for some as Prime Minister. Bhugwan Das and Man Singh
and Rai Singh were appointed as governors of various provinces. They were also
put in charge of important military expeditions. Out of 12 provincial diwans
appointed in 1594-95, 8 were Hindus.
5. Brahmin judges:
Akbar appointed Brahmin judges to decide the Hindu cases.
6. Miscellaneous features:
i) A large number of Hindus were appointed in the revenue and military
department.
ii) Akbar took part in Hindu festivals. Some of those festivals were the Rakhi,
Dipawali, and Shivatri. Their object was merely to conciliate the Hindus without
offending the Muslims.
iii) In 1581, Deen-e-Elahi was launched to complement the religious policy.
iv) In 1583, Akbar forbad the slaughter of animals on certain days.

v) In 1591, Akbar prohibited the use of beef was forbidden to preserve the sanctity
of cows.
vi) In 1592, fishing was prohibited.
vii) Akbar discouraged child marriage and encouraged widow remarriage among
the Hindus. He prohibited the custom of Sati.
viii) In 1603 a farman was issued by which Christians were allowed to make
converts.
4) Impacts:
1. Positive impacts:
i) This religious policy contributed towards the success of his Rajput policy which
was aimed at the consolidation of state. He was able to entice the support of
Hindu and won over their allegiances.
ii) The remarkable fact of the religious policy is that when there was too much
intolerance in the society nobody could have imagined such a policy, but Akbar
pursued this accommodationist policy. Through this policy Akbar was able to
dominate the influence of clergy.
2. Negative impacts:
i) In long term, this policy had disastrous consequences for the state.
ii) The policy weakened the Muslim polity. Hindus were emboldened and they
became more dominated in the state machinery.
iii) In the long run Akbar’s religious policy proved to be disastrous. As long as the
attitude of Mughals remained friendly towards the Rajputs, the Empire was
stable. But, when Aurangzeb tried to bring change in this policy under his
puritanical idea, these Hindus turned against the Mughal government.
iv) The psychological impact of Muslim superiority was damaged. I.H. Qureshi
opines that “Akbar‟s religious policy led to the decline of Mughal Empire”.
5) Analysis:
The Muslim historians maintain that this policy served the short term purpose of
bridging the gulf between Hindus and Muslims. But, it could never realize the dream of uni-
nationalism. Both Hindus and Muslims could not be welded together. So, this policy was
inherently weak.
6) Conclusion:
Akbar deliberately followed a policy of conciliating the Hindus and thereby wining
over their allegiances to his state. It is a matter of history that the reversal of this policy by
Aurangzeb was one of the important causes of the downfall of the Mughal Empire.
Deen-e-Ilahi as a monument of Akbar’s folly
1) Introduction:
There is a debate among historians regarding the true nature of Deen-e-Ilahi. It is quite
grossly misunderstood historical phenomenon; therefore, one finds a conspicuous difference
among historians regarding treatment of Deen-e-Ilahi in their historical discourses. For instance,
the historians like Badauni and some Christian missionaries such as Du Jarric and Monserrate
described it as religion. Similarly, the translator of Abu al-Fazl’s ‘Ain-e-Akbari’, Blochman has
translated it as a ‘Divine Faith’. V.A. Smith, while relying on these accounts goes on to contend
that, “the whole scheme was the outcome of ridiculous vanity, a monstrous growth of unrestrained
autocracy ...The Divine Faith was a monument of Akbar‟s folly, not of his wisdom.”
On the other hand majority of historians on medieval India ranging from S.M. Ikram, Dr
Tripathi, Ray Chaudhry, A.L. Srivastava, Ishwari Prasad to Aziz Ahmed, Abdullah Yousaf
Ali, Muhammad Hussain Azad, Shibli Naumani and even I.H. Qureshi do not consider it as a
religion. In their treatment Deen-e-Ilahi emerges as either a political strategy or a spiritual order
or at the most a historical sect.
2) Was Deen-e-Ilahi a monument of Akbar’s folly:
Smith’s analysis two premises
1. It was a monument of Akbar’s folly not wisdom; at least with Deen-e-Ilahi it is closer to
truth and reality.
2. It is also described as a mixture or amalgamation of various faiths, non-Muhammadan
ordinances are also criticized. The manner in which it was served by the public it could
not become popular and died with Akbar. This folly was due to Akbar’s authoritarianism
at its peak. He combined Divine power and authority power. In this context Smith’s
statements appears to be close to truth and reality.
3) Scrutinizing Smith’s statement:
Smith’s statement may be analyzed at two levels.
1. Smith is among those historians who grossly misunderstood the phenomenon of Deen-
e-Ilahi and they only tried to interpret it in the light of statements of Badauni, Blochman
and certain Portuguese or Christian missionaries. Therefore, the modern scholars on
medieval India have criticized V.A. Smith on that account.
2. Secondly, notwithstanding this debate whether Smith considered it a religion or not.
There is Smith statements on its face value and these are based on two premises.
i) Deen-e-Ilahi as a monument of Akbar’s folly, not wisdom.
ii) He contextualizes it in term of outgrowth of Akbar’s unrestrained autocracy as well
as outcome of Akbar’s arrogance.
A closer scrutiny of these premises leads one to agree with Smith.
4) Deen-e-Ilahi as a monument of Akbar’s folly:
1. The first major criticism against Deen-e-Ilahi was its strange nature. For instance, it is
often referred as an eclectic amalgamation. Even Lane Poole describes it as an
interesting hotchpotch of philosophy, mysticism and nature worship.
2. It may also be criticised on the account that the very principles of Deen-e-Ilahi were
quite in consistent. It contained Muhammadan as well as non-Muhammadan ordinances,
even the Islamic ordinances it contained also reflected whimsical selection on part of its
authors.
3. Even if it is considered as a political strategy aimed at creating political and cultural

unity between Muslims and non-Muslims as contended by Ray Chaudhry; it miserably
failed to do so, which was mainly due to the misperception on part of Akbar and his
cohorts. For instance, by making innovation such as Deen-e-Ilahi they tried to bridge the
gulf between Muslims and non-Muslims, though such an artificial or cosmetic solution
was outcome of deep social, religious and historical factors, these differences between
Muslims and non-Muslims were in fact product of various historical, sociological and
religious factors. These could not be bridged though certain ordinances or instructions.
Therefore, in this context Smith’s contention that Deen-e-Ilahi was manifestation of
Akbar’s folly appears to be acute valid.
4. The public reaction as well as the reluctance of internal coterie of Akbar further
suggests that nobody took this very seriously. Among his prominent Hindu Ratans Raja
Man Singh, Birbal, Raja Bhagwan Das and Todar Mal only Raja Birbal embraced his new
faith. Its unpopularity may amply be gauged by Abu al-Fazl’s historical evidence that,
only 18 out of prominent personalities of Akbar’s court embraced Deen-e-Ilahi,
therefore this suggest that Akbar failed to take into account the psyche of people.
5. From the prospective of orthodox Islam or puritanical Islam this Deen-e-Ilahi mostly
contained provisions which were against the true essence of Islam given the religiosity
of Muslim society as well as popularity of Muslim Ulema it was inconceivable that how
could such a innovation be acceptable to Muslim society at large.
5) Why Akbar committed such a blunder:
Smith’s statement provides a definite clue towards this phenomenon. In fact Smith tries
to contextualize Deen-e-Ilahi in terms of growth or rise of Akbar’s autocracy and this is a
historical fact that Akbar had reached the zenith of his popularity till late 1570s. Therefore, he
began to visualize himself as father of his subjects as A.L. Srivastava contends that Akbar no
doubt, fancied himself to be the religious as well as temporal leader of his people (Jagut Guru).
His conception of kingship was patriarchal in character and he considered himself to be the
father of his subjects naturally. Therefore, he arrogated to himself the position of religious as
well as temporal leader of the Indian people. Furthermore, by then Akbar had been surrounded
by pseudo-Ulema as well as flatterers and they even bestowed upon him the title of ‘Mujtahid’,
so this would have further increased his vanity. So, in this backdrop Smith’s opinion appears
acute appropriate as he had vey aptly contextualized the whole phenomenon of Divine Faith in
this very statement.
Amir Taimur’s invasion
Outline:
1) Introduction
2) Reasons
1. His lust for conquests
2. Precarious political situation of India
3. Fabulous wealth of India
4. Religious motives
5. His grandson had already encouraged
3) Main events – 3 Phases
1. His advance towards Delhi
2. His entry to Delhi
3. Subsequent events and his return
4) Impacts
1. Disastrous implications – catastrophe
2. Impact on Northern India
3. Devastation of Delhi
4. Fatal blow to the prestige of Tughlaq
5. Exposed the strategic vulnerabilities of India
6. Marked an end to the centralization of Delhi Sultanate
7. Devastating cultural fallouts/consequence
8. Prelude to Babur’s invasion
9. Engulf between Hindus and Muslims
10. Synthesis of traditions between India and Central Asia
5) Conclusion
1) Introduction:
Amir Taimur’s invasion proved to be one of the major causes of the disintegration of
the Delhi Sultanate. It marked fatal blow to the prestige of Delhi Sultanate, particularly to
the Tughlaq dynasty. It also ended the political centralization of the state. Even some
historians go on to speculate that it served as prelude to Babur’s invasions.
2) Reasons:
1. Amir Taimur was a great conqueror of his time. Like other conquerors he also
wanted to satisfy his lust or ambition for conquest. He was encouraged by the
conducive political situation. As there was no formidable force which could be
hurdle to achieve his ambitions. Professor Habib opines that “There was no large
territorial authority for him to challenge”.
2. There was a political turmoil in the country. The political prestige of Tughlaq
dynasty had decline, in fact the political authority was controlled by 2 personalities.
Delhi was ruled by Muhammad bin Tughlaq, whereas Nusrat Khan had assumed
throne in Juhrabad.
3. The centre had fallen victim to the political intrigues and civil war. Moreover,
various state and provinces had assumed independent political behaviour. For
instance, Gujarat, Malwa and Khandesh had declared their independence. Deccan
and Bengal had already succeeded from centre since the period of Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq. Similarly Malik Sarwar Khawaja Jahan by occupying the Eastern provinces
had founded Sharqi dynasty and established his capital in Jaunpur.
4. Some historians opine Taimur’s religious motives were behind his Indian invasion.
For instance, Professor Habib tried to justify Taimur’s Indian invasions on this
argument. Sharfudin Ali Yazdi said, “Central government of India though in Muslim
hand was weak, while the real object of lust was to plunder Delhi”.
During his address to the officers and Ulemas while preparing for invasions then he
also ascribed a motive that he tried to awoke the religious passions by referring to
Jihad with the infidel or non-Muslims of the subcontinent.
Some historian said, “That it appears, there were no clear cut motives for this invasion,
however it is stated in Malfuzat-e-Taimur and the Safar Namah, that principle object
of his expedition was neither conquest nor plundering, but the destruction of the
unbelievers”.
5. Dr. K. S. Lal said, “After the conquest of whole Central Asian region up to Moscow it
was natural for any conqueror, dreaming of world conquest to turn to East”.
Moreover, with the capture of Baghdad, Taimur had drawn too near the power of
the West. The any Bayazid supported by Turkaman and serial Arabs forbade
Taimur’s any movement towards Westwards. Consequently Taimur thought of
moving Eastwards from West. His grandson was already sending from there,
appeals for help in 1397. Taimur had given to his grandson the provinces of Qunduz,
Baqlan, Kabul, Ghazni and Qandahar as far as the confines of Sindh. The prince had
been encouraged to proceed further into India. He crossed the Indus and invaded
the city of Uch in Nov-Dec. 1397.
3) Main events – 3 Phases:
i) His grandson was already engaged, Peer Muhammad Khan, he had crossing and
conquered Multan. Taimur entered in the subcontinent in 1398 after crossing River
Sindh. From Attock he defeated Mubarak Khan, the governor of Punjab. Later
Taimur joined forces of Peer Muhammad Khan his own forces. His strength was
further increased with the reinforcement of his grandson. He started his advances
towards Delhi and they conquered other territory like Pakpattan, Dipalpur. Then he
conquered Fatehbad, Saraswati. He moved towards Eastern Punjab (Samana and
Surhan) and after conquering Kaithal he encamped near Delhi. At that point of time
1 lac Hindu slaves also gathered around his troops, but he apprehended that they
might prove to be a source of trouble; he got all of them executed.
ii) While hearing the news of approach of Taimur advance towards Delhi, the ruler of
Delhi Mehmood bin Tughlaq along with army of 50,000 men and 800 elephants
resisted. But, this army lacked a competent commander. Therefore, it could not
withstand the onslaught of Taimur’s army. After conquering Delhi, Taimur got the
Khutaba of Jummah in his name. The nobles and Ulemas made impassioned appeal
to him to avoid from massacres, to which he agreed. But, his soldiers infuriated the
citizens of Delhi.
While taking the homage of war, the people of Delhi started skirmishes. They fell out
from Taimur’s army. This resulted into causalities of certain soldiers of Taimur’s
army. Taimur was so much infuriated on this issue, that he ordered general
massacre of Delhi and it continued for 5 days. Then he destroyed Firozabad
likewise.
iii) After staying 10 days in Delhi, he moved towards Meerateh and destroyed this city.
He then reached Haradwar –the sacred city of Hindus. Then he chased Hindus to the
Hills of Shawalk. The he moved towards Jammu and its Raja surrendered to him.
After conquering all these areas, he returned to Central Asia towards Samarkand.
Upon his return he appointed Khizar Khan as Governor of Lahore, Multan and
Dipalpur and reached in Samarkand in 1399 via Kabul.
4) Impacts:
i) It resulted into the killing of 10,000 of people. It was the most devastating invasion
in the annals of India. On account of decomposition of corpses there erupted plague,
which destroyed the rest of population. It not only caused human catastrophe, but
also destroyed the crops. It also resulted into a severe famine. The long term fallout
was the outbreak of famine. Lane Poole said, “It engulfed the territories from River
Sindh, Ganges and almost the entire Punjab”.
ii) The invasion had disastrously affected the whole Northern India.
iii) Another devastating impact was the fate of Delhi. This city was utterly ruined and
those of the inhabitants who were left died, while for 2 whole months not a bird
moved wings in Delhi. It resulted into the destruction of its previous cultural
heritage. It presented a deserted look. Lane Poole said, “Thence forward until the
days of Mughal Empire, Delhi never gained her old ascendency”.
iv) It caused fatal blow to the awe and prestige of Tughlaq’s dynasty. As a result of this
invasion the Tughlaq dynasty declined immediately.
v) It exposed the strategic vulnerabilities of India. It encouraged other invades to come
to invade India. It also brought same artists and craftsmen with him which further
caused a loss of heritage.
vi) It is regarded as an end of centralization of state. From thence onward India was
divided into petty states.
vii) Upon his return he had appointed Khizar Khan as the Governor of Lahore, Multan
and Dipalpur. Khizar Khna advanced forward and conquered Delhi and founded
Syed’s dynasty. Up to next 50 years it lasted and after it Lodhies came until 1526.
viii) It was a prelude to Babur’s invasion. Not only it paved the way for the Babur’s
conquest but also became raison d’être for Babur’s invasion. As Babur himself
considered the succession of Taimur, therefore he wanted to conquer India.
ix) The invasion of Taimur increased the gulf between Hindus and Muslims, on account
of Taimur’s intolerability towards Hindus. Eventually it made all the more difficult
for Hindus and Muslims to come near to each other.
x) Another effect of the invasion was that Indian art found its way in Central Asia. A
large number of Indian artists and craftsmen were taken away by Taimur to
Samarkand where they were employed to construct mosques and other buildings.
Therefore, this invasion led to the synthesis of the traditions.
5) Conclusion:
According to K.S. Lal, “in spite of what Taimur or his chroniclers have written, he was
not clear in his mind why he was undertaking the invasion of India. His was an aimless
visitation. It was terrible calamity. The vanquished had lost all and victor had gained nothing”.
Is Arabs invasion of Sindh merely an episode in the history?
There is a controversy surrounding the Arabs’ invasion, which constitutes an important chapter in
the history of the subcontinent. It is regarded as an insignificant event by certain historians e.g.
Wolsely Haig opines that it only affected a small portion on the fringe of that territory. He gave
more importance to the religious factor.
1) Professor Habib Ullah is of the view:

Politically Sindh affair led to a dead end. It touched only a fringe of Indian continent
and faint strings it produced were soon forgotten.
2) Havell says:
From political point of view, Arab conquest is insignificant.
3) Tod deliberates:
Muhammad Bin Qasim never penetrated to Chitor in the heartland of Rajputana.
4) Lane Poole says:
Arabs had conquered Sindh but the conquest was an episode in the history of Islam, a
triumph without results.
But, it is wrong to maintain that the Arabs conquest of the Sindh had no impact on India. There may
be 4 -5 themes which can justify our claims and prove the importance of Arabs invasion in the
annals of the Indian history.
1) It sowed the seeds of Islam in India, and hence the Sindh was called Bab-ul-Islam.
2) The Arabs influenced political, social, sociological life of people of the Sindh.
3) The Arabs were not actual conquers but they were the pathfinders and it opened the
gateway for future conquests.
4) The conquest of Sindh was a great give and take (great cultural synthesis). It marks are
clearly visible on language, dress, customs and each and every aspect of people of Sindh.
5) It imparted political, cultural, religious, economic and intellectual impacts.
6) The modern day Sindh writing style (Rasm-ul-Khat) resembles with that of Arabic.
Conclusion
It was wrongly assumed that the Arabs’ conquest was an episode in history but the effects
cannot be denied. Though the conquest couldn’t proceed farther from Multan but, it left indelible
impacts on Indian subcontinent. The Sindh did not hold key to conquer India but it left significant
impacts.
Architecture under the Mughals
1) Nature of architecture under the Mughals:

The Mughals not only excelled magnificently in their political activities but their social and
cultural achievements were also very great. They were highly educated and enlightened Monarchs.
They had gathered brilliant architects, painters, musicians and academicians in their court.
The Mughal emperors were great builders. The buildings in all over their empire speak
volumes of their interest in this field. The buildings of Mughals were different from those which
already existed. Their architecture was a fusion of Indian and Central Asian architecture.
2) Architecture under Babar:
Emperor Babar had come from Central Asia. He had a poor opinion about Indian architecture
and atmosphere. He remained not for long before he died and was busy in fighting the time he did
spent. He was busy in the empire building. But still he was able to make few contributions to Indian
architecture.
i) Babar’s architectural achievements:
1. He for the first time introduced walls around the gardens. He was the founder of walled
gardens in India.
2. He introduced square shaped gardens.
3. He built the Baradari for the first time in India.
4. He built gardens in terraces.
5. He introduced Central Asian traditions in the subcontinent.
Some of the important buildings made by Babar were a large mosque in the Kabul, Bagh at
Panipat, a mosque in Ajudhia and the Jamia Masjid at Sambhal. He did not have proper time to
implement his ideas and fought 4 battles during his short stay. He was pioneer of Mughal
architecture and introducer of Central Asian traditions.
3) Architecture under Humayun:
Emperor Humayun’s time was full of turbulence. He had great sense and taste but did not
have enough money to implement his ideas. During his reign he was busy in fighting Bahadur Shah,
Sher Shah Suri and Rajput Princes. He fled to Iran for 15 years, before coming back and regaining his
territory. The short time which he had, he utilized it in constructing buildings. Some important
remaining buildings of Humayun are Mosque at Hisar, Mosque at Fatehabad and Jamia Masjid at
Agra.
He used glazed tiles from Kashaan (Iran). It was the first time they were being used in the
subcontinent. He had an innovative mind and made a special architecture of wood. He built Floating
Palace (Qasr-e-Rawaan), Floating Orchard (Bagh-e-Rawwan) and Floating Market (Bazaar-e-
Rawwan).
4) Architecture under Sur Dynasty:
The Sur Dynasty ruled for a short period of about 15 years. Its founder was Sher Shah Suri.
Sher Shah Suri was most interested in buildings and architecture. He built many resting places (inns)
for the travellers on highways. He built around 1700 resting places (sarai) during his time. In every
Sarai there was a mini temple and mosque for worship where free food was also provided. His
famous buildings include Fort at Delhi, his tomb at Bihar. About his tomb it is said that it was the
most beautiful piece of architecture to be built in that time. He was also the builder of Rohtas Fort. In
grandeur and simplicity, his period is a link between Hindu, Sultanate and the Mughal period.
5) Architecture under Akbar:
Akbar reign is huge chapter in architecture of Mughal dynasty. He contributed a lot in form
of orchards, palaces, fountains, dams, hospitals, roads and cities etc.
i) Features of Akbar’s architecture:
1. He extensively used red stone in his architecture, which was more durable than other
stones.
2. All of his buildings are mostly red in colour for example Jamia Masjid and the Buland
Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri, Khaqah of Sheikh Saleem Chisti, and Tomb of Humayun at
Delhi, Attock Bridge, Attock Fort, Agra Fort, and Lahore Fort etc.
3. He built strategic buildings.
4. Akbar was an ambitious man; he wanted to join Muslims and non-Muslims to become
emperor of both. His architecture shows his religious tolerance.
5. He built huge and massive buildings to show his power, grandeur and wealth.
6. He built durable buildings and tried to project his character’s quality in his architecture.
7. In his buildings durability was given more preference than decoration.
8. His architecture is mostly of Persian style.
9. He used portraits of animals, sun, moon etc in his architecture to give a liberal outlook.
6) Architecture under Jahangir:

Jahangir was more interested in painting. Akbar had done wonders in the field of
architecture and there was nothing left for him to built, so he switched over to painting. But, he did
build building which had qualities not in building previously built. Jahangir built the tomb of Iitmad-
ud-Dula, the father of Noor Jahan, which was an exceptional building of its time.
i) Features of Jahangir’s buildings:
1. Pitra Dura work for the first time was introduced. In this precious and semi precious
stones were inlayed on tiles and placed on the buildings.
2. Use white stone instead of red stone.
7) Architecture under Shah Jahan:
Shah Jahan is known as architect emperor of Mughals. He had time and money and his reign
was politically the calmest period of Mughal history. He most generously built buildings. He use to
discuss construction himself, no emperor is seen as adapted to buildings as he was. His reign was full
of uninterrupted peace which is necessary for building large buildings. He had abundance of precious
and semi-precious stones, money and architectural skills at his disposal to fulfil his love for
architecture. He promoted calligraphy and music besides architecture.
i) Features of Shah Jahan’s buildings:
1. He built Taj Mahal on the banks of River Jumna. It was completed in 22 years and work
was carried out continuously. It is estimated that around 3 crore rupees were spent on it
with 20,000 workmen deployed on it. Masons from Turkey, Iran, Central Asia and Arabia
were called. Craftsmen specialized in any field were called upon to work. It is a great
example of love; he wanted to build his own tomb opposite to Taj Mahal with Black
Marble which was not realized.
2. He always preferred white marble.
3. His buildings had feminine grace.
4. ‘Dome’ came to its logical conclusion and it started to be built in ‘Bulbous’ shape. So the
perfection in dome came in Shah Jahan’s reign.
5. New style of arches was introduced in his buildings.
6. Single dome was use in times of Sultanate of Delhi. Double dome was used in his reign.
7. Pitra Dura work flourished during his reign.
8. Moti Masjid made of pure white marble was completed in 4 years. It was constructed in
between 1648-1652 at the cost of 3 lac rupees. It was a blend of piety and cleanliness.
9. He built Octagonal buildings like Musaman Burj.
10. Made a city Shahjahanabad to live as doctors advised him that its temperature would
suit him better,
11. He built Lal Qila on the banks of Jumna.
12. He built Dewan-e-Khas in Agra Fort. It is said at that time, if there is heaven on Earth it is
in Dewan-e-Khas.
13. Shalimar Garden was also laid by Shah Jahan. It is having terraces with flowing water.
14. He spent 10 lacs in the construction of Jamia Masjid Delhi.
15. He made ‘Takht-e-Taoos’ the Peacock throne, made to show the great pump of the royal
court. It had gold worth of 40 lac rupees. Its pillars were of Emerald. Shah Jahan spent 1
crore on this throne.
16. He constructed the tomb of Asaf Khan; it is the only example of pear shaped dome.
8) Architecture under Aurangzeb:
Aurangzeb had shortage of money due to his war against Marhattas in Deccan. He was busy
in expeditions then propagating culture. It was only because of his faithful subaidars who sent money
to him regularly to Deccan that he was able to carry out his expenses. He constructed Badshahi
Masjid in Lahore. Fidai Khan, foster brother of Aurangzeb supervised the building of Badshahi
Masjid. Red sand stone is mostly used in its construction. Moreover, he built mosques in Deccan.
9) Conclusion:
After death of Aurangzeb the Mughal dynasty started decaying. It became weak. When all
this was being done, it greatly damaged the architecture of Mughal period especially during the Sikh
rule of Rangit Singh. In Mughal architecture mostly Indian type and mixed architecture was used.
Itmad-ud-Dula’s tomb was first specimen of Pitra Dura work and it flourished under Shah Jahan.
Examples like Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri bears testimony to the architectural zenith during the
Mughal Period. The architecture built during Mughal era could only have been built by the emperors.
They showed their pomp and grandeur. The architecture reached its pinnacle during the reign of
Shah Jahan.
Aurangzeb’s Rajput Policy
Outline
1) Introduction
2) Background
i) Rajput Policy from 1658 -1678
ii) Rajput Policy from 1679-1704
3) How Rajputs burst into rebellion
4) Aurangzeb’s strategy
5) Immediate results
6) Critical view
7) Defence of Aurangzeb by Muslim historians
8) Conclusion
1) Introduction:
Rajput policy constitutes an important episode of Aurangzeb’s reign (1658-1707).
This policy highlighted the fact that how did the cracks appeared in alliance between
Mughals and Rajputs. The Rajput alliance was liberally built by Akbar. This Rajput policy of
Aurangzeb’s is shrouded in mystery in terms of conflicting interpretations of historians. For
instance, non-Muslim historians particularly the Hindu historians described it as a major
factor behind the Mughal decline. Whereas, the Muslim historians appear to negate this
impression by arguing that Aurangzeb had somehow managed the Rajput rebellion. They
advocate that this policy did not result into breakup of alliance between Mughals and
Rajputs. Rather Aurangzeb still enjoyed substantial support of popular Rajput chieftains.
Moreover, by subduing the rebellious Rajput states Aurangzeb managed to establish the
writ of the state in an effective manner.
2) Background:
The policy of Aurangzeb Alamgir towards Rajputs during his reign may be divided
into two phases i.e. Rajput Policy from 1658 -1678 and Rajput Policy from 1679-1704.
1. Rajput Policy from 1658 -1678:
During the 1st phase, the relation between Rajputs and Aurangzeb remained
cordial. There had been isolated cases of insubordination of certain rajas but
diplomacy and force ultimately succeeded in keeping them within the bonds of
obedience. The Rajput rajas were given commands of armies and entrusted with the
administration of provinces. This view is also substantiated by Ray Chaudhry who
writes that, “During the initial years he continued the policy of his predecessors and
Rajputs like Jaswant Singh of Marwar and Jay Singh of Amber continued to serve the
Mughal Empire”. Aurangzeb even appointed Raja Jaswant Singh as faujdar of
Jamrud, a Mughal outpost on the Khyber Pass. This period of peace lasting over 25
years was followed by Rajput revolt as a result of the events following the death of
Maharaja Jaswant Singh in 1678 at Jamrud.
2. Rajput Policy from 1679-1704:
On the death of Jaswant Singh Jodhpur was left without a head. To forestall
possible trouble in case of civil war, Alamgir appointed his own officers to take
charge of administration and later, in 1679, appointed Inder Singh, the chief of
Nagor, as successor to Jaswant Singh. Ray Chaudhry describes Inder Singh a
worthless relative of Jaswant Singh on the thrown of Marwar, who agreed to pay to
the Mughals on an amount of 36 lacs. Complications arose when two of Jaswant
Singh’s Ranis bore two posthumous sons. One of them died soon after his birth and
the second, Ajit Singh was removed to Delhi from Lahore. Ajit Singh was later hailed
as Ajit Singh of Marwar. Aurangzeb wanted to bring up Ajit Singh, the heir of
Jaswant Singh, into Mughal Harem itself. But, this was not acceptable to Rajputs. On
the other hand Rajput leaders impressed upon Aurangzeb to accept the legitimate
claims of Ajit Singh to the throne of Marwar.
The Rajput adherents of Jaswant Singh had resented the appointment of
Inder Singh. After Ajit’s birth the Rani, Ajit Singh and Raja’s bodyguard Durga Das
set out from Kabul without seeking permission or availing regular imperial passes
reached Delhi. The Emperor considered it an irregularity. He attempted made an

attempt to arrest them and get them into its own custody. The circumstances are not
fully explained or shrouded in mystery. But, the case seems pretty clear when the
past relations of the parties and the character of Emperor are taken into account.
So, Aurangzeb probably intended to dictate its own terms about the tributes
before releasing them. But, he was suspicious of darker designs. Therefore,
according to Abdul Qadir in these circumstances, “Rajputs indignity was excited by
travellers‟ camp. When travellers encamped they were surrounded by Mughals, and
were closely watched by the imperial force. This would have injured the pride of
Rajputs”. Therefore some Indian historians like Ray Chaudhry also accord, “great
primary to this event while delineating the causes of Rajput rebellions”.
According to Ray Chaudhry, “Disgusted with the high heighted attitude of
Aurangzeb, Rajputs under the leadership of Durga Das was thought of releasing Ajit
Singh and Queen Mother”.
By this conveyance the whole family made their escape and reached Jodhpur
in July, 1679. I. H. Qureshi opines, “It is disputed as to what actually happened. The
government officers claimed that they had the infant in the safe custody of the palace,
while Durga Das claimed that he had been able to bring the real prince away and the
Mughals had only an unknown child”.
3) How Rajputs burst into rebellion:
Rajputs termed Aurangzeb’s attitude towards Rani, Ajit Singh and Durga Das
insulting. It excited Rajput alienation. The Rajput adherents of Jaswant Singh had resented
the appointment of Inder Singh. According I. H. Qureshi, “One of Jaswant Singh‟s adherents,
Durga Das, jumped into fray”. Moreover I. H. Qureshi adds, “Durga Das became the rallying
point of the latent Rajput ambition to break loose from the Mughals”.
The mother of Ajit Singh appealed to the Rana Raj Singh of Mewar for assistance.
Soon, the alliance was established between Mewar and Marwar against Aurangzeb Alamgir.
According to Ray Chaudhry who fully realized that “If Marwar was annexed to the Mughal
Empire Mewar could not be saved”. Motivated by self interest and higher considerations, the
Raja made a common cause with Durga Das.
4) Aurangzeb’s strategy:
By realizing the gravity of the situation Aurangzeb himself moved to Ajmer. He
placed his son Akbar with Tahawwar Khan, faujdar of Ajmer, at the head of the army against
the Rajputs. The first major battle was fought near Pushkar in which the Rajputs put up a
stiff resistance, but were defeated. Soon the whole of Marwar was in flames and Mewar
soon joined the rebels. Alamgir retaliated by moving into Mewar and occupying Udaipur.
The Mewaris fled into the hills and launched a sort of guerrilla war against Mughals.
On the other hand Aurangzeb also decided to launch a three side attack. Price Azam
was to move from East that is from Mewar, Prince Akbar from West that is from Marwar
and Prince Muazzam from North. But, this plan could not succeed on the account of
rebellion of Prince Akbar. Prince Akbar gained Rajput camp and announced his Kingship in
January, 1681. This was a critical moment for Aurangzeb, as he became defenceless. There
were chances of attack by the Prince Akbar on Ajmer with help of Rajputs. But, he wasted
his time in pleasure, and Aurangzeb speedily arranged for the defence of Ajmer. Akbar was
ready to begin the attack when Aurangzeb’s diplomacy frustrated all his plans. He wrote a
letter to Prince Akbar and manipulated in a way that it should fall in the hands of Rajputs. In
this letter he congratulated the Prince on having befooled the Rajputs in accordance with
his instructions and asked him to bring them into vulnerable position. As planned this letter
fell into the hands of Rajputs. The letter caused a division in the ranks of Akbar’s supporters.
Akbar was no longer trustworthy for Rajputs. His army was broken up and he himself fled
to Iran and died there in 1704.
5) Immediate results:
1. The failure of Akbar’s revolt had a devastating impact on Rajputs. It considerably
weakened Rajputs confederacy and the Rana of Mewar Jai Singh submitted in June
1681.
2. The war against Marwar continued with varying success and Durga Das with Ajit
Singh continued to wage guerrilla war against the Mughals. They surrendered in
1698. Aurangzeb pardoned Ajit Singh and granted him a Jagir of 3 Parganas and
appointed him Mansabdar. Similarly, Aurangzeb also pardoned Durga Das and
appointed as Faujdar of Patan in Gujarat. But, Durga Das again raised the standard
of revolt against Mughals in 1702 and was defeated in 1704. He was again pardoned
by Aurangzeb.
6) Result of Rajput alienation:
The Rajput war drained Aurangzeb’s resources in men and money and lowered his
prestige all over Hindustan. The defection of Akbar encouraged the enemies of the Emperor
to count upon the dissensions of the royal family for the success of their plans. The Rajputs
were alienated. In the past men like Mirza Raja Jai Singh and Raja Jaswant Singh had shed
their blood in the service of the Empire, but henceforward the Rajputs withheld their
support and Aurangzeb had to carry on the war in Deccan single-handed.
7) Critical view:
Ray Chaudhry opines Aurangzeb’s Rajput policy as reversal of the policy of
“conciliation towards Rajputs initiated by Akbar and followed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan”.
He is of the view that after the death of Jaswant Singh, Aurangzeb abandoned the traditional
policy and adopted a policy of aggressive warfare towards the Rajputs. He further opines
that Rajput policy of Aurangzeb not only deprived him of the services of trusted class of brave
soldiers but also cost the Mughals heavily in men, parts of the Empire ............ challenge the
authority of Aurangzeb and the administrative machinery began to slip out of the control of the
Emperor.
Sir Jadunath Sarkar termed it as “the height of political un-wisdom”. He further
opines that “Aurangzeb wantonly provoked rebellion in Rajputana ... his army lost its finest
and most loyal recruits”. He also highlights its fallouts in terms of its destabilizing impacts on
the Mughal polity. According to him “The two leading Rajput clans openly hostile to him...this
trouble was not confined to Marwar and Mewar. It spread by sympathy among the Hada and
Gaur clans. And it further spread to Malwa and Deccan”.
Ishwari Prasad opines, “Akbar Rajput policy was completely reversed by Aurangzeb
and the results were disastrous”. Furthermore he adds, “The ruin that followed was inevitable.
A great empire and little minds go ill-together...The pursuit of a wrong ideal in full disregard
of political expediency strengthened the forces of reaction, and anarchy began to rise its head
where at one time peace and loyalty had reigned supreme”.
Aurangzeb Religious Policy
Outline
1) Introduction
2) Background
3) Features – Divided in 3 categories
1. Symbolic measures
2. Ordinances directed towards improving the manners and morals of his subjects of all
classes
3. Some controversial aspects described discriminatory by non-Muslim historians
4) Debate surrounding Aurangzeb’s religious policy
1. Hindu nationalist historians
2. Orthodox Muslim historians
3. Pakistani liberal historians
4. Western historians
5. Modern insights
5) Positive impacts
6) Negative impacts
7) Conclusion
_______________________________________
1) Introduction:
Aurangzeb’s religious policy constitutes distinctive feature of his reign. Through this
policy, a Harbans Mukhia opines, “Aurangzeb tried to bring Islam at a centre stage of the state
affairs”. His critics among the Hindu nationalist historians hold his religious policy responsible
for the Mughal decline whereas the orthodox Muslim historians term it as his main contribution
towards the cause of Islam in the subcontinent. Modern research concerning his period have
provided new insights about his religious policy and thus these are immensely helpful for
removing certain misconceptions regarding his religious policy which were created by his
nationalist critics. These new insights about Aurangzeb religious policy have helped historians
to construct altogether a new perspective about his reign.
2) Background:
Aurangzeb’s religious policy was actuated by the desire on a part of a section of Mughal
nobility to purify the state from those influences which were followers of Akbar’s liberalism to
which I.H. Qureshi refers to as, “forces of infidelity and heterodoxy of Akbar”. This section of
nobility was staunch followers of Mujadid Alf Sani –Sheikh Ahmed Sarhindi’s puritanical
Naqshbundia Movement. He was fully supported by these elements during the war of succession
and his victory was projected as a triumph of Islam. Therefore, if Aurangzeb tried to bring Islam
to the centre stage of Indian politics through his religious policy, it should be seen as his
response to those expectations which were associated.
3) Features:
1. Symbolic measures: First set of features may be described as symbolic features
i) He tried to put an end to un-Islamic practices from court. For instance, in 1668, he
forbade music at his court with exception of Royal Band and pensioned off the large
number of state singers and musicians.
ii) The ceremony of weighing emperor on his birthday against gold and silver was
discontinued.
iii) In 1669, ceremony of ‘Darshan’ was abandoned.
iv) In the course of time, the festivities held on emperor’s birthday were abolished.
v) Mansabdars were forbidden to make the customary presents to the emperor
2. Ordinances directed towards improving the manners and morals of his subjects of
all classes:
i) Appointment of censors of public moral (Mohtasibs) in important cities to enforce
Islamic laws and discourage the practices forbidden by Sharia such as drinking,
gambling and prostitution.
ii) Ban on Bhang production and prohibition of Suttee etc.
iii) Prohibition of converting boys into eunuch.
iv) Prostitutes and dancing girls were asked either to choose between marriage and
exile.
v) Forbade women from visiting shrines of holy men and saints.
3. Some controversial aspects described discriminatory by non-Muslim historians:

i) Through these steps, Aurangzeb tried in an increasing degree to run the empire in
accordance with Islamic law, which brought the question of position of non-Muslims
to the fore. For instance, in 1679, he reinforced Jizya which was abolished by Akbar.
ii) He issued orders of destruction of Hindu temples. Sharma says, “He was on temple
destruction spree”. The campaign of temple destruction in peace time began in April,
1669. He is accused of destroying temples in Benares, Thatta, Multan, Gujrat,
Haridwar, Ayodhya, Mulhra etc.
iii) In 1669, he issued the order of closing those schools which were established in
Hindu Temples (Mandirs) where the Muslim students received education along with
Hindu students.
iv) Hindu historians also blame him of discrimination against Hindus, as regarding jobs
were concerned.
v) They also accused him of discrimination in taxation. For instance, Hindus were
charged 5% and Muslims 2.5% on the sale of their cattle. Muslims were exempted
while Hindus had to pay 5% custom duty.
vi) Tax on produce of gardens was levied at 20% and 16.6% from Hindus and Muslims
respectively.
4) Debate surrounding Aurangzeb’s religious policy:
1. Hindu nationalist historians:
i) The tradition of holding Aurangzeb religious policy responsible for Mughal era
decline was pioneered by Jaddu Nath Sarkar and he left no stone unturned in
describing hi period as, “a worst period of Mughals”. He envisioned Aurangzeb as
indefatigable zealot, whose ambition was to turn Mughal state in an indubitably
(pure) Islamic institution.
ii) Ishwari Parshad opines, “State became a large machinery institution”.
iii) Harbans Mukhia says, “The number of temples destroyed by him probably exceeds
the number desecrated by another ruler in medieval India”.
iv) Ray Chaudhary opines:
a) “Aurangzeb ... followed a deliberate and relentless policy of persecution towards
the Hindus”.
b) “He revert the religious (liberal) policy followed by his predecessors”.
c) “He wanted to convert „Dar-ul-Harb‟ into „Dar-ul-Islam‟.
v) Srivastava opines, “The evidence of akhbarat (newspapers) of Aurangzeb‟s reign
indicates that he would have liked to close down if not destroy all the Hindu temples.”
2. Orthodox Muslim historians:
i) Shibli Naumani, I.H. Qureshi and S.M. Garewal project Aurangzeb as a protagonist
(hero) of great cause. They tried to exonerate him from the charges of being
responsible for the decline of Mughal Empire rather they highlight those aspects of
his rule which led towards the glorification of Islam.
ii) Shibli Naumani wrote a pamphlet, ‘A Glimpse on Aurangzeb’s Reign’. This was
part of his series on heroes of Islam, in which he tried to contest all the major
allegations against Aurangzeb which ranged from the suppression of Shia
population in Hyderabad to his campaign against the Marhattas. These also included
the charge of callus treatment. Shibbli negates all those allegations and by
contesting the very premises of this situation. Moreover, he also appears to justify
some measures which are labelled as charge sheet against Aurangzeb. He defends
Aurangzeb in the following:
a) He conquered Hyderabad to save it from Marhattas.
b) War against Darra was act of self-defence.
c) Distortion made by European historian was not true in Shibbli’s opinion as it
was on account of their biases and prejudices.
iii) I. H. Qureshi says,
a) “He has been accused of religious fanaticism and discriminatory treatment of the
non-Muslims, which alienated Rajputs and secured popular Hindu support for a
Marhattas. This is not true as there was no popular rising and Hindu resistance
movement was inspired by vested interest group”
b) “He almost succeeded in breaking the forces of anarchy and his successors had
not been able to save subcontinent from miseries of 18th and 19th Century.”
c) “Aurangzeb tried to restore the prestige of Islam in the state, to give the Muslims
once again the feeling that empire was mainly concerned without being unjust to
Muslims.”
d) “If this empire collapsed liked house of cards after death of Alamgir-I, the main
cause must be sought elsewhere than religious policies of that emperor.”
e) “It would have collapsed much earlier if it had not at the helm of affairs ... the
man of calibre of Alamgir.”
f) Europeans have constructed opinion on 2nd rate sources. They have condemned
him as colossal failure as ruler, as a statesman without vision. A good deal of
allegations against him is not sound.
iv) S.M. Garewal views appear to be further extension of Shibbli’s thesis.
a) While criticizing the main critics of Aurangzeb like Eliphinstone, Lane Poole and
Manochi he maintains that in their undue criticism they have crossed all the
limits. Instead of highlighting good aspects, they have only exaggerated some
presume blunders.
b) S. M. Garewal also justifies some steps of Aurangzeb e.g., he got his father
interned (detained) yet it had some reasons both Dara Shikoh and Shah Jahan
were responsible for it.
c) Similarly, he also eulogizes (appreciates) some achievements of Aurangzeb that
he was a great ruler who fully aware of affairs of statecraft and who considered
the revival of glory of Islam in the subcontinent as his obligation.
d) He also contests the charges that Aurangzeb closed the door for employment on
Hindus. This amply can be gauged that number of Hindu nobles during Akbar
was 52 but it increased to 61 during Aurangzeb’s reign. Similarly, number of
Hindu Mansabdars also reached 80 as compared to 64 in Akbar’s reign.
3. Liberal Pakistani historians:
i) Mubarik Ali opines:
a) “He failed to accommodate the rise of social forces.”
b) “Orthodox approach was responsible for weakness and fragmentation.”
c) “Modern researchers view was not justified against Aurangzeb.”
d) “(He) failed to adopt himself according to circumstances.”
e) Contradiction due to status-quo
ii) Qazi Javed opines, “His policies created damage to saintly traditions.”
4. British historians:
i) William Erwin opines that; “Aurangzeb‟s religious policy, his prolonged Deccan
campaign, his intolerance of un-Islamic creeds, Hindu alienation etc are the causes of
downfall.”
ii) Elliot and Dowson in ‘History of India as told by his historians’ had further
highlighted the communal aspect.
iii) Percievel Spear, in his book, ‘History of India’, has held his policy for Mughal
decline through which he attempted to transform India into an Islamic state which
resulted in the transformation of ambiguous Hindu support into alienation. Hindus
became indifferent towards the decline of the state and they no longer felt it
obligatory to state.
iv) John F. K. Richard opines; “The emperor was free to fulfil his Islamic vision of
Mughal Empire which was his ultimate goal.”
5. Modern insights:
New perspectives into Aurangzeb’s religious policy provided new insights.
i) Satish Chandra, in ‘Parties and Politics in Mughal Court’ focuses on structure of
state organization and holds the defects in Mansabdari System are responsible for
decline. He does not believe that religious policy as a cause of decline. He maintains
that; “The main trend of 18th Century politics was non-religious”.
ii) Richard Eben in his thoroughly article named, ‘Demolition of Hind temples’
enumerated that 80 temples were destroyed during Muslim rule, out of which 15 in
Aurangzeb.
iii) Athar Ali has focussed on crisis of Jagirs, which was result of Deccan policy.
iv) Omm Parakash has tried to smash various misconceptions about Aurangzeb’s
religious policy.
a) He argues; “To what extent Aurangzeb was responsible for Mughal decline in this
context it may be said that no personality can be held responsible for the rise or
decline of the empire rather the real causes of decline must be sought in political,
social, economic and cultural conditions of time.”
b) “He got the old temples repaired and also gave financial support.”
c) “Temples were centres of rebellious elements. The temples closed during Shah
Jahan‟s period were not allowed to reopen as he considered it violation.”
d) According to Omm Parakash most allegation were baseless and are not
supported by any evidence.
e) According to the research work of Omm Parakash, Aurangzeb was quick to
destroy those temples through which Hindu Rajas tried to assert their
autonomous behaviour. On the other hand, his attitude was quite sincere
towards those temples which were cooperative towards the government. He
adopted same policy towards Shahi Mosque of Golkanda and got it destroy as it
had become a bastion of the opponents of centre. He blames Hindus rather than
Muslims for the plundering of temples as he argues that, “There is no evidence to
suggest that there existed a department of plundering of temples. On other hand,
such department was established by a ruler of Kashmir named „Harsh‟, a Hindu in
12th Century.”
f) On the basis of historical evidences, Omm Parakash tries to exonerate
Aurangzeb of the charges of destruction of ‘Kashi Vishvanath Temple’. He also
maintains that Aurangzeb had issued various decrees in between (1659-1685)
concerning the allocation of land to Temples (Mandirs) and Gurdawaras.
5) Positive impacts:
1. Restoration of Islam according to its original form.
2. As a result of his policy, position of Sunni elements became well established which led to
the growth of Naqshbundia Movement, which later had a defining role in defining the
ethos of Muslim society in 18th and 19th Century. Therefore, the Jihad or Wali Ellahi,
Deoband and Tablighi Jammat all may be described as different manifestations of
Islamic revivalism, a process which was initiated by Sheikh Ahmed Sarhindi but
reinforced by Aurangzeb and Shah Wali Ullah provided conducive environment for the
growth of Islam and dissemination of Muslim culture.
3. For instance, he got compiled, ‘Fatuhat-e-Alamgiri’ which was most codified Islamic
Law.
4. Harbans Mukhia opines; “Aurangzeb ... more than any of his ancestors brought Islam
centre staged in state affairs.”
5. Deccan policy further complemented his religious policy and he was able to crush the
influence of those forces partially Marhattas who could have proved threat to Muslim
rule.
6) Negative impacts:
1. Liberal Pakistani views – he lacked farsightedness.
2. He was unable to understand peculiarities of India, as Muslims were in minority.
3. It led to alienation of Hindus and Rajputs.
4. Mughal Rule base was weakened due to destruction of pluralistic traditions of Mughals.
5. Srivastava in ‘Policies of Great Mughals’ writes, “Aurangzeb‟s religious policy created a
division in Indian society.” Furthermore he adds; “The result of policy brought a sudden
discontent among all classes of his Hindu subjects which resulted in Jats rose in rebellion
around Agra, revolt of Satnamis in Daoab, Sikh in revolt in Punjab, and Marhattas
consumed all his energies for 27 long years in South.”
7) Conclusion:
Despite negative aspects, from modern perspective it was liberal and accommodationist.
It is wrong to maintain that Aurangzeb was responsible for Mughal decline rather structure was
the reason behind the decline. These were not rigid policies. The steps taken against Hindu
Temples (Mandirs) had certain context, it seems liberal policy. Decline was a complex
phenomenon and the reason was autocratic dispensation of Mughals. The changing
circumstances were not properly tackled.
Babur’s permanent place in history rests upon his Indian conquests
1) Introduction:
Babur was among the most fascinating and towering personalities of medieval India. He
earned immortal fame by his military exploits. His ‘magnum opuses’ are ‘Tuzk-e-Baburi’ and
building of one of the greatest empires of the medieval history. Lane Poole describes him as “the
most captivating personality in the oriental history”.
2) Initial career (family background):
Babur’s father, Umer Sheikh Mirza who was the ruler of Farghana died in June, 1494.
Babur was called upon to succeed him to his kingdom when he was only a boy of 11 years old.
He soon found himself surrounded by formidable enemies. His near relatives, kinsmen and the
Uzbegs under the leadership of Shaibani Khan stood in his way. But Babur with the help of his
nobles and loyal subjects defeated his rivals and established himself safely upon the throne.
3) Exploits in Central Asia (Samarkand and Farghana):
Babur’s military exploits also deserve to be categorized among his contributions. The
manner in which Babur recovered his tiny Kingdom of Farghana after losing it twice at the
tender age of 11 is remarkable. He conquered Samarkand thrice the age of 14. He was pitched
against most powerful enemies like Shaibani Khan. It speaks volumes of perseverance and
indomitable courage.He conquered Samarkand with 200 soldiers only.
4) But his Indian conquests gave him the permanent place in history:
His exploitation in India with 30,000 soldiers at his disposal, Babur defeated an army of
1 lac men of Ibrahim Lodhi. Within 3 years in between 1526-29, Babur achieved 4 great victories
in India i.e. Panipat (1526), Kanwah(1527), Chanderi(1528) and Ghagra(1529). These military
exploits give him a permanent place in history. Babur employed artillery for the first time in
India and changed the course of future art of warfare.
5) Founder of the Mughal Empire:
Babur established such a vast empire extending from Badakhsan to Bengal and bank of
Oxus to the foothills of Himalayas. In inheriting but the shadow of a small kingdom in Central
Asia, he died master of the territories lying between the Karamnasa and Oxus and those
between Narbada and the Himalayas.
6) Establishment of an Empire:
Babur provided the Empire with a very political outlook as distinct from religious and
sectarian. The Mughal Empire also owes the place of crown in the state and it was also Babur’s
contribution that he accorded crown a distinct status. The cultural character of the court could
also be traced back to Babur. Similarly, Babur also indicated the character and policy to govern
this Empire. He defined the governing ideology of Mughal Empire. Babur established a dynasty
which ruled India for more than 200 years.
7) He did the necessary ground works which gave birth to Akbar’s glorious reign:
Though Babur did not find time to consolidate his Empire, yet he laid the first stone of
splendid fibre which his grandson Akbar achieved. Dr. Tripathi is of the view that; “Without
depriving Akbar of his well deserved greatness, it can be maintained that the seeds of his policy
were sown by his illustrious grandfather (Babur)”.
8) Methods of warfare:
India for the first time in her history saw the use of artillery as weapon of warfare in the
battlefield of Panipat. The credit of introducing artillery to India goes to Babur. Hitherto the
Indians were not conversant with the use of artillery. It was the Mughals who by making use of
the guns and gun-powder in the battle of Panipat not only won the battle but also brought
artillery to this country.
9) Tuzk-e-Babri:
Tuzk-e-Babri is one of the greatest literary achievements of Babur. It is said about Babur
that; “had he not been able to achieve any battle in the field, Tuzk-e-Babri would have even then
immortalized his name”.
1. Elliot and Dowson are bewildered and point out that “it is difficult to believe that the
memoirs are the works of an Asiatic and a sovereign”.
2. Sir Denison Ross is of the view that “the Memoirs of Babur must be reckoned amongst
the most enthralling and romantic works in the literature of all times”.
3. Rushbrook Williams opines that “Babur‟s place in history rests upon his Indian
conquests, but his place in biography and literature is determined by his delightful
Memoirs”.
Balban’s (1266-1287) measures /policy for the consolidation of the state
1) Introduction:
Balban is regarded as one of the great rulers of Medieval India. His policies and
measures led to the consolidation of state and his successful Mongol policy effectively
tackled the Mongol menace. Balban also stands out as a visionary leader as he expounded
distinct theory of kingship.
2) Difficulties before Balban:
1. The writ of state had considerably weakened and Balban’s reign was one of the
struggles against internal troubles and external dangers.
2. It was the period of chaos cant turmoil and the awe and prestige of state he fatally
wounded.
3. The Forty official nobility (Chahal Gani) comprised of Iltutmish’s slave reigned supreme.
The Forty had virtually assumed the role of king makers and they had usurped all the
powers of king and reduced him to the position of a figurehead.
4. Balban had himself become victim of the intrigue of ‘Forty’ during his period of wizarat.
5. Secondly, the revolts of provincial governors further weakened the tottering edifice of
the state. And the resurgence of Rajputs of Doab and Bundail Khand also posed a threat
to the very existence of the empire.
6. Similarly, the country was confronted with the Mongol menace which hovered around
the northern fronts of the India. This threat also posed a challenge to the territorial
integrity of the empire.
7. So, keeping in view these difficulties, Balban devised his policy to cope with these
challenges.
8. His strategy was based on the consolidation of the state. Internal cohesion was the
keynote of Balban’s policy.
9. In context of gravity of situation, Balban acted like a ‘real politicker’ as described by
Ishwari Topa.
10. Balban preferred internal consolidation over outright expansion. Balban took certain
measures to consolidate the state.
3) Salient aspects of measures/policy of Balban:
1. He attempted to revive the awe and prestige of the institution of Kingship:
Balban had to revive the awe and prestige of the institution of Kingship in
front of the masses. It is evident from the following conspicuous features of his
theory of Kingship.
i) Firstly, Balban wanted to make the institution of Kingship a live institution.
Therefore, he believed in maintaining of the riding procession of carriage and it
was enhanced by the presence of the large number of Sistani wrestlers who
accompanied the Sultan with naked swords.
ii) Balban traced his origin to the mythical ruler of Persia, Afrasiab.
iii) Balban also introduced the practices of prostration or Paisbos as the normal
form of salutation of the King.
2. Strengthened the central government by breaking the power of the official
nobility ‘The Forty’:
Balban strengthened the central government by breaking the power of the
Turkish nobles. He realized that he could not be the real ruler unless the power of
‘Forty’ was crushed. Balban took the following measures to crush the power of
‘Forty’.
i) Most of nobles of ‘Forty’ were poisoned or killed by publically humiliation.
ii) Balban promoted junior Turks on the terms of equality with ‘Forty’ and assigned
them important positions.
iii) Balban tried to undermine the importance of ‘Forty’ in the eyes of people by
inflicting exemplary punishments to them.
3. Suppression of rebellion and restoration of order:
i) Balban’s period witnessed several revolts. These included the revolts of Miwatis
in the vicinity of Delhi, revolts of Rajputs in Doab and Bundail Khand rebellion of
Tughrail Baig in Bengal (Luckhnowti).
ii) Miwatis:
a) Miwatis (1266) used to plunder and ransack the territory of Delhi and their
arson (dacoity) was chief source of income of Miwatis.
b) After plundering the territory, these Miwatis used to take refugees in thick
forests.
c) They had teased the population to such an extent that their activities started
hampering the routine life of people.
d) These activities of Miwatis created such havoc that the gates of city of Delhi
were closed before evening.
e) Therefore, Balban dispatched army to crush these rebels. This army
destroyed the settlements of Miwatis.
f) The dacoits were put to death and one estimate shows that 1 lac Miwatis
died, forests were cleared. Balban built forts e.g. the Fort of Gopalgarh was
built for this purpose.
g) Moreover, Balban rehabilitated Afghans around these forts. After these
stringent measures and the settlement of Afghans around these settlements,
Miwatis never raised their heads again.
iii) Revolts of Rajputs in Doab:
a) The second hurdle before Balban was the Hindus (1267) of Doab who
turned rebellious and these rebellions blocked the routes between Delhi and
Bengal.
b) In order to tackle this problem on long term, Balban divided the major cities
of Doab as Jagirs among various nobles (feudal, Iqtadars).
c) The miscreants were put to death. Balban himself visited these areas and
stayed a number of months there.
d) He built fort in Kampal, Patiali, Bhopal, Jalalo. Moreover, he rehabilitated
Afghans in these areas.
iv) Revolts of Rajputs in Bundail Khand:
a) Another rebellion too place in Kaithar, the Rajputs of Bundail Khand
rebelled. The revolt was so fierce that it could not be quelled by the
Governors of Bundail Khand and Amroha.
b) Balban used his iron hand to crush these revolts and took brutal measures to
end these revolts. These rebel elements were terrified to such an extent that
they never dared to raise their heads during the reign of Balban.
v) In 1268-69, Balban quelled the rebellion of Khokhars in Salt Range, Punjab. It
took him 2 years to quell this rebellion.
vi) Revolt of Tughrail Baig:
a) Tughrail Baig was a personal slave of Balban, whom he appointed as
Governor of Bengal.
b) Tughrail Baig raised a standard of revolt against Balban.
c) Balban instructed the Governor of Oudh to quell the rebellion. The Governor
of Oudh marched but was defeated. Balban was so much infuriated at the
defeat of Oudh’s governor that he hanged him.
d) Another expedition which was sent by Balban against Tughrail Baig also
failed.
e) Balban himself advanced and during the monsoon season, Tughrail Baig was
killed and his relatives were publically hanged. Balban appointed his son,
Bugrah Khan as the Governor of Bengal.
4. Successfully countered the Mongol threat:
4.1. Introduction:
Mongol policy of Balban assumes a unique significance in the history of
Medieval India. It constituted an effective response to the rising menace of
Mongols during the last quarter of 13th Century. By pursuing aggressive policies
against Mongols, Balban was able to resolve Mongol question on long term basis.
4.2. Background:
India was faced with the Mongol invasions right from the initial phase of
Delhi Sultanate and Mongols hovered around the northern frontiers of India and
made intrusion into the territories of Punjab and Sindh. Iltutmish, realizing the
Mongol threat , had devised a Mongol policy but it was basically defensive sort
of strategy as the nascent Delhi Sultanate lacked the resources to confront the
Mongol threat which had uprooted far older and established empires in Central
and South West Asia. The death of Iltutmish followed the period of political
instability and for the next 30 years, no comprehensive strategy could be
devised to combat this threat. Balban fully realized the gravity of this threat and
devised a comprehensive policy to thwart the advance of Mongols.
4.3. Features of Balban’s Mongol policy:
i) Foreign policy:
a) Balban moulded his foreign policy because of the fear of Mongol invasion
as he abstained from the policy of expansion and this could have
jeopardized the peace.
b) Balban would not leave to expedition at distant places as far as possible.
c) He stationed in the capital. This would have provided a pretext for
Mongol invasion.
ii) Appointment of various governors:
a) Balban appointed various governors and administrators to administer
the territories which were vulnerable to Mongol invasion.
b) For instance, he appointed Sher Khan as the Governor of Punjab and
Multan. Sher Khan checked the menace of Mongol very effectively. After
Sher Khan’s death, Balban appointed Price Muhammad (his own son)
as Governor of Multan. Similarly, Balban appointed his younger son
Bugrah Khan as the Governor of Samana and after Bugrah Khan’s
appointment to Bengal, Balban assigned Prince Muhammad the province
of Multan and Samana.
iii) Defensive strategy against the Mongols:
vgIn order to further combat the Mongol threat on long term basis,
Balban maintained three defensive lines to blunt the intensity of Mongol
invasion.
a) First – Ucch, Multan
b) Second – Depalpur, Pakpattan
c) Third – Samana, Sanam and Hansi
iv) Balban reconstructed the old forts in the frontier regions. Then, he also built
new forts in Ucch, Multan, Samana, Depalpur and Hansi
v) Reorganization of Army
a) Balban reorganized the army on efficient bases.
b) All old officers and soldiers, who were found unfit, were dismissed.
c) Then, along with standing army, Balban raised another army specifically
for the purpose of the Mongol threat.
d) This army was stationed at various places and could be simultaneously
mobilized through the centres of Multan, Samana and Delhi.
vi) Aggressive policy towards the Mongols:
a) Unlike previous rulers, Balban followed aggressive policy towards the
Mongols.
b) For instance, the major Mongol invaders were defeated in 1279 and
1285.
c) Moreover, all other attacks were quelled, commanders were arrested
and hanged.
d) Prince Muhammad was martyred after he was chasing the retreating
Mongols in 1285.
5. Used army and spying system efficiently:
Balban used army and spying system with very good effect to consolidate
the state.
i) He increased the number of troops; special attention was paid towards the
discipline and efficiency of the army.
ii) All the unfit soldiers were dismissed.
iii) Confiscated land and distributed it to Iqtadars (military fiscalism).
iv) Increased the salaries of the troops.
v) Diwan-e-Ard was reorganized.

vi) Army was organized under Immad-ul-Mulk.
vii) Balban not only used forts and the posts for countering Mongol threat but these
also served as the instrument of spy system.
viii) He placed secret reporters in every department.
ix) Balban appointed secret news writers in every province.
x) Spies were made independent of commanders and even watched the activities
of his sons. If spies failed to report any misconduct of officers, nobles then they
were strictly dealt with.
xi) This laid the foundations of military fiscalism system for the later Khilji period.
6. Exemplified the higher officials to ensure rule of law:
Balban awarded severe punishments to ensure the rule of law. An Ameer of
Chahal Gani, Hebat Khan misbehaved with his servant and killed him. Balban
awarded him lashes. The spy who informed Balban about Hebat‟s action was also
killed.
4) Impacts of Balban’s reign:
1. Restored order.
2. Brought stability and peace.
3. Enhanced the prestige of office of Kingship.
4. Successfully tackled the external threat i.e. the Mongol menace.
5. Rule of law was established and speedily justice was dispensed to the people.
6. Though Balban took very punitive measure, but he saved the people’s life and
curbed miscreant elements.
7. Balban’s policy paved the way for military fiscalism for the Khilji period.
5) Certain historians term the measures of Balban as ‘Blood and Iron Policy‟ – debate:
The policies of Balban are known as ‘blood and iron’ to quell the rebellion. For this
purpose he used brutal force against
i) Miwatis
ii) Khokhars
iii) Bundail Khand
iv) Doab
v) Tughrail Baig
Balban relied on use of force. He is known as the ‘real politicker’ for his Kingship
policy.
Balban’s Theory of Kingship
1) Introduction:
Balban’s theory of kingship occupies important status in the governing ideologies
expounded by Medieval Indian rulers. This theory was also necessitated by the political compulsions
of that time which demanded revival of awe and prestige of the institution of kingship. This theory is
also reflective of Balban’s vision as a great statesman of the medieval period. The theory shows
Balban’s vision, acumen and sagacity as a statesman.
2) Background:
Balban propounded this theory to revive the prestige of the institution of kingship which at
that time appeared to be fatally wounded on account of crisis of law and order, conspiratorial role of
the ‘Forty’, rise of rebellious elements, mounting power of Rajputs and the impending Mongol threat.
Therefore, Balban devised this theory as an instrument of political consolidation and used it as a well
thought out policy.
3) Salient features of the theory of kingship:
Balban is known as the ‘real politicker’ for his kingship policy. The salient features of Balban’s
theory of kingship are as under:
1. Kingship is divinely ordained.
i) Creation of God:
a) King is a vicegerent (viceroy) of God on earth.
b) Kingship is a creation of God and is received directly from God alone.
c) In a letter to his son, Prince Muhammad, Balban emphasized the pre-eminence of
Kingly power emanating directly from divine source. So it did not signify a man made
institution it has the manifestation of divine will that cause this institution into
existence.
d) Kingship could not be classed with other human institutions.
e) ‫بادشاہی قدر بندگی است‬
ii) Heart of King depository of favours of God:
a) Balban believed in the superiority of royalty over other human beings because of its
close semblance to the divine traits.
b) He said; “Heart of the king is the repository of the favours of God.”
c) ‫دل بادشاہاں مظہر ربانی است‬
d) The heart of the king reflects the glory of the God. As long as God cared to bestow
favours on king’s heart, the importance of general welfare of people would be
realized by the ruler.
e) Furthermore, it was the will of God that the heart of the king was made not only
superior to and different from the heart of the people. At the same time, there could
be no comparison between king’s heart which was to be looked upon as the abode of
God – in contradiction to the absence of divine refraction in people’s heart.
2. Kingship signifies - prestige, dignity and greatness only:
i) ‫بادشاہی ہمہ عزت و عزمت وحرمت و شوکت است‬
ii) To him royal words, deeds, activities and movements seem to bear semblance to royal
dignity.
iii) So, if kingship fails to create a sense of admiration and respect for royal dignity, its
prestige and grandeur would be lowered.
iv) The moment such traits disappear from the private as well as public life of the ruler; he
would not be in a position to give productive support to the essentials of royalty.
v) It would than lose its discriminative and differentiated characteristics.
3. Royal dread plays a crucial role in politics:
i) Balban was also convinced that royal dread and fear played a crucial part in politics.
ii) ‫از روے حجاز بادشاہی ہست است‬
iii) ‘Kingship is the embodiment of despotism‟.
iv) If King lacks power to instil fear in the hearts of people, his prestige and grandeur would
be reduced.
4. In order to make the institution of Kingship a live institution – believed in creating
and maintaining distance between royalty and people:
i) Balban wanted to make the institution of kingship a live institution.
ii) In order to make it live, Balban believed in creating and maintaining a distance between
the royalty and people.
iii) And when this distance disappears on account of friendship and familiarity there
remains no distinction between the ruler and the ruled.
iv) Then the public could aspire to royalty, to bridge the gulf of such distance of feeling and
status would lead to the ruination of the institution of royalty.
5. Balban maintained that royal dignity, awe and prestige could only become real and effective
if the ruler enforce court decorum as observed by famous Persian King Nousherwan.
6. A king should be grateful to God:
i) A grateful king is sheltered under the ‘canopy’ of God’s protection and ungrateful ruler
soon loses his position and incompetence and worthless people take charge of his
government.
ii) Thus, his political career ends.
iii) A king, therefore he must seek God’s approved and virtuous deeds which is really a
means of salvation.
7. A king must pitch his ambitions:
i) A king must pitch high ambitions for kingship. High ambitions and aspirations go hand
in hand.
ii) Kingship and ambitions also go hand in hand.
8. A ruler should be personification of justice:
i) The ruler should be personification of justice.
ii) Only through the dispensation of justice, he would not only achieve his own salvation
but also protect religion and discharge royal duties.
iii) Justice and impartiality secure the permanence of throne.
iv) “A tyrannical king is like an open light in a high wind”. Not only he, but his officials must
administer absolute justice.
9. The salvation of king lay in the observance and fulfilment of the four duties:
i) First, to protect religion and patronize the faith and execute the provisions of Shariat. If
he himself is weak and powerless other religions would flourish at the expense of Islam.
ii) Second, to crush and minimize vice, immorality, sinning and crime.
iii) Third, to appoint pious, God fearing and noble officers.
iv) Fourth, to administer justice and equality.
10. The primary duty of King is to maintain and administer peace and order in his dominion.
11. The king must keep himself well informed about the conditions of his provinces and doings
(activities) of governors and incite them to do noble and virtuous actions.
12. There are three essentials of kingship – army, treasury and nobles:
i) Army:
a) The stability and performance of empire rests upon the establishment and
maintenance of well equipped army.
b) The ruler should not hesitate to allot a large portion of revenue for the army.
c) If the king observes negligence and carelessness in this regard, there is anarchy and
confusion in the state and the army loses its strength and stability.
ii) Nobles:
a) There should be no hesitation in suppressing the powers of nobles.
b) For their degradation and dishonour, a king should strengthen his own position and
give a new vigour to his government.
13. A king should not allow negligence in looking after his relations. He must be more cautious
about his personal security and keep his guards, generals and police officers satisfied.
14. Before organizing an expedition, a king should consider its consequences and make
complete preparations. A king should not proclaim his motives. But at the same time, he
must not indulge in any war without seeking advice from courtiers and confidants.
4) Analysis:
1. Balban’s conception of kingship was a composite one. As a Muslim, he had his own ideal of
kingship and as a politician and statesman, his standpoint was different. Balban was ‘real
politicker’, so he was governed by the ideal as well as the worldly force. And both
conditioned his theory of kingship.
2. Balban wished to impose moral limitations on kingship in order to curb its absolutism i.e. it
should be bound within certain limits. King should be grateful, non-cruel, conform to moral
obligations.
3. Balban tried to seek the true base of state through his theory of kingship. And it was an
attempt to establish a triple relationship i.e. God, king and the people. Such an
interdependence of relationship between God, king and people from monarchic point of view
was emphasized by Balban in this theory.
4. The welfare of people as a political ideal was put before the government by Balban, so that it
could exist not for its own end but also for the good of people.
5. Kingship theory was the necessity of time. Awe and prestige of kingship was fatally wounded
and it was presented as a solution for the consolidation of state.
6. Kingship theory highlights the pre-eminence of king over the period and its divine nature.
Kingship theory also highlights the prerequisites and essentials of kinship. Moreover, certain
points of this theory highlight the obligations of king towards God as well as people.
Causes and impacts of Mahmud’s invasion
1) Introduction
1. Mahmud’s invasion occupy a great significance in the annals of Indo-Pak
subcontinent
2. These invasions left an indelible imprints on the history of this region
3. These invasions paved the way for Muslim rule in South Asia and also went a long
way towards establishing psychological superiority of Muslims over Hindus
2) Causes
A. Political
i) Hostilities started by Hindu Shahia rulers
1. Jai Pal invasion of Ghazni – Battle of Lamghan 986 A.D. against Subuktigin
2. 2nd Battle of Lamghan and another defeat of Jai Pal
3. Violation of terms of treaty by Hindu Rajas
4. Molestation of Indian allies by hostile neighbours
5. Rebellion of Indian vassals
ii) He was a great military conqueror – his ambition brought him to
subcontinent
1. Main motive was to satisfy the ambition of conquest
B. Strategic
1. Cherished the idea of extending empire to the East i.e. he was aware of strategic
significance of North West Frontier. It’s vital importance for his Kingdom of
Kabul and Afghanistan
2. Followed the policy of conquest and consolidation in Central Asia
3. In India he remained content with annexation of Punjab and Upper Sindh
4. These areas were conquered as second line of defence
C. Economic
1. He was also impelled/driven by economic motives
2. He needed money to finance his campaigns
3. By emphasizing economic motives it is not meant to suggest that he was
avaricious and he had lust for wealth
4. Quotations
3) Impacts
1. Destroyed the myth of Hindu might
i) Exposed the weaknesses of India
ii) Precipitated the political crisis contributed towards disunity of India – further
widening the dissensions among Hindu rulers
2. Great psychological impact
3. Indirectly contributed towards the propagation of Islam
i) Carried the banner of Islam into the heart of Indian and treaded a path in which
so any followed him
ii) Muslim identity of Punjab
iii) Advent of Sufis and Saints
iv) Symbolic significance of destruction of temples
4. Great cultural impact for the development of Muslim culture
i) Emergence of Lahore as great cultural centre of Muslims
ii) Punjab became part of Ghaznavid Empire
iii) Disastrous fallouts as regards Hindu art and architecture was concerned –
destruction of cultural heritage – destroyed the temples of Mathura, Brindaban,
Nagarkot, Somnath – which were considered outstanding specimens of
architecture and sculpture
5. Finally paved the way for founding of Muslim Empire in India
4) Analysis
5) Conclusion
The causes, nature and impacts of Ghaznavid invasion

The causes, nature and motives of Ghaznavid invasion
Mahmud’s place in the history
1) Introduction:
Mahmud Ghaznavi’s invasions of India occupy a great significance in the annals
of the history of the subcontinent. These invasions had great impact on the subsequent history
of India and it further led towards the establishment of Muslim rule. Mahmud is regarded as one
of the most intelligent generals of his time but, the controversy surrounds his invasions.
2) Controversy of Mahmud’s invasions:
Historians hold distinct views about Mahmud Ghaznavi’s invasions. There are
three distinct schools of thought regarding Mahmud’s invasion
1. First school of thought:
First are the Hindu nationalist historians who dubbed these invasions or
campaign as acts of loot and plunder. According to this school of thought, Mahmud was a
plunderer who just invaded India looted and went back.
2. Second school of thought:
Muslim historians believe that Mahmud Ghaznavi was led by Islamic passion. He
was a great champion of Islam and it is absolutely wrong to ascribe him as a plunderer
or looter.
3. Third school of thought:
The third school of thought is comprised of S.M. Jaffar, Ishwari Prasad and Dr.
Nazim. They believe Mahmud as a great conqueror and military general whose
ambitions brought him to India. These historians highlight the politico-economic
motives of his invasion and these motives impelled him for the invasions.
3) Arguments of various schools of thought:
1. Arguments of the first school of thought:
i) The proponents of the first school of thought present the following arguments to
corroborate their views of Mahmud as a looter. These nationalist historians say that
had he been an empire builder, he would have incorporated India into his empire.
But, he came and went back and his motive was to satisfy his lust for wealth and he
didn’t establish his rule in India.
ii) Secondly, these nationalist historians point towards the oblivious non-religious
character of his campaigns. Mahmud Ghaznavi had Hindu generals in his army. Had,
he been driven by religious motives, why he had kept these generals in his army
then? Moreover, Mahmud shed the blood of his Muslim coreligionists in Persia and
in Central Asia.
iii) Thirdly, the nationalist historians say that his main motive was loot of wealth and he
was Raider in Chief and used his might to plunder the Indian wealth.
2. Arguments of the second school of thought:
i) The second school of thought is comprised of Muslim historians and they are of the
view that the main aim of Mahmud Ghaznavi was to transplant Islam in India.
ii) He was especially engaged by the Caliph Qadir Billa and he undertook the task of
spreading of Islam by the instructions of the Caliph.
iii) Secondly, the alliance which was aimed against Mahmud was of essentially religious
character so, his invasions cannot be denied as religious passion. The alliance
formulated against him was based on ‘Dharam’ (religion) and he also had to adopt
religious means to reach the ends e.g. Mahmud Ghaznavi was deeply religious
person by temperament.
iv) He allowed no schisms in Islam, suppressed Shias and introduced many reforms to
purge Islam of evils. Then the suspicious questions arises, how could he detach
himself from religion while fighting Hindus?
v) By his invasions, the cause of Islam was greatly served. He smashed the myth of the
Hindu might, destroyed the political fibre of the Hindu society and was accompanied
by saints, priests like Sheikh Ismail Bukhari RA, Data Ganj Baksh RA.
3. Arguments of the third school of thought:
i) The third school of thought says that the main motive behind the invasions of India
was to satisfy his ambition of conquest.
ii) These historians also highlight the oblivious non-religion character of his
campaigns. They say that idea of holy war was over at that time and the idea of
propagation of Islam ceased to be considered as a part of duty of sovereign (ruler).
Now, no sovereign could assign himself the duty of spreading of Islam.
iii) Mahmud cherished the idea of extending empire towards Central Asia. As a
consequence, the idea of annexation of certain parts of India was out of necessity. He
conquered India as second line of defence and wanted a strategic depth.
iv) Furthermore, he wanted friendly Punjab and Upper-Sindh to strengthen his line of
defence. Mahmud Ghaznavi’s policy of consolidation and expansion in Central Asia
was premised on Indian conquest.
v) Another view advanced by the third school of thought is that Mahmud needed
money to finance his campaigns against his Central Asian enemies. The destruction
of temples was due to the military programme and he had nothing against religious
teachings of the Hindus. These temples were the centres of military, economic and
political power of the Hindus.
There are two views of third school of thought
a) Politico-economic line
b) Religion-political line
4. Views of third school of thought
4.1. Politico-economic view:
A. Politico view (motive):
i) The view held by S.M. Jaffar, Ishwari Prasad and Dr Nazim highlight the
politico-economic nature of Mahmud’s invasion and it seems to be closer to
the truth and objectivity. Mahmud cherished the idea of expansion of his
conquests in Central Asia and wanted a line of defence in North Western
India.
ii) Mahmud remained dissatisfied with the invasion of Punjab and wanted a
strategic depth to protect Ghazna and Kabul from back. He conquered
Punjab and Upper-Sindh and was not interested in the conquest of whole
India. These two places formed a second line of defence.
iii) His political motives were also affected by other considerations e.g.
a) Violation of treaties by the Hindu Rajas, these Rajas betrayed him.
b) Political betrayal of these Rajas in form of help to Mahmud’s enemies.
c) Molestation of his allies by the Hindu Rajas. These Rajas used to fight
with his allies so, he used to come to rescue his allies.
d) Obvious non-religious character of his policy. Despite the fact that he

was a staunch believer, his religious policy was based on tolerance.
There were many Hindus in his army e.g. Tilak Rai, Sonia Rai, Hazari
Rai and Tash etc.
iv) Mahmud gave full religious liberty to these generals and they had temples,
bazaars etc in Ghazna. It was not on the account of his religious inclination
that the destroyed a temple. He never destroyed a temple in the time of
peace. The destruction of temples was part of his military programme and
not religious programme because these temples were the storehouses of
wealth. This view is given by Al-Beruni, Ishwari Prasad and Ishwari Topa.
The pious Hindus used to give bounty and this bounty was stored in these
temples. These temples stored the precious products and hence Mahmud
Ghaznavi exported it to become rich.
v) According to Ishwari Prasad; these temples were the storehouses of
enormous and untold wealth.
vi) Ishwari Topa is of the view that; these temples were storehouses of wealth.
Temples were destroyed for reasons other than religious. In the time of peace,
Mahmud never demolished a single temple.
B. Economic motive:
i) S.M. Jaffar, Professor Habib Ullah, Dr. Nazim presents this view. S.M.
Jaffar is of the view that need not the greed for gild laid at the root of Indian
invasion by Ghazna. This view also held by Dr. Nazim and he says that
Mahmud needed money to finance his campaign and it was not his lust of
money which was the cause Indian invasion.
ii) Professor Habib Ullah views that Mahmud Ghaznavi fully realized the
importance of wealth in attaining the political power when India offered
him that chance, he availed himself of that opportunity.
4) Causes of invasions of Mahmud of Ghazna:
A. Political causes:
1. The hostilities started by the Hindu Shahi dynasty e.g. Jaypal, Ananpal at the end of
10th Century. This Hindu Shahi dynasty occupied the territories up to Peshawar and
was a threat to Ghazna.
2. The violation of terms of treaty by the Hindu Rajas, molestation of Mahmud’s allies
by these Rajas, rebellion of Indian Princes.
3. Mahmud cherished the idea of establishing empire in the Central Asia. He was aware
of the strategic significance of Indian frontier and he erected a second line of
defence in India.
B. Economic causes:
1. S.M. Jaffar, Dr Nazim and Professor Habib Ullah views that Mahmud Ghaznavi
needed money to finance his campaign and it was not his lust of money which was
the cause of Indian invasion.
2. Professor Habib Ullah views that Mahmud Ghaznavi fully realized the importance of
wealth in attaining the political power when India offered him that chance, he
availed himself of that opportunity.
5) Impacts of Mahmud Ghaznavi’s invasion:
1. Destroyed the myth of Hindu might – exposed the weakness of India:
Mahmud’s invasion shattered the myth of Hindu might and he destroyed the
political centre of India e.g. Pal family (Jaypal’s Hindu Shahi dynasty). He further opened
way for future invasions. Even Ghauri was inspired by Mahmud’s invasion.
2. Great psychological impact:
Sher Muhammad Garewal in his book, ‘Islamia-e-Hind Ka Shandar Mazi’
(The Glorious Past of Muslims of India) has highlighted that these attacks created great
psychological superiority of Muslims over the Hindus and determined that Muslims cannot
be defeated. Ghaznavi was never defeated in India and psychologically the Hindus were
overwhelmed by the Muslims.
3. Contributed towards the propagation of Islam:
i) Indirectly, the invasions by Mahmud contributed towards the propagation of Islam
in India.
ii) Though we may not agree that his invasion was religious but indirectly, it paved the
way for the Muslim society.
iii) The 3rd Phase of Muslim society started with Ghaznavi’s invasion.
iv) During this Phase, the process of conquest and immigration and settlement was
going on in Punjab. Sheikh Ismail Bukhari RA and Hazrat Data Ganj Baksh RA
came to India with Mahmud.

