Core-Psychology of Adolescence

First printed in 2015 by Hampton Press, Cape Coast
Second printed in 2016 by Wilson Books and Stationery Ent. Ltd., Cape Coast
Third printing in 2017 by UCC Press, Cape Coast
Fourth printing in 2019 by UCC Press, Cape Coast
© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

(CoDE UCC), 2015, 2016, 2017, 2019
CoDE PUBLICATIONS, 2019
REVISED, 2016
All right reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted by any form or means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or
otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright holder.
Cover page illustrated by R. Y. Essiam

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Driven by the desire to always deliver quality, cost-effective tertiary education to

clients, it is necessary to appreciate all colleagues and staff of the College of
Distance Education, University of Cape Coast (CoDEUCC) who have contributed in
attaining this objective. The revision of this module has been made possible through
the support and commitment of several people whose contribution in diverse ways is
making CoDEUCC attain its mission in the history of distance education in Ghana.
First, I acknowledge the hard work of the authors of the reviewed modules. The
purpose of the review was to bring to bear new knowledge and trends in the subject
content. I therefore appreciate the work of the reviewers of this module for making
the content of this module indispensable in attaining success for all clients. Thus,
much thanks go to the following Mr. A. K. Koomson, Mr. Peter Brown, late Dr.
Emma Dawson-Brew, and Prof. P. D. Ahiatrogah, of the College of Distance
Education, and Dr Bakari Y. Dramanu of Educational Foundations, for their
painstaking effort.
I also acknowledge the support of the Co-ordinator and Staff of the Reprographic,
Productions and Dispatch Unit, CoDE, who worked hard to bring this material into
print. The support of the Advisory Committee, particularly Heads of Department
and Chief Examiners has also been invaluable.
I thank the Vice Chancellor, Prof. Joseph Ghartey-Ampiah, all UCC Management
and the various printing houses without whose support this module would not have
been produced.
Special thanks go to Ms. Alberta S. F. Gogovi and Ms Victoria Garbrah for

typesetting into the house style of CoDE.
Prof. Isaac Galyuon

(Provost)
viii
ABOUT THIS BOOK
This Course Book “Psychology of Adolescence has been exclusively written by

experts in the discipline to up-date your general knowledge of English Language in
order to equip you with the basic tool you will require for your professional work as
a basic school teacher and administrator.
This three-credit course book of thirty-six (36) sessions has been structured to reflect
the weekly three-hour lecture for this course in the University. Thus, each session is
equivalent to a one-hour lecture on campus. As a distance learner, however, you are
expected to spend a minimum of three hours and a maximum of five hours on each
session.
To help you do this effectively, a Study Guide has been particularly designed to
show you how this book can be used. In this study guide, your weekly schedules are
clearly spelt out as well as dates for quizzes, assignments and examinations.
Also included in this book is a list of all symbols and their meanings. They are
meant to draw your attention to vital issues of concern and activities you are
expected to perform.
Blank sheets have been also inserted for your comments on topics that you may find
difficult. Remember to bring these to the attention of your course tutor during your
fortnightly meetings.
We wish you a happy and successful study.
A. K. Koomson
Peter Brown
Emma Dawson-Brew
P. D. Ahiatrogah
Bakari Yusif Dramanu
UCCCoDE/Post-Diploma in Basic Education i

THIS MODULE FORMS PART OF CoDEUCC PACKAGE
FOR THE POST-DIPLOMA IN BASIC EDUCATION
(P-DBE) PROGRAMME
FOR FURTHER DETAILS YOU MAY CONTACT:
THE PROVOST, (CoDEUCC)

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
CAPE COAST
TEL/FAX 03321-36946
© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

(CoDEUCC)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted by any form or means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying or otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright holder.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
About this Book … … … … … … … i

Table of Contents … … … … … … ii
Symbols and their Meanings … … … … … vii
Acknowledgement … … … … … … viii
UNIT 1: THE MEANING NATURE AND SCOPE OF

ADOLESCENCE… … … … … 1
Session 1: Definition and Meaning of Adolescence … 3
1.1 Definitions … … … … … 3
1.2 Who is an Adolescent? … … … … 4
Session 2: Nature and Scope of Adolescence … … 7
2.1 Nature Scope and Point of View of Adolescence 7
Session 3: Physical Development of Adolescence … 11
3.1 Physical Changes/Growth in Adolescence … 11
3.2 The Adolescent Growth Spurt … … … 12
3.3 Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics ... 13
Session 4: Intellectual Development of Adolescence … 17
4.1 Intelligence as a Phenomenon of Development … 17
Session 5: Emotional Development of Adolescence … 21
5.1 Definition and Types of Emotions … … 21
5.2 Emotional Development of the Adolescent … 22
Session 6: Social and Moral Development of Adolescence 25
6.1 Social Development of the Adolescent … … 25
6.2 Moral Development of Adolescence … … 27
UNIT 2: THE ADOLESCENCE AND HIS RELATION

TO OTHERS … … … … … 33
Session 1: The Adolescence and His Family: Interpersonal
Relations … … … … … … 35
1.1 The Role of the Adolescence in his Family … 35
1.2 The Psychological Function of the Home … 36
Session 2: The Adolescence and his Family: Environmental
Factors … … … … … … 39
2.1 Environmental Factors that Affect the Life of the
Adolescence … … … … … 39
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Session 3: Friendship and Personal Acceptability … 43
3.1 School and Neighbourhood … … … 43
Session 4: Heterosexual Relationships … ... ... 47
4.1 Development of Interest in the Opposite Sex 47
4.2 Sex Education of Adolescents … … 48
4.3 Cultural Influences on Sex-Social Behaviour … 49
Session 5: Adolescent Groups and Group Membership 51
5.1 What Is A Group? … … …. … 51
5.2 The Nature of the Group … … … … 52
5.3 Classification of Groups … … … … 52
Session 6: Delinquent Behaviour: Nature and Personal
Factors … … … … … … 55
6.1 Nature and Definitions of Delinquency … … 55
6.2 Interdisciplinary Nature of Delinquency … … 56
UNIT 3: DISCIPLINE AND REBELLION IN