4. Great cultural impact:
i) Mahmud developed Ghazna as a great cultural centre of Asia.
ii) The great personalities were associated with his court and included Farruhi, Asjadi,
Manuchehri, scholars like Al-Beruni, astrologers like Al-Farabi and historians like
Utibi and Bhaqui.
iii) Mahmud founded new city of Lahore. It was called Mansurpura. Lahore became a
centre of cultural activity after Ghazna as it attracted scores of traders, merchants
from Ghazna, Khurasan and Iran.
iv) Mahmud patronized the Persian language.
5. Punjab became part of the Muslim empire:
In 1021-1022 A.D. Punjab became part of Muslim empire and this rule was so
firmly established in Punjab that when Mahmud’s empire declined in Ghazna, his family
migrated to Punjab.
6. Destroyed the centres of Indian culture/civilization from archaeological point of
view:
Mahmud destroyed cultural monuments, statues and caused great loss to Indian
heritage from the archaeological point of view.
Central administration of Delhi Sultanate – Sultan
1) ‘Sultan’ in Medieval India:

Law is powerless until it is imposed by an agency or authority. The ideal statesman
for this purpose was divinely guided Prophet (PBUH), but later generations have to content
with the man of lesser wisdom. For that Caliph in Islamic history was considers as the Chief
Executive and Supreme Judge in the Islamic World. As the matter of fact Indian History is
concern the power of Caliph were delegated to man who were the head of an area which
was completely under his thumb, the Sultan. He was the legal representative of Caliph in
India. In theory Caliph can overrule the decision of the Sultan, but practically, due to
geographical and other limitation, it became impossible for Caliph to meddle in the affairs of
the Sultan. Thus the supreme human agency in the Empire of Delhi for enforcing and
interpreting of law was Sultan.
2) Ghazali’s concept of State:
Ghazali thinks of the State as living organism and compares it to the human body. In
working out of the details of the analogy, he calls a Sultan as the heart of the body. His
existence is the primary necessity of social life. For without a ruler to guide the human
affairs, all order would be vanished. It is the sword of Sultan which cleanses the world of
anarchy as well as of evil. The welfare of masses is his responsibility, for he will be
questioned on the Day of Judgement about the condition of the people and about the acts of
justice and injustice he committed. The righteous monarch was the Vicegerent of Almighty
Allah and ‘Zilay Elahi’ – his shadow on the Earth. A monarch is the centre of the state, a
ruler, protector and benefactor of the people on the surface of the earth.
3) The Caliphate and the Sultanate:
The Muslims all over the world paid respect to their Caliph and had a strong
emotional attachment towards him. Therefore every ruler in Medieval India used to get a
‘Letter of Recognition’ from the Caliph to legitimize their rule. This letter was used by the
Sultan to show his masses that he was the right franchise of the Caliph. We find ample
example of this in the medieval times. For instance, Sultan Iltutmish received this Letter
from the Caliph of Baghdad Abu Jaffar Mansoor and used his name on coins of that time.
Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq, a well educated and best Sultan in India also received the
‘Letter of Recognition’ from the Caliph of Egypt.
The Sultans of Delhi used to get this ‘Letter of Recognition’ until 1504 when Babur
became the first Mughal ruler of India. He was the first who coined the word ‘Badshah’ and
refused to get this Letter. He proclaimed that Badshah was internally and externally a
sovereign power. The Sultans used the institution of Caliphate here in India and they tried
to form their policies on the Turkish way. They also brought the few trends and traditions of
Turkey. In India, for instance, military and economic system was developed on foreign lines.
Thus, the administration system in India under the Sultan was the amalgamation of Islamic,
Turkish and Indian trends and traditions which formed a new system.
4) Duties, functions and powers of the Sultan of Delhi
A pyramid type of administration system was adopted in the Medieval India in
which on the top, Sultan having too many Naibs under him. Powers were centralized in the
hands of Sultan. All the strings of power were in the hands of the Sultan.
The Muslim jurists assign the following functions and duties to Sultan as discussed
below
1. To safeguard the teachings and vital interests of the Islam and Islamic principles.
2. To settle the disputes among the people.
3. He was the last court of appeal. If someone was not satisfied with any decision he can
appeal to the court of Sultan.
4. He was the person who has the responsibility to provided safeguard to the lives of their
masses. Protection of his subjects from internal and external threats.
5. He has the right to declare Jihad or Holy war.
6. To settle the disputes in between various provinces and states.
7. To keep the highways and roads safe for the travellers.
8. To protect the boundaries or the Islamic state from any external aggression.
9. To collect the rates and taxes.
10. To appoint the officers who would have helped him in administrative and public affairs.
11. To help the deserving and needy peoples and students who were on their way to seek
knowledge.
12. And above all, to keep in touch with public affairs and the condition of his people by
personal contact.
The learned jurist Ahmed bin Muhammad bin Abd Rabb who well defines it by
writing, “the Sultan is the polar star around whom revolves the affairs of the world and the
faith. For the Sultan controls affairs, maintain rights enforces the criminal code; for he
forbids, the forbiddens, helps the oppressed and uproots the oppressor and gives security to
timid”.
5) Limitations of Sultans powers:
This concentration of authority and power in hands of one man has led some
authors into painting the Sultan of Delhi as ‘Paragon of Despotism’. According to these
authors, their power knew no limits; but in actual practice there were certain limitations
which stopped the Sultans to practice their utmost power. They can’t form a law which was
against the spirit of Islam or any personal law of Hindus or any other community in India.
There were certain checks and balances of the Quran and Sunnah. The Sultan avoided
making any law which was against the nobles, landlords, and Ulemas because there was a
threat they may cause hatred and uprising against the Sultan.
Despite all these checks and limitations, the Sultan was all in all to do everything. He
was all powerful in practice to act in accordance with his wishes and desires.
6) Naib-i-Mumlakat:
After the Sultan the next was Naib-i-Mumlakat and this office was temporary. This
was in case when the Sultan was infant and he acted as the caretaker of the state or when
the Sultan was out of town, Naib-i-Mumlakat acted as caretaker of the state.
Character and achievements of Iltutmish
A. Introduction:
Iltutmish was one of the most fascinating personalities of nascent Muslim State in
India and he developed it into a flourishing empire. Moreover, he is regarded as the real
founder of Turkish dominion (rule) in India. Sri Vastava describes him as first defacto ruler
of Medieval Period.
B. Character of Iltutmish:
1) Attractive personality:
Iltutmish had a very charming personality. Minhaj Siraj calls him “unequal
in beauty”. He possessed extraordinary physical strength.
2) Nobility of character:
Iltutmish was also known for his nobility of character and was humble and
down to earth person. He used to say that God has made me superior over those
persons who are thousands time better than me, when they stand before me, I feel
ashamed. He was a real Turk. He felt shy to sit on the throne before the Turkish
officials.
3) Valour and bravery:
Iltutmish was a very brave and courageous. He had an extraordinary will
power. He never hesitated to meet enemy in the open field. He demonstrated
extraordinary valour and intrepidity in dealing with his foes. In suppression of
Ghakars, he displayed great feat of valour and bravery.
4) As a statesman:
1. Iltutmish was statesman of a great calibre. As a statesman he possessed traits of
a great leader such as realism, farsightedness and steadfastness. These traits
marked his conduct of state.
2. Khaliq Ahmed Nizami describes him as shrewd, cautious and far seeing
statesman.
3. As a statesman Iltutmish was fully aware of his limitations and resources.
Therefore, he pursued the policy of steady consolidation rather than outright
expansion. So, he proved himself a very calculating and skilful organiser.
4. His statesmanship is evident from the manner in which he overcame his rivals
either they were driven out or destroyed.
5. Moreover, his handling of Mongol threat talks volumes of his statesmanship.
5) As a just ruler:
1. Iltutmish has a great sense of justice.
2. According to Ibn-e-Batuta; “Iltutmish had fixed and a chain and a bell in his
palace. So, a grieved person may not have any difficulty in approaching the Sultan
for justice.”
3. Kingship connoted to him a burden of responsibilities to be shouldered by the
fittest.
6) Cool temperament:
1. Coolness and perseverance was also a hallmark of his character. He had such a
cool temperament that even he pocketed insult.
2. Iltutmish didn’t at once resent but he never forgot or forgave it. He exhibited
tremendous self-control.
3. Moreover, he showed extraordinary determination in the wake of difficulties.
4. Iltutmish rose to such a higher position only by the dint of sheer determination
and hard work.
5. Sir Wolsely Haig opines; “Whatever he accomplished, he accomplished himself.”
7) Religious inclination:
1. Iltutmish was deeply inclined towards religion.
2. He was very particular about his 5 prayers daily.
3. Nizam-ud-Ahmed has written that he offered his daily prayers regularly and
when in Delhi, attended Jamia Masjid for his Friday prayers.
4. His reverence for the saints:
i) Farishta has recorded many instances of his reverence towards Sufis and
saints.
ii) He attended the Mehfil-e-Samah at the shrine of Sultan Qazi Hamid-ud-

Din Nagori RA.
iii) His court was adorned with Ulema and Mashaikh, who were immigrants
from Central Asia. These included Sheikh Baha-ud-Din Zakria RA, Qutb-
ud-Din Bakhtiar Kaki RA and Sheikh Farid-ud-Din Ganj Shakr RA.
iv) On his request the ecclesiastics served the state, Sheikh Noor-ud-Din
Mubarak Ghaznavi was Sheikh-ul-Islam of Delhi,
v) Qazi Hameed-ud-Din Nagori RA and Jalal-ud-Tabrazi RA were the
prominent scholars with whom Iltutmish developed cordial relations.
5. Minhaj Siraj says; “Never a sovereign so virtuous, kind hearted and reverent
towards the learned and the divines that sat upon the throne of Delhi.”
6. Mufti Ghulam Sarwar says in his book, ‘Khazina-tul-Auliya’; “Though Iltutmish
was a King yet he was a Dewaish at heart and respected mystics and divine.”
7. Even the buildings made by Iltutmish exhibit the religious bent of mind.
8) Patron of letters /Man of refined taste:
1. Iltutmish proved himself a great patron of art and learning.
2. Minhaj Siraj said that Iltutmish spent ten million rupees on religion works.
3. He patronized scholars and religious clerics such as Noor-ud-Din Mubarak
Ghaznavi, Qazi Hameed-ud-Din Nagori RA, Baha-ud-Din Zakria RA, Jalal-ud-Din
Tabrazi RA.
4. Iltutmish spent money on Jamia Masjid of Baduin, Auliya Masjid of Dada
Hameed, magnificent mosque of Ajmer.
9) Generosity:
Iltutmish is considered more generous than his master. Qutb-ud-Din Aibak
and was known as Lakh Buksh.
C. Achievements of Iltutmish:
1) Restored order in empire:
When Iltutmish assumed power, atmosphere in his empire was confused
and chaotic. Everything was in a nebulous and undefined state. Lane Poole
describes this situation as “a time of confusion, followed by the death of Aibak”.
Iltutmish had to confront the following challenges:
1. Turkish nobles had placed Aibak’s son Aram Shah to the throne. He was a
puppet in the hands of ambitious nobles and his misrule opened the way to
rivals. Amid this confusion, Iltutmish came to power and this time, Turkish
nobles had assembled around Delhi. He had to reign in these nobles.
2. The powerful nobles like Taj-ud-Din Yaldiz and Naseer-ud-Din Qabacha were
jealous of Iltutmish and did not consider him equal to them as they were slaves
of Shahab-ud-Din Ghauri and Iltutmish was slave of Qutb-ud-Din Aibak.
Therefore, the most vigorous challenge came from Qabacha and Yaldiz. Qabacha
had Multan and Sindh to the mouth of Indus. He controlled the territory from
Multan to Sindh and Lahore. Similarly, Yaldiz occupied Ghazni and considered
himself ‘King of Ghazni’ and sent to Iltutmish ‘The Rob of Office of Sultan of
India’. It was a sort of insult to Iltutmish.
3. Ihtiar-ud-Din Bakhtiar’s successor was supreme in Bengal and Bihar and turned
against Iltutmish and struck coins in his name.
4. Hindu chieftains of Rajputana also raised threat to end the newly established
Muslim state. But, Iltutmish was not the man to falter in the face of these
difficulties. So, he set himself the task of reorganising the state.
Iltutmish took the following steps:
i) Iltutmish reduced the Turkish nobles to submission and defeated them.
ii) In 1216, Iltutmish overwhelmed Yaldiz. Yaldiz, at that time was driven by
Khwarzim Shah from Ghazni and occupied territory from Lahore and
Thanisar. Iltutmish advanced forwards, defeated Yaldiz in the battlefield of
Tarain. Yaldiz was captured and sent to prison.
iii) In 1217, Iltutmish obtained the possession of Northern Punjab by defeating
Naseer-ud-Din Qabacha. Qabacha fled towards Sindh and established his
rule there. But, with the passage of time, Qabacha’s power grew
considerably weak on account of his skirmishes with Jalal-ud-Din Khwarzim
Shah and allies i.e. Khokhars and Ghakhars. Iltutmish taking advantage of
this situation, attacked Utch in 1228, marched towards Bhakar and occupied
the chief cities of his territory. Qabacha, in desperation in 1230 drowned
himself in River Indus.
iv) Iltutmish, in 1225 moved to Bengal and received homage from refractory
rebellious Khilji governor, once again that governor rebelled. Iltutmish
defeated him once again and appointed Naseer-ud-Din Mehmood as the
governor. Till 1230, Iltutmish was able to restore order in Bengal and Bihar
and this area came directly under the control of centre.
v) Similarly, Iltutmish very effectively countered the threat of Hindus of
Rajputana. Ishwari Topa says; “The history of Muslim sovereignty in India
begins, properly speaking with Iltutmish.” In this manner, Iltutmish was able
to restore peace by curbing the centrifugal forces. He created a sort of
political unity and further stabilized order by organizing a centralized
government which guaranteed protection of people, both from foreign
invasion and internal disturbances.
2) Consolidation of Muslim conquest and further expansion of Muslim rule:
After recovering Shahab-ud-Din Ghori’s conquests, Iltutmish made
appreciable advances to Rajputana and trans-Gangetic tracts. His forward policy
towards Rajputs achieved him a great success. This policy constituted an effective
answer to the first challenge directed by Hindus against the nascent Muslim state in
India. In 1234, his expeditions into Malwa as far as Ujjayn completed the submission
of all northern India. To the domains of Aibak, Iltutmish added lower Sindh and
parts of Malwa. He transformed a loosely patched up congeries of Ghaurid
acquisitions in Hindustan into a well lit and compact state.
3) Saved Delhi Sultanate from Mongol threat:
Mongols had uprooted more powerful and ancient empires than Delhi
Sultanate and followed Khwarzim Shah as far as the western banks of River Indus.
Khwarzim Shah pleaded Iltutmish for help but Iltutmish very diplomatically refused
to provide asylum to Khwarzim Shah in India on the pretext that the Indian climate
would not be conducive for him. In this manner, Iltutmish saved Delhi Sultanate
from the Mongol threat.
4) Establishment of administrative system:
Iltutmish organized the administrative system, established various
departments. He pursued the policy of moderation by evolving relation between
centre and provinces. By a very shrewd compromise with the religious leaders,
Iltutmish disarmed the moral opposition. Then, he, in order to further strengthen
his position, acquired royal investiture from the Caliph of Baghdad and the Caliph
invested him with the title of ‘Naseer-e-Ameer-ul-Moumeneen’. Thus, Iltutmish
acquired the legal recognitions of his kingship from Caliphate and raised himself as
to an independent and real status.
Iltutmish laid the foundations of absolute monarchy that was to serve later
on as the instrument of military imperialism under Khiljis. Iltutmish is also
accredited with giving the empire a capital an independent state, a monarchical
form of government, rule class i.e. Umra Chahal Gani. Umra Chahal Gani later on
developed into official bureaucracy (a sort of administrative body). The Forty was
constituted to check tendency on the part of the nobles to become too powerful. As
numbers of Forty (Chahal Gani) were personal slaves, so Iltutmish had great and
absolute control and command over them. He could depend on their loyalty and
allegiance and could keep grip as the affairs of government. Iltutmish also
established ‘Iqta Dari’ system. It was system of land cum military management
system. The Iqta Dars used to raise their own army and finance it.
5) Contributions towards monitory system:
Iltutmish was the first ruler who introduced purely Arabic coinage and it
was exclusively Islamic. Before Balban, the coins were inscribed on Hindu pattern
(Devnagri inscription). The coins of Iltutmish’s era contained inscription of Khalifa-
e-Baghdad and Naseer-e-Ameer-ul-Moumeneen. Iltutmish also introduced the
standard currency of Sultanate period. These were ‘silver tanka’ and ‘copper jital’.
Tanka weighed 175 grains. It proved to be the forerunner of rupee in India.
6) Real architect of city of Medieval Delhi:
Before Iltutmish, the Chohan rulers accorded more importance to Ajmer.
Delhi was relegated to a secondary status. But, Iltutmish made Delhi not only the
political and administrative centre of the empire but, also gave it a cultural
atmosphere (shaping) which attracted and absorbed the Muslim talents. Its
minarets, mosques, madrassahs and khanqas rose in prominence under Iltutmish.
7) Patronized art and learning:
Iltutmish spent 1 million rupees on religious works, built schools, gave
liberal grants to scholars, provided asylum to scholars. Iltutmish proved himself a
great patron of art and learning. Minhaj Siraj said that Iltutmish spent ten million
rupees on religion works. He patronized scholars and religious clerics such as Noor-
ud-Din Mubarak Ghaznavi, Qazi Hameed-ud-Din Nagori RA , Baha-ud-Din Zakria RA ,
Jalal-ud-Din Tabrazi RA . Iltutmish spent money on Jamia Masjid of Baduin, Auliya
Masjid of Dada Hameed, magnificent mosque of Ajmer.
8) Reign brought prosperity to empire:
Economic, political, law and order, administrative works brought peace to
people and hence employment opportunities to people.
9) Architectural contributions:
Iltutmish beautified Delhi by constructing various buildings. Qutb Minar was
completed in 1231-1232 in Delhi in his reign. He expanded Masjid Quwat-e- Islam
(Delhi). Moreover, Iltutmish constructed Hozay Shamsi, a beautiful pond, a beautiful
mosque at Ajmer, Auliya Masjid at Badaun. These are most imposing and beautiful
architecture of Sultanate period.
D. Conclusion:
Nizam-ud-Din Ahmed writes in ‘Tabkat-e-Akbari’, that “Iltutmish was decidedly the
greatest sovereign of early Turkish empire in India”.
Character and achievements of Muhammad Bin Qasim
1) Introduction:
Muhammad Bin Qasim was one of the most fascinating personalities of history. He was a
statesman, intrepid soldier and a great administrator. His conquest of Sindh left indelible imprints on
the history of this region. Therefore, his exploits (conquests) are described as ‘one of the romances of
history – (Lane Poole).’
2) Character:
1. Personality:
Muhammad Bin Qasim had a very fascinating personality. He was endowed with the
excellent qualities of head and heart, pen and mind. According to S.M. Ikram ; “Muhammad
Bin Qasim‟s personality was warm and humane, strong against opponents , tender hearted
towards friends”.
2. Valour and bravery:
Muhammad Bin Qasim was a brave soldier. This is evident from the fact that the
manner in which he conquered the vast territories between Sindh and Multan by sheer dint
of his courageousness and meagre resources at his disposal. Lane Pole described the story
of Muhammad Bin Qasim as adventure, ‘one of the romances of history’.
3. As a disciplined soldier:
Discipline and perseverance were hallmark of his personality. He never became
disloyal to the commands of the Caliph. At the time of his recall Muhammad Bin Qasim was
master of the whole territory between Sindh and Multan, yet he submitted to the commands
of the Caliph and had never questioned death warrants. He submitted to the executioners
with fearless dignity.
4. Born leader of man:
Muhammad Bin Qasim possessed extraordinary leadership qualities. He
commanded respect and allegiance of both soldiers and people. As a general and
administrator, he exhibited leadership qualities. Though his army comprised of
heterogeneous elements but he owed its respect and allegiance. People mourned his death.
As a mark of popularity people built his statue to commemorate his services.
5. As a statesman:
Muhammad Bin Qasim proved himself an accomplished statesman. His
statesmanship is evident from his efficient administration of Brahmandabad settlement. S.M.
Ikram is of the view in his book, ‘History of Muslim Civilization in India and Pakistan’ is
of the view; “He combined great courage and resourcefulness with moderation and
statesmanship of highest order.”
Lane Poole writes; “Muhammad Bin Qasim achieved his objectives by negotiations
and grant of liberal terms than by sanguine warfare.”
6. A just ruler:
Muhammad Bin Qasim proved himself to be a just and tolerant ruler. He was
humane and considerate towards the non-Muslims. His justice is exemplary as is evident
from his instructions to his officials; “Deal honestly between the people and the Sultan, and if
distribution is required make it with equity, and fix the revenue according to the ability to pay”.
Orders were also issued to pay compensation to those whose property had been destroyed
during hostilities.
3) Achievements:
A. Political achievements:
Muhammad Bin Qasim established control over a vast region within a little span of
time. He brought peace and tranquillity to region, founded such a system which was a role
model for his successors. Muhammad Bin Qasim had a quick grasp of the situation and
manner in which he handled the situation was extraordinary. For instance, in Brahmanabad
Settlement, he left the affairs of people to their own discretion. He appointed two cousins of
Raja Dahir as his associates.
B. Military achievements:
The conquest of Sindh is by no means as insignificant achievement and its value and
significance may amply be gauged by the fact that at least 5 expeditions towards the
conquest of Sindh had failed before Muhammad Bin Qasim. He conquered Sindh with
insignificant means, only 6000 soldiers and the manner in which he fought battles in
inhospitable terrain. A series of conquests from Debal, Naron, Siftan, Sesan, Rawar,
Brahmanabad, Aror, Mutlan was made.
C. Administrative achievements:
1. The brief period of Muhammad Bin Qasim is known for his administrative achievements
e.g. administration of settlement of Brahmanabad. He divided it into 4 parts and in each
area, he appointed a Kotwal and each Kotwal was a non-Muslim.
2. He conducted population census.
3. He distributed 12 Dirhams to each man during siege, i.e. the population was duly
compensated after the siege.
4. Muhammad Bin Qasim based his system on military fiscalism
5. The military was divided under the categories of foot soldiers, cavalry and camel riders.
The military was on permanent basis.
6. He established military cantonments in Mansura and Mahfuzah.
7. He introduced the judicious system of distribution of wealth. Revenue of Sindh rose to
10.5 million Dirhams due to tax reforms of Jizya and Heraj etc.
8. Muhammad Bin Qasim divided Sindh into a number of districts (Iqtas) and Arab military
officers were appointed as ruler of these districts.
9. System of justice speaks volume of his administration. A ready and easy accessible
system of justice was introduced. There was no uniformity of law or courts in Sindh
before him.
10. Arab Chiefs were allowed to have their own courts. Qazis were appointed for every
district and they decided cases under the Islamic laws.
11. For non-Muslims, they had their own law e.g. marriage, inheritance etc and were
resolved through Panchiats.
D. Economic achievements:
E. Religious achievements:
Muhammad Bin Qasim followed the policy of toleration and this was the
cornerstone of his policies. It was manifested in his political, economic reforms. He treated
people judiciously and didn’t meddle into peoples’ affairs, non-interference, no forcible
conversion was made and he treated the Hindus as ‘the People of the Book’. These policies
became role model for succeeding rulers.
Character of Mahmud of Ghazna
A. Introduction:
Mahmud of Ghazna is one of the greatest personalities in the annals of Indo-Pakistan
subcontinent. He was the most brilliant general and conqueror of his times.
B. Character:
1) Personality:
Ghazna was a man of medium height but strong built. There is a difference of
opinion about his features.
1. According to Ibn-e-Athur and Ibn-e-Jozi, Mahmud was man of attractive personality
and attractive physical features. A small beard on his rounded chin appeared very
attractive.
2. Nizam-ul-Mulk Tusi, has described that Ghazna did not pose good physical features.
3. Abdul Qasim Farishta describes him that Sultan Mahmud was devoid of outward
physical beauty.
4. It is also reported that Mahmud of Ghazna had scars of small pox on his face, but he
was not ugly at all.
2) Bravery and chivalry:
1. Bravery and chivalry were the hallmark of Mahmud’s character. Fear did not find
place in his heart. His bravery is demonstrated by his fearless bearing in the war. He
never shrank from war rather he took delight in it.
2. Ghazna was an intrepid soldier; he fought in the front ranks of his army and usually
plunged into the thickest part of the battle.
3. He is said to have received 72 cuts and wounds during various wars.
4. At the siege of Multan, Ghazna killed so many of the enemy that his hand was stuck
fast with the hilt of his sword with congealed blood and had to be immersed in bath
of the hot water before it could be loosened.
5. According to Lane Poole, Mahmud was a great soldier and a man of infinite courage
and indefatigable energy of mind and body.
6. S. R. Sharma is of the view that Ghazna possessed extraordinary will power.
3) As a general:
1. Ghazna was a brave and resourceful general who during 30 years of his career never
suffered a defeat.
2. He was endowed with the genius of war.
3. S. M. Jaffar opines that he was a scientific general, skilful in planning and thorough
in execution.
4. Dr. Tara Chand is of the view; “Mahmud was undoubtedly the greatest general of his
age and perhaps one of the greatest of all times.”
5. Ghazna rapid advances surprised enemies, as a dashing cavalry leader, Ghazna had
no equal.
4) Born leader of men:
1. Mahmud was a born leader of men.
2. He was a brilliant commander in the field.
3. His army consisted of heterogeneous elements such as Afghans, Arabs, Turks and
Hindu.
4. But he showed wonderful ability in welding these elements together into a powerful
and invincible unit.
5. Ghazna proved himself as a great administrator and exercised effective control over
his governors.
5) A just sovereign:
1. Nizam-ul-Mulk has described him as a just sovereign.
2. He was particularly famous for his justice.
3. He met out justice to all irrespective of caste, creed, rank and situation.
4. Utbi, his court historian hails him “as a glorious lord of people who displayed equality
between widow and the wealthy, so that the boasting and oppression was closed”.
5. Even his own sons and relatives were not spared from the laws of Sharia, if they
committed offence. One day a person came to Sultan and complained that Sultan‟s
nephew had an illicit relation with his wife. Mahmud asked that person to come when
my nephew visits your home to meet your wife. Sultan personally went to his house and
killed his nephew. It is also said that a merchant brought a suit against Prince
Masood. The only way for the Prince to escape from appearing before the court was to
pay money to that merchant.
6) As a tolerant ruler:
1. Mahmud was tolerant towards the followers of non-Muslim creeds and his mind
was not biased by political considerations.
2. He showed a laudable spirit of toleration for religious differences.
3. In India, for instance, Ghazna is not said to have enforced any Hindu to abjure his
religion.
4. Some Hindu Rajas accepted Islam only due to Mahmud’s fear but later turned from
Islam.
5. Hindus, moreover, enjoyed toleration under the Sultan. He had a large number of
Hindus in his army.
6. Some of Hindu regiments were given separate quarters in Ghazni and were free to
blow Sankh and bow before their idols in imperial Ghazni.
7. Similarly, the names of Tilak Rai, Hazari Rai, Sonai and other Hindus are mentioned
among his generals.
8. He also instituted a college and a market at Ghazni for the propagation of Hindu
culture and Sanskrit works.
9. Moreover, the Sultan had never committed unnecessary killings but his fights and
atrocities were legitimized in war as did by great conquerors. The spoils captured
from the defeated enemies have always been considered a lawful property of the
victorious army.
10. The Sultan is never said to have demolished a Hindu Temple in the time of peace. If
he harassed the Hindu Rajas of India, he had not spared the Muslim sovereigns of
Iran and Transoxiana.
1. In his personal life Mahmud strictly adhered to the precept of Islam.
2. Nizam-ul-Mulk describes him as a man of pure faith.
3. He had a deep reverence towards saints and sufis particularly towards Saikh Abul
Hassan Kharkani.
4. Sultan was punctilious in the performance of his religious duties.
5. He had a great faith in good whenever he was confronted with a crisis during a
battle. He sought God’s help.
6. As Ashoka could not tolerate schisms in Buddhism, so Mahmud refused to tolerate any
schisms and differences among the Muslims.
7. He was a strong Sunni and punished those who deviated from the belief. His
campaigns against Karamatians in Multan were launched in the same spirit.
8. Like Ashoka, Mahmud instituted a censorship of religion belief of his Muslim
subjects and appointed an officer to punish those who were accused of moral
delinquency and heresy.
8) Generosity:
Generosity was another hallmark of Ghazna’s character. He treated his kith and
kin very kindly; particularly his treatment towards his brothers was exemplary. He
often forgave rebels. He generously spent money and resources on patronizing literati,
scholars, poets and men of letters in his Ghazni court.
9) Man of refined taste:
Mahmud had great aesthetic sense. He proved to be a great patron of art,
learning and literature. He was also a poet as well and there are certain couplets
attributed to him. It is also ascribed to him that he wrote a book on jurisprudence.
C. Conclusion / Endnote:
Gibbon is of the view that “Mahmud is traditionally believed to be avaricious”. Stanley
Lane Poole is of the view that “it is hard to reconcile with this reputation of Mahmud‟s avarice ...
if, Mahmud was fond of money, and assuredly he knew how to spend it wisely and munificently.
Neither he was cruel nor avaricious, but he liked tolerance in every matter.”
Character of Sher Shah Suri
1) As a man
1. Determination
i) Sher Shah was a great empire builder.
ii) By sheer dint of hard work, he rose to the position of the Emperor of Northern
India.
iii) He possessed an iron determination.
2. Laborious nature:
i) Sher Shah’s laborious nature was proverbial.
ii) He looked into every detail of government and supervised the activities of the
various departments with incessant care.
iii) He would devote much of his time in the conduct of State business from morning
to evening.
3. Generosity:
i) Sher Shah showed a great generosity towards the poor and destitute.
ii) He started free kitchens, where food was served to the poor day and night.
iii) Sher Shah was very liberal in the matter of making grants.
iv) .He gave stipends to teachers and students.
4. Man of refined taste:
i) He was not a very cultured man but he possessed enough knowledge of Arabic
and Persian.
ii) In his childhood, he worked so hard, that he mastered many Arabic and Persian
books such as “Gulistan”, “Bostan”, and “Sikandar Nama”.
iii) He built a number of Forts, Roads and prominent buildings in India. Among his
prominent landmarks are Purana Qila in Delhi, Rohtas Fort in Jhelum and Grand
Trunk Road.
2) As a ruler
1. Lofty ideals of Kingship:
i) Sher Shah has rightly been called as one of the greatest ruler of India.
ii) He cherished a very lofty ideal of kingship which he considered not a high
position or power for enjoyments, but a very sacred and a hard duty to perform
for the welfare of his subjects.
iii) According to Sher Shah, “The essence of royal protection consists in protecting the
life and property of the subjects”.
2. Just ruler – sense of justice:
i) Sher Shah is very famous for giving justice to all concerned. In his court no
person could escape punishment on account of his status.
ii) So great was the reputation of Sher Shah as a just ruler that a merchant could
travel and sleep in the desert without fear of being robbed.
iii) Once, one of his nephews threw a betel leaf at the wife of a goldsmith who was
taking her bath at the enclosure of her house. The matter was brought to the
notice of Sher Shah and he ordered that the wife of his nephew should be asked to
start her bath in the same way and the goldsmith be allowed to throw a betel leaf
at her.
3. Benevolence:
i) Sher Shah was a benevolent despot.
ii) He undertook extensive works of public utility like the construction of roads,
hospitals, bridges and Sarais.
iii) He had both civil and military powers in his hands and he exercised them in the
interest of the people rather than for himself.
3) As a general
1. Military genius:
i) He was not a soldier by profession but certainly he understood the how to plan
campaigns to successful conclusion.
ii) He took advantage of follies of Humayun and drove him out of the country.
iii) He had a vast knowledge of administration and military organization and is
reported to have read chronicles of earliest Muslim monarchs of Medieval India.
iv) According to Havell, “Sher Shah showed brilliant capacity as an organiser, both in
military and civil affairs”.
v) He built a number of forts and cantonments, and organised a regular standing
army.
2. Great soldier:
i) As a soldier, he possessed courage, personal valour and extraordinary patience
and activity.
ii) Like all Turks and Afghans, he fought to win and believed that he could
legitimately use any means, fair or foul, to attain his object.
iii) He never found pleasure in unnecessary bloodshed and cruelty.
3. Leadership qualities:
i) He was shrewd and diplomatic in his actions.
ii) He could at once grasp the situation and take full advantage of the same.
iii) He was pious in his life.
iv) It was Babur who said about him, “....he is clever man, and the marks of
royalty are visible on his forehead”.
4) As an administrator
1. According to Sir Wolsely Haig, “No other, from Aibak to Aurangzeb, possessed such
intimate knowledge of the details of administration ... so minutely and effectively as
he”.
2. He laid down the foundations of an administrative system which was developed by
Akbar later on.
3. He has been rightly called as the fore runner of Akbar
5) As a statesman:
1. He was a successful statesman.
2. He kept the good of the people in his heart and tried to do all that he could for the
welfare of the people.
3. He tried to give peace and justice to people.
6) Religious inclination
1. Professor Kaliranjan Qanungo says, “Sher Shah was a well-read theologian and his
attitude to Islam was such that he would perhaps have summarily hanged Akbar and
Abu al-Fazl for their utterances”.
2. Devout follower of Islam:
i) According to S.R. Sharma, “Sher Shah was very much devoted to his own faith”.
ii) He had set apart his evening his evenings for the study of the Holy Quran and for
attending the public prayers.
iii) He did his prayers five times a day.
3. Tolerance:
i) Generally, Sher Shah was tolerant in matters of religious belief.
ii) He separated politics from ethics.
iii) According to Dr. Qanungo, “Sher Shah followed a policy of religious
toleration towards the Hindus”.
Decline of Delhi Sultanate
Outline:
1) Introduction
2) Reasons
1. Autocratic rule of Sultans – Autocracy
2. Absence of Law of succession
3. Vastness of Empire
4. Political instability
5. Conspiratorial role of nobility
6. Secession of various provinces – emergence of independent and semi-independent states
7. Blunders of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
8. Policy of appeasement of Feroz Shah Tughlaq
9. Role of Slaves
10. Revival of Feudalism
11. Foreign invasions
12. Inter caste marriages
3) Conclusion
_______________________________
1) Introduction:
It became quite problematic in view of presences of so many reasons ranging from inherent
defects in the polity of Delhi Sultanate to the extremist factors. Moreover this issue became even
more complicated as a process of decline appears to have set in, since the period of Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq and Feroz Shah Tughlaq i.e. since the mid of 14 th Century, yet it took almost 175 years to
disintegrate. The main issue is that which developments should be taken as the starting point.
2) Reasons:
1. Autocratic rule of Sultans – Autocracy:
i) It was the centre around by the personal rule. Sultan was the pivot of the state upon
whom the whole stability was dependent. This is a common dilemma, that in the
absence of competent successor of Sultan, once he had gone weak all the state structure
stumbled.
ii) Autocracy fails to accommodate the diverse demands which are the outcome of
cataclysmic changes of the time. But this autocratic system fails to accumulate the
diverse demand of the forces. The rise of new social forces started exerting their
identities and they demanded more autonomy in the system.
iii) Moreover, these autocratic tendencies further wounded the gulf between rulers and the
subjects and caste alienation among the people, as was evident from the military
character of the state which it had assumed during the period of Syed’s and Lodhi’s
dynasties.
iv) Particularly in Lodhies period state has virtually fallen under the control of Afghan
nobility. It further led to arbitrary decision making.
2. Absence of Law of succession:
Another main factor in the decline of Delhi Sultanate was the absence of the law of
succession. The principle of ‘might is right’ was followed for the acquisition of power.
Whosoever proved his capability, he assumed the power. The state fell victim to chaos and
disintegration e.g. Iltutmish acquisition of power and Sultan Jalal-ud-Din also assumed
power after getting rid of Kaikuabad. Ala-ud-Din Khilji got his uncle and father-in-law
assassinated to get to the throne. This cruel usage of power led to the disintegration.
3. Vastness of Empire
By the time of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq the frontier of empire has been extended
towards South except Kashmir and some areas of South. His empire was divided into 23
provinces. This vast size of empire created numerous problems ranging from inadequate
means of transportation to the logistical problems as well as maintenance of effective
relationship with the distant provinces. Moreover, in the presence of incompetent rulers
these problems became even more unmanageable.
4. Political instability:
Another factor leading towards this decline was political instability; as was evident
from quick succession of rulers and sudden changes in the leadership, which contributed
towards inconsistencies of policies. The 13 th Century saw succession of more than 6 rulers
but only 2 was effective. Balban, Khilji, Tughlaq can’t be placed in the category of successful
rulers. After Feroz Shah 6 more rulers came and they were nominal.
5. Conspiratorial role of nobility:

Nobility has always played negative role in the politics of Delhi Sultanate. As nobles
assumed role of kingmaker e.g. after the decline of Iltutmish 40 nobles assumed the role of
kingmaker. Similarly Jilali nobles caused trouble for Ala-ud-Din Khilji. Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq had given foreign nobles important positions which created jealousy among the
local nobles and this resulted in the tussle between the local and foreign nobles. Similarly
this nobility was further emboldened by Feroz Shah who asserted Tughlaq’s policy 1388-
1412, as a result 6 dynasties were ascended to the throne. Policy of Lodhi dynasties for the
appeasement of Afghan nobility further led to weakening of the state.
6. Secession of various provinces – emergence of independent and semi-independent
states:
After the failure of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s military expedition, the frontiers of
the Sultanate started shrinking, as various provinces were separated from the empire. These
included Khadash, Gujarat, Malwa, Jaipur and Bengal. This resulted in the loss of army and
the seceded provinces freed the forces of disintegration.
7. Blunders of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq:
Ray Chaudhry says about Muhammad Bin Tughlaq; His numerous imaginary
products and excessive harshness in implementing schemes greatly arouse the suspension of
provincial governments. As a result Bhaniani, Vijia, Nagar kingdoms came into existence in the
South. Bengal also cut itself completely from the empire, Sindh also asserted itself and in other
provinces there was a great dissatisfaction.
Shiri Vastav also holds his character and policies responsible for the shrinkage of
the dominance. According to his opinion; many of provincial governments felt that their safety
lay in rebellions and independence.
8. Policy of appeasement of Feroz Shah Tughlaq:
Many historians have focused on the policy of appeasement of Feroz Shah Tughlaq
and consider it as the main cause of decline of Tughlaq dynasty as well as Delhi Sultanate.
When he assumed the throne, the state was facing crisis and rebellions as the result of which
distant territories and provinces had assumed independent behavior. Feroz Shah instead of
tackling this serious issue by the use of force and with iron fist resorted towards the policy of
appeasement. Instead of finding long term solution he preferred adhocism and didn’t try to
consider the root causes. Similarly he didn’t show enthusiasm towards crushing rebels in the
North. All these factors encouraged rebellions forces.
According to Ray Chaudhry; He was a weak ruler and lacked military qualities, he
failed to build up a strong military which was essential for the maintenance of the empire, he
also failed to retrieve those parts of empire which had asserted their independence.
9. Role of Slaves:
Slaves always played a crucial role in the politics of Delhi Sultanate. Feroz Shah
Tughlaq had gathered an army of almost 2 lacs slaves. Among them 40,000 were deputed for
the security of the royal palace. During his lifetime, these slaves remained loyal and were
guarantor of peace. After Feroz Shah’s death they took part in the war of succession and
were indulged in palace intrigues. They plundered the palace of ‘Shezada Muhammad’ and
forced him to flee from the capital. Similarly, the slaves played a very conspiratorial role in
war between the son of Malik Maqbool and the princess. The slaves assumed the role of
kingmakers in the later period.
10. Revival of Feudalism:
Feroz Shah, in order to appease the nobility and feudal class started the practice of
awarding Jagirs. This practice had been abandoned by his predecessors. It changed the
nature of ‘Iqtadari System’; it turned it into hereditary Jagirs. The Jagirdars developed their
own political clout and started political crisis. Another blunder committed by Feroz Shah
Tughlaq was that he allowed the Jagirdars to raise their own armies and they had the
absolute discretion to meet their necessities, promotion and demotion etc. The non-
permanent soldiers of Feroz Shah’s army comprised of these soldiers which were non-
permanent in position and were provided by the Jagirdars. This army was more loyal to
Jagirdars than to the emperor. These Jagirdars rose in revolt against the state after the death
of Feroz Shah and various Jagirs were practically transformed into independent
principalities.
11. Foreign invasions:
Foreign invasion of the Mongols and later by the Mughals especially by the Amir
Taimur (1399) also contributed in the decline of the Delhi Sultanate. These invasions not
only exposed the vulnerability of the empire but also faced the loss of man and machine.
12. Inter caste marriages:
Humayun (6th May, 1508 – 26th January, 1556) Era of Reign (1530-40) & (1555-56)
“He (Humayun) tumbled through life and he tumbled out of it”. Comment
According to Lane Poole, “Humayun tumbled through life and he tumbled out of it”. What Lane Poole
wanted to convey was that first of all Humayun lost everything and later on regained what he had lost. It can
be pointed out that Humayun had to meet many difficulties at the time of his succession to the throne. He
could not overcome those difficulties and became a fugitive after the Battle of Kanauj in 1540. Later on, with
the help of King of Persia, he recaptured Kabul and Qandahar and ultimately was able to re-ascend the throne
of Delhi and Agra after defeating Sikandar Sur. – V.D. Mahajan.
1) Introduction:
Humayun’s period was an unending saga of crisis, turmoil and instability. Throughout his
period, Humayun failed to bring stability and order in his Empire. Humayun also met an accidental
death from an accidental fall. From this life story of Humayun, Lane Poole has inferred that
“Humayun tumbled through life and tumbled out of it”. Just as throughout his life, Humayun stumbled
at every step and committed blunder after blunder, likewise, he died by stumbling over the stairs of
his library and died.
2) How did Humayun tumbled through life
A) His difficulties:
Ishwari Prasad says; “Soon after his accession Humayun discovered that the throne of Delhi
was not a bed of roses. The difficulties which surrounded the new king were of no mean order”.
1. Firstly, India was by no means a consolidated empire which Humayun inherited from his
father. It was a sort of ill-knitted combination of little states under one prince. Babur had
not conquered whole of Hindustan. For instance, Bengal remained independent and
unconquered to the East and was ready to take advantage of any sign of weakness which
the Sultans of Delhi showed.
2. Towards the South, laid the two provinces of Malwa and Gujarat which were under one
king, Bahadur Shah, a formidable ruler and opponent of Mughals.
3. The Rajput chiefs those who had been subdued by Babur waited for an opportunity to
expel Mughals from Delhi.
4. Numerous Afghan chiefs held powerful Jagirs and only needed a powerful Afghan leader
to burst into rebellion. For instance, Afghan controlled the Eastern regions of India and
Mahmud Lodhi was wandering in Bihar. He tried to reign in the Afghan nobles who were
anxious to regain their lost power.
5. Nor was Humayun safe from the hostilities of his own kith and kin. All of his three
brothers were constantly intriguing against him. Among them Kamran was the most
untrustworthy and cunning, others included Askari and Hindal. Kamran was chief cause
of ruin of his family. To these were added two cousins of Humayun – Muhammad Sultan
and Muhammad Zaman who foolishly played in the hands of his enemies. They made the
work of his empire more difficult by making attempts to get the throne.
6. The Mughal army was not a national army. It was a heterogeneous body of adventurers
–Mongols, Uzbeks, Persians, Afghans and Indians along with Chughtais. They fought well
but were prone to quarrel among themselves. Under a man of less calibre, it could turn
out to be a congregation of adventurers.
7. Babur had left empty exchequer and meagre resources for Humayun. There were fewer
institutions in the empire.
B) Blunders of Humayun:
Humayun added to his difficulties by committing blunders after blunders. Some instances
are given below.
1. Unwise and wrong distribution of empire:
After Babur’s death, Humayun distributed large territories to each of his brothers
which virtually meant the division of empire. He assigned Kabul and Qandahar to
Kamran, Sambhal to Askari and Mewat to Hindal. Afterwards Humayun permitted
Kamran to occupy Punjab and Hisar Feroza as well. When Kamran occupied these areas,
Humayun did not stop him from further advancement.
i) Dr. A.L. Srivastava is of the view that; “It was great mistake of Humayun because he
divided the resources and strength of the empire”.
ii) Lane Poole says; “Thus, the main recruiting ground of Mughal army was cut off”.
iii) Ishwari Prasad opines; “These concessions... erected a barrier between him and the
land beyond the Afghan hills”.
2. Reliance on his untrustworthy brothers:
Humayun was a great believer in morality and true to the will of his dying father. He
treated his brothers kindly, according to the will of Babur. Despite their repeated acts of
betrayal, Humayun trusted them. For instance:
i) When Humayun divided the empire, Kamran disagreed and captured Punjab. In the
Battle of Chaunsa in 1539, Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri. He sought help
from his brothers, but they betrayed him. Kamran, instead of assisting Humayun,
parted with 20,000 troops and moved towards Lahore.
ii) Secondly, after the decisive war of Kanauj in 1540, Humayun was being chased by
Afghans. He tried to take refuge in Kashmir. Kamran, instead of helping him
intercepted him. So, Humayun fled towards Sindh. From Sindh, Humayun went
towards Qandahar. Here his brother Askari tried to arrest him. Askari was
appointed as the Governor of Qandahar consequently, Humayun fled towards Iran
with the help of some friends and close associates. But, Akbar son of Humayun was
abandoned in Qandahar with his uncle Askari.
iii) When Humayun was pitched against Sher Shah Suri, Hindal turned against him.
Hindal raised a standard of revolt in Agra in 1537. So, Humayun had to make efforts
to crush the rebellion of Hindal.
C) Humayun left important expeditions incomplete:
1. Humayun had a fatal tendency of doing things in halves. Before the work in hand was
half finished, he would busy himself to other and both remained undone.
2. For instance, in 1531, during his 1st campaign of Bundelkhand, Humayun left the siege
incomplete and made peace with the Raja after receiving valuable gifts. Had he
conquered this territory, the Southern borders of Mughal Empire would have been
consolidated. Instead of conquering it, Humayun moved towards Jaunpur to crush the
power of Mahmud Lodhi.
3. In 1532, Humayun held the siege of famous Fort of Chinor which was an important
bastion of Sher Shah Suri. This siege continued for 4 months, but after 4 months,
Humayun made deal with Sher Shah instead of crushing his power. In this way,
Humayun wasted a golden opportunity. Humayun should have immediately attacked
Gujarat to crush his formidable opponent, Bahadur Shah. Bahadur Shah had extended
his empire from Gujarat, Malwa and Central India, Rajasthan. Furthermore, he provided
asylum to rebel princes – Muhammad Zaman Mirza and Muhammad Sultan Mirza.
Bahadur Shah also provided refuge to Alam Khan Lodhi who was a staunch rival of
Humayun. Humayun should have crushed the power of Bahadur Shah, but instead he
wasted one and a half 1.5 year in building Deen Panah.
4. In 1535, Humayun declared war against Bahadur Shah. At that time, Bahadur Shah was
fighting against Rajputs and was laying the siege of Fort of Chittor and was ready to
defeat Bikrama. At the same time, Bikrama’s wife requested Humayun to be her brother
and help her against Bahadur Shah. But, Humayun did not act, saying that it is unlawful
to attack a Muslim from behind.
5. Similarly, in 1539, before the Battle of Chaunsa, on his way to Agra, Humayun’s army
was intercepted by Sher Shah’s army. It was the propitious time to tackle Sher Shah. But,
Humayun’s army wasted 3 months. Meanwhile monsoon season started and Sher Shah
was waiting for this time. Moreover, the malaria broke out and supply of food also
ended. Humayun pleaded his brothers for help but they did not send him
reinforcements. In addition, Sher Shah played a trick. The army of Sher Shah had dug
ditches near Chaunsa and accepted the supremacy of Humayun. Sher Shah extended his
hand for friendship towards Humayun. Humayun was so pleased at this that he started
celebrations. At the same time, Sher Shah, taking advantage of Humayun’s vulnerability,
attacked with ferocious might.
6. Last but not the least, in 1540, Humayun committed blunder in the Battle of Kanauj and
wasted 1 month. Sher Shah’s army crossed Ganges and encamped near eastern banks.
Humayun also crossed river and encamped opposite to Sher Shah’s army. Rainfall
started and Humayun had to retreat to the lowland areas where his artillery was
rendered ineffective. This caused his defeat at the hands of Sher Shah Suri.
7. With full strength, Humayun ought to have crushed one enemy before engaging with the
other. But, he foolishly left one enemy unsubdued behind him, while turned to meet the
next. In this way, neither was conquered.
3) Hard luck – Luck did not favour Humayun:
1. Luck factor also went against Humayun.
2. It was not that only his blunders and weaknesses were responsible for his miseries, but he had to
face very unfavourable circumstances.
3. Unlike his father, Babur, he had to engage himself on various fronts simultaneously.
4. He was confronted in 1530’s constantly to be engaged with two formidable foes, Sher Shah Suri
and Bahadur Shah whereas his father did not face such circumstances.
5. Babur was provided with requisite breathing space to fight. In 4 years, Babur fought 4 battles but
all were to be fought one by one. On the contrary, Humayun was weakened by the attitude of his
brothers e.g. Kamran controlled North-Western part of India and Humayun had no expectation
that Kamran would help him.
6. Moreover, the Afghans found new vigour under the leadership of Sher Shah Suri, who was very
competent, able administrator and could be a formidable challenge to every ruler of any time.
7. Humayun also lacked sufficient resources to simultaneously fight on all fronts at the same time.
8. Lane Poole says, “His name means „fortune‟, and never was an unlucky sovereign more miscalled”.
4) Temperamental flaws:
1. Humayun had certain flaws and was constitutionally incapable of rectifying these difficulties.
2. He had the fatal tendency of doing things in halves.
3. He was idealist by temperament so he lacked the subsisting will to translate his ideas and vision
into reality.
4. Moreover, he was very credulous by nature.
5. He lacked pragmatism. He was found in library when he ought to have been in the battlefield.
6. As a ruler, he lacked foresightedness.
7. He was constitutionally flawed of thinking of morrow and blind to what awaited him on the
following day.
8. He would have made a successful ruler in less turbulent times.
9. In personal life, he was very virtuous, but as a ruler and politician he was a failure. He was
addicted of opium that further marred his talents.
10. Lane Poole said; “his character was his own enemy”
11. Abdul Qadir said; “His worst enemy was himself. He did not take a statesman like view of the
situation”.
12. Tripathi said, “His political assessments were wrong”.
5) Difficulties after his restoration and death:
1. Humayun lost throne in 1540, but recaptured it in 1555 and it appeared as if his luck had turned
at last. But, nothing ever went well with this unfortunate monarch. His trouble was not over yet.
2. For instance, the strength of Afghans had not been crushed completely after the Battle of
Sarhand. Sikandar Suri was still hovering in Punjab; Pathans were beginning to show signs of life.
3. Hemun, the general and chief minister of Adil Shah was preparing to march towards Delhi.
4. To add to the troubles and woes of Humayun, Abul Muali whom he made the Governor of
Punjab, started to mismanage the affairs of Punjab.
5. Anarchy threatened again; Abul Muali was called back.
6. Akbar and Behram Khan were appointed as governor of Punjab (Behram Khan was the
guardian of Akbar).
7. After 6 months of rule, in January, 1556, Humayun slipped from the stairs of his library and died.
6) Conclusion:
Lane Poole has very aptly remarked about Humayun’s turbulent life. He has in fact
described the crux of his ordeal and crisis ridden reign. “He tumbled through life and tumbled out of
it”.
Idealist Plans of Muhammad bin Tughlaq
1) Introduction:
The idealist plans of Muhammad bin Tughlaq constitute a novel experiment of
medieval age. The failure of these plans made him even more controversial figure in the
eyes of his detractors and they passed on the judgement that as a king and administrator
Tughlaq proved to be failure.
2) Idealist Plans of Muhammad bin Tughlaq:
1. Taxation in Doab
2. Shifting of Capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Deogiri)
3. Issuance of token currency
4. Expeditions to Khorasan and Tibet
5. Expedition to Qarachil
3) Taxation in Doab:
1. The first plan of Sultan Tughlaq was to increase the land revenue in Doab.
2. Doab was known for its agricultural productivity and was inhabited by Hindu peasants.
These Hindus resorted to frequent revolts because they were economically prosperous.
3. Alaudin Khilji had also taken some steps to contain the growing influence of these
Hindus. But, they once again raised their heads on account of the benevolent polices of
Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq (father of Muhammad bin Tughlaq).
4. So, Muhammad bin Tughlaq decided to increase the rate of taxation in Doab in order to
achieve manifold objectives. Firstly, these Hindu elements would be reign in by
weakening their economic position. Ultimately, their economic power would be
degraded.
5. Wolsely Haig opines that “Tughlaq wanted to increase military resources and organize
his administration on efficient basis”.
6. For this purpose, the rate of taxation was increased and the revenue of the State
increased by double. Certain other taxes were also imposed. Resultantly, the people of
Doab suffered many hardships and were unable to pay the taxes.
7. Moreover, this region was also visited by famine which continued for 7 years. The
productivity decreased alarmingly. People were left with their cattle and houses and the
whole area became deserted which was very fertile in the past.
8. When Sultan Tughlaq came to know about this situation, he took some corrective
measures, but it was too late e.g. he extended loans to cultivators, irrigation projects
were initiated and schemes were launched. But, the taxation in Doab met an
unfortunate end.
9. Ishwari Prasad is of the view; “this measure was taken at a wrong time”.
10. According to Dr. Agha Mehdi Hussain “The taxation resulted in a rebellion and... India,
ignoring the rest of country and marked the beginning of Tughlaq‟s fall”.
4) Shifting of Capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Deogiri):
1. In 1327, Muhammad Tughlaq shifted his capital to Deogiri, which was situated in the
mid of the empire.
2. Zia-ud-Din Barani opines that “Deogiri was at central position of his empire including
Delhi, Gujarat, Luckhnowti, Sonar Gaon, Talangana, Doarsomandara and Kopila. Deogiri
situated in the heart of all these areas and these areas were located at almost same distance
from Deogiri”.
3. S.M. Ikram in ‘Mauj-e-Kausar’ writes, “Tughlaq wanted to create capital in Deogiri
(Daulatabad) because it was in centre of the empire and it was comparatively easier to
administer the empire”.
4. When Tughlaq assumed power the empire was extended to large areas and it was not
easy to control the whole empire from Delhi.
5. Certain historians have also highlighted other considerations e.g. Daulatabad was not
vulnerable to Mongol menace and threat.
6. Moreover, from the cultural point of view, the Muslims were in minority in Southern
India where Daulatabad was situated. So, it was desirable to promote Islamic culture by
rehabilitating Muslims in Daulatabad. These were the considerations for change of
capital and these were justified on every account.
7. Tughlaq provided infrastructure and built buildings in Daulatabad, built road from Delhi
to Daulatabad and lined it with trees on both sides to facilitate the transfer of
population to Daulatabad from Delhi. Food was provided to passengers, various posts
and post offices were erected as well in the way.
8. Barani has pointed out that “Sultan Tughlaq took personal interest in it”.
9. But, this step backfired. Reasons were that the people were reluctant to move to a new
place like Daulatabad and those who refused to migrate were forced by using state
machinery. Moreover, Tughlaq stressed Ulema to move as well. As a result, people had
to face the hardships of way. People could not acclimatize themselves according to the
different climatic conditions of southern India.
10. The nobility which was leading a luxurious life did not welcome this move of Tughlaq.
Finally, Tughlaq had to abandon this plan the capital was re-shifted to Delhi.
5) Issuance of token currency:
1. Muhammad bin Tughlaq has been called the prince of moneyers by Edward Thomas.
2. One of the earliest acts of his reign was to reform the entire system of coinage, to
determine the relative value of the precious metals and to found coins which might
facilitate exchange and form convenient circulating media.
3. In order to improve his financial resources for carrying out various administrative
reforms Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued copper coins in 1330 AD and ordered that they
should be considered equal in value to those of silver and gold coins.
4. This currency had been in vogue in China and Iran. Sultan Tughlaq made his experiment
in India.
5. Agha Mehdi Hussain is of the view that “during his era, there was paucity of silver, so
Tughlaq had to issue copper coins”.
6. Edward Thomas says, “More currency coins were needed because the empire was
expanding”.
7. Wolsely Haig opines that “exchequer of the state was empty and there was an impending
famine in the country”.
8. Ishwari Prasad also says that “the scarcity of silver created hurdles in economic activity”.
9. From the economic point of view, it was a perfect step on part of Tughlaq to issue a new
currency.
10. But, this policy backfired on account of various reasons and he failed to gauge the
challenges and difficulties the empire might confront. As a result, fake currency was
introduced by Hindus because it was cheap and easily manufactured. Houses of Hindus
had mint to make fake currency.
11. Barani said that, “there were so huge heaps of fake currency that these could be seen after
one century”. The government could not prevent the issuance of fake currency. It also
created a misunderstanding among the people that the government wanted to collect
gold and silver from them in lieu of copper.
12. It is a universal fact that the prices of metallic currency are determined through the
mechanisms of demand and supply. But, at that time, it was not possible to determine
the price through the royal orders. So, this currency had to be withdrawn and the
government had to give gold and silver to get copper coins back from the people. It was
a colossal loss for the government in monetary terms.
6) Expeditions to Khorasan and Tibet:
In 1337, an expedition was sent to Khorasan to conquest it. Some of the nobles of
Sultan Tughlaq were Khorasani and they instigated him to conquer Khorasan. So, an army of
370,000 men was established and paid from royal treasury. At that time, there was a civil
war going in Khorasan between two rival groups. Sultan Tughlaq wanted to take advantage
of this tussle. Abu Saeed, who was Wali-e-Khorasan, became unpopular because he was a
Shia. Turmah Shirin an opponent of Abu Saeed was supported by Sultan Tughlaq. Tughlaq
paid 1 year salary to his army in advance. But, his army could not endure the climatic
conditions of Khorasan which was ridden with snowfall and other geographic difficulties.
Moreover, Abur Saeed overcame the situation and Turmah Shirin died meanwhile. So, the
Indian army had to suffer an ignominious defeat.
7) Expedition to Qarachil:
The Qarachil expedition also faced failure. Yahya bin Ahmed says that “Qarachil
was a bastion of rebellious elements”. Khusro Malik was sent to this hilly area with an army
of 1 lac men. But, due to bad weather, rain and famine this expedition failed as well.
8) Critical analysis:
1. In analyzing the plans of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq, it can be said that these
schemes were well planned but could not be thoroughly executed. For instance, the
taxation in Doab was not a folly on part of Tughlaq if we consider its administrative,
military and economic implications. Earlier, Alaudin Khilji raised the revenue to
50%. But, in the policy of Tughlaq, the timing was not right as Doab was under
severe famine. Moreover, the manner in which the state machinery was used to
collect the revenue further caused failure and turned people into rebellion.
2. From the strategic, administrative, religious and cultural point of view, there was no
harm in shifting the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad.
2.1. What Sultan Tughlaq failed to realize was the unforeseen challenges and
repercussions. The large scale shifting migration might entail, the logistical
problems, problems of accommodation in new capital. People grossly
misunderstood this policy.
2.2. This incident has been grossly exaggerated by some historians like Barani, Ibn-
e-Batuta and Assami.
2.3. On the basis of this information, Wolsely Haig has described this plan as
“vindictive rather than administrative”.
2.4. But, the contemporary historians were antagonized by Tughlaq on some
accounts. So, they tried to defame him.
2.5. Some of the historians say that Delhi was deserted and even incapacitated people
were also taken to Daulatabad. But, it is wrong, if Delhi was altogether deserted
then how the rebellion of Ktulu Khan (Governor of Daulatabad) in north India in
1329 was quelled by employing army from Delhi.
2.6. Similarly, Delhi was an amalgamation of 21 sections. Only Muslims and
dignitaries were taken to Daulatabad.
2.7. In the same time, by shifting capital to Daulatabad, an effort to propagate Islam
in southern India was made. So, this must not be ridiculed by a handful of
historians.
3. Supply and demand mechanism was not taken into consideration and peoples’
apprehensions about currency that it was aimed at getting gold in return of copper
also helped in the failure of Tughlaq’s issuance of currency.
4. During the expeditions of Khorasan and Qarachal, Muhammad Tughlaq did not take
into account the terrain, topographic weather conditions and the logistical support.
He tried to take advantage of power politics and political turmoil of these regions.
4.1. Agha Mehdi Hussain says; “He was far advanced of his age”.
4.2. Lane Poole describes; “He was a man with ideas far beyond his age”.
9) Comments:
1. All those steps which Sultan Tughlaq took for the welfare of people and reforms in
empire were correct according to the circumstances. But, they failed on account of
the misconception of people because people had made a wrong and negative
opinion about his plans. His reforms failed to entice public imagination.
2. The historians grossly misunderstood his intentions and personality by
exaggerating about his plans.
3. Thirdly, the people were illiterate and backward and his plans were beyond the
intellect of common man.
4. In modern period, capitals are shifted, token currencies are issued and there is no
problem in implementation of these plans.
Iltutmish as the real founder of the Sultanate period
A. Introduction:
Iltutmish was one of the most fascinating personalities of nascent Muslim State in India
and he developed it into a flourishing empire. Moreover, he is regarded as the real founder of
Turkish dominion (rule) in India. Sri Vastava describes him as first defacto ruler of Medieval
Period. Iltutmish overcame the challenges and consolidated the empire of Ghauri, as Ghauri and
Aibak had not been able to consolidate the empire. Lane Poole describes; “Iltutmish is the real
founder of dynasty of slave which Aibak did not live long enough to consolidate.”
B. Arguments which supports Iltutmish as the real founder of Sultanate period:
1. Iltutmish is the real founder as he restored peace and order in empire and he
surmounted all the difficulties which threatened the very existence of empire.
2. Iltutmish consolidated the conquests of Ghauri and further expanded the rule. He
further gave newly born Turkish Empire in India a cohesion which it had not found
under Qutb-ud-Din Aibak.
3. Iltutmish transformed a loosely patched up congeries of Ghaurid acquisitions in India
and well knit and compact state.
4. Iltutmish was the first Muslim ruler who brought the whole Northern India under the
sway of Muslim rule. Ishwari Topa; says, “The history of Muslim sovereignty in India
begins properly speaking with Iltutmish.”
5. Iltutmish gave the empire an administrative body, a capital, a monarchical form of
government and a ruling class. So, Iltutmish did the necessary groundwork upon which
the later rulers like Balban and Ala-ud-Din Khilji erected the edifice of a great state
(grand empire of Sultanate).
6. The monetary system of Iltutmish had lasting impacts on the coinage system of the
country.
7. Iltutmish was the real architect of city of medieval Delhi.
8. His architectural contributions are also unforgettable.
C. Real founder debate in the history:
1. There are two types of founders in history, one is political cum military founder, they
founded the bases of the empire on political and military grounds, but such founders were
left with no time to consolidate their empire as their empires were faced with severe
challenges.
2. Then there are founders of empire in history, who consolidated the empire by introducing
new reforms. Such founders stabilized the rule of empire, e.g. Umayyad Empire was founded
by Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah R.A. ,but after his demise, the empire faced a chaotic situation in
the time period of Muawiyah bin Yazid and Muawiyah bin Sani. These crises threatened the
existence of state. The Muslims recognized the Caliphate of Abdullah bin Zubair. A rebellious
challenge in the form of Khawaja Abdul Malik bin Marwan consolidated the Umayyad
Empire from (686-705 A.D.). He is considered to be the real founder of Umayyad Empire and
he had swayed over whole empire.
3. Similarly, Abbasid Dynasty was made by Abu Abbas Safa but its real founder is Abu Jafar
Mansoor (753-774 A.D.). In addition, the initial founder of the Mughal Empire was Babur,
but its real founder is Akbar. In this sense, real founder of the Sultanate Empire is Iltutmish.
Mughal Provincial Administration
Outline:
1) Introduction
2) Provincial administration during Mughal Rule:
1. Sobaydar
2. Diwan
3. Bakshi
4. Waqia Navees
5. Kotwal
6. Sadar and the Qazi
3) Sarkar or district:
1. Faujdar
2. Amal Guzar
3. Bitikehi
4. Khazandar
4) Pargana:
1. Shiqdar
2. Amil
3. Fotadar
4. Qanungo
5. Karkuns
5) City
6) Village
1) Introduction:
The Mughal Empire was very vast. So, this was divided into several provinces. There were 15 provinces
during the reign of Akbar, but the number increased to 20 during the reign of Aurangzeb Alamgir. The head of
the provincial administration was called Nizam, Sipahsalar or only Sobaydar. Every province had its provincial
capital. The provincial administration was duplicate copy of the Centre.
2) Provincial administration during Mughal Rule:
Dr. Jadunath Sarkar writes, “The administration agency in the provinces of the Mughal Empire was an
exact miniature of that of the Central Government”. The Sobaydar, the Diwan, the Bakshi, the Sadar, the Qazi, the
Kotwal and the Waqia Navees were important officers in every province and performed nearly same duties as
were performed by their superiors in the capital. In some provinces, the Mir Bahr and the Daroga-i-Dak Chauki
were also appointed.
Akbar had given wide power to his Diwan and all provincial Diwans were kept under the supervision
of the Diwan or the Wazir at the Centre. Akbar kept the balance of power between the Sobaydar and the Diwan
by clearly defining their duties so that none of them had the power to revolt. Diwan was an independent officer
free from the control of Sobaydar directly under the control of central government. The later Mughals, however,
could not keep those offices in separate hands and the office of Sobaydar and the Diwan was given to the same
person. During the reign of Bahadur Shah, Murshid Quli Khan combined these offices in his person and therefore
could make himself independent in Bengal.
1. Sobaydar:
He was the head of the provincial administration. He was like a miniature king in his province. He
enjoyed a high Mansab in the state and was assigned a big Jagir within the province. He had to maintain an
efficient and big army with him. He maintained peace within his province, looked after the welfare of the
people, suppressed the revolts, decided criminal cases, constructed roads, bridges and other public utility
works, extracted tribute from feudatory chiefs whose territories were within his province and collected
revenue and other taxes. All officers of the province were under him and were appointed, promoted or
dismissed by the emperor on his advice. His powers were limited only by the financial powers of the Diwan.
Otherwise, he enjoyed all powers regarding his province subject to control of emperor.
2. Diwan:
He was the financial officer of land revenue and tax collector of the province. He was appointed by the
emperor on the advice of the Wazir (Diwan) at the Centre. He was next only to the Sobaydar in rank and
respect within the province. He was not subordinated to the Sobaydar, but was directly under the control of
Wazir at the Centre yet, he worked in coordination with the Sobaydar who also enjoyed higher respect. He
collected revenue and the taxes and for that had to depend on the aid and help of Sobaydar as he had no
soldiers with him, but due to financial necessity and fear of complaint to the Emperor, Sobaydar always
used to help Diwan except in case of mutual jealousy. He looked after agriculture, supervised the income
and expenditure of the province, informed the central government regarding economic condition of the
province and also decided revenue cases.
3. Bakshi:
His primary responsibility was to look after the organisation of the army of the province. He managed
the recruitment, discipline, training and supplies for the provincial army. Sometimes, duties of Waqia
Navees were also handed over to him. In that case he sent news of the province to the Centre. This
enhanced duty also meant additional prestige to him. He acted as military advisor to Sobaydar and Central
Mir Bakshi to the Emperor.
4. Waqia Navees:
He was the head of the spy department of the province. He sent reports of all affairs and also
functioning of all officer including that of the Sobaydar and of the Diwan to the central government.
5. Kotwal:
In every provincial capital and every important city there was a Kotwal who maintained peace and
order and looked after the cleanliness, public service, kept watch on visitors in the city. He was a military
officer and kept sufficient soldiers with him but generally performed police duties.
6. Sadar and the Qazi:
In provinces, mostly these two posts were given to the same person. He was subordinated to the Chief
Sadar and the Chief Qazi at the Centre. As the Sadar he supervised that the Muslims practised Islamic laws
and the subjects, in general, observed morality and as the Qazi he dispensed justice. He supervised the
working of his subordinate Qazis and recommended scholars and religious persons to the Chief Sadar for
rewards, Jagirs and stipends. All important cases of capital punishments and sensitive cases were referred
to the Emperor. Besides these officers, in some provinces Daroga-i-Dak-Chauki was appointed and at ports
and at several river-points Mir Bahr was appointed to collect the taxes.
3) Sarkar or District:
Every province was divided into a number of districts called Sarkars for the convenience of
administration and revenue collection and for maintain law and order and solve local problems and disputes.
The important officers in a district were:
1. Faujdar:
The Faujdar used to be the military officer of the district. His primary duty was to maintain peace and
order in the district and to provide security to the subjects and to enforce the laws of the state, and orders
of the Emperor. He was appointed by the Emperor though he was subordinated to the Sobaydar. He helped
the Amal Guzar in collection of the taxes and land revenue. He was foremost officer in a Sarkar.
2. Amal Guzar:
He was the financial officer of the district or Sarkar and was subordinate to the provincial Diwan. He
collected the land revenue and other taxes, protected agriculture and also punished the guilty ones. He
protected the treasury as well.
3. Bitikehi:
He worked under Amal Guzar as keeper of record. He prepared all papers concerning lands of the
peasants with the help of the Qanungo. He kept the record of the quality and quantum of the land in
possession of every cultivator. He also gave receipt of payment of the land revenue to the cultivators and of
other taxes to those who paid them.
4. Khazandar:
He worked under the Amal Guzar and was the treasurer of the district. He used to keep cash. Besides,
these officers, Kotwal and Qazi etc were other important officers who were appointed in the important
cities.
4) Pargana:
Every district of Sarkar was divided into several Parganas. The important officers of a Pargana were:
1. Shiqdar:
He was military officer and head of the administration of the Pargana. He maintained small force and
peace and order with its help and he, also helped in the collection of the revenue and other taxes.
2. Amil:
He was the financial officer of the Pargana. His primary duty was to collect the land revenue and
therefore, he was in direct contact with the cultivators.
3. Fotadar:
He was the treasurer of the Pargana and keeping of cash and protection of the treasury was his
primary duty.
4. Qanungo:
He was the head of village Patwaris. He prepared all papers concerning agriculture and collection of
revenue and supervised Patwaris.
5. Karkuns:
Karkuns were the clerks who helped different officers in preparing records and all papers concerning
administration of the Pargana.
5) City:
The administration of a city was in the hands of a Kotwal. He managed all affairs in the city which are
done by the police and municipalities in modern times. He kept quite a large number of soldiers with him and
also appointed his subordinates. He was a police officer as well as civic officer and so he had to perform lot of
duties.
6) Village:
The Mughals did not interfere and did not take the responsibility of administering village. Therefore,
the administration of villages was left in the hands of local village Panchayats, their headmen called Pradhan,
Mukhya or Lambardar or Chaudhry. The Panchayats looked after the security, sanitation, education etc in the
village. The Panchayats also dispensed justice. There was a village Chaukidar in every village to keep watch on
thieves, robbers and on anti-social elements.
Muhammad Bin Qasim
1. Causes and impacts of Arab invasion.