ADOLESCENCE … … … … 59
Session 1: The Meaning of Discipline … … … 61
1.1 What Is Discipline? … … … … 61
1.2 Contrasting Discipline and Punishment … 62
Session 2: Discipline in Schools … … … … 73
2.1 What is School Discipline? … … … 73
2.2 Why is Discipline in Schools Important?… … 73
2.3 School Characteristics Associated with Discipline 74
2.4 How Schools can Decrease Disruptive Behaviour 75
2.5 How Schools can Increase Positive Behaviour 76
2.6 The Importance of Administrative Leadership 76
Session 3: Adolescent Rebellion … … … … 79
3.1 Rebelliousness in Adolescence… … … 80
3.2 Types and Causes of Rebelliousness … … 83
3.3 Authoritarianism … … … … 85
3.4 Some Guidelines on Helping Adolescents …… 86
Session 4: The Impact of Literature on the Adolescent
Mind … … … … … … … 91
4.1 Why is Literature Appealing to All? … … 91
4.2 Adolescent Literacy … … … … 93
4.3 Adolescent Interest of Contemporary Texts … 93
4.4 An Analysis of Novels That Young Adults Read 94
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.5 Stage of Reading Development of Adolescents … 96
4.6 Memoirs in Adolescent Literature … … 96
Session 5: The Impact of Movies and T.V on the
Adolescent … … … … … … 101
5.1 Youth and Media … … … … 101
5.2 The Effect of Television on Teenagers … 103
5.3 Summary of the Effects of Television … 104
5.4 A Literative Review of Effects of TV/Movie
Viewing … … … … 106
5.5 Developing Alternatives to Television/Movies…108
Session 6: The Impact of Pornography on the Adolescent 111
6.1 What is Pornography? … … ... … 111
6.2 Types of Pornography … … … 112
6.3 Child Pornography … … … … 113
64 Computer Technology and Pornography … 114
6.5 Uses of Child Pornography … … … 115
6.6 Effects of Pornography on Children … … 116
6.7 Biblical Perspective … … … … 117
6.8 Steps to Combat Porn … … … … 118
UNIT 4: ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOUR ACTIVITIES AND
INTEREST … … … … … … 121
Session 1: Bases and Outcomes of Adolescent Behaviour 123
1.1 Adolescent Behaviour Viewed as Human Behaviour 123
1.2 Psychological Bases of Human Behaviour: Modes of
Adjustment … ... ... … … 124
1.3 Habit as a Determinant of Behaviour … … 127
Session 2: Psychological Needs During Adolescence and
Substance … … … … … … 131
2.1 Definition of Need… … … … … 131
2.2 Classification of Needs … … … 132
2.3 Categories of Psychological Needs … … 133
2.4 Needs and Social Context … … … 134
2.5 Sex Differences in the Development of Needs 134
Session 3: Interests and Activities: Nature and Social
Aspects … … … … … … 137
3.1 The Nature and Importance of Interest as a
Motivating Factor in Human Activity … … 137
3.2 Characteristics of Adolescents’ Interest… … 139
3.3 Differences in Interests … … … .. 139
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.4 Interests as Represented by Group Activity … 141
Session 4: Interests and Activities: Personal Aspects … 145
4.1 Oview of Adolescents’ Personal Interests …
the Contract is Made … … … … 145
4.2 Problems of Adolescents … … … 146
4.3 Adolescents’ “Wishes” … … … 147
4.4 Sexual Behaviour Sex Education and the
Adolescent … … … … … 149
4.5 Solitary Activity of Adolescents … … 152
Session 5: Attitudes Ideals and Values … … … 157
5.1 Definition of Attitudes and Common Attitude
Patterns … … … … … 157
5.2 Definition of an Ideal … … … … 159
5.3 The Adolescent as an Idealist … … … 160
5.4 The Relationship Between Attitudes and
Characterr … … … … … 161
5.5 Promotion of Acceptable Attitudes and Ideals 161
5.6 Factors Shaping Adolescent Attitude … … 163
Session 6: Vocational Interests and Abilities of

Adolescents … … … … … … 169
6.1 Vocational Development … … … 169
6.2 Necessity for a Vocation … … … 172
6.3 Occupational Preferences of Adolescents … 173
6.4 Comparison between Abilities and Vocational
Choices ... ... ... ... ... 175
6.5 Factors Influencing Vocational Interests … 176
UNIT 5: ADOLESCENT IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT 183

Session 1: Explanation of Identity Development … … 185
1.1 What is identity Development? … … 185
1.2 The Four Statuses of Identity … … … 186
1.3 Development of Sense of Identity … … 187
1.4 Importance of Identity Developmentin
Adolescence … … … … 188
Session 2: The Timing of Identity Formation … … 191
2.1 Erikson’s views on Identity and the Human Life
Cycle ... ... ... ... ... 191
2.2 Developmental Changes … … … 192
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.3 Coping with Problems Associated with Timing …
of Identity Development … … … 193
Session 3: The Personal Contextual Milieu For Identity
Formation … … … … … ... 197
3.1 Temperament and Identity Formation … 197
3.2. The Experience of Puberty on Identity Formation. 198
3.3 Gender and Identity Formation … … 199
3.4 Cognitive Development and Identity Formation 199
Session 4: The Social-Environmental Milieu For Identity
Formation … … … … … … 203
4.1 Economic and Employment Conditions … 203
4.2 Discrimination and Prejudice … … … 204
4.3 Educational Institutions … … … … 205
Session 5: Cultural and Ethnic Aspects of Identity … 209
5.1 What is Community Culture? … … … 209
5.2 Role of Culture in Identity Development … 209
5.3 Model of Minority Identity Development … 210
Session 6: Improving Adolescent Identity Development 215
6.1 Role of Community Schools … … … 215
6.2 Availability of Sources of Support in the
Community … … … … 216
6.3 Availability of Quality Youth-Serving Institutions
And Organizations… … … … 216
6.4 Implications of Youth Development for Intervention 217
UNIT 6: COUNSELLING THE ADOLESCENT … 223
Session 1: Identifying Problems of the Adolescent … 225
1.1 Sex-roles … … … … … 225
1.2 Inferiority versus Self-esteem … … ... 226
1.3 Peer Influences and Need to Belong … … 226
1.4 The Longing … … … … … 227
1.5 Romantic Love and Dating … … … 227
1.6 Negativity and Rebellion … … … 228
1.7 Broken Heartedness … … … … 228
Session 2: Problems Associated With Adolescent
Transitions … … … … … … 231
2.1 Developing Multiple Plans … … … 232
2.2 Self-Advocacy and Marketing … … … 232
2.3 Managing Changing Relationships … … 232
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.4 Meeting Basic Needs … … … … 232
2.5 Coping with Loss … … … … 233
2.6 Coping with Stress … … … … 233
2.7 Bridging Programmes … … … … 233
2.8 Information and Information Access … …. 233
Session 3: Conflict Management In School … … 237

3.1 Go beyond Violence Prevention to Conflict
Resolution Training … … … … 237
3.2 Don’t Attempt to Eliminate all Conflicts… ... 238
3.3 Create a Cooperative Context … … … 238
3.4 Decrease in-school Risk Factors … … 239
3.5 Use Academic Controversy to Increase Learning 239
3.6 Teach all Students how to Resolve Conflicts
Constructively … … … … … 239
Session 4: Promoting Youth Development Activities … 243
4.1 Developmental Pathways … … … 243
4.2 Interactions that Promote Youth Development 245
4.3 Barriers to Good Adolescent Interactions … 245
Session 5: General Techniques of Counselling the
Adolescent … … … … … ... 251
5.1 How to Get Started …… … … … 251
5.2 How to Teach It … … … … … 252
5.3 Talking with Teenagers about Violence … 252
5.4 Peer Pressure and Gongs … … … 253
5.5 Getting Others to Help … … … 253
Session 6: Counselling The Adolescent’s … … ... 257
6.1 Counselling Adolescents with Sexual Behavior
Problems … … … … … 257
6.2 Problems of Late-Maturing Boys and Girls … 258
6.3 Career Guidance and Counselling for Adolescents 259
6.4 Counselling Implications of Adolescent Value
System … … … … … 260
References … … … … … … … ... 263
Glossary … … … … … … … … 271
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions … … … 273
vii
SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS
INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW
UNIT OBJECTIVES
SESSION OBJECTIVES
DO AN ACTIVITY
NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT
TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)
REFER TO
READ OR LOOK AT
SUMMARY
SELF- ASSESSMENT TEST
ASSIGNMENT
UCCCoDE/Post-Diploma in Basic Education vii

OVE R E OVE R E
SU M M A R Y SUMMA RY
THE MEANING NATURE AND SCOPE OF UNIT 1
ADOLESCENCE
UNIT 1: THE MEANING NATURE AND SCOPE OF

ADOLESCENCE
Unit Outline
Session 1: Definition and Meaning of Adolescence
Session 2: Nature and Scope of Adolescence
Session 3: Physical Development of Adolescence
Session 4: Intellectual Development of Adolescence
Session 5: Emotional Development of Adolescence
Session 6: Social and Moral Development of Adolescence
Hello! Students you are most welcome to an interesting and informed

course in Educational Psychology knows as adolescence. In this unit,
you would learn about this important and interesting developmental
stage in the life of every girl and boy. Have you come across this word adolescence
in your life/profession as a teacher? If yes, then you are going to learn more about
this stage and I hope you would enjoy it. If no, never be worried as you are going
to enjoy the concept and understand every bit of it.
Anyway, lets take a quick look at the various sessions that make up the Unit. The
unit has been categorized into six sessions. Session one deals with some definitions
and meaning of adolescence, while the second session highlights the nature and
scope of adolescence. The third and fourth sessions deal with the physical and
intellectual development of the adolescence.
Session five covers the emotional development of the adolescence and the last
session which is session six focus on the social and moral development of the
adolescent child.
Unit Objectives
By the end of the unit you should be able to:
1. define the concept adolescence in simple terms;
2. explain in a sentence or two the nature and scope of adolescence;
3. list two physical features of the adolescent;
4. mention two emotional and intellectual characteristics of an adolescent;
and
5. state two moral and social attitudes of the adolescent.
UCC CoDE/Post-Di pl oma in Basic Education 1

UNIT 1 THE MEANING NATURE AND SCOPE OF
ADOLESCENCE
This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any.
2 UCC CoDE/ Post-Diploma in Basic Education

ADOLESCENCE SESSION 1
SESSION 1: DEFINITION AND MEANING OF ADOLESCENCE
In this session, we shall try to define adolescence as we understand it

and have a look at some definitions of people who matter in the study
of the concept. How do you understand the term adolescence? Do
you remember a stage in you life when you started developing breasts as a girl?
Do you remember also when hairs started showing at some hidden parts of your
body. Again, do you remember the time you started developing that beautiful shape
such as the enlargement of your hips?
As a boy, can you recollect the time your voice became deep and friends laughed at
you when you spoke? Do you again remember when you ate and never got
satisfied? All these are changes that bring you nearer adulthood and that is the
adolescent stage.
During this stage you identify yourself with the opposite sex and you become
conscious of your appearance and the way you dress. Do you remember when you
wrote those funny letters to friends of the opposite sex who you felt attracted to?
These are all characteristics of the adolescent and every human being be you a boy
or girl pass through that stage.
Now, after the brief explanation try to define adolescence in your own way.
Adolescence is a transitional period in the human developmental cycle.
Did you have the same definition as mine? If yes, then, that is very good, if no, do
not be discouraged as it would discussed it in the course of your study.
Objectives
By the end of this session you should be able to:
(a) define adolescence from the sociologist point of view;
(b) explain who an adolescent is in one sentence; and
(c) state one characteristic of an adolescent.
Now read on…
UCC CoDE/ Post - Diploma in Basic Education 3

UNIT 1 DEFINITION AND MEANING OF ADOLESCENCE
SESSION 1
1.1. Definitions
Now, let us take a look at a few definitions by psychologists and sociologists. The
word “adolescence” is derived from the Latin verb “adolescere” meaning “to grow
up” or “to grow into maturity” and this is a general view.
Adolescence is viewed as a transitional period between childhood and adulthood.
The psychologist, Kurt Lewin, has held that the adolescent is really in a “no man’s
land”. He is neither a child nor an adult, but is caught in a field of overlapping
forces and expectations. The child’s role is clearly structured. The adult likewise
understands pretty well what his role is. The adolescent, however, is in an
ambiguous position. It is believed that this uncertainty causes many adolescents to
vacillate, i.e. to be sensitive and sometimes unstable and unpredictable.
Psychologists also define adolescence as a “marginal situation” in which new

adjustments are to be made, namely those that distinguish child behaviour from
adult behaviour in a given society.
According to the psychologist, adolescence is a passing stage, in which one tries to

adjust to situation and is able to know what a child’s behaviour is and how an adult
is expected to behave.
Age wise, adolescence is a time span from age twelve to the early twenties with
wide individual and cultural differences. It tends to start early in girls than in boys
and ends earlier in primitive societies. In actual fact, adolescence is determined by
social institutions and the social group.

In advanced societies, adolescence period is prolonged and this is due to schooling

and the society he/she belongs.
The adolescence stage lasts almost a decade and that is from twelve or thirteen until
early twenties or teens. Neither its beginning nor its end point is clearly marked.
Adolescence is generally considered to begin with puberty, the process that leads to
sexual maturity or fertility that is the ability to reproduce.
According to Robert E. Slavin, adolescence is a period of rapid physical and

intellectual development. In other words, during the adolescence stage, physical
growth is faster like the development of the intellect. Santrock also sees
adolescence “as a transition between childhood and adulthood that is best viewed in
time of evaluation, decision making, and commitment rather than a time of
rebellion, crisis and pathology”. From all the definitions given, it could be seen that
both the psychologist and sociologist look at the physical, environmental and
intellectual changes that are associated with the stage.
Adolescence as a concept deals with the transitional period in human growth and
development. Every boy or girl no matter the race or colour passes through this
developmental stage before adulthood, its beginning and end depends on the society
an individual comes from.
Look out for more definitions of adolescence and see how they differ
from the psychologist, sociologists etc for the next face to face
meeting.
1.2 Who is an Adolescent?

The adolescent period of development begins with puberty.
What do you understand by puberty as a teacher and parent?

Lets take a look at Robert Slavin’s (1991) definition for this discussion. He sees
puberty or early adolescence as “a time of rapid physical and intellectual
development.
Is your definition similar or near that of Slavin after comparing? If it is the same or
almost the same then congratulation if not, do not be discouraged because you will
learn about it whilst reading the unit.

SESSION 1
The next stage, which is middle adolescence, is a more stable period of adjustment
to and integration of the change of early adolescence. Later adolescence is marked
by the transition into the responsibilities choices, and opportunities of adulthood
Diane E. Papalia et al claim that in Nepal, a state in India, a girl marks her transition
to womanhood by changing the short skirt she wore as a child for an ankle length
wrapped skirt worn by adult women. Rituals to mark a child’s, “coming of age” are
common in many societies. For instance, in Ghana the Krobos have the ‘DIPO’ and
the Akans ‘Bragor, to ursher the girls to adulthood.
Rites of passage or puberty rites or adolescence transitional stage may include
religious blessing, separation from the family, severe tests of strength and
endurance, marking the body in some way or acts of magic.
In modern industrial societies the passage to adulthood is generally less abrupt and
less clearly marked. Instead, these societies recognize a long transitional period
known as “adolescence” and this is a developmental transition between childhood
and adulthood that entail major, interrelated physical, cognitive and psychosocial
changes.
The adolescent girl or boy experience biological changes, which signal the end of
childhood, result in rapid growth in height and weight, changes in body proportions
and form, and attainment of sexual maturity.
These dramatic physical changes are part of a long, complex process of maturation
that begins even before birth, and their psychological issues continue into
adulthood.
A psychologist by name Stanely Hall in a scientific book he wrote on adolescence

referred to the stage as “storm and stress”. This means that the stage is critical
charged with conflict and mood swings. These are all characteristic of the
addescent, can you think of any? Have you heard about the concept “Storm and
stress” anywhere in your life as a teacher?
Try and explain “storm and stress” in a sentence or two for the next face
to face. Anyway the concept “storm and stress” would be dealt in detail
in the next session.
From what has been discussed so far adolescence can be viewed as a

critical developmental stage in human cycle. In a nutshell, it is a
transitional period from childhood to adulthood and its beginning and end is
determined by societies.
This is the end of the first session.
I hope you enjoyed reading it.
Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.1
1. Explain the concept adolescence.
2. State at least three characteristic of an adolescent.
3. Describe in a sentence or two the sociologists stand on adolescence.
4. Explain briefly how a girl in Nepal is urshered into womanhood

SESSION 1

• issues that are not clear
• difficult topics if any.