2. Character and achievements of Muhammad Bin Qasim.
3. Arab invasion – merely an episode in the history.
Causes and impacts of Arab invasion
1) Introduction:
The Arab invasion of Sindh constitutes an important chapter in the history of
the subcontinent. It heralded an era which brought far reaching changes in the history,
polity, culture and socio-economic dispensation of Indian subcontinent. After the Arab
invasion, there began interaction between the two great civilizations i.e. Islamic and Vedic
(Hindu), which resulted into the development of a new civilizational synthesis which is
known as Indo Muslim Civilization.
2) Background:
The trade relation between Sindh and Arab world dates back to the
antiquity, but commercial activities were intensified after the conversion of Arabia into
Islam. The Muslim conquest of Persia including the provinces of Kerman and Makran
brought Arabs face to face with the rulers of Sindh and the……..
……… in 8 vessels. These vessels were attacked by pirates and plundered off
the coast of Sindh. Hajaj bin Yousaf demanded adequate compensation from Dahir but Raja
Dahir refused that he had no control over these pirates. Consequently, Hajaj decided to
invade Sindh.
In 711, expedition to Sindh under Ubaid Ullah was sent but, Ubaid was
defeated. Another expedition under Budail bin Tafah was sent to Sindh but, Budail also
suffered defeat. Therefore, in 712 A.D., Muhammad Bin Qasim, nephew and son-in-law of
Hajaj Bin Yousaf was dispatched to Sindh.
3) Impacts:
1. Political impact:
The Arab invasion left great impact on the history of Sindh. It established
direct land link between Muslim empire and Sindh (Indian territories). Sindh
became part of Arab empire and remained so for 150 years. Even after when this
link was broken and Arab empire declined, Sindh maintained its Islamic entity. The
Arab invasion exposed the political and military vulnerability of India to the rest of
world and paved way for other conquerors. It ended the diplomatic isolation of this
region. The arrangements made by Muhammad Bin Qasim with non-Muslims served
as the bases for the later Muslim policy in the subcontinent.
The Muslim rulers generally started following secular policy towards the
non-Muslim population. Muhammad Bin Qasim termed Hindus as the ‘people of
book’, even after the codification of Muslim law in Arab world which contained
stringent measures against idol worshippers. The fact is that these provisions were
not followed by Muhammad Bin Qasim and Hindus were treated as ‘people of book’.
2. Religious impact:
According to Wolsely Haig; “The Arab invasion introduced into one frontier
tract the religion which was destined to dominate the greater part of India for nearly
five centuries.”
The Arab invasion sowed the seeds of Islam in India. A large number of
Sindhi population converted to Islam. The footing got by Islam in Sindh became the
hub of proselytizing activities of Islam by saints and sufis and it came to be known
as ‘Bab-ul-Islam’.
Some Western scholars are of the view that some elements of Islamic Sufism
are of Indian origin. But this view is more speculative e.g. Bayazid of Bistam had a
Sindhi Murshid as his religious spiritual leader.
3. Economic impacts:
The Arabs improved land management of Sindh. The living standards of
people were also enhanced. Various reforms were introduced and isolation ended
which opened new era of economic advancement. The cantonment regions were
established and various courts, stables and hospitals were erected. As a result,
infrastructure developed, job opportunities increased. The judicious distribution of
wealth according to the Islamic teachings was also introduced e.g. Zakat, Jizya (toll
tax), Sadkat etc
Jizya ratio was 12, 24, 48 dirham. Land tax was levied according to the ratio
produce. It was 2/5 of wheat and barley on irrigation by public canals and ¼ on
other cases.
In case of orchards, the state demand was 1/3 and in case of fish, wine and
pearls the tax ratio was 1/5. These successes resulted in the enormous increase in
the government revenue. The government revenue went up to 10.5 million dirham.
4. Cultural impacts:
The Arab invasion produced a great civilizational impact on nomad culture
of Arabs. The development of military cantonments of the Arabs later on grew into
huge urban centers of arts and cultures. Islamic and Hindu civilization gave birth to
Indo Muslim Civilization. The living legacy of this cultural intercourse is Sindhi
language and literature. New architecture was introduced by the Arabs.
5. Intellectual impacts:
The intellectual and cultural contacts of Abbasids gave the world Arabic
numerals and chess. Various Sindhi stories were introduced to the outside world by
translating them into Arabic for instance, Sidhanta was rendered into Arabic by
Abrahim, Maha Bharat was also translated into Arabic, Kalilah Who Dimnah was a
book on morality and was translated into Arabic. The Abbasids employed Hindu
scholars in Dar-ul-Tarjma Arya Bhat and Khanda Kheedk were famous writers. The
Arabs also introduced a department of Vedic medicine in Baghdad. The Arabs
developed their mathematics with the assistance of Hindus.
Khwarzmi translated numerical in Arabic. The Arabs saved Sanskrit from
extinction, Hindus had no tradition of historiography but Arabs wrote a book on
historiography named ‘Chach Nama’. Fifteen books of Indian medicine were
translated into Arabic. These were the Hindi numerals which came to be known as
Arabic numerals all over the world. Indian music had incorporated Persio-Arabic
airs such as ‘yeman’ and ‘hijj’.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq – A mixture of extremes
Outline
1) Introduction
2) Two group of historians
i) Elphinstone i) Gardiner Brown
ii) Havell ii) Ishwari Prasad
iii) Yayha bin Ahmed Sarhindi iii) Farishta
iv) V. A. Smith iv) Agha Mehdi Hussain
v) Ibn-e-Batuta v) Ray Chaudhry
3) Was he a mixture of extremes?
If superficially viewed, he appears to be a mixture of extremes – but, a clear examination of
his reign and events reveals an altogether a different picture
4) Arguments
5) Conclusion
____________________________________
1) Introduction:
1. Muhammad bin Tughlaq was among the great monarchs of the medieval period.
2. Lane Poole describes Tughlaq in these words; “Tughlaq was most striking figure in medieval
India”.
3. The Cambridge History of India describes him among the “most extraordinary monarchs
whoever sat upon a throne”.
4. But, a controversy surrounds his personality.
5. According to Dr. R. C. Majumdar; “No ruler in India has so much discussion concerning his
policy and character”.
6. Contemporary historians wrote against Tughlaq, later historians exaggerated about his
positive and negative traits. Present historians describe him as a great politician and
statesman.
2) Two group of historians:
There are two groups of historians who have written about Tughlaq.
i) 1st group of historians:
1. First group of historians portray him as amazing mixture of contradictions.
2. For instance, Elphinstone opines that, “Sultan was affected by wars, affected by some
degree of insanity”.
3. Similarly, the author of ‘Tarikh-e-Mubarak Shahi’ Yayha bin Ahmed also describes
him as a “blood shedder”.
4. Barani depicts him as a ruthless tyrant who took pleasure in shedding the blood of
innocent people.
5. Ibn-e-Batuta writes that he had immense bearing to bloodshed; his gate was hardly
free from the corpse of a man who had been executed.
6. Similarly, Edward Thomas also hold the same views.
7. Perhaps the volatile temperament of Tughlaq further lent credence to such type of
accusations. For instance he displayed humbleness and at the same time he used to
behave arrogantly.
8. Similarly, in religious affairs, he appears to touch both extremes, once out of sheer,
at times he demonstrated sheer religiosity for instance, he went bare footed to
receive the Ambassador of Caliph of Baghdad . Another example may be that he
punished those who did not offer prayers regularly (sometimes checking public
morals) but on the other hand under liberal influence he almost abandoned Islam.
9. Similarly, he treated some Ulema and saints very in a disdaining manner e.g. his
treatment of Sheikh Naseer-ud-Din Chiragh Delhivi RA. Another manifestation of
his volatile temperament was acts of his generosities.
10. Example of his generosity is that he paid 1000 dinars for a single couplet and on the
other hand he also behaved like a very strict disciplinarian.
ii) 2 group of historians:
nd
1. The 2nd group of historians had passed diametrically opposed judgement about
Tughlaq.
2. For instance, Gardiner Brown exonerates him from the charges of madness and
blood thirstiness.
3. Ishwari Prasad opines that Tughlaq was unquestionably the ablest amongst the
crown heads of medieval India.
4. Farishta says Tughlaq was not devoid of justice and public welfare.
5. According to V.A. Smith, Tughlaq was a mixture of opposites. He holds him as a failed
ruler.
6. According to Ray Chaudhry “Most of Indian scholars do not tend to agree with
Elphinstone and Smith and deny the rationale basis of calling him a mixture of
opposites an insane person”.
7. Agha Mehdi Hussain did PhD thesis on Tughlaq Dynasty an authority on Tughlaq
he also exonerates him from these charges.
3) Was he mixture of extremes?
1. It is beyond any iota of doubt that like all medieval despots he was subject to great fits of
rage and he inflicted brutal punishments to those who acted against his will. But, it is
quite irrational to suggest that he was a born tyrant and the charges of blood thirstiness
and madness are altogether untrue. All the monarchs have shown contradiction to some
degree and volatility of temperament is shown by them. Tughlaq must not be isolated in
this regard alone.
2. There are numerous instances when Tughlaq forgave his critics and opponents.
2.1. Once Ibn-e-Batuta earned his wrath, but Tughlaq retained Batuta on his post.
2.2. Similarly, his famous general Ain-ul-Mulk raised the standard of revolt against
Tughlaq, but after defeating him Tughlaq forgave him and restored him to his
previous position.
2.3. He also forgave Sheikh Ibrahim bin Ahsan.
2.4. Barani was Sultan’s leading critic but Sultan always bestowed favours on him all the
time.
3. These charges on close scrutiny reveal that these were brought against him by members
of priestly classes and ill-educated mullahs whom Tughlaq treated with open disregard.
3.1. Ray Chaudhry is of the view that these charges were brought by European writers
and most Indian scholars do not agree with Elphinstone and Smith and deny the
rationale basis of calling him a mixture of opposites or an insane person. The Indian
historians argue that, it is possible that Elphinstone and other European writers were
misled by statement of Ibn Batuta that some dead bodies were always found in front of
palace of Muhammad bin Tughlaq... but, such was practice prevailing in India as well
as Europe, then there is nothing to show that Sultan took pleasure in destruction of
human species or organized man hunt.
3.2. According to Ishwari Prasad, “the charge of blood thirstiness was bolstered up by
members of clerical party”. Like all medieval despots he was subject to great
paroxysms of rage and inflicted the most brutal punishments upon those who
offended against his will irrespective of the rank and order to which they belong, but
this is quite different thing from stigmatising him as a born tyrant
4. The Sultan contained a head strong temper with advanced ideals of administrative
reforms; to him what seems to be good must be done at once. When people failed to
respond to his wishes his disappointment reached the verge of frenzy and his wrath
became terrible.
5. The stories of his perpetual atrocities have not been verified or corroborated. Most of
the historians have depicted a negative image of his personality by lumping together
various instances which occurred in different periods of time. These incidences of
bloodshed ought to be contextualized properly. Tughlaq had a great sense of justice and
be never tolerated. Once he went to Qazi to be punished according to Sharia. Gardiner
Brown also ignores the dark aspect of his character “That he was mad is a view of which
contemporaries give no hint ... to call him a despot may be true but no other form of
government be was conceivable in the Middle Ages”.
4) Conclusion:
Tughlaq is grossly misunderstood personality and sovereign. When viewed superficially
he seems to be an amazing compound of contradictions but it is not really so. A close
examination of alleged murderous attempts and atrocities reveal unsoundness of the common
view that Sultan sought pleasure in destroying human species. Prof. Agha Mehdi Hussain in his
book ‘The Rise and Fall of Muhammad Tughlaq’ has very aptly provided the crux of all this
debate “If at all there were some contradictory qualities in him they appear at different periods of
his career, there were clear reasons behind them”.
Propagation of Music under Delhi Sultanate
1) Introduction:
Music is a combination of two things – melody and rhythm. When these two blend
together they form a musical note. They should synchronise together. Good music has
soothing and relaxing effects, but Islam says music has no use and it is a useless hobby.
Muslim saints in the subcontinent never stopped music, but propagated Islam with the help
of music. From lowest to highest level of voice music has 22 grades they were modified
again into 7 grades called sargam.
2) Grades of Musicians:
1. Naik ( highest rank, can make tunes and sing to them)
2. Gaik (only sing, cannot make tunes)
3. Gandhrab
4. Gunni
5. Pandit
In every civilization we have traces of music, like Egyptian, Indus Valley and Greek
and each civilization produced its own instruments of music. Likewise we saw the
propagation of music during Indo –Muslim civilization.
3) Evolution of music under the Arabs in the subcontinent:
In Arab, people use to say pros with music and enjoyed it. When they Holy Prophet
Hazrat Muhammad (S.A.W) migrated to Madina, the women of Madina were playing several
instruments specially ‘Daff’ to greet him. The Prophet (S.A.W) did not mind it. Islam at first
did not forbid music. Arabs had their own system of music and instruments.
We see almost no music in the times of pious Caliphs RA and the Ummayads. It is only
in the times of Abbasids that the music started flourishing. The most famous at the time was
‘Ibrahim Mosli’ he had 60-70 people in his group, he was such an expert that if someone was
not playing correctly he could tell who he was out of his group.
Sufia used a medium of music ‘Qawali’ to attract non-Muslims for the propagation of
Islam especially in the subcontinent. The Sufi order ‘Chistia’ says that it is not wrong to use
music for propagation of Islam. After the dynasties of Ummayads and Abbasids, music
flourished even more.
4) Music in India:
When Muslims came to India they brought some musical instruments like Rubab,
Chung, Tambura, Duff, Nay (flute), Nakara etc from Arabia and used to play these during
their stay. Al-Kindi, Al- Farabi and Ibn-e-Sina wrote about a musician ‘Muni’ in the times of
Abbasids and that music was taught at centres in Baghdad, Grenada, Damascus, Asfahan.
These Muslim cities got developed as centres of music.
When the Arabs mixed their music with the local music, it made a synthesis of
music. It was again mixed and rearranged by ‘Amir Khusro’ and is called Indian classical
music. Amir Khusro divided it into 10 parts. The special thing about this music is that no
one can learn all its parts because when combine together they make thousands of varities.
5) Propagation and development of music under the Delhi Sultanate:
Dhurpand was old style of Hindu music. The Hindus used to sing it in temples as a
religious practice. Dhurpand style was very slow, difficult and tough. It had no
ornamentations. It had many variations and beat was very slow in its style. It was basically a
devotional music. We find evidence that the rulers of Delhi Sultanate, like Qaiqabad, Jalal-
ud-Din Khilji, Feroz Shah Tughlaq and Muhammad bin Tughlaq liked painting and listened
to music.
Influence of Amir Khusro:
Dhurpand was made simple by mixing Central Asian and Arabic tunes and it was
done by Amir Khusro. He made many tunes like ‘Aiman’, ‘Ziraf’ and ‘Shahana’. He was one of
the greatest experts of modern classical music. He had a sufiana mind and along with is he
developed melodies. Sitar and Tabla were invented by him. He invented Qawali a new style
of music for the propagation of Islam. He mixed India music with Iranian, Central Asian and
Arabic music to form Indian classical music. He also won a music context against ‘Gopal’ a
Hindu naik. He sang Raag Farghana during this competition.
Bakshi Naik was a very famous singer from the times of Delhi Sultanate. Baba Hari
Das was another great musician from this period. We come across a number of Sufi saints
responsible for the propagation of Islam. In their Khanqas a lot of music was played in form
of Qawwalis, Naat and melodies. This form of music was liked by Muslim saints.
6) Role of Sharqi Dynasty:
Sultan Hussain Sharqi was the ruler of Jaunpur, which with the passage of time was
made a centre of learning by him. Sultan was impressed by music and he himself could sing
and make tunes. He was able to make raags and ragnis. He made Dhurpand style easier by
making ‘Khayyal’ style of music. Romantic topics became the theme of music and human
relations and thoughts came into the music and devotional music almost stopped. Now
Muslim community as a whole came nearer to music and left the staunch following of the
religious dogmas.
Music under the Mughals
1) Introduction:
Music is a combination of two things – melody and rhythm. When these two blend together
they form a musical note. They should synchronise together. Good music has soothing and relaxing
effects, but Islam says music has no use and it is a useless hobby. Muslim saints in the subcontinent
never stopped music, but propagated Islam with the help of music. From lowest to highest level of
voice music has 22 grades they were modified again into 7 grades called sargam.
Musicians need special attention of their patrons because they don’t work and just keep
practicing their music which was given by the emperors. The Mughals were more interested in music
and were liberal. A good number of Kashmiri, Irani, and Indian musicians were present in their
courts.
2) Grades of Musicians:
1. Naik ( highest rank, can make tunes and sing to them)
2. Gaik (only sing, cannot make tunes)
3. Gandhrab
4. Gunni
5. Pandit
In every civilization we have traces of music, like Egyptian, Indus Valley and Greek and each
civilization produced its own instruments of music. Likewise we saw the propagation of music during
Indo –Muslim civilization.
3) Music under the Emperor Babur:
Babur in Tuzk-e-Babri has appreciated musicians. Babur had some musicians and poets like
Maulana Binai and Mir Sher Ali in his courts. Mir Sher Ali was a Turkish poet, he used to recite verses
in front of Babur. Babur had little time for leisure as he fought 4 wars during his short stay in India.
He was busy in consolidating rule of his dynasty in India. He had a fine taste and loved music, but due
to his activities in the country he was not able to devote himself to music.
4) Music under Humayun:
Humayun was forced to flee to Iran by Sher Shah Suri. When he came back from Iran, he
brought various artists, musicians, painters and music composers with him. Akhwant Mir in
‘Qanoon-i-Humayun’ said, “Humayun listened to music two days in a week”. Humayun was fond of
singers and musicians and had fixed Mondays and Wednesdays for that purpose. Gulbadan Begum
in ‘Humayunnamah’ tells many things which have not been noted by historians. For instance, Mughal
Begmaat (women) used to listen to instrumental music in ‘Harem’ in presence of their men and no
one could enter during this event. This shows interest of Mughal women in music.
Humayun captured Mandu in 1535. He captured 300 war prisoners and ordered a wholesale
massacre. A Hindu Raja saw a singer Bachchu in those prisoners; he told Humayun that the singer of
royal court was in the prisoners. Humayun called upon him and asked him to come and sing. The
song sung by Bachchu melted Humayun and he changed his red clothes to cream clothes and as a
reward he released the 300 prisoners. Humayun took Bachchu with himself but after sometime
Bachchu fled to his old master. Humayun said it was his bad luck that he ran away he could not
imagine how much I would have respected him.
5) Sur Dynasty:
Islam Shah Suri son of Sher Shah Suri was devoted to music and was teacher of Bahadur
Shah, the ruler of Malwa. He was a musician and a dancer as well.
6) Music under Akbar:
In the reign of Akbar, he patronized music to a great deal. Abu al-Fazl in ‘Ain-e-Akbari’ has
said that he has interest of his great grandfather and pays a lot of attention to music. Akbar gathered
various musicians of different nationalities. In his court both male and female musicians were
present. He divided his musicians into 7 categories and used to listen to every group once a week.
Akbar awarded the musicians, if he liked their music after every musical evening. It is said that 36
prominent singers were present in the court of Akbar. The names of Mian Tansen, Tan Tarang,
Subhan, Mullah Ishaq, Baba Ram Das, Baba Hari Das, Chand Khan, Mir Mangal Khan, and Mir Syed Ali
are worth mentionable. Moreover in his court Ustad Nazim Ali Khan was a top Sarangi Nawaz, Been
was played by Saram Khan and Tambura by Muhammad Hussain Khan. Akbar went to pay regards to
the tomb of Hazrat Moin-ud-Din ChistiRAafter listening to qawwali singing in his praise in jungle.
Nobles of Akbar also patronized the musicians; Sheikh Gadai had a great interest in music.
Faizi wrote an authentic book on music and understood music very well. Behram Khan gave 1 lac
rupees to Babu Ram Das in reward for singing. Talwandi and Bilgram were two main centres of
music learning during Akbar’s era. The reign of Akbar brought music to great height.
Tansen:
Tansen, a court musician of Akbar was a unique musician. He came to the court of Akbar in
1563. He was praised by Akbar as well as Jahangir. He had effects in his musical notes. Meghi Malhar
were two rags which are said to have caused rain. Deepak rag is said to have lit candles. Tansen was
famous for inventing Darbari Raag (Darbari Kanada). It was a court raag and was sung in the
presence of the emperor. Darbari Raag was invented by Tansen. Miyan ki Malhar, Miyan ki Tod,
Miyan ki Sarang and Shahana are the contributions of Tansen to music. Baba Hari Das used to sit on
the banks of Jumna and sang for himself. Tansen learned music from him.
7) Music under the Emperor Jahangir:
Music also continued to receive the royal patronage from the court of Jahangir. Bilas Khan
son of Tansen had a central position in Jahangir’s court. Bilas Khan was the inventor of Bilas Todi. In
Jahangir’s court there were also great musicians and instrument players. Muhammad Hussain Nai
was a singer in Jahangir’s court. His speciality was flute. ‘Shoki’ was a Tambura player in Jahangir’s
court. Once Jahangir rewarded Shoki by giving him gold coins equal to his weight worth (6300
rupees). Rahim Dad belonged from Talwandi and was an excellent musician. When Jahangir was in
16th year of his reign he felt ill. After he recovered from illness, Noor Jahan organized a grand musical
evening. Isa Khan a Governor of Sindh in the times of Jahangir was fond of music and he himself could
play various instruments and was a vocalist too.
8) Music under Shah Jahan:
Shah Jahan was more religious in character than Akbar and Jahangir, but he used to listen to
music. Music received greater encouragement in the realm of Shah Jahan. Shah Jahan’s voice was so
enchanting that people would become mesmerised by his voice. He was a good listener, vocalist and
great patron of music.
Shah Jahan was able to compose number of raags and ragnis, even Sufi saints became
mesmerised after hearing his voice. He was interested in Kashmiri, Irani, and Indian Music.
According to J.N. Sarkar Shah Jahan from 8:30 pm used to practice music for 2-3 hours and listened
to music after every prayer. According B.P. Saxena Shah Jahan, before sunset and before sleeping
used to hear qawwali.
Bakshu Naik was one of the favourites of Shah Jahan. Shah Jahan got a book composed which
had the composition of Bakshu. Abdul Hameed Lahori says that the Emperor had great liking for
Bakshu. According to the contemporary historians, “In 1042 Hijri Dara Shikoh was married to
Nadirah Begum and it was a great festival and the musicians were so busy in keeping music activate for
24 hours that even the star „Venus‟ the star of music was amazed.” Similar festivals were arranged in
1044 Hijri during the marriage of Shah Shuja and in 1046 Hijri during the marriage of Aurangzeb. It
is said that the dwellers of the sky did not hear anything from this world, except tunes being played
during this ceremony. Hamilton the doctor of Jahanara daughter of Shah Jahan when saved her,
grand musical festivals were arranged.
In his reign Sheikh Baha-ud-Din died at the age of 117, he had command on Dhrupad, Geet,
Khiyal and Tarana. Misri Khan and Gun Khan two prominent singers at Royal Durbar accompanied
Prince Shuja to his way to governorship of Bengal.
‘Raag Darpan’ was a book written by Saif Khan, noble of Shah Jahan which discusses Irani
and Indian music and musicians. Zain-ud-Din Koka, Nizam-ud-Din were also nobles who were
interested a lot in music. Pious people also were interested in music and had beautiful taste about
music and used it for the propagation of Islam i.e. Sheikh Pir Mirthi was interested in ‘Saama’. Son of
‘Tansen’ was also in courtier of Shah Jahan and he used to sit and perform where Tansen used to sit.
It was the golden period in Mughal history, in which arts propagated a great deal and flourished
along with architecture.
Karnati, Talwandi, Gawalior and Bilgram were the centres of music learning during the times
of Shah Jahan.
9) Music under Aurangzeb Alamgir:
He was more religious in his character. On the religious ground Aurangzeb in 1688,
disbanded the musicians from the court. During this period music ceased to enjoy the royal
patronage. In times of Aurangzeb most musicians migrated to other places and got jobs over there. As
a result the Mughal School of music diminished and many other schools of music came into being
such as Patiala, Sham Chaurasi, Karatic, Sindhi, Shori. In Lucknow ‘Tappa and Thumri’ flourished in
later period.
10) Music under the later Mughals:
Later Mughals were also interested in music. They were as interested in music as early
Mughals. Music also flourished during the period when Mughal Empire was on the verge of decline.
Under the grandson of Aurangzeb, Jahandar Shah and Muhammad Shah Rangeela the Gay music
gained unprecedented popularity. Muhammad Shah Rangeela is famous for music. He himself was a
great singer and dancer.
But music was destroyed by those who made it as the source of earning money. Music was
once a respectable profession, and its propagators earned great rewards and titles from the royal
courts. Music is completely spoiled by those who used it as a source of making money. It degenerated
the music and destroyed its quality.
Nature and motives of Mahmud’s invasion
Outline:
1) Introduction:
1. Mahmud’s invasions assume unique significance in the history of the subcontinent.
These paved the way for the establishment of Muslim rule in India
2. These invasions are not free from controversies. The opinion of the historians is
divided concerning the real motives of the invasions
3. In fact there are 3 schools of thought holding divergent opinions regarding
Mahmud’s invasions
i) Hindu and nationalist historians – project Mahmud as plunderer
ii) Orthodox Muslim historians – portray him as a great champion of Islam
iii) Historians like S.M. Ikram, S.M. Jaffar, Dr. Nazim and Ishwari Prasad – project
Mahmud as great conqueror and military general – They highlight political and
economical aspects of his invasions
iv) Ishwari Prasad highlights religious motives
v) Ray Chaudhry highlights economic causes
4. Notwithstanding these controversies Mahmud’s invasions left indelible imprints on
India
5. Circumstantial evidence overwhelmingly supports the assertions of third school of
historians. Though this fact can’t be denied that the cause of Islam was also greatly
served as a result of his invasions
6. Before delineating the real motives it would be more appropriate/prudent to
contextualize the historical debate among these 3 group of historians
2) Hindu and nationalist historians:
1. Prof. Habib and R.C. Majumdar
i) Main motive was his lust for wealth
ii) Project him as raider in chief
iii) Used his might to plunder wealth in India
2. Certain British historians also hold this view – Havell opines, “He would have sacked
Baghdad with as little compunction as he plundered Somnath if the undertaking had
seemed as profitable”
3. The other arguments of these historians
i) They emphasize non-religious character of his campaigns
ii) They do not subscribe to this view that he was interested in preaching of Islam
iii) Prof. Habib – He accuses Mahmud of having rendered disservice to Islam and
describe him as one of the worst enemies of Islam
iv) Had he been driven by religious motives then why he had kept Hindu generals in
his army
v) He also shed blood of his coreligionists in Persian and in Central Asia
vi) They also don’t consider him empire builder. Had he been the empire builder he
would have incorporated India
3) Orthodox Muslim historians:

1. Main aim was to transplant Islam in India
2. According to contemporary writers like Utbi (the author of famous Tarikh-i-
Yamini) “Mahmud undertook invasion of India with a view to crush idolatry and
spread Islam. He was specially directed by Qadir Billah to spread Islam in Hindustan”.
The destruction of great temples of Nagarkot and Somnath etc are cited as instances
in support if this view
3. General perception among the Muslims of this day – he was a Ghazi a champion of
faith who tried to extirpate infidelity in heathen lands
4. Professor Sher Muhammad Garewal – If alliance against Mahmud was of religious
nature based on Dharma then how could he detach himself from religious sentiments
while fighting Hindus
5. Moreover, he was deeply religious person – he allowed no schisms in Islam
6. Cause of Islam was indirectly served
i) Paved the way for the establishment of Muslim empire - Even Ray Chaudhry
agree to this view that is held by orthodox Muslim historians – He carried the
banner of Islam into the heart of Indian and treaded a path in which so many
followed him
ii) Smashed the myth of Hindu might
iii) Destroyed political fibre of Hindu society
iv) Advent of Sufi and saints who accompanied Mahmud
v) Emergence of Lahore as a great cultural centre of Muslim culture
4) 3rd School of Historians:
1. Ray Chaudhry “The real motives which underlay Mahmud‟s invasion against India
were economic cum religious, as he was certainly never motivated by the idea of
establishing a permanent empire”.
2. Ishwari Prasad “Wealth and not territory, extirpation of idolatry and nor conquests
were the objects of his raids”.
5) 4th School of Historians:
1. Main motive was to satisfy the ambition of conquests
2. They also highlight non-religious character of his campaigns – idea of holy war was
over at that time – the idea of propagation of Islam ceased to be considered as a part
of duty of sovereign – no one could assign himself the duty of spread of Islam
3. Mahmud cherished the idea of extending empire towards Central Asia – As a
consequence the idea of annexation of certain parts of India arouse out of necessity
–Conquered India as a second line of defence
4. Mahmud needed money to finance campaigns
5. Destruction of temples was due to the military programme
6) Analysis - arguments in favour of invasions political cum economic motives
We have to defend religious and political or write in favour of economical plus
political motives
1. He cherished the idea of expansion in Central Asia
i) He wanted a second line of defence in North Western India
ii) Remained confined to the annexation of Punjab.
iii) Wanted strategic depth to protect Ghazni and Kabul from back
2. Political motives also affected by other considerations

i) Violation of terms of treatise by Hindu Rajas
ii) Political betrayal of Hindu Rajas in form of help to Mahmud’s enemies
iii) Molestation of his allies and aggression against his allies
3. Obvious non-religious character of his campaigns
i) Despite the fact that he was a staunch believer
a) His religious policy was based on tolerance
b) Many Hindus in his army like Tilak, Tash, Sonai Rai, Hazari Rai
ii) Full religious liberty to Hindus in Ghazni
a) Temples
b) Market in Ghazni
c) Liberty to blow Sankh
iii) S.M. Jaffar opines, “To say that he invaded India time and again for the spread of
his religion is historically wrong and psychologically untrue”.
4. Temples destroyed for reasons other than religious motives
i) No account of religious vengeance/vendetta
ii) Destruction of temples was part of his military programmes
iii) These temples were treasure houses of wealth
iv) Quotations
a) Al-Beruni:
The pious Hindus used to give bounty and this bounty was stored in
these temples. These temples stored the precious products and hence Mahmud
Ghaznavi exported it to become rich
b) Ishwari Prasad:
These temples were the storehouses of enormous and untold wealth
c) Ishwari Topa:
These temples were storehouses of wealth. Temples were destroyed for
reasons other than religious. In the time of peace, Mahmud never demolished a
single temple
v) He also needed money to finance his campaigns - quotations
Personality estimate of Babur
“Babur was most brilliant Asiatic prince of his age worthy of a high place among the sovereigns of any
age or country”. V.A. Smith Comment
“Babur was not more than 48 years at the time of his death, but he was King of 36 years crowded with
hardships, tumultuous and strenuous energy”.
“None of his family before him ever possessed such talents, nor did any of his race performed any such
amazing exploits or experienced such strange adventure”.
1) Introduction:
Babur was among the most fascinating and towering personalities of medieval India.
He earned immortal fame by his military exploits. His ‘magnum opuses’ are ‘Tuzk-e-Babri’
and building of one of the greatest empires of the medieval history. Lane Poole describes
him as “the most captivating personality in the oriental history”.
2) Contributions of Babur:
1. Founder of Mughal Empire in India:
Babur established such a vast empire extending from Badakhsan to Bengal
and bank of Oxus to the foothills of Himalayas. In inheriting but the shadow of a
small kingdom in Central Asia, he died master of the territories lying between the
Karamnasa and Oxus and those between Narbada and the Himalayas.
Though Babur did not find time to consolidate his Empire, yet he laid the
first stone of splendid fibre which his grandson Akbar achieved. Dr. Tripathi is of
the view that; “Without depriving Akbar of his well deserved greatness, it can be
maintained that the seeds of his policy were sown by his illustrious grandfather
(Babur)”.
2. Establishment of an Empire:
Babur provided the Empire with a very political outlook as distinct from
religious and sectarian. The Mughal Empire also owes the place of crown in the state
and it was also Babur’s contribution that he accorded crown a distinct status. The
cultural character of the court could also be traced back to Babur. Similarly, Babur
also indicated the character and policy to govern this Empire. He defined the
governing ideology of Mughal Empire. Babur established a dynasty which ruled
India for more than 200 years.
3. Tuzk-e-Babri:
3.1. Tuzk-e-Babri is one of the greatest literary achievements of Babur.
3.2. It is said about Babur that; “had he not been able to achieve any battle in the field,
Tuzk-e-Babri would have even then immortalized his name”.
3.3. Elliot and Dowson are bewildered and point out that “it is difficult to believe
that the memoirs are the works of an Asiatic and a sovereign”.
3.4. Sir Denison Ross is of the view that “the Memoirs of Babur must be reckoned
amongst the most enthralling and romantic works in the literature of all times”.
3.5. Rushbrook Williams opines that “Babur‟s place in history rests upon his Indian
conquests, but his place in biography and literature is determined by his delightful
Memoirs”.
4. Conquests:
Babur’s military exploits also deserve to be categorized among his
contributions. The manner in which Babur recovered his tiny Kingdom of Farghana
after losing it twice at the tender age of 11 is remarkable. He conquered Samarkand
thrice the age of 14. He was pitched against most powerful enemies like Shaibani
Khan. It speaks volumes of perseverance and indomitable courage. His exploitation
in India with 30,000 soldiers at his disposal, Babur defeated an army of 1 lac men of
Ibrahim Lodhi. Within 3 years in between 1526-29, Babur achieved 4 great victories
in India i.e. Panipat (1526), Kanwah(1527), Chanderi(1528) and Ghagra(1529).
These military exploits give him a permanent place in history. Babur employed
artillery for the first time in India and changed the course of future art of warfare.
5. Established link between Central Asia and India:

Babur established the link between Central Asia and India and it led to the
cultural development in both areas.
6. Architectural contributions:
The architectural contributions of Babur are also of enormous importance.
He introduced new themes and designs in Indian architecture and established
Baradaries. Similarly, he built gardens and the practice of dividing garden into four
parts was also initiated by him. Therefore, the concept of Chehar Bagh (‫ )چہار باغ‬was
also started in his reign.
7. Preserved Timurate traditions:
By preserving the Timurate traditions Babur paved way for Akbar’s glorious
reign.
8. Intellectual achievements:
Babur also wrote a Diwan in Turkish language. Babur was second to Ali Sher
Nivai in Turkish poetry. He also wrote two books on Turkish literature and a book
on Muslim Jurisprudence. Babur also invented a style of calligraphy which is known
as ‘Khat-e-Babri’.
3) Personal traits of Babur:
1. Temperament:
The distinguished aspect of Babur was that he possessed a jovial and
cheerful temperament. He had learnt to endure (bear) the stresses and strains of life
with cheerfulness. In the midst of difficulties and dangers, Babur did not forget to
set down and compose a poem on his misfortune or a ghazal on the beauty of
nature. So, his life was manifestation of Epicurean philosophy (eat, drink and be
merry).
Babur said;
‫بابر یہ عیش کوش کہ عالم دوبارہ نیست‬
Babur! Enjoy life, for it never comes again
Elphinstone said: “We find (in him) after all trials of a long life retaining the same
kind of affectionate heart and the same easy and sociable temper with which he set out
his career”.
2. Generosity:
Babur was generous, kind hearted and affectionate. The munificent liberality
with which he rewarded his followers after the Battle of Panipat, earned him the
title of ‘Qalandar’. It is said about him that Babur gave away 32 crores of tankas
among his soldiers.
3. Humanism:
Babur was an affectionate father, a generous friend and a kind master. His
private life was on the whole marked by a standard of morality that was rare in the
country of his birth and in the age of which he belonged. From his own experience,
Babur had learnt the values of kindness and fidelity. In his Memoirs, he speaks about
his mother, sisters, brothers and relatives in an affectionate tone. He wept for days
mourning the death of his playmate of his childhood. Though, he was polygamous
like many kings, yet he was thoroughly attached to his wives. Even on his death bed,
he advised Humayun to treat his brothers kindly.
3.1. Syed Abdu Qadir says; “Of all the Eastern conquerors, Babur was the most
humane”.
3.2. Haider Mirza in ‘Tareekh-e-Rashidi’ says; “Of all his qualities, his generosity
and humanity took the lead”.
3.3. Erskine says; “No part of his character is more admirable than his uniform
humanity and kindness of disposition”.
3.4. Khafi Khan opines; “Contrary to the customs of princes of Arabia, Persia and
China, Babur not only forgave them (rebellious elements) but never retained
towards them any feelings of resentment”.
3.5. S.M. Edwards says; “Napoleon indeed lacked Babur‟s most precious possession, a
deep and genuine sincerity”.
3.6. Ishwari Prasad said; “He (Babur) was the happy compound of a great prince and
a good man”.
3.7. Ishwari Prasad says; “What endears to us, in spite of laps of centuries, is his deep
and genuine sincerity which adds a great deal to the nobility of his character”.
4. Tremendous self control:
Babur exhibited enormous self control during his career. He was not slave to
luxurious way of life. He was fond of drinking but abandoned it in the Battle of
Kanwah. He was possessed with such an indomitable will that no amount of
difficulty could shake his faith in himself. It is said about him that his character
created his career. He won 4 wars and recaptured Samarkand and Farghana.
5. Aesthetic sense:
Babur was keenly sensitive to all that was beautiful in nature. His Memoirs is
also reflective of his aesthetic sense. He was fond of gardens and was keen observer
of nature. Moreover, he knew botanical details. He complained of Indians that they
do not construct their houses in front of river. He introduced Baradari in India and
‘Chehar Bagh’ pattern was also brought to India by Babur.
4) Conclusion:
This was the period of great monarchs in the world. Iran was being ruled by Shah
Ismail Safwi, the King of Turkey was Suleman the magnificent, Germany was under the
rule of Charles V, England was being reigned by Henry VII. Babur belonged to this age of
great rulers. But, if we consider his qualities, character, personality one is inclined to regard
the child of Central Asian steppes in some way the greatest and the most attractive of them
all. Babur strictly observed the sanctity of the plighted world and even in dealing with his
enemy; he never had recourse to treachery and foul play. The versatile personality of Babur
as a ruler, literary figure and poet distinguishes him.
4.1. Havell says; “His engaging personality, artistic temperament and romantic career
make him one of the most attractive figure in the history of Islam”.
4.2. Rushbrook Williams is of the view that; “Babur possessed eight fundamental
qualities – lofty judgment, noble ambition, the art of victory, the art of Government, the
art of conferring prosperity upon his people, the talent of ruling mildly the people of
God, ability to win the heart of his soldiers and love of justice ”.
4.3. Denison Ross gives him a place among the sovereign of his age.
4.4. Lane Poole describes him; “Perhaps the most captivating personality in the Oriental
history”.
Variants of questions on Babur
1) “Adversity is a true school of greatness and Babur had fully profited by the good and bad
chances of his life”.
2) Value of human relations (fidelity, sincerity, respect of relations) and Babur’s early
difficulties at the age of 11 years.
3) Wars, hostile periods, neighbouring enemies (Shaibani Khan and Rana Sanga).
4) Emulated war techniques of Irani, Uzbek and Afghan armies.
5) Capitalized meagre resources to maximum effect. Won four wars in India with less army
particularly against Rana Sanga and Hassan Khan
6) At 11 years of age, he came to power. From 1498-1530, he was indulged in warfare.
7) His soldiers did not like to fight, but he compelled them to fight in inhospitable terrain.
8) Three adversaries like Pathans, Rajputs and Princes had to be countered by Babur.
9) Another difficulty was the summer of India and soldiers could not bear the hot climate of
India.
10) Shaibani Khan (an Uzbek), Shah Ismail Safwi of Iran, Rana Sanga, Daulat Khan Lodhi were
his sworn enemies.
Personality estimate of Humayun
A. Introduction:
1) Humayun is one of the most fascinating personalities of the medieval India.
2) He possessed humane traits yet he proved to be a failure as a ruler.
3) His reign is a sad ordeal of setbacks, crisis and misfortunes.
B. Personality traits of Humayun:

1) Personality:
1. Humayun’s complexion was whitish.
2. He had a tall stature and his personality was very attractive.
3. His conversation was very engaging.
2) Disposition:
1. By nature, Humayun was very gentle and affectionate.
2. His manner was frank, polite and winning.
3. Erikson depicts him as, “He seems to have considered to his servants and popular in his
intercourse with lower classes ... but down to the day of his death, he was prey to his
flatterers and favourites”.
4. Humayun was intensely humane, morally impeachable and forgiving to a fault.
3) Generosity:
1. Humayun was known for his generosity.
2. The incident of Nizam Saqqa amply testifies to this aspect of his character. Humayun
made Nizam Saqqa, king for half day.
3. Humayun used to throw grand parties after every victory.
4. Nizam-ud-Din Ahmed opines that, “all the wealth of Hindustan won‟t have sufficed to
maintain his generosity”.
4) Man of refined tastes:
1. Humayun was a great admirer of literature and arts. He delighted in the company of
literary persons.
2. Nizam-ud-Din is of the view that, “Humayun was ordained with every manly virtue. Not
only he was admirer of poetry, he himself was a great writer of verse.”
3. He liberally patronized scholars, promoted several of them to the offices of trust.
4. His love of art is demonstrated by two significant events.
4.1. While roaming after the loss of Agra and Delhi his train of camels carrying his
library lost away. When these camels were found after several days, Humayun
expressed more joy than he did at the recovery of his dominions.
4.2. Secondly, when he had been promised help by Shah Tahmasp of Iran, instead of
hastly returning to Qandahar, he could not resist the temptation of visiting Tabraiz.
Tabraiz at that time was a great centre of art and learning. Humayun met several
intellectuals and literati in Tabraiz.
5. Another aspect of his refined taste was his enormous fondness of mechanical art. At the
time of his death, Humayun was about to construct a floating palace, several storeys in
height with a garden, bazaar o market. This palace was to be built on Jumna River.
6. Similarly, near the time of his death, he was about to construct an observatory and
collected necessary instruments for that purpose.
7. He was very cultured and refined prince, well versed in literature, astrology, mechanics
and mathematics.
5) Humane nature:
1. Humayun’s character was exemplary as father, brother, husband and son.
2. When Kamran was arrested, Humayun’s advisors suggested to execute Kamran,
Humayun replied, “My brain in inclined towards your advice but not my heart”.
3. He never disregarded his father’s injunctions which Babur gave him on death bed.
Babur advised him to be kind to your brothers and relatives.
4. His treatment to his brothers and enemies was very benign.
5. Some nobles of Iran instigated Shah of Iran, Tahmasp against Humayun, but during the
time of crisis, Humayun supported those nobles.
6) Credulity ‫خوش اعتقادی‬:

1. Humayun was credulous to a great extent.
2. He had an excessive liking for astrology.
3. He had seven halls and each of them was dedicated to each of the seven heavenly
bodies. Once a week, he had an audience in each of these halls. His courtiers were
dressed in the colours conforming to that of the walls of these halls.
4. Similarly, he always sought omens before doing anything.
5. Babur used to instruct him to spend time in the company of people and durbar, but he
spent most of his time in observatory and reading books.
7) Courage:
1. Humayun was a prince of great courage and exposed himself recklessly to danger in a
battle or siege.
2. Nizam-ud-Din Ahmed writes, “In courage and heroism, he excelled all the princes of his
time”.
3. Ishwari Prasad says, “For fifteen (15) years he was persecuted by malice of destiny, but
he never lost the equanimity of his temper and endured his misfortune with great patience
and fortitude”.
4. Through all his vicissitudes, he presented his native goodness.
1. Humayun was a devout Sunni, punctilious Muslim, took great delight in the company of
sufis.
2. He came under Shiite influence for sometime because his wife and trusted colleague
Behram Khan were Shia.
3. Johar Aftbchi has written, “He embraced Imamia sect for sometime”.
9) As a soldier:
1. Humayun was very brave and steadfast soldier.
2. He was never overwhelmed by challenges and difficulties.
3. He did not lack physical courage and had given a good account of himself as a soldier
during his father’s campaigns.
4. But, as a general he proved to be a failure unlike his father (Babur) and his son (Akbar).
5. It is evident from his successive failures. For instance, his idealist temperament he was
incapable of taking timely decisions.
6. In the battles of Chaunsa and Kanauj, he failed to arrest the time factors and suffered
defeat due to weather conditions.
7. Similarly, Humayun concluded peace treaties with Sher Shah during the first siege of
Chinor Fort. It was a great blunder on his part as a general.
C. Conclusion:
1) As a man, Humayun possessed immense qualities.
2) I.H. Qureshi says, “All good traits of his character were neutralized by his love of ease, of
misplaced clemency, of lack of political firmness and determination and above all his inability
to convert his success to his permanent advantage”.
3) Erikson said, “His virtues all bordered on neighbouring defects and produced little fruits”.
Personality / Character estimate of Muhammad bin Tughlaq
A. Introduction:
1) Muhammad bin Tughlaq was among the great monarchs of the medieval period.
2) Lane Poole describes Tughlaq as, “Muhammad Tughlaq was the most striking figure in medieval
India”.
3) ‘The Cambridge History of India’ describes him among the “the most extraordinary monarchs
whoever sat upon a throne”.
4) But, a controversy surrounds his personality.
5) According to R.C. Majumdar, “No ruler in medieval India has evoked so much discussion
concerning his policy and character as Muhammad Tughlaq”.
6) Contemporary historians wrote against him, later historians described him insane. Both
historians exaggerated about his positive and negative traits. Present historians describe him as
a great politician and statesman.
B. Character estimate:
1) As a man:
1. Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq was generous and humble.
2. Ibn-e-Batuta has described him as a most humble of all men.
3. His personal life was blameless, free from common vices of Kings.
4. He was man of conflicting habits and on the basis of this some historians have described
him as “a mixture of opposite”.
5. The Sultan disliked low and mean people and yet he raised them to high posts.
6. He was very humble and at the same time extremely arrogant.
7. He was very generous and at the same time very cruel and ruthless.
2) As a ruler:
1. Sultan Tughlaq was a very ambitious king but followed tolerant policy towards Hindus.
Under his reign many Hindus rose to high positions. He held Hindu yogis in high esteem.
Similarly, he appointed a Hindu named Dhara as Naib Wazir in Deogiri. Similarly, he
appointed a Hindu ‘Ratan’ as the Governor of Sehwan (in Sindh).
2. Moreover, like all the medieval despots, Sultan Tughlaq was subject to great fits of rage
and had a very volatile temperament.
3. He inflicted brutal punishments on those who offended him.
4. As a ruler, it seems that he was born before his time and his schemes were put forward
some centuries too early. He was man of great ability but proved a failure as a sovereign.
5. Ibn-e-Batuta said, “Off all men, he most loves justice”.
6. He did not spare Qazis and established special courts for trying the cases of Qazis and
nobles.
7. The generosity of Sultan Tughlaq was unbounded. The contemporary writers are
unanimous in the view that he gave lavish gifts to numerous suppliants who crowded his
gates all the time.
8. Ibn-e-Batuta has described various instances of his generosity. For instance, Tughlaq
awarded 1 lac dinars to a Waiz (religious scholar) along with 200 slaves.
9. Similarly he awarded some poets with 1 thousand dinars on one couplet.
10. In the same way, Tughlaq lavishly awarded gifts to Ibn-e-Batuta.
3) As a scholar:
1. Sultan Tughlaq was endowed with extraordinary qualities of head and heart, pen and
mind. He possessed brilliant intellectual faculties.
2. Abdul Qadir views that, “He had a marvellous memory, a keen and penetrating intellect ...
learner of art, cultured scholar and an accomplished poet”.
3. Agha Mehdi Hussain in his book ‘Rise and Fall of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’ says, “Of
all the kings who sat on the throne of Delhi since Muslim conquest, he was undoubtedly the
most learned and accomplished”.
4. Barani calls him, “a veritable wonder of creation whose abilities would have taken by
surprise even Aristotle and Asaf”.
5. Sultan Tughlaq wrote a good Persian prose as well as poetry. He was a keen student of
Persian poetry of which he made an extensive use in his speeches and writings.
6. He was a good prose writer and it is said about him that no teacher of composition dared
to compete with him.
7. He was a brilliant calligraphist. He was quite at home in logic, philosophy, astronomy,
mathematics and physical sciences.
8. He was an ardent student of Greek philosophy. Theologians feared to argue with him.
9. He was acquainted with the use of medicine and prescribed medicine for the sick.
10. Lane Poole says, “He was perfect in the humanities of day”.
4) As a soldier and general:

1. Sultan Tughlaq proved himself to be a very accomplished soldier.
2. He possessed a well-built body and had the gait and bearing of a soldier.
3. During the reign of his father, he participated in Deccan campaign and played crucial
role in Ma’bar, Doara , Sumundra, Warrangal campaigns.
4. He possessed a dauntless spirit of courage and chivalry.
5. Most of his life was spent on the battlefield.
6. No Sultan of Delhi had to face so many and so well organised rebellions as Muhammad
Tughlaq. Probably no other Sultan of Delhi undertook so many campaigns in person and
dealt with so many rebellions as he did. This evidently proves his military skills.
7. He ruled his empire consisting of 23 provinces and after becoming king he was quite
successful in suppressing various revolts.
8. Despite his setbacks, he was very popular general among his soldiers. He kept the
morale of his troops high. He owed allegiance of his army.
9. Even when he became unpopular in masses, his army even then supported him.
10. Lane Poole says, “He was known to be a great general”.
1. Initially, Sultan Tughlaq was liberal in religious matters and liked Aristotle and other
philosophers.
2. Moreover, he was tolerant towards Hindus.
3. But, in his personal life, he was devoutly religious person.
4. He knew the Quran and a part of Hadith by heart.
5. He acted according to the tenets of Islam.
6. He followed Sharia to such an extent that before awarding death penalty to any criminal,
he sought Fatwa (permission) from the Qazi.
7. Similarly, he confiscated the property of nobles who were drunkard.
8. Zia-ud-Din Barani described him as, “Mujahid-e-Fi-Sabe lil Allah” (soldier of Almighty
Allah).
9. Ibn-e-Batuta has said that “Tughlaq was particular about the observance of articles of
faith that he punished those who neglected prayers”.
6) Sense of justice:
1. Though he inflicted extreme punishments while in rage and Ibn-e-Batuta has described
various instances of his misconduct and excessive brutality. But, overall he was an
embodiment of justice.
2. He dispensed justice even handily irrespective of caste, creed and status.
3. Once, a Hindu complained to Qazi that Sultan Tughlaq had killed his (complainant’s)
brother without any reason. Tughlaq went to court and appeared in front of Qazi. Qazi
ordered the Sultan to settle the issue by paying ‘Diyat’ otherwise he would be liable to
pay ‘Qisas’. Sultan settled this issue by offering huge sum of money to the deceased’s
family.
4. In the same way, a Muslim complained that the Sultan has confiscated his property
illegally. The Qazi ordered that the complainant should be compensated and he was
given money.
5. Furthermore, a Hindu boy complained that the Sultan had stuck him with 21 lashes. The
Sultan paid Qisas to the boy on the orders of the Qazi.
7) Temperamental flaws:
1. Sultan Tughlaq was learned and brilliant ruler but, he lacked the sense of realism and
understanding of human nature.
2. So, I.H. Qureshi views in his book, ‘A Short History of Pakistan’, “He knew no
moderation, nor the art of soothing people‟s feelings when they felt aggrieved because he
had no understanding of human psychology”.
3. Moreover, he was a man of brilliant ideas but, had little capacity to implement these
ideas.
4. He used to be carried away by his enthusiasm that he forgot to ensure the success of his
project by providing safeguards against obvious difficulties.
5. He lacked farsightedness.
6. Another shortcoming of Sultan’s personality was lack of perseverance.
7. He did not possessed cool mind and diplomacy which are hallmarks of an administrator.
Price Control Policy of Alaudin Khilji (1296-1316)
1) Introduction:
Alaudin Khilji was one of the greatest rulers of medieval India. His era is known for
the reforms, particularly his price control policy which is regarded as a novel experiment in
the realm of economic cum military management. Alaudin Khilji’s reforms were
instrumental in consolidation of Muslim rule in 13th and 14th Century A.D.
2) Motives/purpose behind the price control policy:
The motives included economic, military, strategic, political, public welfare which
enunciated the introduction of the reforms.
1. Strategic motives:
The Sultanate was confronted with the constant Mongol threat throughout
the 13 and 14th Century. When Alaudin contemplated to establish a permanent
th
standing army due to the Mongol threat, he needed money and material. The early
historians like Farishta and Barani hold view that Khilji was perplexed by Mongol
invasion and wanted wealth to confront the Mongols. He wanted a large army at
minimum cost. This was the main idea behind his price control policy. It was only
possible if the prices were fixed at a constant level. Therefore, the price control
policy and military reforms complemented each other. Even the modern historians
subscribe to the view held by the medieval historians.
2. Political motive:
Alaudin Khilji was faced with numerous revolts and when he investigated
the causes of these revolts, he realized that the abundance of wealth was the main
cause behind the rebellions. Unequal distribution of money had led people to revolt
against their masters. So, Alaudin believed that the wealth of nobles and feudal class
needed to be confiscated so that equality in income might be created. By the price
control policy, the nobles would be left with little money and would not contemplate
on revolting against the Sultan of Delhi Sultanate (Alaudin Khilji). So, Khilji wanted
to crush and suppress rebellion by making huge army which would be loyal to him.
3. Public welfare:
Medieval historians like Ameer Khusro,Ameer Hassan Sanjari, Assami,
andChiragh Delhvi are of the view that the price control policy was not introduced
merely out of military and strategic exigencies but the main reason behind the
introduction of the policy was the motive of the public welfare.
3) Features of Price Control Policy:
1. Fixation of prices:
Alaudin Khilji fixed the prices according to the production level. Barani is of
the view that “the prices were fixed according to „Bar Awari”’, means ‘bringing out’.
It is a Persian term used in Persian and Arabic institutions of northern India for the
bills of salaries and other expenditures. Sultan Alaudin Khilji made greater efforts
for ascertaining the prices of different items from other places of production before
the official price or ‘Nirkha-e-Sultan’ was fixed. Certain regulations were issued with
the objective of fixation of prices of food products, cloth and all kinds of piece goods,
maid servants, concubines, male servants, slaves, cattle, beasts of burden, various
articles of general merchandise such as ‘reori’ etc.
2. Ensuring the uninterrupted supply of all items of necessity and controlling the
demand:
The fixed prices could not have been maintained unless the supply of all
items was ensured and their demand was fully controlled. For this purpose, Alaudin
Khilji took various steps e.g. land revenue was collected largely in the kind mot in
cash, establishment of state granaries, enrolment of caravans in the register of
management officials and settling them down on the banks of Jumna around Delhi
with their families, advanced the loans up 20 lacks tinkas to Multan merchants.
All these attempts were meant to ensure the uninterrupted flow of
necessities into the cities. Similarly, the order for the collection of almost entire
surplus production from the peasants by revenue officer and grain merchants,
permit system for fine and rare quality cloth, elimination of middle man (broker)
from the sale and purchase of items and slaves.
3. Ways and means of enforcement of fixed prices:

Other regulations were concerned with the ways and means of enforcing
fixed prices. Government took strict measures against hoarders and black
marketers. The merchant was not allowed to accumulate more grain than necessity
and requirement. The consumer too was not allowed to purchase in excess of limit.
The hoarding of produce of Doab and neighbouring country up to a distance of 100
kos was prohibited.
1. Rationing system:
There was to be strict rationing in the times of famine. During the rationing
period, a consumer could buy maximum of half maund (3 kg) of any grain. The
government was to seek that the fixed price level was not disturbed during famine.
2. Diwan-e-Riyasat:
Diwan-e-Riyasat was in charge of cloth and general market. Yaqub who acted
as Diwan-e-Riyasat maintained a register or daftar in which the names of the
merchants were entered, and also the amount of grain merchandise they would
bring to the market.
3. Shahana-e-Mandi:
Shahana-e-Mandi was the superintendent of the grain market. Malik Qabul
Khan Alkhani who acted as Shahana-e-Mandi was to see that the shopkeepers
brought grains regularly to the market, sold it at fixed rates, and there was no black
market whatsoever.
4. A system of checks on machinery responsible for running the machinery:
A system of checks and balances was responsible for maintain the system.
The Sultan appointed a number of spies who sent their reports to him about the
market conditions. Sultan used to hear the reports of Shahana-e-Mandi , Hakim
Buraid or spies and if he found discrepancies in these reports these officials were
reprimanded. Moreover, Shahana-e-Mandi was provided with a schedule of control
rates and was required to keep an eye on all sales in the market.
5. Three kinds of markets:
Another feature of the reforms of price control system was the creation of
three kinds of markets. Alaudin Khilji established only one concentrated and whole
sale for identical items. Three markets included ‘Mandi’ or ‘Bazar-e-Ama’, ‘Sara-e-
Adl’ and the cattle market.
5.1. Mandi or Bazar-e-Ama:
It was scattered throughout the city. It was established for all types of grains
like wheat, pulses and barley etc. Seven regulations were issued regarding the
market and the prices of the commodities of general items were fixed according
to first regulation.
5.2. Sara-e-Adl:
Sara-e-Adl was the cloth market. This market was located near a deserted
place adjoining the Badaun gate. Besides the cloth, other articles of daily use
were also sold in this market such as edible and lamp oil, salt, fruits, sugar etc.
Five regulations were issued in this regard.
i) According to the first regulation, the goods valued more than 100 to 10,000
tankas could only be unloaded in this market.
ii) Similarly, through the second regulation, the prices of different types of
cloths were fixed.
iii) Third regulation dealt with the controlling mechanism of this market. For
this purpose, an office of Diwan-e-Riyasat was created. It contained a register
in which the names of all cloth merchants were enrolled and they had to sign
written contract to ensure that they would sell cloth according to official
rates.
iv) The fourth regulation was related to the cloth merchants of Multan that they
would not bring products from cities but only from Multan and sell them in
the Sara-e-Adl.
v) According to the fifth regulation the precious cloth could not be sold without
the permission of Rais-e-Diwan-e-Riyasat (controller of cloth market). It was
done to address and decrease the class disparities.
5.3. Cattle market:

The Sultan had also issued regulations for this market.
i) According to its first regulation, the horses used by the army were
categorized into three levels.
ii) The second regulation strictly prohibited the horse merchants and brokers
to sell and purchased horses from the market.
iii) The third regulation also imposed restriction on merchants and brokers.
Those who violated these restrictions were punished and
reprimanded. Similarly, the other regulations dealt with other cattle like
buffaloes, cows. Slaves, maids, concubines were also sold in this market. The
Sultan used to visit cattle market after 40 days. Strict policy was adopted for
the maintenance of prices of cattle and slaves etc. For instance, a good
quality horse valued 100-120 tankas. Good quality cow valued 3-4 tankas.
Similarly, the prices of slaves and maids were also determined and
categorized.
6. Criteria of appointment of officials:
A strict criterion was devised for the appointment of officials and these were
not only trust worthy and honest but also loyal to the Sultan. Malik Qabul Alkhani
was appointed as administrator of Diwan-e-Riyasat. Yaqub was head of Shahana-e-
Mandi. Those officials who failed to accomplish their tasks were punished strictly.
4) Impacts of the price control policy:
A. Positive impacts:
1. The price control policy of Alaudin Khilji, achieved remarkable success as
regards its objectives were concerned. For instance, it stabilized the price level
at a reasonable position and provided relief to the people. It also ensured the
maintenance of maximum army at minimum cost. It assisted in optimum
utilization of the resources.
2. This system remained in vogue in Delhi and its suburbs for the next 15 years.
3. The policy fulfilled the 3 basic requirements of that time. Bread, cloth and
Asthan (horse). This point is highlighted by Sher Muhammad Gerawal in his
book ‘The Glorious Past of the Muslims of India’.
4. This policy seems more remarkable it assessed in the present context because in
the modern age, it is not easy for the government to maintain price stability
level. Despite its limitations, it was very novel and unique policy in the Indian
history.
5. Moreover, the policy also provided relief to people even during the periods of
drought and famine. The registered dealers, who were supplied with grain from
the government granaries, were not allowed to sell more than half a maund to
any individual. The dealers who were charging the high price were punished
with 20 lashes.
6. Hazrat Naseer-ud-Din Chiragh Delhvi has described this period as one of
prosperous. Two or three tankas were sufficient for sumptuous dinner (ziafat). It
solved the basic problem of bread and butter of people.
7. The reforms were also instrumental in establishing peace and order in the
empire.
8. The economic regulations of Alaudin Khilji were greatest economic
achievements of the Sultanate period.
9. Farishta says; “till to the end Alaudin‟s reign, the prices remained steady...it was a
unique and remarkable achievement nothing like that had been accomplished
before and no one can say whether it be possible again”.
10. Barani has attributed four reasons behind the success of this policy:
i) Strict enforcement of the rules of the market.
ii) Vigorous collection of the taxes.
iii) Scarcity of metallic currency among the people.
iv) Zeal of honest officers who acted honestly out of fear of Sultan
To these four reasons these reforms were well planned, comprehensive and well
integrated. Hence each reform complemented the other.
11. Broke the concentration of money in few hands.
B. Negative impacts:
1. The price control system was not an all India policy but only implemented in
Delhi and its suburbs.
2. The strict price control proved to be a disincentive to the traders. Their profit
margins were sapped.
3. This policy was greatly resented by the Muslim nobility and the Hindu elements
which constituted the majority of Indian population.
4. The policy tried to crush the powers of revenue collection machinery which was
monopolized by Hindus.
5. It also crushed the power of nobles which were the backbone of the Sultanate.
5) Conclusion:
Despite its limitations, the policy’s novelty, comprehensiveness and effectiveness
cannot be underestimated. This policy earned Sultan the status of greater administrator
among the medieval rulers. The Sultan was temperamentally very perseverant. He
announced exemplary punishments for the culprits. Khilji was great judge of men that
enabled him to appoint very efficient administrators. Moreover, he was fully aware of the
psyche of common people and knew how to force people to compliance.
Reforms of Alaudin Khilji
A. Administrative reforms:
1) Confiscation of property owned by the wealthy classes abolished private ownership,
all villages and Jagirs were confiscated, and Muslim Imam Jagirs and rent free grants
were confiscated. Khilji confiscated the religious endowments, idarat pensions, milk
land; land held in proprietary rights was also confiscated.
2) Established an efficient body of spies who reported to king everything that passed in
the houses of nobles and bazaars of the cities. The Sultan kept vigilant eye on the
doings of high rank governors and officials.
3) Use of wine and other intoxicating drugs was also prohibited. Sultan Alaudin Khilji
himself set the example by giving up his drinking habit.
4) The Sultan pursued symbolic policy of crushing power and privileged position of
Hindu proprietary classes like Chaudhuries, Khuts, Moqadams.
4.1. According to Muhammad Majeed, in his book ‘Indian Muslims’; “the chiefs
were reduced to the level of peasantry and had to pay the land tax they cultivated”.
4.2. Grazing tax and house tax was also imposed.
4.3. Tripathi is of the view that measures adopted by the Sultan against the Hindus
were not due to religious differences but were due to the political and economic
causes.
4.4. Barani is of the view that the Sultan requested the wise men to supply some rules
and regulations for grinding down the Hindus and for depriving them of that
wealth and property which fosters disaffection and rebellion.
5) The Sultan was fully convinced that the abundance of wealth encourages the people
to rebellion. So, he adopted every possible mean to deprive the people of that wealth
and for this purpose, he devised various rules and regulations. He overhauled the
administrative machinery through his reforms.
B. Political reforms:
1) Humiliation of Jalali nobles and Hindu Zamindars:
1.1. The greatest challenge posed to Alaudin Khilji was from the nobles of Jalal-ud-
Din Khilji. The political reforms of Alaudin Khilji were aimed at bringing peace
and order in the empire. The first among his challenges were Jalali nobles. In the
beginning, Alaudin won them over by presenting them with large sums of
money and promoted them in their ranks. But, the moment he consolidated his
government and secured himself on throne, Alaudin decided to strike at Jalali
nobles’ powerful position.
1.2. When Sultan assumed throne, the exchequer was empty. In the second year of
his accession, he appointed Nusrat Khan, his wazir, to deal with Jalali nobles. The
Sultan removed them from high government offices and turned their Jagirs into
crown lands. The gold which these nobles had received from Alaudin Khilji for
their treachery towards the sons of Jalal-ud-Din Khilji was taken back. It is said
that in this way, Nusrat Khan recovered property worth 1 crore.
1.3. This brought an end to the power of Jalali nobles and strengthened the
government treasury.
1.4. The Sultan also got a happy riddance from nobility whose loyalty was always
doubtful. An interesting story is that only 3 nobles, who escaped the wrath of
Sultan, were those who remained loyal to the sons of Jalal-ud-Din Khilji. This
shows that Alaudin attached great importance to loyalty.
2) Crushing powers of Hindu chiefs:
2.1. Crushing the powers of Hindu chiefs was Alaudin’s second political step. He was
well aware that the increasing power of Hindu chiefs was the main cause behind
rebellion.
C. Revenue reforms:
1) The Sultan increased the financial resources of the state by eliminating the corrupt
practices in the revenue department. He tried to stem the corrupt practices of Hindu
wealthy class.
2) He was the first ruler in India to introduce the system of land survey and settlements.
3) The assessment of the revenue was made on the area cultivated and revenue was
fixed at half of the gross produce of land. The government extracted 50% of
agriculture surplus through this system of revenue collection.
4) Previously, the revenue was based on ‘Hukm-e-Hasil’ in which revenue was
assessed according to the produce and the government used to collect the revenue.
5) But the Sultan introduced ‘Hukm-e-Masahat‟ (measurement of land). In this system,
the land was measured and produce per bigha was calculated. It ensured the
increase in land revenue. This way the efficiency was increased manifold.
6) The land was categorized on the basis of ‘irrigated’ and ‘non-irrigated’. The barren
land was exempted from the revenue collection.
7) Certain new taxes were also introduced e.g. grazing tax and house tax.
8) The privileges of Moqadams and Chaudhuries were also cancelled.
9) Instead of the Chaudhuries, the land revenue was collected by the military men.
10) New officials were appointed in the revenue department.
11) But, this revenue system was not uniform and was only implemented in the area of
Doab, Rukhail Khand and Rajputana. These areas came directly under the Diwan-e-
Wizarat and were considered Khalsa lands. The revenue from these lands was
collected on ‘Hukm-e-Masahat’.
12) The second category of land was under the power of governor and he used to collect
revenue from this type of land on ‘Hukm-e-Masahat’.
13) But, in far flung areas and distant territories, the revenue was collected on old
practices.
14) The government collected revenue with the help of Moqadams and Chaudhuries.
15) The revenue was preferably received in kind and enabled the government to
provide relief to people during the period of drought and famine.
D. Military reforms:
1) Sultan Alaudin Khilji created a large standing army directly recruited by him and the
soldiers were paid by the State. The Sultan used to think the power and
perpetuation of the kingdom depended on an efficient army and civil machinery.
2) He introduced the practice of branding horses in order to prevent any cheating, so
that the unfit horses might not be brought to the battle field.
3) Alaudin Khilji also introduced the ‘Huliah’ system of soldiers. He got the preparation
of descriptive rolls of the soldiers so that temporary substitutes might not be shown
on the parades.
4) The Sultan deputed very efficient army along the North Western frontier which was
vulnerable to Mongol invasion.
5) The Sultan built forts along the routes of Mongols i.e. Uch, Depalpur, Multan, Hansi,
Samana. Previously the military was given land in lieu of their resources but Alaudin
Khilji abandoned the practice. Now, the army was given remuneration and salaries.
The army was recruited in the name of King and was paid salary in cash from the
government treasury. As a result of this, Sultan Alaudin Khilji not only became
supreme leader but also the pay master general of army as well. Thus, he was able to
obtain full loyalty of army. A sufficient salary was fixed for every soldier which
amounted to 234 tankas a year. Nearly 20 tankas per month plus ration. A man
having two horses was given 78 tanks additionally.
Reforms of Sher Shah Suri
A. Introduction:
1) The reforms of Sher Shah Suri are regarded as a milestone in the administrative history
of Medieval India.
2) These reforms were instrumental in strengthening of state, establishing the writ of law
and the success of Sher Shah’s rule.
3) Furthermore, these reforms proved to be a beacon of light for Akbar and paved the way
for Akbar’s glorious reign.
4) Therefore, Sher Shah is often described as the forerunner of Akbar.
5) According to Sher Shah, “The essence of royal protection consists in protecting the life
and property of subjects ”
B. Background:
1) The need of reforms emerges when the state is in turmoil and the writ of state is
gradually weakening.
2) When Sher Shah came to power, the writ of state had considerably weakened. The state
was confronted with the crisis as Babur had left the empty exchequer.
3) Moreover, Babur did not find time to consolidate his conquests and his successor
Humayun was constitutionally incapable of overcoming these challenges. Due to
Humayun‟s incompetence, the situation worsened.
4) Furthermore, this state of crisis prevailed after Tughlaq dynasty. After the demise of
Alaudin Khilji, there was no strong ruler, consequently the nobility gained strength.
5) Due to their leadership Iltutmish, Balban, and Alaudin Khilji may be classified as the the
only three strong Muslim rulers before Sher Shah in the subcontinent.
6) The nobles gained strength at the expense of the state, so the situation necessitated a
strong ruler who could reign in these elements and establish the writ of state.
7) Fortunately, for India, Sher Shah came to power. Sher Shah proceeded on the task of
comprehensive reforms. He launched the following reforms.
C. Sher Shah’s Administration:
Sher Shah was helped by various departments – Diwan-i-Wizarat, Diwan-i-Ariz,
Diwan-i-Risalat and Diwan-i-Insha, Diwan-i-Qaza and Diwan-i-Barid.
1) Diwan-i-Wizarat:
i) The Wazir was the head of the Diwan-i-Wizarat.
ii) He was in charge of both the income and expenditure of the country.
iii) He also exercised the general supervision over other ministers.
2) Diwan-i-Ariz:
i) The Diwan-i-Ariz was under Arizi-i-Mamalik.
ii) Arizi-i-Mamalik was the in charge of the recruitment, organization and discipline of
the army.
iii) He was responsible for the payment of salaries of the army.
3) Diwan-i-Risalat:
i) The Diwan-i-Risalat came under a foreign minister.
ii) His duty was to keep himself in touch with the ambassadors and envoys.
iii) He also dealt with diplomatic correspondence.
iv) The work of charity and endowment was also in his hands.
4) Diwan-i-Insha:
i) The Minister-in-charge of Diwan-i-Insha had to draft royal proclamation and
dispatches.
ii) He was in charge of Government records.
iii) His duty was to correspond with the Governors and other local officers.
5) Diwan-i-Qaza:
i) Diwan-i-Qaza came under the Chief Qazi.
ii) The duty of the Chief Qazi was to supervise the administration of Justice.
6) Diwan-i-Barid:
i) It was the Intelligence Department of the Government.
ii) It had a large number of news writers and spies who were scattered all over the
country.
D. Political / Administrative reforms:

1) Sher Shah’s political reforms were focussed on the centralization of power in the
hands of the king. He grabbed all the powers of nobles and wrested these powers in
his own hands.
2) The officials, nobility and ministers were left with no power and were to abide by
the orders of the king. Their main purpose was to implement the policy enunciated
by the King. In this way, the king became the main pivot around whom the whole
state system revolved.
3) S.M. Jaffar is of the view, “Sher Shah was the fountainhead of all authority, shadow of
God on and not answerable before anybody. He was against delegation of authority
and after the rebellion of Bengal; he became even more convinced of this idea”.
4) Abolition of Provinces:
1. Sher Shah overhauled the whole system of provincial administration, he
abolished provinces, divided the country into 47 Sarkars (district or divisions).
2. Each Sarkar was divided into Parganas. Each Pargana was consisted of various
villages.
3. Some historians do not subscribe to this view. They contend that except Bengal,
all other provinces were retained.
4. P. Saran maintains that the administrative division was province.
5. Whereas, Dr. Kaliranjan Qanungo insists that administrative unit was Sarkar
and Sher Shah divided country into 47 Sarkars besides 19 Sarkars in Bengal alone.
5) Sarkars:
1) In the time of Sher Shah, provinces were divided into Sarkars. The two
important offices of Sarkars were Munsif-i-Munsifan and Shiqdar-i-
Shiqdaran.
2) Munsif-i-Munsifan:
1. He acted like a judge and used to decide the Diwani (civil) cases.
2. He also supervised the work of Amins.
3. He appointed the Munsifs of Parganas, supervised revenue receipts.
4. Munsifan-e-Munsif used to decide mutual disputes of Parganas, addressing
the complaints of peasants.
3) Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran:
a) He was assigned with the task of restoration of peace (law and order) in
Sarkars, suppression of rebel Zamindars and implementation of
government’s writ in the state.
b) He was also to supervise the work of the Shiqdars of the Parganas.
4) The civilian administrators and the rulers of Sarkar were assisted by military
officer.
5) Sobaydar used to watch the activity of these rulers
6) Parganas:
1. During Sher Shah’s reign, there were many Parganas in a Sarkar.
2. The important officials in a Pargana were a Shiqdar, an Amin, a treasurer
(Fotahdar), a Munsif, a Hindi writer and a Persian writer for accounts.
3. Shiqdar:
i) Shiqdar maintained soldiers who were employed for maintaining peace and
rounding up the unsocial elements.
ii) He assisted in the collection of royal dues and even employed force if that
was necessary.
iii) He presided over the local common law courts dealing with criminal cases.
4. Amin:
i) The Amin supervised the land revenue administration and collection of
government dues.
ii) The entire staff of the revenue department in the Pargana was under his
control.
iii) He tried civil and revenue cases.
5. Treasurer (Fotahdar):
i) The Fotahdar was the treasurer of the Pargana.
ii) All the collections of the Pargana was deposited with him.
iii) He maintained account of the income and expenditure of the Pargana.
6. Clerks:
i) The clerks of the Pargana were known as Karkuns.
ii) One of the clerks maintained all records in Persian.
iii) Another clerk maintained duplicate records in Hindi for the convenience of
the public.
7) Qanungo was appointed for the maintenance of financial affairs. The Pargana
consisted of ‘Dihat’ (village) and the conspicuous feature of administration of Sher
Shah was that he retained the principles of local sovereignty in the affairs of the
local areas.
8) Furthermore, Sher Shah appointed Chaukidar, Chaudhry, Patwaris and Muqadams.
These were important officials of the villages. They who acted as intermediaries
between the people and the Government. The headman (Chaudhry) was vested with
the control of Dihats and he was held responsible for any crime in villages.
9) The decisions of local cases were settled in the Panchayat.
E. Revenue reforms:
1) Introduction:
1. Sher Shah Suri’s revenue reforms are considered as a novel experiment in the
history of India.
2. These reforms went a long way towards the success of his reign and proved a
beacon of light for the Mughal Emperor Akbar’s glorious period.
2) Background:
1. When Sher Shah assumed the throne, the revenue was in shambles.
2. The country became the hostage to Iqtadars and corruption was rampant in the
revenue administration. This caused huge loss to the state exchequer.
3. The worst sufferers were the peasants and agricultural cultivators. Sher Shah,
being a visionary leader, believed that economic lot of country could not be
improved and no reform could prove beneficial unless agriculturists are not
provided relief.
4. Moreover, Sher Shah based his revenue system on the information gathered by
him during his experience in Bihar.
5. He had administered his father’s estate for 20 years in Bihar. So, he fully
capitalized this experience.
6. Therefore Dr. Qanungo opines that “Sher Shah had a readymade revenue system
which he had fully tested”.
7. Sher Shah considered that without rectifying the revenue administration, the
state could not be strengthened.
8. The solutions of many political problems lied in revamping the revenue system.
3) Reforms:
1. Measurement of land:
i) Sher Shah ordered the whole land of state to be measured and this
measurement was based on ‘Sikandari Guz’.
ii) A uniform standard of land measurement was established, old Jarib (‫)رسی‬
which had been of variable diameter and length was abolished.
iii) Sher Shah used hemp ropes. The measurement was based on Sikandar
Lodhi’s Guz which was of 32 digits. Its application was applied on uniform
basis.
iv) Land was divided into Bighas, and 1 Bigha was the unit of area measuring
60x60 yards (3600 sq. Yards).
v) Total cultivable land in each Pargana, village and city was measured in this
manner.
2. Classification of land on the basis of continuity of cultivation:
i) The cultivable land was classified into four divisions and categories and the
basis of classification was not the kind of land and soil fertility but the
criteria was the continuity of cultivation.
ii) On the basis of continuity of cultivation, the land was divided into 4
categories – Polaj, Parauti, Chachar and Banjar.
a) Polaj: Polaj was land of highest quality. It was annually cultivated for
each crop in succession. This land was never left fallow any time.
b) Parauti: It was left fallow for a year to recover its fertility.
c) Chachar: It was left fallow for 3 or 4 years to recover its fertility.
d) Banjar: It was left fallow for 5 or more years.
3. Rate of revenue:
i) According to P. Saran and Tripathi, “the rate of land was 33% or 1/3”.
ii) Whereas Dr. Qanungo opines that, “the rate of land revenue was 25% or ¼ in
cash or kind, but usually the government preferred payment in cash.”
iii) The cultivators were allowed to directly deposit the revenue.
4. Methods /modes / purpose of revenue collection:
i) A detailed method and procedure was devised for revenue collection.
ii) The official who was deputed on revenue collection was called ‘Amin’.
iii) Amin issued a Pata bearing the required amount and after that Pata, he
accepted ‘Qabuliat’ duly signed by every cultivator; which contained the
record of his own property and revenue.
iv) This system of Pata was introduced to save the peasants from the
exploitation of intermediaries and Dalals (middlemen).
v) Another machinery involved in the revenue collection included, Patwari,
Qanungo, Amulguzars. The land revenue was collected by the village
Headman who charged 5 percent for his labour.
vi) During the time of revenue collection, the officials assessed the revenue very
leniently, but received it very strictly.
vii) The revenue was exempted only in the case of famine and drought and the
government issued ‘Taqqauvi loans’ to the famine and drought affected
peoples.
5. Taxes other than the revenue:
i) There were two more taxes other than the revenue – Jaribana and
Mahasilana.
ii) Jaribana:
a) Jaribana was the measurement tax for those who measured the land.
b) It was a remuneration of land surveyors.
c) It was 2 -5 % from region.
iii) Mahasilana:
a) Mahasilana was the tax which was paid to the revenue hierarchy
machinery.
6. Three methods of revenue assessment:
i) There were three methods of revenue assessment in Sher Shah’s revenue
system i.e. Zabti, Nasaqh or Muktai and Ghala Bhakshi Batai.
ii) Zabti:
a) It was the assessment of per Bigha land revenue on the basis of average
of previous produce.
b) If the cultivator agreed with it, the tax was imposed.
c) This system was also called ‘Naqdi’ or ‘Jami’ system.
iii) Nasaqh or Muktai:
a) It was mutually decided or assessed before time, based on expected yield
and thus government revenue was determined.
iv) Ghala Bakshi or Batai:
a) Officials reach at the time of harvest; grain was divided into 3 parts and
the revenue collectors took 1/3 and received their share for the
government.
7. Other systems of revenue extraction:
i) Apart from this system, Sher Shah’s revenue system was not uniform.
ii) In the areas of Rajputana, Malwa and Multan the old land revenue system
was continued.
8. Critical Analysis of Sher Shah’s Revenue System and Reforms:

i) Despite of his check and balances, Sher Shah couldn’t stop corruption among
the officials of the Revenue Department.
ii) The Jagirdari System was also another defect in the system.
iii) The share of the Government was fixed at one-third of the average produce
of the three kinds of land, viz., good, middling and bad. The result was that
the bad land was over-charged and the good land was under charged.
F. Military reforms:
1) While organizing his military, Sher Shah kept the military reforms of Alaudin Khilji
under his observation.
2) The old system of military recruitment based on Iqtadari system was abolished.
Instead, Sher Shah established a permanent standing army which was recruited directly
by the central government.
3) He invited Afghan soldiers from every part of the country and gave them highest posts
in the army. He himself supervised the process of the recruitment and increased the
number of troops. Sher Shah reintroduced the practice of Chera – the preparation of the
descriptive rolls of the soldiers. In this way fraudulent musters were checked.
4) Sher Shah reintroduced the system of Dagh or branding of horses and he himself
supervised it. Sher Shah’s put a lot of emphasis on the cavalry. His army comprised of
125,000 horsemen (cavalry), and 25,000 foot soldiers (infantry).
5) According to Prof. Shamsuddin, “there were thousands of elephants in his army”.
6) Sher Shah established various cantonments in Delhi, Rohtas, Chittor, Nagor and Jodhpur
etc. In these cantonments, he employed military troops called ‘faujdars’. During the
peace time, it did not interfere in the civilian life. But, during the crises of law and order,
this military was called.
7) He imposed very strict military discipline and army was strictly prohibited from
damaging the crops during advances and campaigns.
8) If somebody, violated the commands of the king, his ears were amputated or a bag of
grain was attached around his neck and was paraded to humiliate him publically. The
cultivators who were affected by these acts of army were duly compensated. In the case
of indispensability, the damage was assessed and paid to the cultivators.
9) Critical Analysis of Military Reforms:
1. The Afghan contingents often consisted of members of a single clan or tribe. The
result was that their natural loyalty was to the tribal leaders rather than a sovereign.
2. This fact is proved by the revolts of Khawas Khan and Habit Khan against Islam
Shah.
3. The provincial contingents were not under the control of the centre.
G. Judicial Reforms:
1) The courts presided over by the Qazi and Mir Adl tried civil cases.
2) Sher Shah focussed on the expeditious dispensation of justice.
3) The Hindus settled their disputes in their Panchayats.
4) The criminal law of that time was very hard and punishments were severe.
5) The object of punishment was not to reform the criminal but to set an example so that
others may not do the same.
H. Currency:
1) Sher Shah also introduced various currency reforms.
2) The old tanka was abolished and rupee was issued in its place.
3) He also issued coins of one-half, one-fourth, one-eighth and one-sixteenth.
4) The names on the coins were given in Devanagari script.
5) Moreover, 23 mints were established throughout the country.
6) In the same way, coins of pure gold and silver were also issued.
7) In order to prevent the fake currency the coins were officially stamped and inscribed
with particular sign.
8) Sher Shah introduced a new coin called Dam.
I. Religious tolerance:
1) According to Dr. Qanungo, Sher Shah followed a policy of religious toleration towards
the Hindus.
2) His attitude was “not contemptuous sufferance but respectful deference”.
3) Sri Ram Sharma differs from Dr. Qanungo. According to him “Sher Shah was very
much devoted to his own faith. On more than one occasion he resorted to Jihad against
Rajputs.”
4) Generally, Sher Shah was tolerant in matters of religious belief.
5) He separated politics from ethics.
6) He did not carry on any organized propaganda against the Hindus. On the whole, he was
tolerant towards the Hindus.
7) According to Dr. A.L. Srivastava, “The net result of Sher Shah‟s policy was that his
Muslim subjects never felt angry with him on account of his liberal and lenient policy
towards the Hindus. On the other hand, Akbar, in his anxiety to please his Hindus
subjects, ignored the sentiments of his Muslim subjects”.
8) Dr. A.L. Srivastava writes, “Sher Shah‟s policy was that Islam should be given its due
dignity and supremacy in this land but, at the same time, Hinduism should not be held
inferior nor should it be degraded”.
9) He further adds, “If Akbar and his successors had pursued this policy of religious
neutrality in the country, this complicated problem of India would have found a correct
solution very long ago”.
10) Sher Shah did not interfere with the education of the Hindus. Some of the religious
institutions of the Hindus were given grants in aid.
11) In the Sarais which he constructed on various, separate provisions was made for Hindus
and Muslims.
J. Miscellaneous Reforms:
1) Trade:
1. Sher Shah abolished various duties which were levied at the frontiers of every
province.
2. Only two duties were allowed. The first duty was levied when the goods were
brought into the country and the second was levied when the goods were sold.
3. All internal customs were abolished.
2) Means of communication:
1. Sher Shah was a great road-maker. He built four big roads.
2. The first road was from Sonargaon in Bengal to the Indus. This road was known as
the Sarak-i-Azam. This can be identified by the present Grand Trunk Road.
3. The second road ran from Agra to Burhanpur.
4. The third road ran from Agra to Jodhpur and Chittor.
5. The fourth road from Lahore to Multan.
6. Sarais (nearly 1700) were built on these roads. Market towns developed near these
Sarais and trade improved.
3) Education:
1. Sher Shah did not interfere in the education of the Hindus.
2. The religious institutions of the Hindus were given grants in aid.
3. For Muslims, a maktab was attached to every mosque for imparting elementary
education and teaching Persian and Arabics.
4) Charity:
1. Free kitchens were established by the Government.
2. Special grants were given to Madrassahs and mosques.
3. Stipends were given to teachers and students.
5) Intelligence Department:
1. The Sarais were also used as Dak Chaukis.
2. A Daroga-i-Dak Chauki was appointed by Sher Shah.
3. A large number of news writers and news carriers were employed and the King got
daily reports regarding what was happening in various parts of the country.
Role of Nobility during the Muslim Rule
1) Introduction
2) Role of nobility under Sultanate and Mughals
3) Nature of nobility under Sultanate
4) Party and politics of nobility under Mughals
5) Impact of nobility of medieval India
_______________________________________
1) Introduction
Nobility played a major role in the politics of medieval period. More over it also profoundly
affected the ethos of medieval Indian society. There are two conspicuous features of nobility’s role.
For instance, in one respect nobility’s role proved instrumental in the ascendency and authoritarian
of Muslim rulers, on the other hand it proved to be a destabilizing factor for Muslim rulers and for the
state too. Nobility also proved to be carrier of foreign influences. In this manner it also played its role
in the cultural development.
2) Nature and role of nobility under the Sultanate
Muslim polity under the Sultanate was dominated by the Turks and Afghans differently in
different eras:
1. Slave dynasty: Turks domination
2. Khilji revolution: Confusion about their Turk or Afghan origin
3. Tughlaqs: Turks again came into power
4. Amir Taimur’s invasion: Syeds and Lodhies (Afghans) remained dominant
Turks administered the policy of racial exclusiveness. They always favoured Turks to be
nobles of the Sultanate.
3) Nobility’s classification under the Sultanate
Nobility of that era can be easily classified into three types from the Ghauri’s reign:
1. Transit Turks
2. Immigrant Turks
3. Slave officers
4) Hierarchy of Muslim officers
1. Qutbi Nobles: Ahle Saif
2. Shamsi Nobles: Ahle Qalum
3. Warrior class
4. Rajput adversary
5. Khan
6. Malik
7. Amir
8. Sipa Salar
5) Mughal nobility
They introduced Mansabdars as their nobles. Both Muslims and Hindus were in aristocracy.
They enjoyed luxurious life. They belonged to different tribes and baradaris such as:
1. Chughtais
2. Persians: Persian elements
3. Rajputs
4. Indians
So, it can be said that Mughals’ nobility was composed of Indian, Turanian and Hindustani
Nobles. In both the periods i.e. Sultanate and Mughal, secular and religious matters also divided
nobility.
6) Parties and politics of nobility under the Sultanate
Strong kings used to control nobility according to their power and capability or they used to
create good relations with them. Iltutmish faced opposition of nobility after the death of Qutb-ud-Din
Aibak. Taj-ud-Din Yaldiz and Naseer-ud-Din Qabacha engaged Iltutmish in wars against themselves.
Similarly, nobility of ‘The Forty’ had much influences on kings and Sultan of Delhi.
The nobility assumed the role of king makers in 1236 after the death of Iltutmish. It also
brought down the rule of Balban in 1246. Balban established his rule like the rule of ‘The Forties’.
The nobility was mysteriously removed in Balban’s era. The policy of cup of poison and dragger was
adopted by Balban to quell the influence of the nobility. Balban promoted the junior Turks into his
service. The grandson of the Balban also faced the opposition of nobility. Advent of Jalal-ud-Din Khilji
was a big change. His throne marked a paradigm shift in history of Muslim India during the Sultanate
period. In represented ascendency of new elements in power politics i.e. the Afghans. Later Alaudin
Khilji’s accession to the throne also led to a new tussle between him and Jalali nobles as he tried to
reign in Jalali nobles by offering gifts and rewards and later by containing them.
Tughlaq dynasty once again marked up ascendency of Turkish nobility. Muhammad bin
Tughlaq’s era assumed unique significance in the history of nobility of medieval India. For instance,
Muhammad bin Tughlaq even inducted foreigners in nobility. Similarly, he also pursued the policy of
promoting low caste people into the state services through his liberal administrative policy.
During the period of Feroz Shah Tughlaq, the nobility became even more ascendant in the
polity of Delhi Sultanate. Even his reforms led to the consolidation of Iqtadari system which became
even better entrenched. The Tughlaq dynasty was followed by period of chaos and anarchy in
between 1388 till 1414. Two lac slaves of Feroz Tughlaq entered as new element of power politics
and assumed the role of King Makers. During the Syeds and Lodhies periods the Afghan nobility
became ascendant. Lodhies made a military state. Bhalul Lodhi and Sikandar Lodhi are known for it.
They transformed the Iqtadari system to the Jagirdari system. Ibrahim Lodhi got a lot of frictions
against his government during his rule.
7) Parties and politics of nobility under the Mughals
Mughal polity was more complex as compared to that of Delhi Sultanate. For instance,
various new elements entered into nobility during the Mughal period which included Chughtais,
Turanis and Persio-Khorasanians elements as well as Hindustani elements (Hindu nobles).
Humayun’s self exile in Iran and recovery to his throne led to the entry of Persian elements,
previously Khorasanian elements had entered into India as a result of Mughal invasion. The
Turanians belonged to Central Asia; they were Turk-Mongols by race and Sunni by creed. They
formed the most dominant part of diplomacy of Mughals and they had great ability of performing
military and civil services. Some of them made them a very influential class both in army and in the
state structure. Akbar entered a new element in Mughal nobility – the Rajputs who were considered
to the warrior arm of India. Akbar’s Rajput policy further made them well entrenched in Indian
politics. Akbar has introduced this new element to counterpoise the role of Ulemas and other nobles
as well as he reduced his dependence on local and Turanis and Chughtais. Therefore, the entry of
these elements proved to be the carriers of more secular influences. This made the orthodox nobles
more concerned regarding the preservation of exclusivity of Muslims. Therefore, the orthodox
Muslim historians termed the period of Akbar as rise of new heterodoxies against which Hazrat
Mujadid Alf Sani RA (Sheikh Ahmed Sarhindi) launched a movement of Islamic revival by mobilising
Sunni nobles. This movement profoundly influenced Muslim nobles. The effects of this movement
even transcended Mujadid’s era and affected a section of Muslim nobles of Jahangir, Shah Jahan and
Aurangzeb’s period. Even the supported provided to Aurangzeb through instrumental in his final
triumph over Dara Shikoh. Moreover the tussle between Dara and Aurangzeb also represented the
tussle between the adherents of two word views of nobility – Syncretism and Puritanical Islam
During the later Mughal period, this tussle among these sections of nobles became even
more explicit. For instance, the nobility played major role in war of succession 1709-1719. Now the
nobles like Syed Brothers played a role of King Makers in between 1713-1719. They brought the fall
of 6 rulers in between 1713 to 1718.
8) Impacts of nobility
It played its role in consolidation of the state, development of the institutions, cultural
contributions and empowerment of Muslim role. Behram Khan played major role in the recovery of
Humayun’s reign and he made highest official of Akbar’s Mansabdari system. Rajputs nobles became
the strength of Mughal rule. Aurangzeb could not get success without the help of Mir Jumla and
Shaista Khan. The conspiratorial role of nobles was also cause of the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate
and Mughal Empire. The conspiratorial role of 40 nobles was famous for its attitude towards the
kings. The nobility caused friction toward Feroz Tughlaq’s rule. It caused downfall of Ibrahim Lodhi
in which Afghan nobility played front role. Nobility always supported the rebel princes. Syed
brothers’ role in the later Mughal rule amply testifies this argument. The conspiratorial role of
nobility led to the chaos and wars of succession in the Mughal reign. The nobility was a carrier of a lot
of major influences. The nobility was major instrument in the promotion of culture.
Role of State
1) Introduction
2) State under the Delhi Sultanate
1. State and Sharia
2. State and the Caliphate
3. Less degree of military fiscalization
3) State under the Mughals
1. Great degree of administrative centralization
2. More tolerant policy towards the non-Muslims
3. Greater degree of military fiscalism
4) Other traits of state’s role
1. State ruled by benevolent despots
2. State dominated by secular policy
3. Ruling class was indigenized
4. Greater degree of administrative rationalization than Brahamanic social order
5. Extraction of agricultural surplus by ruling class but not drainage of wealth
6. Less exploitation of peasants
5) Misconception about state’s role
1. State was missionary institution
2. Notions of Oriental despotism and Asiatic mode of production
3. Sultanate’s state as a militarized polity
6) Conclusion
__________________________________
1) Introduction:
There are great number of controversies and misconceptions among the historians
regarding the nature and role of the state during the medieval period. However, modern
historians and new historical research has provided theoretical insights and historical
literature focusing on comparison between the medieval state and colonial state has
brought new insights regarding the role of state. These not only provide better
comprehension or understanding of state’s role, but also allow one, a greater space for
analysing different trajectories of state’s role.
2) Role of state during the Sultanate Period:
State’s role was to uphold Sharia and to preserve it. It also tackled the challenges
towards Sharia. The state did not want to impose Sharia and it never did it. It remained a
Muslim state rather than an Islamic state. Its role was to protect Islamic religion and
providing freedom to other religions too. The Sultanate of Delhi did not violate Sharia
openly.
The conspicuous feature of the state was that the Muslim rulers sort legitimacy from
Muslim Caliphate. Mahmud of Ghazna went to get Royal investiture from the Caliphate. In
the Friday congregation name of Muslim Caliph was called. The arrangement of revenue
cum military, system of revenue collection was based on Iqtadari System. Iqta means tracks
of land given to the nobles.
The military officials were not directly paid from the state’s exchequer. Similarly,
there was no direct standing army under the state control. But, there were certain
exceptions, for instance, under strong rulers like Balban and Khilji; the Army was paid by
state exchequer. As we compare with colonial era, there was less military fiscalization.
3) Role of state under the Mughals:
In the reign of Mughals there was a greater degree of centralization. Through
military extension and conquests the state expanded. Assignment system was changed
under Mansabdari system, which exceeded state’s control. In this system separate lands
were assigned and a mansab was paid by the central government.
4) Other traits of state’s role:
1. Public welfare.
2. Pro-agriculturist vision.
3. Justice and equality towards all the people.
4. State dominated by secular polity.
5. Tolerant attitude towards the non-Muslims.
6. Equal rights towards the non-Muslims.
7. Ruling clan was settled in India (indigenised).
8. No drainage of wealth during this period – All wealth was consumed on India.
9. More space for vertical and horizontal mobility during this period than the
Brahamanic rule.
10. Greater degree of rationalization than Brahamanic social order.
11. The criterion for promotion was merit.
12. People of low castes were provided opportunities to upraise their social structure.
13. There was no private propitiation in land. The state’s revenue system was not
directed towards dispossession of peasantry.
14. Less exploitation of peasants than that of in colonial era. The peasants were not
disposed and allowed to have so much land that they can handle to cultivate. The
peasantry was made happy to cultivate land as much as they can.
15. Extraction of agricultural surplus by ruling class but no drainage of wealth.
5) Misconception of state’s role:
The state was not a missionary institution. The state had been seen rigidly by the
westerns historians.
1. Reification:
Humans are seen as commodities.
2. Oriental despotism:
It is an Asiatic mode of production in which all the produce is the right or
wealth/property of the dictator.
The state system during the Muslim rule was a refined oriental construction. To
consider the Sultanate of Delhi as a militarized polity – it is wrong.
Shah Jahan’s Golden Period
Outline:
1) Introduction
2) Background
3) Shah Jahan’s period as a ‘Golden Period’ – Arguments in the favour of this contention
1. Zenith of Mughal cultural development
2. Era of peace and tranquillity
3. Economic prosperity
4. Works of public welfare
5. Magnificence of the court
4) Factors contributed towards the prosperity of the Empire
5) Views of critics – Arguments against ‘Golden Period’
6) Conclusion
1) Introduction:
Shah Jahan’s period marks a glorious chapter in the annals of medieval India. This
period witnessed unprecedented cultural development, commercial expansion, general
prosperity as well as further military conquests in the distant territories of southern India.
On account of these developments Shah Jahan’s period is often described as the ‘golden
period’. It is also corroborated by the accounts of foreign travellers, as well as the
contemporary historians. For instance Khafi Khan praised good administration of Shah
Jahan. Nicholas Manucci (Venetian adventurer) describes Shah Jahan’s government as “the
most perfect”. The gorgeousness of his court surpassed the imagination of foreign visitors
like Francis Bernier (French physician), Albert Mandelslo (German traveller) Manucci
and Jean Baptiste Tavernier (French traveller) and drew unstinted admiration.
Will Durant in ‘The Story of Civilization’ opines that, “His thirty years government
marked the zenith of India‟s prosperity and prestige. The lordly Shah Jahan was a capable
ruler”.
2) Background:
J. L. Mehta opines, “Shah Jahan inherited a vast but consolidated empire from his
ancestors”. In Shah Jahan’s era the process of political unification of country initiated by
Akbar on sound nationalistic principles was in full swing. The military might of the empire
was built so laboriously by his predecessors guaranteed slow but steady extension of
dominion; even grossly mismanaged expeditions and undesirable foreign expeditions could
not strain the military prowess and resources of the state beyond repairs. The uniform
system of administration evolved by Akbar for the country had attained maturity and the
functioning of the state machinery had become almost automatic. Various strings of the far
sighted policy laid by Akbar were deeply rooted into the soil. So, all this set the stage for the
unprecedented glory during Shah Jahan’s era.
Akbar and Jahangir had bequeathed to Shah Jahan a well knit, prosperous and the
best administered empire of Asia. He had therefore no anxiety of any sort about the political
and administrative affairs. His only concern was to yield the spectre and maintain peace and
order within his dominions and he was well equipped by the virtue of his education,
training and experience to perform this function more successfully.
3) Shah Jahan’s period as a ‘Golden Period’ – Arguments in the favour of this contention:
1. Zenith of Mughal cultural development:
i) The most visible manifestation of Shah Jahan’s glorious reign was its cultural
development. It was in the cultural sphere that Shah Jahan’s reign witnessed a
unique glory. V. A. Smith says, “In the realm of architecture and other forms of
art it is unquestionable that the works of the highest quality in the Mughal period
belonged to the reign of Shah Jahan”.
ii) Shah Jahan’s period witnessed the construction of magnificent buildings in
Delhi, Agra and Lahore – the three major centres of Mughal Empire in northern
India. During this period, grand mosques were built as well as splendid gardens
were laid in various parts of the empire. Among the distinguished additions in
Mughal architecture included Taj Mahal in Agra, which is regarded as the ‘queen
of architectures’ and ‘dream in marble’. In Delhi, Heera Mahal, Rang Mahal, Shah
Bung were constructed. Shah Jahan built a new capital near Delhi which is called
Shah Jahanabad. Moreover, the Red Fort of Delhi and its Dewan-e-Khas and
Dewan-e-Aam were also constructed by Shah Jahan.
iii) In Lahore, Shah Jahan made valuable additions to the Lahore Fort. These
included Khwab Gah, Nau Lakha Burj, Sheesh Mahal, Dewan-e-Aam, Musaman
Burj. Furthermore, this period also witnessed the construction of Jahangir’s
tomb, Noor Jahan’s tomb and Asaf Khan’s tomb.
iv) Among the prominent architecture, the mosques constructed during this period
stand to testify the grandness of Mughal Empire and glory of Shah Jahan’s reign.
The Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque), Ali Masjid of Shah Jahanabad, two grand
mosques in Thatta and Masjid Wazir Khan in Lahore were constructed in this
period. Among the garden which testify the Mughal glory include Nishat Bagh
(Kashmir), Shasma Shahi (Kashmir), and Shalimar Bagh (Lahore).
v) Ferguson, the historian of architecture, said of the palace of Shah Jahanabad
that it was “the most magnificent in the East-perhaps in the world”.
vi) V. A. Smith opines that, “the edifices of Shah Jahan are characterized by elegance
rather than by strength, and by the lavish use of extraordinarily costly decoration”.
vii) During Shah Jahan’s era he generously patronized the literati as is evident from
the association of celebrated historians and poets with his Durbar. For instance,
Abdul Hameed Lahori, the author of ‘Padshahnamah’, Inayat Khan
(!Muhammad Sadiq original name Inayat Khan title) the author of ‘Shah
Jahannamah’, Muhammad Salih Kanboh author of ‘Amal-e-Salih’, Khaffi
Khan(Muhammad Hashim of Khwaf) the author of Muntakhab-ul-Lubab ,
Abdul Qasim Irani, and Mirza Zia-ud-Din were the prominent historian of his
period.
viii) A number of Hindi poets were also associated with his court like Tulsi Das
and Behari Lal etc.
ix) Some Sanskrit works were also translated by Dara Shikoh.
2. Era of peace and tranquillity:
With the exceptions of one or two rebellions, the reign of Shah Jahan enjoyed
an uninterrupted peace and order. Foreign travellers testified to the prevalence of
perfect law and order in the empire during the period of Shah Jahan. The roads were
safe, the movement of traffic was brisk, the dacoits and thieves were inflicted severe
punishments and antisocial elements were held in check. Stern measures were
taken to protect the life and property of the subjects. The author of ‘Lubb-ut-
Tawarikh’, Rai Behari Mal has recorded with admiration the steps taken by Shah
Jahan to maintain law and order. “The means employed by the King in these happy
times to protect and nourish his people, to punish all kinds of oppressive doers, all
these contributed in a great measure to advance the prosperity of his empire”.
3. Economic prosperity:
During this period the trading activities greatly flourished between India
and Western Asia and the export trade started with Europe. The uninterrupted
peace, freedom from the foreign invasion enriched the state treasury and ushered in
an era of prosperity and material well being of the people. His revenue was larger
than that of his predecessors and mainly owing to the financial ability of his able
wise Wazir Sadullah Khan (the most able and upright minister, that ever appeared in
India – V. A. Smith). Moreland is of all praise for the excellent financial
administration of Shah Jahan which increased the incomes of the people beyond all
precedents without causing much strain on the peasantry. Moreland calls his reign
“a period of agrarian tranquillity” in his book, ‘Agrarian System of Muslim India’.
Ray Behari Mal says that, “The prosperity of the empire increased and the
Parganas which had an income of 3 lacs in the time of Akbar now yielded 10 lacs”.
4. Works of public welfare:
Shah Jahan paid special attention towards the works of public utility. During
his reign, Ali Mardan Khan supervised the construction of various canals on his
orders; a canal was dug out from Ravi for irrigation in the vicinity of Lahore at the
cost of 1 lac rupees. It was 98 miles long. Similarly, he also repaired the West Jumna
Canal which had been constructed by Feroz Tughlaq. It was renamed by Shah Jahan
as Nehr-e-Bhashit. Shah Jahan government made allowable efforts for the
reclamation of lands and increased agricultural production. He tried to reform
‘Mansabdari system’. He did succeed in restoring efficiency in the Mansabdari
system which had been deteriorated in the later years of Jahangir’s reign.
Magnificence of the court:
The most visible manifestation of Shah Jahan’s glorious period was the
enhancement of courts splendour and grandeur. Dr. Tripathi opines, “The Peacock
throne and the glitter of jewels dazzled the foreign travellers”.
5. Military expansion:
Shah Jahan’s period witnessed further expansion of Mughal rule in interior
of Deccan. He extended his territories by annexing Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and
Golkanda. During Shah Jahan’s rule, his third son Aurangzeb played a major role in
extending the southern frontier of his empire.
4) Factors contributing towards the prosperity of the Empire:
1. Shah Jahan’s personal interest in the public welfare made his reign a Golden Period.
He was not an ease loving ruler. He tool personal interest in state affairs and did
everything diligently and methodically as is evident from his personal routine. He
strictly adhered to the daily routine whether encamped or in the capital.
Contemporary historians write that “He led a strenuous life and divided his time
evenly between the government and the sport”.
2. Shah Jahan proved himself as a very benevolent ruler. He treated his subjects with
tenderness. Tavernier says, “He (Shah Jahan) reigned not so much as a king over his
subjects but as a father over his family and children”.
3. Sense of justice was also responsible for the efficient administration Shah Jahan’s
reign. Shah Jahan was very keen to earn the title of Shahanshah-i-Adil. The
Wednesday was reserved for the administration of justice. He enjoyed the
reputation of a just ruler who administrated justice even handily to high and low.
Manucci in ‘Historia do Mogor’, cites an instance how the emperor personally
intervened to restore the property of deceased Bellamont, a foreigner to his rightful
successor by taking cheats to task.
4. According to Lane Poole, “Shah Jahan was renowned for his kindness and
benevolence which endeared him to the people”.
5. He was a great judge of men. He appointed able administrators like Raja Ragunath
Rao, Mahabat Khan, Ali Mardan Khan and Sadullah Khan.
6. He reformed Mansabdari system and decreased the rate of pays of Mansabdars and
exacted a stated quota of troops from them.
5) Views of critics – Arguments against ‘Golden Period’:
1. On the one hand, these were manifestations of the glory of his period, but on the
other hand, the critics trace in the reign of Shah Jahan the germs of decay which led
to the disintegration of the empire. The accounts of European travellers throw a
lurid light upon Shah Jahan’s provincial administration. Peter Mundy describes,
“The governors as cruel and capricious tyrants who acted callously in their dealings
with the people”. According to him the Governor of Patna Abdullah Khan levied
customs duties even upon milk sellers.
2. Francis Bernier accounts, “the people were not at all destitute of good laws although
high officials could disregard them with impunity. The chief men in the country were
opportunists and time-servers. Provincial governors were rapacious, oppressive and
ambitious. The people were demoralised and spiritless. The peasantry was completely
crushed”.
3. Francis Bernier opines that, “the misrule of provincial governors often deprived the
artisans and peasants of necessities of life”.
4. V. A. Smith says that, “The severity exhibited by the emperor was imitated by his
provincial governors, who never dreamed of studying the causes of crime, been content
to attempt its repression by a policy of indiscriminate massacre”.
5. When Peter Mundy one of the foreign travellers, who visited Patna, found the
neighbourhood of Patna unsafe, because this country, as all the rest of India, swarms
with rebels and thieves. Multitude of Chor Minars studded with the heads of alleged
criminals, were found commonly near to major cities. Each minar contained from 30
to 40 heads set in plaster.
6. The state demand increased from 1/3rd to ½ of the gross produce and it
overburdened the peasantry. In addition to original land revenue, a cultivator was
required to pay an additional tax.
7. Majumdar opines that, “beneath of six face of outward splendour and apparent
prosperity there were some grievous anomalies in the economic system of the country”.
8. Furthermore, to meet the expenditure of Shah Jahan’s extravagant bureaucracy and
to pay for the splendid architectural monuments, an insupportable burden was put
on the agricultural and industrials cases upon whom the very life of the Mughal
Empire ultimately depended.
9. Majumdar says that, “Under Shah Jahan, in short, India resembles France under
Louis XIV in many respects. The military system of the state was growing and revenue
system was growing lacs”.
10. The military setbacks further dented the prestige of the empire. For instance, the
disastrous campaign of Central Asia cost 3 crore and 97 lac rupees to the state
exchequer.
6) Analysis:
Despite these drawbacks and criticism, the era of Shah Jahan was glorious and most
of this criticism is one sided, unfounded and unsubstantiated. For instance, although the
loss of Qandahar and the failure of three attempts to retake it proved military inefficiency
and encouraged Persians pride, these events had little effect on India where the strength of
army, sufficed to uphold the imperial system. It would be injustice to trace the roots of
Mughal decline in Shah Jahan’s policy. The Hindu historians became critical of Shah Jahan
because of his puritanical inclinations. Similarly, the European travellers like Sir Thomas
Roe, Tavernier, Francis Bernier, John De Laet and Mandelslo’s portrayal of Shah Jahan
as unrelenting and excessively pleasure seeking ruler, are also gross misrepresentation of
the reality.
7) Conclusion:
Whatever be the view taken of the personal character of Shah Jahan or the efficiency
of his administration, it can be hardly be disputed that his reign marks the climax of the
Mughal Empire. The magnificence of his court, the extent and wealth of his Empire, the
comparative peace which was preserved during his reign and the unique beauty of his
architectural masterpieces truly makes era the Golden Period.
Banarsi Prasad Saxena in his book ‘History of Shah Jahan of Delhi’ says that, “in
Shah Jahan‟s reign, the Mughal Empire attained the zenith of prosperity and affluence”.
Shah Jahan’s period as a Golden Period
1) Introduction
2) Background
3) Arguments in favour of Shah Jahan’s period as Golden Period
1. Economic prosperity:
i) The first manifestation of economic development was phenomenal increase in
the agricultural productivity as Lane Poole writes that, “the Parganas (tehsils)
which had brought in 300,000 in Akbar‟s reign now yielded 1000,000”.
ii) During this period trading activities flourished greatly between India and
Western Asia and there started export trade with Europe.
iii) The uninterrupted peace, freedom from foreign invasion enriched the state
ushered in an era of prosperity of material and well being. Moreland calls his
reign “a period of agrarian tranquillity” in his book, ‘Agrarian System of Muslim
India’.
iv) Proliferation of towns.
2. Era of peace and tranquillity:
Khafi Khan has written about his period that “during his period profound
peace reigned”. There was no ruler in the whole line of Tamurids who could equal
Shah Jahan in organization, improving the treasury, settlement of the country and
due recognition of the merits of officers and soldiers – Khaffi Khan.
3. Zenith of Mughal cultural development:
i) Dr. Tripathi opines, “The reign of Shah Jahan was prosperous --- the glitter of
jewel dazzled the foreign travellers”. He further maintains that the buildings built
under him “stand to this day to testify to the greatness of Mughal Empire and the
glory of his reign”.
ii) Dr. Saxena in his book ‘History of Shah Jahan of Delhi’, writes, “even if entire
mass of historical literature had perished and only their buildings had remained to
tell the story of Shah Jahan‟s reign there is little doubt that it would have still
being pronounced as the most magnificent in history”.
iii) Percy Brown says “Shah Jahan found Mughal cities of stand stones and left them
of marble”.
4. Works of public welfare:
He himself supervised the relief effort during the famine in Kashmir.
5. Magnificence of his court:
The Peacock Throne was fascinating monument which cost Shah Jahan
Rs.1000, 000. The other manifestation of splendour of his court may be described as
the additions made by Shah Jahan in palace architecture e.g. Deewan-i-Khas,
Deewan-i-Am, Musaman Burj, Khawab Gah. His liberal patronage of scholars, literati
and artists also magnified his court.
6. Promotion of fine arts:
i) Music:
He also promoted musicians; among the prominent musicians and vocalists
of his court were Jugannath, Maha Patra Ram Das and Lal Khan. Two
outstanding instrumental musicians of his time were Sukh and Susane. They
were specialized in playing Rabat and been respected.
ii) Painting:
In the art of painting his minister Asaf Khan and his son Dara Shikoh were
lover of painting and they patronized painters. The famous painters of the time
of Shah Jahan were Mir Hassan, Anup Chitra and Chitramani. His Umrah also
played important role in the development of painting.
iii) Translation of Sanskrit works into Persian:
His era is also known for the growth of Persian, Hindi and Sanskrit
literature. A number of outstanding works of Sanskrit were translated into
Persian e.g. Munshi Banauli Das, he translated Proboth Chandro Dawa while
Ibn Hur Karn translated Ramain into Persian. Abdul Rasheed translated
Bijganit from Sanskrit. Similarly, Mullah Fareed Munag prepared Astrol chart
entitled Zich-i-Shah Jahani. Shah Jahan also spoke Hindi and was fond of Hindi
music. He patronized Hindi poets like Sunder Das, Chintan Mari and Cavindra
Achania.
iv) Referring to the literary accomplishments of Shah Jahan Dr. Saxena says that
“period of Shah Jahan partially coincided with what is described as the most
epochs in the development of Hindi literature and language”.
7. Military expansion
4) Factors contributing for the prosperity of Empire:
1. Elphinstone refers, “Shah Jahan‟s age as the most prosperous ever known in India”.
2. Khaffi Khan says that “Although Akbar was preeminent as a conqueror and law giver yet
for the order and the arrangement of his territory and finances and the good
administration of every department of state, no prince ever reigned India that would be
compared to Shah Jahan”.
3. Ishwari Prasad says that “no emperor of Hindustan before or after him spent so lavish in
adorning the great cities of his empire with palaces, mosques, mausoleums, canals,
gardens, baths and reservoirs”.
5) Views of critics – arguments against Golden Period:
1. Edwardes and Garrett point out that the reign of Shah Jahan was outwardly a
period of prosperity. According to them the reign of Shah Jahan sounded the death
knell of the Empire and of its economic system. Moreover, the liberal and catholic
spirit which had guided Akbar was given up when the power of the Mughals seemed
to be firmly established. In his zeal for Islam, Jahangir shed the blood of the Jains of
Gujarat and Shah Jahan followed a similar policy when he destroyed Hindu shrines
at Banaras and other places.
2. S.M. Ikram opines that, “During the first few years, he (Shah Jahan) seems to have
been under the influence of religious revivalists ----- but gradually he came under sufi
influences and mellowed a great deal. The court chronicles, written by learned and
orthodox scholars, for Muslim readers tried to show him as a very orthodox ruler.
There is no doubt under Shah Jahan the apathy and indifference of Jahangir
disappeared, and the regime was marked by attempts to approximate that
administration to orthodox Islamic Law –including the creation of a department to
look after new converts to Islam”.
3. Sir William Forster says that “this splendid facade (Shah Jahan‟s golden period) hid
a crumbling interior”.
6) Conclusion:
Despite criticism there is circumstantial evidence for the corroboration of Golden
Period.
Sher Shah as forerunner of Akbar
1) Introduction
1. Forerunner of Akbar:
i) Sher Shah is generally considered as the forerunner of Akbar.
ii) This means whatever policy, of administration, of religious toleration, of
revenue system and of other reforms, was pursued by Akbar in his reign, was
originally started by Sher Shah as a ruler of India
2. Sher Shah was the precursor of Akbar in the same sense in which Chandra Gupta
Maurya was to his grandson, Ashoka.
3. In other words Sher Shah’s administration was a role model for Akbar
4. ‘Sher Shah as forerunner of Akbar’ is a matter of great debate in history
5. William Erskine and Kaliranjan Qanungo is the main exponent of this argument.
6. Dr. P. Saran and Dr. Tripathi do not subscribe to this view
7. It is pointed out that in many ways, he merely revived the system of Ala-ud-Din
Khilji and there was nothing original in what he did.
8. Notwithstanding this debate and not denying Akbar the palm of greatness; one is
constrained to agree with this view
2) Background – Reforms where Akbar seems to have followed the footsteps of Sher
Shah
1. Administrative structure
i) Position of King in government / state:
a) He gave much emphasis to the place of King in the administration.
b) Sher Shah used to say, “It behoves the great to be always active”, “Justice is the
most excellent of the religious rites” and “Kingship is a sacred trust”.
c) Sher Shah asserted that the King should be so strong as to be able to keep his
strong nobles under his thumb and should be able to dominate them.
d) Akbar also acted upon the same principles in letter and spirit.
ii) Division of Empire:
a) Sher Shah had divided the entire kingdom into Sarkars (districts) and
Sarkars into Parganas (lower divisions).
b) Akbar later on, divided his empire, into provinces and then into Sarkar and
Parganas with minor adjustments.
iii) The administrators trained under Sher Shah laid the foundations of
Akbar’s administrative system:
a) The famous Todar Mal, Revenue Minister of Akbar, started his career under
Sher Shah Suri.
2. Revenue administrations / Financial system
i) Akbar followed land revenue policy of Sher Shah:
a) Sher Shah had fixed land revenue equal to one-third of the average produce
as the State share. Akbar also fixed one-third as the State share as land
revenue.
b) Akbar only changed Sher Shah’s “Dah-Astri” tax into his own “Dah-Seri” tax.
c) Akbar pursued the system of Sher Shah with modified version of land
revenue. During his reign land measurement was the same but the
classification was different according to the fertility and agriculture.
ii) Sher Shah accorded great significance to the interests of cultivators:
a) Sher Shah looked to the interests of the cultivators and advanced them
Taqqavi loans and gave financial aid to needy cultivators. Akbar also used
to act upon this policy.
iii) Todar Mal served Sher Shah , was architect of Akbar’s revenue system:
a) Raja Todar Mal, the Revenue Minister of Akbar, had received his early
training in revenue matters under Sher Shah.
b) It was he who made adjustments in the revenue system according to the
new conditions under Akbar.
3. Military system
i) Military fiscalization – Sher Shah introduced the concept of inducting troops
on emoluments from public treasury.
ii) In the field of military administration, the principle of cash payment, permanent
standing army, the practice of keeping standing army, preparation of descriptive
rolls of soldiers and branding of horses were continued by Akbar. However,
Akbar’s Mansabdari System was something new.
4. Policy of religious tolerance
i) Dr. Qanungo:
a) Sher Shah followed a policy of religious toleration towards the Hindus. His
attitude was „not contemptuous sufferance but respectful deference‟.
ii) A.L. Srivastava:
a) The net result of Sher Shah‟s policy was that his Muslim subjects never felt
angry with him on account of his liberal and lenient policy towards the Hindus.
On the other hand, Akbar, in his anxiety to please his Hindus subjects, ignored
the sentiments of his Muslim subjects.
b) Sher Shah‟s policy was that Islam should be given its due dignity and
supremacy in this land but, at the same time, Hinduism should not be held
inferior nor should it be degraded.
c) If Akbar and his successors had pursued this policy of religious neutrality in
the country, this complicated problem of India would have found a correct
solution very long ago
iii) Ray Chaudhry:
a) Sher Shah tried to keep religion and politics separate together and did not
follow any systematic policy of persecution ... as were done by Muslim rulers of
Delhi.
iv) Critics of Sher Shah and Akbar:
a) On more than one occasion, Sher Shah resorted to Jihad against the Rajputs.
For instance, War against Pooranmal of Raisin was officially called Jihad.
b) Contrary to Akbar, Sher Shah levied Jizya on the Hindus.
c) Contrary to Sher Shah, Akbar is charged of discouraging ‘Sati’ among the
Hindus.
5. Concept of Indian Nationalism:
i) Some historians consider Sher Shah to be the pioneer of Indian Nationalism to
which Akbar became a great exponent.
ii) Dr. Qanungo says, “Sher Shah may justly dispute with Akbar the claim of being
the first who attempted to build up an Indian nation by reconciling the followers of
his creeds.”
iii) Sher Shah can’t be described as the exponent of Indian Nationalism rather
Afghan nationalism. He gave them higher posts in the army. In the matters of
making grants, Sher Shah was very liberal towards the Afghans.
iv) Sri Ram Sharma does not agree with the view that Sher Shah was a nation
builder. The idea of nation state had not yet taken root in Europe and to apply it to
India of Sher Shah was unjust both to his times and himself.
v) Sri Ram Sharma says, “Sher Shah was the last, though also the best of the
medieval Sultans, rather the first of the modern Emperors of India. This latter
distinction belongs to Akbar alone”.
vi) Dr. Tripathi says, “Sher Shah was undoubtedly the builder of the second Afghan
Empire. At least during his life-time he united the Afghan tribes into a nation and
recovered for them their lost empire”.
3) Analysis of historians
1. Some historians consider Sher Shah to be the pioneer of Indian nationalism to which
Akbar became a great exponent
2. Other historians consider him to be the exponent of Afghan nationalism
3. It was Erskine who for the first time propounded the thesis that apart from being a
successful military adventurer Sher Shah was a great legislator and guardian of the
people
4. However it was only after the scholarly monograph of Dr. K.R. Qanungo - was
published that these scholars began to accept the view that Sher Shah was a greater
constructive genius than even Akbar the Great.
5. Professor Kaliranjan Qanungo says, “Sher Shah was a stormy petrel of the 16th
Century”
6. According to Dr. Tripathi, “If Sher Shah had lived longer, he might have taken the
wind out of Akbar‟s sails.”
7. Crookes writes about Sher Shah, “He was a first Musalman ruler who studied the
good of the people. He had the genius to see that Government must be pluralized and
the King must govern for the benefit of his subjects”.
8. According to Keene, “No Government – not even the British – has shown so much
wisdom as this Pathan”.
9. According to Smith, “If Sher Shah had been spared, he would have established his
dynasty and the „Great Mughals‟ would not have appeared on the stage of history”.
4) Whether Akbar blindly followed Sher Shah or did he go beyond?
1. To assume/depict Akbar as blind follower of Sher Shah – tantamount (the same as)
of denying him the palm of greatness
2. Scholars like Dr P. Saran and Dr. Tripathi do not seem to treat Sher Shah more than
an average administrator
3. There was nothing new in his administrative system – he almost revived the system
of Alaudin Khilji
4. To assume that Akbar only acquired fame or rose to prominence – by following the
policies of Sher Shah – would be tantamount of denying him the palm of greatness
5) Certain peculiar reforms of Akbar
1. Fiscal / Revenue reforms
i) Akbar’s revenue system more perfect
ii) Rate of revenue Sher Shah (1/3) whereas Akbar’s (1/4).
iii) Bandobast-e-Deh Sala introduced by Akbar.
2. Mansabdari system
i) Definite improvement over previous system
ii) Mainstay of two Mughal systems
3. Enhancing prestige of the office of King
i) Akbar attached the term of “Zilhay-Elahi” with the King.
4. Policy of religious tolerance
i) Crossed all the limits of religious tolerance.
ii) Most liberal of religious policies pursued by medieval rulers – matrimonial
alliances, abolition of Jizya, non-Muslim had great share in governance.
5. Exposition of Indian nationalism
i) Real exponent of Indian nationalism
ii) Based his rule on the consent of people
iii) He laid the foundation of pluralistic polity.
6. Quotations:
i) Even scholars like Qanungo who in all admiration for Sher Shah admits that
Akbar is justly entitled, to be in a higher place in history than Sher Shah.
6) Conclusion
1. In conclusion it can be said that Akbar borrowed extensively from Sher Shah in
various fields of administration.
2. One may infer that Sher Shah can be rightly described as forerunner of Akbar on
account of the fact that his policies were pursued by Akbar to some extent. He
proved to be the beacon of light for Akbar administration.
3. Besides this one should acknowledge the fact that Akbar was not blind follower of
Sher Shah though he learned a lot from latter’s administration, yet he introduced a
lot of innovations.
4. According to Dr. Tripathi, “Sher Shah was undoubtedly one of the greatest statesman
among the Sultans of Delhi. Indeed he paved the way for the highly enlightened policy
of Akbar and was his true precursor... no historian can even question the title of Sher
Shah to rank among the most prominent, enlightened and virile Muslim ruler before
Akbar.”
Sources of income under Delhi Sultanate
1) Introduction:
Capital is the backbone for the progress and prosperity of any empire. Without
finance there is nothing possible. Its importance was recognised thousands of years ago.
Therefore, the Sultan was supposed to take appropriate steps to boost up its economy and
financial condition of its people and country. For instance, Hindus were arranging revolts
against the Sultanate because they were financially strong. Sultan Ala-ud-Dina Khilji
imposed too many taxes on them and then they become worried to meet the both ends.
In Hindustan under the Delhi Sultanate there were following sources of Income as
discussed below:
2) Spoils of war:
At that time spoils of war (booty) or Mal-i-Ghanemat was among one of the major
source of finance. The whole Mal-i-Ghanemat was gathered and divided into five parts –
1/5th part of this war went to the state treasury, and 4 parts were distributed among the
soldiers. This was an Islamic principle. In the era of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) this part
was further divided into 3 parts viz
1. Part one for the Prophet (PBUH)
2. Second part for Prophet’s (PBUH) relatives
3. Third part for widows, orphans and other deserving peoples
In the Caliphate period the first two parts were used to buy the equipments of
warfare and for the state welfare and the third part was utilized as it was earlier utilized.
The share of the state was called ‘Khams’. But, in the Sultanate period, against the spirit of
Islam, 4 parts were kept for state and fifth part was distributed among the soldiers. Ulemas
of the time pointed out this problem and agitated against this. It was Feroz Shah Tughlaq,
who revived the Islamic tradition. When Mughal came to the throne they again adopted the
method which was before Feroz Shah, albeit this was an irregular source of income.
3) Zakat:
This is purely an Islamic tax – called ‘poor’s tax’. This was only due on Muslim
subjects of the state. The non-Muslims were free from this tax. It was paid on corn, wheat,
fruits etc and on other crops by their owner. This was paid by the time of harvest.
People who were able to pay this tax paid on voluntarily and religious basis. This tax
has its particular code or ‘Nisab’. Any farmer having 5 camels or 30 cattle or 40 sheep/goats
he was Sahib-i-Zakat. Zakat is due on gold and silver and their price is more than 200
Dirhams of that time and Zakat on above things were due when they remained under the
use at least for one year.
4) Jizya:
The third source of income was Jizya which was a poll tax charged from non-Muslim
masses of the state. This tax was charged from non-Muslims and in return of this they
received protection of their life, security of their properties and exemption from military
services, because military service was compulsory on the Muslim masses of the Empire and
the Sultan could ask them to present their service for the defence of their motherland.
According to the orthodox Muslims jurists, this tax was received from non-Muslims because
they were not entitled to live in a Muslim country.
Jizya was not levied on women, children, monks, beggars and blinds. It was also not
levied on Brahmans but Feroz Shah charged this tax on the Brahmans. Its amount was also
different, received from different cadres of Hindu society.
5) Land revenue:
The main source of the income of the state which was indeed the backbone of the
Indian finance was the land revenue. In Muslim state cultivated land was legally classified
into three groups with respect to the assessment of the land revenue.
1. Ushri:
There were those lands which were of Jazirat-ul-Arab – the lands of those who
accepted Islam and the lands which were conquered by Muslims soldiers. The amount
of revenue which was assessed from Ushri was fifth of the production which on Kheraji
lands it was double of the Ushri.
2. Sulhi:
This term is used in technical terms which were rendered to those lands which were
on those Muslims reached on an agreement with their owners. Such lands were outside
of India. This class is not mentioned by any Indian authority and this Ardh-i-Mumlikat
has no more importance.
3. Kheraji:
Those lands which were conquered by the Muslim forces and not divided among
Muslims soldiers and left to their non-Muslim owners or given to non-Muslim settler
from elsewhere are called Kheraji lands. On these lands, Kheraj or share of government
ranges from tenth to half depending on the fertility of soil and nature of crops and their
value in the market prices.
6) Customs taxes:
The Zakat on import was fortieth of the value of the merchandize, on horse this was
five percent. This charge became double on the non-Muslim traders. Probably, the Sultan
had increased these import duties when the finance worried him.
7) Presents:
Presents were also major sources of income, because anyone wanted to see Sultan
or came to visit him brought too many precious presents in the form of gold, diamond, silver
were deposited in the state’s treasury.
Status of the non-Muslims during the Muslim rule
Note in this topic we did not discuss non-Muslims such as Buddhist, Christians, Sikhs and Sikh
Gurus and Bakhti Movement, Chataniyah and Jesuits missionaries and discussions of Ibadat
Khana – moreover Muhammad bin Qasim as a predecessor for tolerance policy can be discussed
at length. We have to advocate the political strategy notion ---Ghazwa Khyber as the bastion and
safe havens of Jews which was smashed by the Muslims as the Jews used to work against the
Muslims.
1) Introduction
2) Policy of Muslim rulers towards the non-Muslims
1. Formative influence – Muhammad bin Qasim’s policy towards the non-Muslims
3) Non-Muslims under the Delhi Sultanate
1. Most of the Sultanate rulers kept the non-Muslim at bay and they did not allow them to
become ascendant in the state structure
2. Certain exceptions
3. Overall policies
4) Sher Shah Suri’s policy towards the non-Muslims
1. Liberal policy towards the non-Muslims – his policy was much tolerant
5) Non-Muslims under the Mughals
1. More tolerant
2. Greater interaction between Muslims and non-Muslims
3. Their egalitarian policies provided more opportunities of vertical and horizontal
mobility
i) Akbar’s policy of tolerance and Sulh-e-Kul
ii) Akbar’s Rajput policy
iii) Akbar’s religious policy
iv) Mansabdari system of the Mughals
v) Even under more orthodox rulers like Aurangzeb – non-Muslims enjoyed absolute
freedom
6) Allegations raised by nationalist historians
1. Islam was spread through sword
2. Iconoclasm
Both are unjust on account of historical evidence.
7) Conclusion
1) Introduction:
The debate about the status of non-Muslims is surrounded by the controversies. They
provide the more tolerant picture of the Muslim rulers towards the non-Muslims. But, the
nationalist historians portray Muslim rule as discrimination towards the non-Muslims. Recent
research reveals different picture. Muslim rule was more tolerant towards the non-Muslims
even in the rule of orthodox Muslim rulers. Main influence in this case came from Muhammad
bin Qasim. He took non-Muslims as Dhimmies (people of the book). The non-Muslims were
given the status of Dhimmies; even Hindus did not fulfil the criteria of Dhimmies. This policy
was followed by all the Muslim rulers.
2) Policy of Sultans of Delhi towards the non-Muslims:

They did not intermingle with the non-Muslims. They pursued the policy of racial
exclusivism and did not allow the non-Muslims to become political ascendant. Though they did
not allow the non-Muslims in the state structure, but they provided a tolerant policy towards the
non-Muslims. There were some exception, Muhammad bin Tughlaq promoted people of lower
castes to higher ranks; he allowed the non-Muslims to involve in state structure. Alaudin Khilji
was a secular in his policy. His policies were not according to the religious vendettas.
3) Non-Muslims under Sher Shah Suri:
Sher Shah Suri’s policy was more tolerant from the other rulers of Muslim India even
more tolerant than the Akbar’s. He inducted a lot of non-Muslims into his revenue department.
Raja Todar Mal, who became head of Akbar’s revenue system, was introduced by Sher Shah Suri
in the state structure. He made 1700 inns for different religious pilgrims both for Hindus and
Muslims with separate kitchens. His education policy was more secular; a lot of Hindu teachers
were appointed as teachers officially.
4) Non-Muslims under the Mughals:

The Mughals adopted more tolerant policy towards the non-Muslims. It caused greater
interaction between the Muslims and Hindus; as a result of this Indo-Muslim civilization
emerged in India. The policy of Sulh-e-Kul became guiding principle of relations of Muslims and
non-Muslims. Akbar’s Rajput policy made the environment more secular for the Hindus. He
inducted Rajputs in state services. The Rajputs were promoted generously in state services.
During the Mughal period the Rajputs not only flourished politically but their art and crafts were
also promoted. Secular theme in Mughal architecture during the period of Akbar bears
testimony to this argument. Akbar abolished Yatra Tax in 1563 and Jizya in 1564. The former
was political tax and the latter was war tax. Moreover, Akbar did not impose his Deen-e-Ilahi on
his Hindu subjects. Out of his Hindu Nau Ratans only Birbal accepted his Deen-e-Ilahi.
Later in Shah Jahan’s era Prince Dara Shikoh translated Upanishads into Persian, this
shows the tolerance of Shah Jahan towards the non-Muslims. During the reign of Aurangzeb a lot
of Hindus were inducted in offices greater in number than in the time of Akbar.
5) Criticism:
Islam was spread by sword. It is contested on the circumstantial evidence. For instance,
Delhi and Agra were the seats of the Muslim rulers but the population of these areas never
exceeded during their times. These areas remained the heart line of Hindu areas which were
dominated by the Buddhist and Hindu lower castes.
Similarly, the theory of Iconoclasm is also wrong. According to this theory Islam was an
idol smashing religion and the Muslims destroyed a lot of Hindu temples. From 780 to 1707 80
temples were destroyed. Aurangzeb alone destroyed 16 temples, but not for religious reasons
but only for political and military reasons. The temples constructed by him were more in
number than that of he destroyed. Even in the reign of Hindu rule institute of Temple loot was
running in Kashmir. The Muslims never promoted hatred towards the non-Muslims, if it had
happened there would be a revolt against them. There is no evidence of communal wars
between Muslims and non-Muslims in the annals of Muslim India. Moreover, the tolerant vision
of Sufis brought Muslims and non-Muslims close together.
6) Conclusion:
The Muslim rule since 712 till 1707 was marked by tolerance. There was no communal
conflict between Muslims and non-Muslims. Their egalitarian policies provided more
opportunities of vertical and horizontal mobility.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351) – As a mixture of opposites
Outline
1) Introduction
2) Opinion of two groups of historians
3) Superficially viewed – Sultan seemed to be an amazing mixture of contradictions – But he
was not really so
4) Arguments
5) Conclusion
1) Introduction:
7. Muhammad bin Tughlaq was among the great monarchs of the medieval period.
8. Lane Poole describes Tughlaq in these words; “Tughlaq was most striking figure in
medieval India”.
9. The Cambridge History of India describes him among the “most extraordinary
monarchs whoever sat upon a throne”.
10. But, a controversy surrounds his personality.
11. According to Dr. R. C. Majumdar; “No ruler in India has so much discussion concerning
his policy and character”.
12. Contemporary historians wrote against Tughlaq, later historians exaggerated about his
positive and negative traits. Present historians describe him as a great politician and
statesman.
2) Opinion of two groups of historians:
There are two groups of historians. The historians who have written about Tughlaq
may be divided into two categories. One group of the historians describes him as a mixture
of opposites. For instance,
i) 1st Group of Historians:
1. Elphinstone has said; “Sultan was affected by some degree of insanity”, and
writers like Havell, Edward Thomas and V. A. Smith also seem to subscribe to
this view.
2. The author of ‘Tareekh-e-Mubarik Shahi’, Yahya bin Ahmed Sarhindi has
described Tughlaq as a bloody (blood shedder).
3. Barani describes him as “a ruthless tyrant who took pleasure in shedding the
blood of innocent people”.
4. Ibn-e-Batuta has described the instances of his blood thirstiness and utter
disregard of human sufferings. His volatile temperament further lent credence
to such type of accusations.
5. Accomplished scholar:
Muhammad bin Tughlaq was an accomplished scholar, extremely generous,
tolerant in religious matters, a brave soldier, a stern but impartial dispenser of
justice, an inventor, and far-sighted statesman but an unsuccessful ruler.
6. Generous:
He was very generous and humble. In point of generosity, he surpassed all
his contemporaries. It is said that “What Hatem Tai and others gave in a year, he
gave away at one time”.
7. Religious affairs:
Similarly, in religious affairs, Tughlaq touched both extremes. He himself
received the Ambassador of Caliph of Baghdad, barefooted to receive royal
investiture. But, at the same time, he, under the liberal philosophy, almost
abandoned Islam and religious practices.
8. Peculiar conduct:
In the same way, Sultan was generous as well as very strict discipliner. His
extremism is evident that he sometimes became too much conservative and
when he became generous, he paid 1000 dinars for a single couplet (verse) to
poets. “His conduct was a mass of inconsistencies”.
ii) 2nd Group of Historians:

1. The second group of historians pass diametrically opposed judgements about
Sultan Tughlaq.
2. Gardner Brown has exonerated him from the charge of madness.
3. According to Ishwari Prasad; “Tughlaq was unquestionably the ablest man
among the crowned heads of the middle ages”.
4. Farishta is of the view that; “Tughlaq was not devoid of justice and public
welfare”.
3) Superficially viewed – Sultan seemed to be an amazing mixture of contradictions –
But he was not really so:
Sultan Tughlaq’s conduct seems to be an amazing mass of contradictions. But a close
examination of his reign and events reveal an altogether a different picture.
4) Arguments:
1. It is beyond any iota of doubt that like all medieval despots Tughlaq was subject to
great fits of rage. He inflicted brutal punishments to those who acted against his will.
But it is quite wrong to suggest that Tughlaq was a born tyrant. Charges of blood
thirstiness and madness are altogether untrue. For instance, there are numerous
times when Tughlaq forgave his critics and opponents e.g. “once Ibn-e-Batuta earned
his wrath but Tughlaq retained Batuta on his post”.
2. Similarly, his famous general Ain-ul-Mulk raised a standard of revolt against
Tughlaq but after defeating him, Tughlaq forgave him and restored him to his
previous position.
3. Moreover Tughlaq forgave Syed Ibrahim bin Ahsan Shah. Barani who was the
Sultan’s greatest critic, instead Sultan bestowed favours on him all the time.
4. The charges against him are brought by the members of priestly classes and ill-
educated Mullahs whom Sultan Tughlaq treated with iron hand. A close examination
of alleged murder attempts and atrocities reveals the unsoundness of the common
view that the Sultan sought pleasure in destructing the human species.
5. Sultan Tughlaq combined a head strong temper with advanced ideas of
administrative reforms. To him what seemed to be good must be done at once.
When people failed to respond to his wishes, his disappointment reached the verge
of frenzy and his wrath became terrible.
6. The stories of his perpetual atrocities have not been verified and corroborated. Most
of the historians have depicted a negative image of his personality by lumping
together various instances which referred in different periods of time.
7. The incidents of bloodshed were the results of his enormous anger and he never
accommodated injustice.
8. Tughlaq himself went to Qazi to be punished according to Islamic Sharia.
5) Conclusion:
1. Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq was neither bloodthirsty nor irreligious nor visionary.
2. He was a “grossly misunderstood sovereign”.
3. Dr. Ishwari Prasad is of the view that; “superficially views the Sultan seems to be an
amazing compound of contradictions, but he is not really so”.
4. Dr. Agha Mehdi Hussain in ‘Rise and Fall of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’ writes, “if
at all there were some contradictory qualities in him these appeared at different periods
of his career and there were clear reasons behind them”.
War of succession among Shah Jahan’s sons
Outline:
1) Introduction
2) Background / Factors
1. Rumours about Shah Jahan’s death
2. Ideological factors
3. Dara’s blunders / Dara’s inapt handling
4. Temperamental differences
5. Shah Jahan’s lack of initiatives ‫تخت یا ہتخت‬
3) Main events
4) Impacts
5) Causes of success of Aurangzeb
6) War of succession as an ideological war
1) Introduction:
War of succession constitutes an important episode of Shah Jahan’s reign. It was one
of the bloodiest wars fought during Muslim rule in India. It not only manifested the
weaknesses of Mughal polity in terms of differences over issues of succession, ideological
clashes, conflicting interests and growing tensions among ruling elites. The triumph of
Aurangzeb is this war left indelible imprints on not only Mughal polity but also on the fate of
puritanical Islam in South Asia.
2) Background / Factors leading to war:
1. Absence of law of succession among the Mughals:
The first major factor was the absence of law of succession among the
Mughals. Usually the succession issue was decided among the rival claimants
through sword.
2. Rumours about Shah Jahan’s death and ensuing power tussle:
Rumours about Shah Jahan’s death began to circulate after his sickness. On
account of these rumours, this created misunderstanding among his sons as they
began to harbour ambitions particularly Shuja and Murad. They assumed imperial
titles and declared their kingship. Aurangzeb was also aspiring for royalty but he
was very wise to conceal such ambitions because he had cool temperament and was
much disciplined otherwise he would lose political support. On the other hand
Murad and Shuja assumed political titles they assumed imperial titles and in their
territories got their name recited in khutbah on Friday. Meanwhile Aurangzeb tried
to consolidate his position by entering into alliances with Murad. In order to ensure
him the partition of Empire in case of their victory both the brothers made an
agreement. Through this agreement Murad was to take North West Frontier region,
Punjab, Kashmir, Afghanistan and Sindh while the rest of India was to be given to
Aurangzeb.
3. Dara’s blunders:
Another major reason behind the war of succession was Dara’s blunders
which aggravated the crisis to unmanageable proportion. For instance, during Shah
Jahan’s illness he began to act like a king, he also got all the roads blocked
connecting Agra with other parts of Empire. Similarly, he also issued coins in his
name, closed all the roads of Ahmadabad, Bengal and Deccan. This behaviour
created suspicions among his brothers and accentuated their fears that he was
conspiring against them and consolidating his position. Moreover there was no love
among Shah Jahan’s sons.
4. Temperamental differences:
These not only reflected diametrically opposite dispositions but also these
indicated toward ideological leanings. For instance, Dara had idealist temperament,
he was an erudite scholar but at the same time he suffered from a violent
temperament and haughty conduct. He possessed eclectic spirit in the religious
matters. He was not a good soldier and his record in battlefield was poor one. Lane
Poole portrays him as “nervous and impulsive creature”. He was liable to lose his self
control just when cool judgement was very necessary.
Shuja was victim of pleasure and luxury which marred his intellectual
mental faculties. He could not make up his mind at crucial moment. He professed
Shia faith. As a human, he was popular among his friends on account of his
behaviour.
Aurangzeb was the ablest among all the sons of Shah Jahan. He was very
good soldier, administrator and general. Like a true statesman he could keep his
head cool. Similarly, he was known for his devotion to religion and observance of
Islamic injunctions. He possessed a lot of administrative experiences. According to
Lane Poole “he practiced all the virtues but he was lacking in one thing needed in a
leader of men, he could not win love”. His adherence to Islam and inclinations
towards orthodoxy were well known, therefore, it was not surprising that
Naqashbandis presented him as their candidate.
Murad was youngest son of Shah Jahan. He was known for his valour and
bravery during wars. As Lane Poole depicts him, “he was brave as lion --- (but) a fool
in politics”. Lane Poole even depicts him as brainless. Moreover, he was also given to
luxuries, always remained drunkard which he descended from Akbar.
So, with a brief overview of the disposition of Shah Jahan’s sons, one finds
that they were diametrically opposed to each other in terms of temperament. Their
temperamental differences further impelled them to draw different course of action.
Their temperament was to play a deciding role in the war of succession.
5. Shah Jahan’s lack of initiative:
Another factor, ascribed to the war of succession among Shah Jahan’s sons
was that he failed to take timely initiative. For instance, when he had recovered his
illness he should have taken a clear initiative for reconciliation among his sons. This
role could have prevented the outbreak of war of succession even if certain battles
have fought the situation could have been normalized, but he failed to take such
initiative. He kept silence which was taken as tacit support to Dara by Aurangzeb
and his other sons. In the meanwhile he continued his correspondence to Dara. A
letter was intercepted by the supporters of Aurangzeb which further accentuated
the apprehensions of Aurangzeb that Shah Jahan was conniving with Dara to entrap
him.
6. Ideological factors:
The ideological factor of this war remains always conspicuous during each
and every stage of this war. For instance, it was among the major underline factors
of conflict among Shah Jahan’s sons. Similarly, this factor also approved crucial
during the decisive moments of war. Moreover, all the long terms fallouts of war are
somehow or the other embodied in this ideological factor. Out of all the described
factors the ideological factor is the most important one
These ideological differences also imply that the outcome of the war
whatsoever it might be would have considerably influenced the very nature and
direction of the Mughal polity. For instance, had Dara emerged in defeating
Aurangzeb, it would have meant the more liberal version of Islam. It would have
created a polity which was to be dominated by those who accorded privacy priority
to Tareeqa over Sharia. It was an ideological factor that this war resulted into the
triumph of puritanical Islam underpinned by Shahoodi influences.
3) Main events of war of succession:
1. War of succession may be divided in various phases. During the first major phase
began from the outbreak of war of Dhurmat in April 15, 1658. In the second phase it
may be described as battle of Samugarh which was fought on 29th May, 1658, it was
one of the decisive battles in the war of succession.
2. Then Aurangzeb occupied Agra on 8th June, 1658 he appointed guards on the gate of
Agra Fort and arrested Shah Jahan.
3. In the meanwhile secret letter was intercepted which accentuated his fears
regarding conspiracies of Shah Jahan against him. On 21st July, 1658 Aurangzeb
became emperor and assume the title of Alamgir.
4) Impacts of war of succession:

It was one of the bloodiest wars among the wars of succession during the Mughal
period. It was one of the most decisive battles in Indian history as Aurangzeb victory had a
great symbolic significance. It was a triumph of puritanical Islam as Aurangzeb’s victory
indicated that puritanical Islam was to become ascended over Wajoodi Islam. It
strengthened Muslims exclusiveness. It had great moral significance. It
fostered/strengthened the feelings of Muslim separatism thus the protagonists of
puritanical Islam consider this war as triumph of Two Nation Theory.
5) Causes of Aurangzeb’s success:
1. Shah Jahan’s weaknesses:
Shah Jahan would have played a reconciliatory role. He should have taken
the initiative.
2. Aurangzeb’s superior temperament
3. Wait for opportune time
4. Experience of war, statesman, timely made alliance with Murad
Dara was no match with Aurangzeb in any way. Aurangzeb was much superior to
Dara in terms of diplomacy, general and statecraft. Dara’s own blunders also contributed
towards his own defeat.
Difference between compositions of armies was also the cause of Aurangzeb’s
success. Dara’s army was based on unorganized heterogeneous elements, whereas
Aurangzeb’s army functioned like a well oiled machine. During the crucial phases of war
Dara’s army could not fight effectively. Aurangzeb’s army was fighting for a cause of
puritanical Islam, but Dara was to get kingship and had no unity of command. Aurangzeb
had an experience of governorship of Gujarat, Deccan and was a battle hardened general
who possessed all the qualities of statesman. Victory of Aurangzeb was the victory of action
over soupiness of intrepidity over inertia and of organization and of discipline over
confusion and incoherence. Decisive role was played by skilful use of artillery in the Battle
of Samugarh.
According to Ray Chaudhry his gunners poured death, destruction over enemies
and greatly demoralized them. He had support of orthodox elements to Aurangzeb. Salman
Shikoh, Dara’s son could not reach Agra swiftly as he failed to assess the situation. Despite
the fact he had force he ran to save his life. Instead using of his army effectively preferred to
took refuge to Galyon Sardan and he handed him to Aurangzeb.
War of succession as war of ideology
1) Introduction:
War of succession among Shah Jahan’s sons occupies an important status among the
succession wars fought in medieval India. In fact it was one of the bloodiest battles
irrespective of its political value; the ideological content of this war provides it a distinct
status. This ideological factor remains always conspicuous during each and every stage of
this war. For instance, it was among the major underlying factors of conflict among Shah
Jahan’s sons and particularly between Dara and Aurangzeb. Similarly, this factor also
proved crucial during the decisive moments of war. Similarly, all the long term fallouts of
war are somehow or the other embedded in this ideological factor.
2) Ideologies espoused by Dara and Aurangzeb:
1. Ideology espoused by Dara:
He was an ardent scholar. He patronized arts and learning. He was great
scholar of Persian and Hindi. He translated Upanishads into Persian. He also
rendered Bagwat Geeta into Persian. Similarly, he also translated Upanishads
entitled Sirr-i-Akbari. In the same way his book Majmua-ul-Bahrain contains his
plural vision towards Hindus. He authored Sakinat-ul-Auliya and Safinat-ul-Auliya.
Another conspicuous element of Dara Shikoh religious thought was influence of
Wahdat-ul-Wajood and Vedantic traditions of Hinduism under which he believed
that all paths lead towards truth. Then he also wrote book like Tarriqa-tul-Haqiqat.
He called himself Hanfi Qadri and was closer to Chisti than Naqashbandi order.
Similarly he was also a friend of Sarmad who was a disciple of Hazrat Mian MirRA.
Dara was great believer in Sufism particularly doctrine of Wahdat-ul-Wajood
which is much closer to pantheism which signifies that all paths leads towards truth.
He called himself Hanfi Qadri. He found Qadria order more inclined towards
philanthropy, humanity and averse to fanaticism. He was also inspired by exponents
of Chisti order like Mulla Badakhshi and Hazrat Mian Mir Qadri. His pamphlet
Hasanat-ul-Arifin highlights his inclination towards Wajoodi Sufism.
He possessed an eclectic spirit in religious matters. He did not find any
fundamental difference between Islam and Hinduism. His proclivities towards
Hinduism are fully reflected in Risalah-i-Haq-Numa. Similarly, underline theme of
his book Majma-ul-Bahrain which he authored in 1655 further attest to this view
that truth not the monopoly of a particular religion rather all the religions preach
the same faith. With his writings he tried to bring Sufism and speculative thoughts of
Hinduism close together.
2. Ideology espoused by Aurangzeb:
On the other hand Aurangzeb’s loyalty to orthodox Islam was greater than
that of any other prince of the House of Taimur. He was a staunch Sunni. He was
punctilious in his religious obligations. He possessed greater mastery over Sharia
than any other prince in the House of Taimur. He belonged to Naqashbandi order
which further underscores the fact that he gave primary importance to Sharia over
Tariqah as he believed in Wahdat-ul-Shahood. He was inspired by the disciples of
Hazrat Mujadid Alf Sani RA. He dubbed Dara as an apostate. Aurangzeb enjoyed full
support of Indian Sunnis who were in fact the mainstay of power. Religious ideas of
Dara directly clashed with Sunnis who feared that if he ascended to the throne he
would furthered the policies favourable to Hindus and non Muslims. Aurangzeb
became an autonomous choice for Sunnis more significantly. Aurangzeb enjoyed
support of influential members of Mughal polity belonging to Sunnis. Particularly,
the Sunnis Syeds among those one may mention the names of Sheikh Muhammad
Khawafi and Syed Shah Muhammad of Bukhara who senior officer in the special
guards of Aurangzeb, Mir Malik Hussain who arrested Dara from Qandahar, Syed
Abu al-Fazal Mamuri, he played important role in Aurangzeb’s success in the battles
of Dharmat and Samugarh. More importantly Aurangzeb also received full support
from certain Sunni scholars or Ulema among those one may mention the names of
Sheikh Nizam Fazil who was a scholar of Burhanpur, similarly, Sheikh Burhan of
Burhanpur, Khawaja Abid bin Alam Sheikh, who was scholar from Samarqand and
who fought for Aurangzeb’s cause. Similarly, Hoshdar Khan was also an eminent
scholar who supported Aurangzeb. The Sunni Ulema not only served Aurangzeb
with sword but their very presence to his side proved to be a sort of persuasion to
the Sunnis to consider his cause a religious one.
3) How can this war be described as an ideological one:
1. Religious differences added to the ferocity of a struggle already aggravated by the
personal rivalry. These religious differences further made the struggle bitterer.
2. These ideological differences also imply that the outcome of the war whatsoever it
might be would have considerably influence the very nature and direction of Mughal
polity. For instance, had Dara defeated Aurangzeb it would have meant the
dominance of more liberal version of Islam it. It would have resulted into a polity
which was to be dominated by those who accorded primary importance to Tarriqa
over Sharia. Moreover, Hindu elements would have been more dominated.
3. On the other hand as this war later showed that this war resulted into triumph of
puritanical Islam underpinned by Shahoodi influences. As far as the Sunnis were
concerned they viewed this war more ideological therefore they passionately
supported Aurangzeb’s cause while their sentiments I.H. Qureshi argues that, “Dara
promised to be a second Akbar so far as his religious inclinations were concerned.” He
further argues that “it was clear that he would prove worse than Akbar if he come to
throne”, while further explicating his argument I.H. Qureshi maintains that “he
would have prove more dangerous than Akbar because he was more learned”.
4. It may also be described as ideological war as the more active actors in the end
proved to be Dara and Aurangzeb and this was mainly on account of their
ideological standpoints which resulted into the clash of the two camps. According to
I.H. Qureshi; “Murad and Shuja represented no cause hence they did not have the
same support”.
5. The long term consequences of war of succession further proved this the point that
the war of succession war an ideological conflict as Aurangzeb’s victory had
enormous bearing on the fate of Islam in South Asia. It strengthened the forces of
puritanical Islam and exponents of Muslim exclusiveness. I.H. Qureshi accords
great significance to this very factor by maintaining that, “Dara‟s formal trial was
symbolic. It brought to the mind of people that it was not for his personal advancement
that Aurangzeb had fought. He was the protagonist of a great cause”.
War of succession was a war of ideology
1) Introduction
Factors – begin with factors and then narrowing down focus to ideological factor
2) Ideologies espoused by Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb
1. Ideology of Dara Shikoh
2. Ideology of Aurangzeb Alamgir
3) Role of Ideological factor in deciding the fate of war of succession
4) Carries great significance / symbolic importance
1) Introduction
War of succession among Shah Jahan’s sons occupies an important status among the
succession wars fought in the medieval India. In fact, it was one of the bloodiest battles
fought for the cause of throne. Irrespective of its political significance the ideological
elements were the main grounds on which this war was fought. The ideology espoused by
the Aurangzeb was the main cause of his success in this war. The ideological factor of this
war remains always conspicuous during each and every stage of this war. For instance, it
was among the major underline factors of conflict among Shah Jahan’s sons. Similarly, this
factor also approved crucial during the decisive moments of war. Moreover, all the long
terms fallouts of war are somehow or the other embodied in this ideological factor. Out of
all the described factors the ideological factor is the most important one.
2) Ideologies espoused by Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb
1. Ideology of Dara Shikoh
Dara was a scholar, he patronized arts and learning. He was a great scholar
on Persian and Hindi. He translated Upanishads into Persian. He also rendered
Baghwan Geeta into Persian. His literary landmarks are Sirr-ul-Asrar , Safinat-ul-
Aulia (1640), Saskeena-tul-Aulia (1642)and Majmua-ul-Bahrain. Sirr-ul-Asrar is
the Persian translation of Upanishads. Safinat-ul-Aulia is a hagiological treatise
containing the lives of Muslim saints. Majmua-ul-Bahrain is a treatise on the
technical terms of Hindu pantheism and their Sufi synonyms. He also wrote a small
tract called Tareeqa-tul-Haqeeqat. It is thought that it was written soon after
Saskeena-tul-Aulia Besides these Dara also wrote Shathiyat or Hasanat al-Arifin in
1662. He was a disciple of Hazrat Mian MirRA. He called him Hanfi-Qadri and he was
closer to Chisti than Naqshbandi order. He was also a friend of Sarmad. But, the
accounts of contemporary historians show that various religious thoughts
influenced Dara. Among them the Wahadat-ul-Wajood of Sufism and Vedentic
traditions of Hinduism influenced him more. Therefore, he believed that all paths
lead towards truth.
2. Ideology of Aurangzeb Alamgir
Aurangzeb enjoyed the influential support of Mughals polity belonging to
Sunni particularly Sunni Syeds. Among them one may mention the names of Sheikh
Muhammad Khawafi then Syed Shah Muhammad of Bokhara who were senior
officials in the special guards of Aurangzeb. Besides these, Mir Malik Hussain and
_____________ arrested Dara from Qandahar. Syed Abul Fazal Mawwaurt he played
important role in Aurangzeb’s successes in the battles of Dhurmat and Smaugarh. So
these Sunnis not only served Aurangzeb but they also complemented his religious
ideology. More importantly Aurangzeb also received full support from certain Sunni
scholars or Ulema among those one may mention the names of Sheikh Nizam Fazal,
who was a scholar of Burhanput. Similarly, Sheikh Burhan of Burhanpur,
Khawaja Abid bin Alam Sheikh who was scholar from Samarqand and who fought
for Aurangzeb’s cause. Similarly, Hoshdar Khan was also a famous scholar who was
also a staunch Sunni in the cohorts of Aurangzeb. Ulema not only served Aurangzeb
with sword but their very presence to his side proved to be a source persuasion to
the Sunnis to consider his cause a religious one.
3) How can this war be described as an ideological one
1. Religious differences added to the ferocity of a struggle already aggravated by deep
personal rivalry. These ideological differences also imply that the outcome of the
war whatsoever it might be would have considerably influenced the very nature and
direction of the Mughal polity. For instance, had Dara emerged in defeated
Aurangzeb, it would have meant the more liberal version of Islam. It would have
created a polity which was to be dominated by those who accorded privacy priority
to Tareeqa over Sharia. Consequently, Hindus and non-Muslim elements would have
been more dominated. It was an ideological factor that this war resulted into the
triumph of puritanical Islam underpinned by Shahoodi influences.
2. Analysis of I.H. Qureshi
I.H. Qureshi while alluding to its implications opines that Dara promised to
be a second Akbar, so far as his religious inclination were concerned According to
I.H. Qureshi “It was unclear that he would prove worse than Akbar if he came to the
thrown”. While further explicating his point of view, I.H. Qureshi maintains that “He
would have proved more dangerous than Akbar because he was more learned”.
3. As far as Sunnis were concerned they viewed this war more ideological therefore
they passionately supported by non-Muslims and heterodox Muslims for
Aurangzeb’s cause.
4. It may be described as ideological war as the more active factors in the end proved
to be Aurangzeb and Dara. This was mainly on account of their ideological
standpoints which resulted into the clash of two camps. The long term
consequences of war of succession further proved this point that the war of
succession was an ideological conflict as Aurangzeb’s victory had enormous
bearings on the fate of Islam and on South Asia. It strengthen the forces of
puritanical Islam and the exponents of Muslims exclusiveness
5. I.H. Qureshi accords great significance to this very factor by maintaining that Dara’s
formal trial was symbolic. It brought to the mind of the people that it was not for his
personal advancement that Aurangzeb has fought. He was protagonist of a great
cause.
6. Dara was supported by heterogeneous Muslims and non-Muslims elements whereas
Aurangzeb was supported by orthodox Muslims of the society.

Mehmood of Ghazna's Military Achievements and Empire Building

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Mehmood of Ghazna's Military Achievements and Empire Building

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Sir Irfan Waheed Usmani-GC University Lahore

Character and achievements of Mehmood of Ghazna

1) Achievements of Mehmood of Ghazna

4) Controversy surrounding Deen-e-Ilahi:

5) Reasons behind its failure:

Analysis of Akbar’s Deen-e-Ilahi

Akbar’s Mansabdari System

6. Criteria if recruitment, promotion and demotion of a Mansabdar:

9. Dakhilis and Ahadis:

Akbar’s Rajput Policy

Akbar’s Religious Policy

iv) In 1583, Akbar forbad the slaughter of animals on certain days.

Deen-e-Ilahi as a monument of Akbar’s folly

3. Even if it is considered as a political strategy aimed at creating political and cultural

Amir Taimur’s invasion

Is Arabs invasion of Sindh merely an episode in the history?

1) Professor Habib Ullah is of the view:

Architecture under the Mughals

1) Nature of architecture under the Mughals:

6) Architecture under Jahangir:

Aurangzeb’s Rajput Policy

reached Delhi. The Emperor considered it an irregularity. He attempted made an

Aurangzeb Religious Policy

3. Some controversial aspects described discriminatory by non-Muslim historians:

Babur’s permanent place in history rests upon his Indian conquests

Balban’s (1266-1287) measures /policy for the consolidation of the state

v) Diwan-e-Ard was reorganized.

Balban’s Theory of Kingship

Causes and impacts of Mahmud’s invasion

The causes, nature and impacts of Ghaznavid invasion

d) Obvious non-religious character of his policy. Despite the fact that he

came to India with Mahmud.

Central administration of Delhi Sultanate – Sultan

1) ‘Sultan’ in Medieval India:

Character and achievements of Iltutmish

ii) He attended the Mehfil-e-Samah at the shrine of Sultan Qazi Hamid-ud-

Character and achievements of Muhammad Bin Qasim

Character of Mahmud of Ghazna

Character of Sher Shah Suri

Decline of Delhi Sultanate

5. Conspiratorial role of nobility:

Idealist Plans of Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Iltutmish as the real founder of the Sultanate period

Mughal Provincial Administration

Muhammad Bin Qasim

1. Causes and impacts of Arab invasion.

Causes and impacts of Arab invasion

Muhammad bin Tughlaq – A mixture of extremes

Propagation of Music under Delhi Sultanate

Music under the Mughals

Nature and motives of Mahmud’s invasion

3) Orthodox Muslim historians:

2. Political motives also affected by other considerations

Personality estimate of Babur

5. Established link between Central Asia and India:

Variants of questions on Babur

Personality estimate of Humayun

B. Personality traits of Humayun:

6) Credulity ‫خوش اعتقادی‬:

Personality / Character estimate of Muhammad bin Tughlaq

4) As a soldier and general:

Price Control Policy of Alaudin Khilji (1296-1316)