SESSION 2: NATURE AND SCOPE OF ADOLESCENCE
In the first session of the Unit, definitions of adolescence were treated.

In addition, the adolescent as an individual was dealt with. That is how
adolescents are urshered into adulthood in certain societies. General characteristics
of the adolescent was also discussed in the first session.
Now, this session shall take a good look at the nature and scope of adolescence.
Objectives
(a) explain the nature and attitude of an adolescent;
(b) briefly describe in two sentences the scope of adolescence
(c) state two points of reference with which to view adolescence; and
(e) explain in a sentence how social changes affect the behaviour of an
adolescent
Now read on…
2.1 Nature Scope and Point of View of Adolescence

An adolescent is the product of the interaction of his biological heritage and the
culture in which he lives. The adolescent is a product of his culture because he has
spent the years of his childhood as a participant in that culture; has, frankly
speaking, sat as a child upon the knee of culture.
Adolescence has also been traditionally accepted as a term to describe individuals
who are in that transitional period between childhood and maturity. It is a time of
seeking status and recognition as an individual; a time of significant physical
growth and development; a time of great preoccupation with group and
heterosexual activities, a time of intellectual expansion and development; and a
time of development and evaluation of values. While it is true that the adolescent is
a human being before an adolescent, it is equally true that the period presents many
unique situations and adjustment problems. In effect adolescence is more than a
period or stage of human development; it is a way of life whose repercussions affect
much of the adult life of the individual.
Cultural anthropologists, Psychologists, sociologists, and others hold the
assumption that, the years of an individual’s childhood are of great importance in
creating the kind of person he is. In any event the individual may not be considered
apart from the structure of the society in which he/she lives including every
perceived element in it.
UCC CoDE/Post - Diploma in Basic Education 9

UNIT 1 NATURE AND SCOPE OF ADOLESCENCE
SESSION 2
Adolescence is a descriptive term for the period during which a teenaged,

emotionally, immature individual of limited experience approaches the peak of his
physical and mental growth. Although potentially and adult, he/she still plays the
role of an inexperienced child bound and restricted by the culture in which he/she
lives. In its non physical aspects adolescence is culturally determined and
represents a period of difficult adjustment if the environment is a restrictive one. In
a non restrictive environment the adolescents problems tend to be primarily those of
gaining and applying experience.
In a culture, as in some existing primitive ones, in which early responsibility and
status are accorded to youth, the period of adolescence may be simplified. In
contrast, the period of adolescence in Western Culture is more complex and more
beset by problems. This complexity is due in part to lack of emancipation from
parents vocational inferior status. However, it is recognized that the difficulty of the
transition from childhood through adolescence into adulthood is a function of the
amount of facilitation the culture offers to the individual who is going through the
transitional period. The greater the facilitation, the easier the transition.
In former years adolescence was alleged to be inevitably a period of great and
excessive storm and stress; it was supposed to represent a complete and sudden
‘rebirth’ and change of personality. According to this point of view, difficulty
during adolescence was held to be inevitable.
Adolescence is believed to be culturally determined, that the amount of difficulty is
a direct function of the restrictiveness of the environment, and to only a very small
degree a function of biological change within the individual.
A true understanding of adolescence includes a recognition of the existence of
individual differences. Surface similarities may often conceal crucial differences. It
must be remembered that even if two or more adolescents are in similar physical
environments their psychological environments are not necessarily also similar. It
is a mistake to generalize about adolescence from experience with it in any given
environment, even within a fairly homogeneous culture. Intracultural differences do
exist, such as differences caused by technological changes, climate historical period,
socio-economic status, and other factors.
Not only do adolescents differ in environments, but an adolescent who moves from
one environment to another will also display certain differences from his former
self.
10 UCCCoDE/Post-Di pl oma in Basic Education

An understanding of a given adolescent requires a wide and extensive knowledge of

his past as well as his present physical and psychological environments. He must
be viewed as an adolescent, but he must also be viewed as a human being, and his
behaviour as an adolescent must be interpreted with the aid of that view.
In Western culture there are five points of reference from which to view adolescent
growth and development and these are;
a. It is a time of physical development and growth.
b. It is a time when group relations become of major importance.
c. Adolescence is a time of seeking status as an individual
d. It is a time of intellectual expansion, development, and academic
experience.
e. It is a time of development and evaluation of values
1.2 The Purpose of Studying Adolescence

Generally, knowledge of human behavior can be applied in trying to understand the
adolescent; however there are special problems that confront the adolescent which
require additional study. Adolescence is a period of transition that is highly
influenced by the culture in which the individual finds him/herself. Let’s look at a
few examples: Physiological changes in adolescence produce special disturbances
which need to be understood. Furthermore, individual problems which may be met
at any time of life could have particular significance when encountered at the stage
of adolescence. The task of achieving and accepting maturity involves numerous
specific hazards. The successful teacher should know the problems of the
adolescent and understand how to assist him in resolving them.
Now take note of the following specific reasons why teachers need to
study adolescence.
1. The nature of the transition period through which adolescents pass.
2. The special needs and developmental tasks of adolescents.
3. The role of the peer group in influencing adolescent behaviour.
4. The effect of somatic variations on adolescent behaviour.
5. The special problems arising out of family life.
6. The causes of adolescent delinquency.
7. The special problems arising out of sexual maturation.
Many of the problems an adolescent faces are new to him and are ones which he
may not encounter again if he makes a successful adjustment to them.
UCC CoDE/Post - Diploma in Basic Education 11

UNIT 1 NATURE AND SCOPE OF ADOLESCENCE
SESSION 2
Adolescence is viewed as a period of adjustment to cultural demands;

and of expectations as to commonalities of behaviour and development,
within which individual differences may also be expected.
We have come to the end of another session, I hope you enjoyed reading.
Exercise 1.2
1. In a sentence state how the culture of the adolescent influence his behaviour.
2. What is “storm and stress” as used in the text.
3. Why is individual differences important in adolescence.
4. From the Western cultural point of view state 2 of their pints of reference
from which to view adolescent growth and development.

SESSION 3: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENCE

In the last session, the nature and scope of adolescence was discussed.
In this session we would describe the physical development including
hormonal changes, growth spurt etc and how they affect or influence the
adolescent’s feeling about him/herself.
Objectives
(a) explain two physical characteristics of the adolescent;
(b) describe briefly in a sentence the effect of hormonal changes in the
adolescent;
(c) explain in two sentences the differences in growth spurts between the
boy and girl.
Now read on…
3.1. Physical Changes/Growth in Adolescence

The years from twelve to eighteen have their own set of marked alterations.
Adolescents undergo important physical changes as their bodies mature and they
become ready for sexual activity and reproduction. In addition, this is the period
during which independence from the family is gradually anchored.
Adolescent stage according to Robert Slavin (1991) involves series of physical
changes that render the “immature being” capable of reproduction. Almost every
organ and system of the body is affected by these changes. The pre-adolescent
child and the post adolescent are outwardly different in appearance because of
changes in stature, proportion and the development of primary and secondary
sexual features.
Although the sequence of events at adolescence is generally the same for each
person, the timing and the rate at which they occur vary widely.
The biological changes, which signal the end of childhood, result in rapid growth in
height and weight. These dramatic physical changes are part of a long, complex
process of maturation that begins even before birth, and their psychological
development continues into adulthood.
UCCCoDE/ Post - Diploma in Basic Education 13

UNIT 1 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENCE
SESSION 3
Strictly speaking, adolescence begins with the gradual enlargement of the ovaries
(that is the female eggs) and the uterus (that is the womb) in females and the
prostrate gland and semen in males. However, adolescence is dated from the
development of breasts or the onset of menstruation in girls and the emergence of
pubic hair in boys.
Also, others think that the beginning of adolescence is determined by the interaction
of genes, health, and environment, it may be related to reaching a critical weight
level.
The females hormone estrogen stimulates growth of the genitals likewise the breasts
and in boys, the testes increase the manufacturing of androgens particularly,
testosterone, which stimulate growth of male genitals and body hair. Boys and girls
have both types of hormones, but girls have higher levels of estrogen and boys have
higher levels of androgens.
Hormones are associated with aggression in boys and both aggression and
depression in girls (Brooks – Gunn, 1988). Others attribute the increased
emotionality and moodiness of early adolescence to hormonal changes. However
social influence may combine with hormones to bring about these emotional
changes. Although there is a relationship between hormone production and
sexuality, adolescents may begin sexual activity more in accordance with what their
friends do than with what their glands secrete.
There is about a seven year range for the onset of adolescent in both boys and girls.
The process takes about four year for both sexes and begins about two or three years
earlier for girls than for boys. Some people move through adolescence quickly and
others at a slower pace. Moreover it is normal for girls to show the first signs of
adolescence as early as seven or as late as fourteen and boys between nine and
sixteen years.
Physical changes in the adolescent again include, growth spurt, the beginning of
menstruation in girls, production of sperm in males maturation of reproductive
organs, development of pubic hair, a deeper voice and muscular growth. These
14 UCCCoDE/ Post-Diploma in Basic Education

changes unfold in a sequence that is much more consistent than their timing, though
it varies.
For instance, one girl may develop breasts and body hair at about the same rate, in
another, body hair may grow so fast that it shows an adult pattern a year before her
breasts develop. Similar variations occur in boys.
Cast yours mind back to your adolescent stage and write down some
of the changes that occurred in you and how you felt for the next
FTF.
3.2 The Adolescent Growth Spurt

The term “growth spurt” refers to the accelerated rate of increase in height and
weight that occurs with the onset of adolescence. The increase varies widely in
intensity duration and age of onset from one child to another, even among perfectly
normal children. In girls the growth spurt begins between 9½ and in boys between
10½ and 16 years.
The growth spurt typically last about 2 years; soon after it ends, the young person
reaches sexual maturity. Since the growth spurt in girls occur earlier than that of
boys, girls between ages eleven and thirteen are taller, heavier and stronger then
boys the same age. Both boys and girls reach virtually their full height by age
eighteen (Behrman, 1992). The popular saying that girls mature earlier than boys
stems from the fact that girls obtain their adult height and weight about two years
earlier than boys.
During the growth spurt, boys increase slightly more than girls in height the greater
eventual height of males results primarily from their being older and, therefore,
taller at the beginning of their adolescent growth spurt.
Boys and girls grow differently. A boy becomes larger overall; his shoulders grow
wider, his legs longer relative to his trunk, and his forearms longer relative to his
upper arms and his height. A girl’s pelvis widens to make child bearing easier, and
layers of fat are laid down just under the skin, giving her a more mature and
rounded appearance.

SESSION 3
The adolescent growth spurt affects practically all skeletal and muscular
dimensions. For instance the lower jaw becomes longer and thicker and the incisor
teeth become more upright. Since each of these changes fellow its own timetable,
parts of the body, may be out of proportion for a while. The result is the familiar
awkwardness that accompanies unbalanced, accelerated growth.
Along with the increases in height and weight during this period, less obvious
physical changes occur too. For instance in both boys and girls, muscular
development occur rapidly. The acceleration of muscular development that takes
place during this period is accompanied by increases in strength and this is greater
in boys than in girls.
Relative to their size, boys develop larger hearts and wings, a greater capacity for
carrying oxygen in the blood, a lower heart rate, while at rest. Unlike the skeletal
structure and other organs, there is relatively little further growth in brain size
during adolescence.
Although the age of onset of the overall developmental sequence may vary widely,
the maturational factors operate together. It is also likely that, the boy who shows
the growth spurt early will develop pubic hair early, and a girl who has early
menses will show early breast development.
From a psychological viewpoint, it is most important that all girls and boys be
aware f the fact that maturational age, including age of sexual maturation varies
widely among normal young people with no associated physical abnormalities.
There may be less concern in these matters among contemporary adolescents than
there was in earlier generations, because of better information, less secretly, and a
healthier attitude toward sexual development generally. But the fact is, anxiety
among adolescent girls and boys could be reduced if there were more widespread
awareness that such variations are perfectly normal.
3.3 Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics

The primary sex characteristics are the organs necessary for reproductions. In the
female, the sex organs are the ovaries, uterus and the vagina; in the male, the testes,

prostrate gland, penis and the seminal vesicles. During adolescence, these organs
enlarge and mature. In boys, the first sign is the growth of the testes and stratum.
The secondary sex characteristics are physiological signs of sexual maturation that
do not directly involve the sex organs, for example, the breasts of females and the
broad shoulders of males. Other secondary sex characteristics are changes in the
voice and skin texture, muscular development, and the growth of pubic, facial,
armpit and body hair.
According to Hirsch, I. H (2013) during puberty, sexual development occurs in a set

sequence. However, when the changes begin and how quickly they occur vary from
person to person. For boys, puberty begins at age 9½ to 10½ years and lasts about 3
years. The chart shows a typical sequence and normal range of development for the
milestones of sexual development.
The first sign of adolescence in girls is usually the budding of the breasts. The
nipples enlarge and protrude. Also, a monthly shedding of tissue from the lining of
the womb and this known as menarche, and later menstruation. This is more than a
physical event it is a concrete symbol of a shift from girl to woman (Rubler Books –
Gunn, 1982). The voice of the male deepens, partly in response to the growth of the

SESSION 3
larynx and the production of male hormones. Increased activity of a fatty substance
may give rise to pimples and acne.
Another sign is “nocturnal emission” which is an involuntary ejaculation of semen

and this is commonly known as “wet dream”. This is sometimes connected with an
erotic dream in most boys.
The physical changes one experience during adolescence is very important in that
the individual learns to understand him/herself accept the changes as normal and
adjusts to the new situation.
In summary, the characteristics of adolescent physical development include:

• Restlessness and fatigue due to hormonal changes
• A need for physical activity because of increased energy
• Developing sexual awareness and often touching and bumping into others
• A concern with changes in body size and shape.
• Physical vulnerability resulting from poor health habits or engaging in risky
behaviour.
This is the end of the session, I hope you loved the discuss.
Exercise 1.3
1. What is the name given to the female hormone?
2. State in a sentence the work or importance of the female hormone.
3. The male hormones stimulate ………… in the male adolescent.
4. What is the biological name given to the first menstrual glow of the
adolescent girls?
5. Female egg responsible for reproduction is ………………………
6. State the different ages for growth spurt in both boys and girls in the
adolescent stage.
7. Indicate some physical changes during growth spurt in both the
adolescent girl and boy.
8. Identify some few primary and secondary sex characteristics of the
adolescent boy and girl.

SESSION 4: INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF

ADOLESCENCE
In session three, you studied the physical development of the
adolescent. Also hormonal changes and growth spurts experienced
during adolescence were also learnt.
Lastly, the primary and secondary characteristics and their accompanying effects
were also studied.
This session will discuss the intellectual development of adolescence.
Objectives
(a) explain the concept intelligence in simple sentence;
(b) state in a sentence the difference in intelligence among adolescents of
the opposite sex; and
(c) identify an environmental factor that affects the development of
intelligence.
Now read on…
4.1 Intelligence as a Phenomenon of Development

The capacity to behave intelligently is one of man’s most precious possessions. It
is the attribute that makes his behaviour uniquely human. It enables him to learn,
to reason, to take advantage of the past, predict the future, manipulate the
environment, and transcend in his thinking the barriers of time and space.
Bayley, defines intelligent behaviour as “a dynamic succession of developing
functions in the hierarchy depending on the prior maturing of earlier simpler ones”.
Piaget notes that “behaviour becomes “intelligent” as the pathways between the
subject and the objects on which it acts cease to be simple and become
progressively more complex. It is the function of development, acting within the
individual over a period of time, to prepare it to operate at increasing levels of
complexity in such cognitive functions as deduction, induction, perception, spatial
and number manipulation and verbal facility. Adolescence is a time of intellectual
development during which the organism is increasingly able to interpret and cope
with its environment and with itself.

UNIT 1 INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF
SESSION 4 ADOLESCENCE
For a workable definition of intelligence we shall settle on David Wechsler. He

defines intelligence as “the aggregate or global” capacity of the individual to act
purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment”. He
notes that intelligence is global because it characterizes the individual’s behaviour
as a whole, and it is aggregate because it is composed of elements or abilities
which though not entirely independent, are qualitatively differentiable”.
Mental growth and development are of importance in the study of adolescence not
only as a developmental phenomenon but because intellectual status is a limiting
factor in assessing an individual’s capabilities.
It is known that intellectual ability is an aspect of growth and development which

has relationships with other factors of physical growth. It is also known that the
ability of an individual to function in an intelligent manner at any given time is a
combination of his stage of neural development and the past experiences to which
he has been subjected.
It is considered again that, there are periods in a person’s intellectual development

when a given experience is more appropriate that it would be earlier or later.
Intelligence or mental ability increases with age throughout childhood and well into
adolescence.
Since adolescence is a period during which the individual encounters many new
experiences and learning situations, it is essential for him to profit from them as
much as he possibly can if he is to be a useful member of society and if he is to lead
a personally satisfying life. What the individual will get out of any experience
depends largely upon his level of mental ability and the experience from which he
has profited in the past.
Intelligence has been defined as the ability to profit from experience, to think
rationally, and to deal effectively with one’s environment. Think of other definitions
of intelligence for the next face to face. It is sometimes thought of as being related
to the speed with which an individual can learn. Intelligence is measured by means
of paper – and pencil group tests or by means of clinical type individual tests. Most
intelligence tests are composed of a number of sub-tests containing various types of
tasks which are judged to be basic to intellectual functioning.
20 UCC CoDE/ Post-Diploma in Basic Educati on

Intellectual Development Characteristics

In summary, the characteristics of adolescent intellectual development include:
• Moving from concrete to abstract thinking
• An intense curiosity and wide range of intellectual pursuits, few of which are
sustained over the long term
• High achievement when challenged and engaged
• Preferences for active over passive learning experiences
• Interest with interacting with peers during learning activities
• An ability to be self-reflective
The implication of age of cessation of mental growth for the education of
adolescents is that in terms of mental power or ability the adolescent is nearing his
peak. By the time he is eighteen he has either already reached his peak or except for
a few mental functions will show only a slight increase from that point on. He will,
of course, continue to grow in knowledge but not in the rate by which knowledge
can be acquired. Environmental conditions are reflected in a child’s mental
performance.
In general, it may be assumed that intelligence perse, is not especially related to an

adolescents social or personal adjustment unless he is placed in a situation where his
level of intelligence is a continuing source of frustration in security, unpleasantness,
and ridicule without the availability of other sources of security, approval and
satisfaction.
It is the task of the school and of other agencies to make adequate provision for
children of all levels of mental ability so that they may work at their own level and
in terms of their own capacity.
However, school authorities and others should remember the dependence that
society must place upon the gifted for its own preservation. It is particularly
important that programmes for the gifted be instituted as quickly as possible.
I hope you have learnt a lot about the intellectual development of the
adolescent and you have enjoyed every bit of it. In the mean time assess
yourself on the questions that follow

UNIT 1 INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF
Exercise 1.4
1. From Barley’s point of view, give a brief definition of intelligence.
2. State two attributes of an intelligent adolescent.
3. Identify one environmental factor that affects the development of
intelligence.

SESSION 5: EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OFADOLESCENCE

In the preceeding session you learnt about the intellectual development
of the adolescent. This was mainly based on Piaget’s theory of
intellectual development.
In this session we shall have a look at the emotional development of the adolescent,
we shall also have a look at the roles played by parents and siblings in the
development of adolescent emotions.
Objectives
(a) explain the term emotions;
(b) state at least two types of emotions; and
(c) explain how our emotions influence our personality
Now read on…
5.1 Definition and Types of Emotions

Emotions are so much a part of our daily existence that it is difficult to imagine life
without them. Now, picture yourself standing in a two-hour line without
annoyance, winning a hundred million cedis lottery without happiness, learning of a
loved one’s death without grief.
Such lack of emotions is almost inconceivable. Emotions set the tone of our
experiences and give life its vitality. Without the ability of feel rage, grief, joy, and
love, we would hardly recognize ourselves as human. Yet as familiar as emotions
are to us it is not easy to frame a general definition of the term.
Reviewing the literature on emotions Paul and Anne Kleinginna (1981) found many
different definitions, but general consensus on three points. First, emotions involve
physiological changes.
Secondly, emotions often, lead to expressive and or goal directed behaviour. For
instance, a mother’s actions, her odd, exclamations and facial expressions all stem
from her emotional state.

UNIT 1 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENCE
SESSION 5
Thirdly, and perhaps most obviously, emotions are subjective experiences or

external states, often brought on by external circumstances. Human emotions run
from sorrow and despair, through envy and hate, to joy and ecstasy.
Emotions may be defined as a pattern of reactions that include physiological and

body changes, expressions and or goal oriented behaviour and subjective
experiences. Most older theories depicted emotions as disorganized and
maladaptive. According to this view, emotions are primitive, physiological
responses that interfere with logical, rational action. People become emotional
when they are unable to cope with a situation, and their emotions make them even
more confused, further under mining their ability to cope.
Modern theories, in contrast, emphasize the functional aspects of emotions.

According to them, one function of emotions is to prepare and motivate us to deal
with challenges in our environment.
Anger, for example, prepares and motivates us to get rid of an obstacle or an irritant;
fear prepares and motivates us to avoid or escape danger. Emotions alert us to
conditions that require adjustment, but give us many options. When threatened, and
afraid, we may choose to flee or stand our ground, to fight or attempt to negotiate.
Emotions reveal how we are feeling and thus how we are likely to behave.
Again emotions are flexible and as such psychologists view emotions in a more
positive light as adaptive and functional rather than disruptive.
There are two types of emotions namely destructive and constructive. Examples of
destructive emotions are fear, anger, anxiety, jealousy, envy etc and constructive
emotions, happiness, joy, sympathy, etc.
Can you think of other examples of destructive and constructive emotions?

Write as many as you can in your jotters for the next face to face.
Again write other definitions of emotions in your jotter for discussion during the
next face to face.
5.2 Emotional Development of the Adolescent

Normal human beings have the same basic emotions that is pleasant or unpleasant
subjective feelings, such as sadness, joy and fear, which motivate behaviour.

Individuals differ in how they feel a particular emotion, what kinds of experiences
produce it, and how they act as a result.
Emotional reactions to events and people, which are tied to cognitive perceptions,
are a basic element of personality.
Adolescents develop their basic emotions soon after birth, as babies they show signs
of distress, interest and disgust. After some months these primary emotions
differentiate into joy, anger, surprise, sadness, shyness and fear. The emergence of
these emotions seems to be governed by the brains maturation.
Although the development of certain basic emotions seems to be universal, there
may be cultural variations.
Temperamental differences of the adolescent seems to be inborn and they also tend
to be stable. Adolescents whose parents rated them as difficult are perceived as
negative and relatively inadaptable and are also seen as intense and irregular in their
habits; and the boys especially as highly active (Guerin & Gottfried, 1994).
However, environmental factors such as parental treatment can bring about
considerable change. This kind of change occur when parents are psychologically
healthy and in good marriage, have high self-esteem, and have harmonious
relationships with their adolescent children.
The way a mother feels about her roles may affect the adolescent temperament.
Mothers who are dissatisfied either with their jobs or with being home makers were
more likely to show intolerance, disapproval, or rejection of their adolescents
behaviour, and the rejected adolescents tend to be difficult and never satisfied in
life.
Right from the start, the family has an enormous influence on an adolescent’s
emotional development. Relationships formed in infancy affect the ability to form
intimate relationships throughout life.
However, parental shaping of boys and girls emotions, whether conscious or not,
begins very early. Parents behave differently towards boys than girls. Adolescent
boys get more attention; girls are encouraged to smile more and to be more social.
Mothers facial expressions show a wider range of emotions with their adolescent
girls than with boys and this explains why girls are better than boys interpreting
emotional expressions.

UNIT 1 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENCE
SESSION 5
According to Bronstein, fathers treat boys differently from girls, for instance, they
interact more with their adolescent boys and promotes “gender typing”. That is, the
Process by which children learn the behaviour that their culture considers
appropriate for each sex.
In Erikson’s developmental stages he identified trust versus mistrust. This state

begins in infancy through 18 months. The child and the adolescent develop a sense
of how reliable the world would be. They need to develop a balance between trust
and mistrust. If trust dominates, the adolescent develop the “virtue” of hope; the
belief that they can fulfil their needs and obtain their desires. If mistrust dominates,
the adolescent will view the world as unfriendly and unpredictable and will find it
difficult to form relationship.
The critical element in developing trust is sensitive, responsive,

consistent caregiving. To develop a healthy emotions is the prerogative
of parents, siblings, caregivers, and the environment.
How did you find this session? I hope you have enjoyed the lesson.
Exercise 1.5
Assess yourself by answering the following questions.
1. Define the term emotions using Paul and Anne’s definition.
2. State the two types of emotions and give two examples each.
3. What is gender typing”?

SESSION 6: SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF

ADOLESCENCE
In session five the emotional development of the adolescent was
discussed. In this session, we will treat the social and moral
development of the adolescent and the roles they play in the teenager’s
life.
Objectives
(a) define the concept “social development” in a simple sentence;
(b) explain the concept “moral development” in a simple sentence;
(c) describe in two sentences what society accept as moral behaviour; and
(d) state in two sentences how the adolescent in your society is socialized by
the people.
Now read on…
6.1 Social Development of the Adolescent

The term ‘Social’ is a word often used by all in our daily lives. I am sure you have
used the expression “are you not a social being” in your daily interaction with
friends, family etc.
From the example give, write in your jotters what you understand by social. Now,
from the layman’s point of view social means being able to mix freely with
everybody. Compare what you wrote to mine and see whether it is the same as the
layman’s view. If not do not be discouraged, if yes congratulations.
An important developmental task of the adolescent is socialization, that is learning
the expectations and values of one’s society. The basic goal of social development
is internalization that is incorporating society’s values into the self to such an extent
that violation of these standards produces a sense of guilt.
Again social development shows how the organization or quality of life in a society
is transmitted to the younger generation.

UNIT 1 SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF
Did you have similar meanings or definitions for the concept? If yes, then
congratulations, if no do not be discouraged for further discussion would throw
more light on it.
Now lets take a look at what Erick Erickson has on social development. He
introduced the concepts of identity and identity crisis to psychology and asserted
that the physical, sexual, and social demands on adolescents foster in them a need to
clarify who they are as individuals, and how they relate to society and the adult
world they are about to enter.
Doing this is to try out different adult roles. By experimenting with a variety of
possible choices, adolescents acquire some idea of the life-styles associated with
different roles, without committing themselves irrevocably to any one.
Trying out different adult identities is possible in some societies than others. While
a teenager in an industralised society has a prolonged period to experiment and
many alternatives to choose from, young people in nonindustrialized societies are
often forced soon after puberty into the adult roles that tradition dictates.
Another aspect of adolescent social development is relationship with peers. In

keeping with their new roles for self – understanding, teenagers also develop a more
mature capacity for understanding others. As a result, their friendships take on a
new degree of intimacy. Girls especially, according to Sprinthall and Collins,
(1984) spend hours in self-disclosure and sharing of confidences. This new
intimacy extends first to peers of the adolescent’s own sex and then to opposite-sex
partners.
Adolescence is also the time when psychological intimacy may expand to include
sexual intimacy as well. Louis Harris and Associates (1986) assert that the age of
sexual initiation varies, however, with gender, most boys experience intercourse
earlier than girls and blacks tend to be initiated earlier than whites and the norms
that prevail in a teenager’s particular peer group.
Another dimension of Adolescence social development is individual’s acquisition of

those behaviour patterns, beliefs, standards and motives that are valued by cultural
group and family. During adolescence, the girl or boy has a wide range of
behavioural potentialities open to him/her.

He or she can become one of many types of adult; that is being aggressive, selfish
generous with friends, atheistic, concerned, bored with intellectual achievement,
independent of or dependent on parents, honest, dishonest, expressive or inhibited
with members of the opposite sex.
The range of possibilities is enormous, yet the individual adopts only characteristics
and behaviours considered appropriate or at least acceptable to his social, ethnic and
religious group. To a considerable extent the culture in which the adolescent grows
up prescribes both the content and the methods of social development, how he or
she would be trained as well as the personality characteristics, motives, attitudes and
valves he/she should acquire. In all cultures, aggressive, sexual and dependency
impulses must be modified to some extent or the culture cannot survive and endure.
Cultures differ widely in their permissiveness or restrictiveness with respect to
expression of these motives; each has its own ways of handling child rearing.
Nevertheless, in each case, the object is to facilitate the acquisition of culturally
approved behaviour patterns and motives. In other words, to produce individuals
who fit into the culture and help to maintain it.
If parents permit the adolescent to explore his/her world and do not inhibit his
curiosity and independence, he/she will continue to manifest this tendency to
explore his environment freely and manipulate objects actively. Under these
conditions, the adolescent is more likely to develop spontaneity, curiosity, self-
assertion and self-confidence, together with strong drives for autonomy,
independence, mastery, competence and achievement.
On the other hand, if parents restrict his/her freedom of movement severely and
inhibit his explorative drive, they are likely to stifle the development of autonomy
and independence.
In summarize, the characteristics of adolescent social development include:

• Modelling behaviour after that of older students, not necessarily that of
parents and other adults.
• Immature behavior when social skills lag behind mental and physical
maturity
• Experimenting with ways of talking and acting as part of searching for a
social position with peers.

• Exploring questions of racial and ethnic identity and seeking peers who
share the same background
• Exploring questions of sexual identity in visible or invisible way
• Feeling intimidated or frightened by the initial middle school experience
• Liking fads and being interested in popular culture
• Overreacting to ridicule, embarrassment and rejection
• Seeking approval of peers and other with attention- getting behaviours
6.2 Moral Development of Adolescence

Moral or morality is frequently used by teachers, parents, priests, opinion leaders,
counselors in our interaction with both children and adolescents and even adults.
Since you also use the term “moral” with your dealings with your
pupils write a working definition for it and later compare with mine.
John Santrock an adolescence psychologist defines moral development “as

thoughts, feelings and behaviours regarding standards of right and wrong.
The Longman Dictionary of contemporary English defines moral as “concerning or

based on principles of right and wrong behaviour and the difference between good
and evil”.
These are just a few definitions of the term, now look for more for
discussion on the next FTF.
Moral development is one of the oldest topics of interest to those who are curious
about human nature. Of late, most people have strong opinions about acceptable
and unacceptable behaviours ethical and unethical behaviour and ways in which an
acceptable and ethical behaviours are to be fostered in adolescents.
At the adolescent stage the individual is more concerned about moral values and
standards. The adolescent’s accelerated cognitive development makes him more
aware of moral questions and values and more capable of dealing with them in a
relatively sophisticated fashion.
Furthermore, social demands upon him are changing rapidly, and this requires a
continuing reappraisal of more values and beliefs. The adolescent may engage in
thinking about broad philosophical and moral issues, not for their own sake, but as
away of struggling with more personal problems. For instance, a strong
philosophical concern about the problem of violence may serve as away of helping
the adolescent to deal with his own aggressive impulses. In, brief, increased
adolescent concern with the problem of moral values and standard is likely to
involve cognitive, social, and initimate emotional aspect.
According to Walker and Pitts (1998). Moral development has an intra personal
dimension and that is a persons basic value and sense of self and an interpersonal
dimension which is also a focus on what people should do in their interaction with
other people.
This intrapersonal dimension regulates a person’s activities when he or she is not
engaged in social interaction. The interpersonal dimension regulates people’s social
interactions and arbitrates conflict.
Adolescence moral development has three components and these are thought,
behaviour and feelings and they are interrelated. For example if the focus is on the
individual’s behaviour, it is still important to evaluate the person’s intentions that is
moral thought.
Piaget believed that adolescents are said to be formal operational thinkers. Thus,
they are no longer tied to immediate and concrete phenomena but are more logical,
abstract, and deductive reasoners. Formal operational thinkers frequently compare
the real the ideal; create contrary-to-fact propositions; are cognitively capable of
relating the distant past to the present; understand their roles in society and in the
world and can conceptualize their own thoughts and think about their mental
constructs as objects.
For instance, around age 11 or 12, boys or girls spontaneously introduce concepts of
belief, intelligence, and faith into their definitions of their religious identities.
Martin Hoffman (1980) developed cognitive disequilibrium theory, which states

that adolescence is an important period in moral development; Adolescents come to
recognize that their set of belief is but one of many and that there is considerable
debate about what is right and what is wrong. Many adolescents start to question
their former beliefs and, in the process, develop their own moral system.

One of the most provocative views of moral was crafted by Lawrence Kohlberg
(1986). He believed that moral development is based primarily on moral reasoning
and unfolds in a series of stages.
Kohlberg categorized moral development into 3 levels and these are characterized
by 2 stages. A Key concept in understanding moral development is internalization,
that is, the developmental change from behaviour that is externally controlled to
behaviour that is controlled by internal standards and principles. As an adolescent
develops, his/her moral thoughts become more internalized. Let’s now take a look
at Kohlberg’s three levels of moral development.
Level one: Pre-conventional Reasoning.
This is the lowest level in Kohiberg’s theory of moral development. At this level,
the individuals show no internalization of moral values. Moral reasoning is
controlled by external rewards and punishments.
Stage 1: Hetereronomous morality is first stage in Kohlbergi’s theory: At this
stage, moral thinking is often tied to punishment. For example, children and
adolescents obey adults because adults tell them to obey.
Stage 2: Individualism instrumental purpose and exchange
This is the second stage of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. At this stage,
individual’s pursue their own interests but also let others do the same. Thus, what
is right involves an equal exchange. People are nice to others so that they will be
nice to them in return.
Level 2: Conventional Reasoning
This is the intermediate level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.
Internalization at this level is intermediate and individuals abide by certain
standards (internal), but they are the standards of others (external) such as parents
or the laws of society.
Stage 3: Mutual interpersonal expectation, relationships, and interpersonal
conformity is the third stage of Kohlberg’s moral development.
At this stage, individuals value trust, caring and loyalty to others as a basis of moral
judgments. Adolescents often adopt their parents moral standards at this stage,
seeking to be thought of by their parents as a “good girl’ or a “good boy”.

Stage 4: Social Systems Morality is the forth stage and moral judgments are
based on understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty. For instance,
adolescents may say that, for a community to work effectively, it needs to be
protected by laws that are adhered to by its members.
Level 3: Post Conventional Reasoning
Post conventional reasoning is the highest level of Kohlberg’s theory. At the level,
morality is completely internalized and is not based on other’s standards. The
individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options and then
decides on a personal moral code.
Stage 5: Social contract or utility and individual rights is the fifth stage.
At this stage, individuals reason that values, rights and principles transcend the law.
An adolescent evaluates the validity of actual laws and social systems and examine
them in terms of the degree to which they preserve and protect fundamental human
rights and values.
Stage 6: Universal ethical principles is the sixth and highest stage. The
adolescent at this stage, has developed a moral standard based on universal human
rights when faced with a conflict between law and conscience, the adolescent will
follow conscience, even though the decision might involve personal risk.
Kohberg’s believed that these levels and stages occur in a sequence and are age
related. By early adolescence, their reason is more conventional. Most of them
reason at stage 3, with some signs of stages 2 and 4.
Further he believed that the individual’s moral orientation unfolds as a consequence

of cognitive development. Adolescents construct their moral thoughts as they pass
from one stage to the next, rather than passively accepting a cultural norm of
morality.
Kohberg’s theory, tells the developmental story of people trying to understand

things like society, rules and roles and institutions and relationships. Such basic
conceptions are fundamental to adolescents, for whom ideology becomes important
in guiding their lives and making life decisions.

So far we have learnt how the adolescent is socialized in the community he/she
comes from and how the society accepts and influences his/her life through cultural
practices etc.
To summarize, the characteristics of adolescent moral development include:

• Understanding the complexity of moral issues and not seeing everything in
“black and white”
• Being capable of and interested in participating in democracy
• Impatience with the pace of change and understanding how difficult it is to
make social changes.
• Needing and being influenced by adult role models who will listen and be
trustworthy
• Relying on parents and important adults for advice about wanting to make
their own decisions
• Judging others quickly but acknowledging one’s own faults slowly
Furthermore the moral development of the adolescent was also

discussed. Reference was made to Kohlberg’s theory of moral
development and their relevance to the adolescent.
We have finally come to the end of the session and I hope you loved reading it.
Now try your hands on the following questions to test your understanding of the
topic.
Exercise 1.6
1. Explain the concept socialization.
2. Explain Erick Erickson’s concept of identity and identity crisis.
3. What is moral development as defined by John Santrock?
4. How many levels of moral development did Kohlberg hypothesized?

THE ADOLESCENCE AND HIS RELATION TO UNIT 2
OTHERS
UNIT 2: THE ADOLESCENCE AND HIS RELATION TO OTHERS
Unit Outline
Session 1: The Adolescence and His Family Interpersonal Relations
Session 2: The Adolescence and His Family: Environmental Factors
Session 3: Friendship and Personal Acceptability
Session 4: Heterosexual Relationship
Session 5: Adolescent Groups and Group Membership
Session 6: Delinquent Behaviour: Nature and Personal Factors
You are most welcome to Unit 2 of the course. In Unit one, the
Meaning, Nature and Scope of Adolescence were extensivelylearnt.
This threw light on the Physical, Intellectual, Emotional, Social and Moral
development of the adolescent as an individual and I know you have uderstood the
adolescent as a unique person and you are now well equipped in the handling of
this indivdiual.
Let’s continue with this interesting but educative aspect of human development. In
this unit, we shall learn more about the adolescent as a unique stage in human
development and remember that each one of you had passed through this stage and
you saw a lot of changes both physically and biologically.
The unit is organized under six sessions. Session 1, takes at look at the adolescents
relationship with the family and session 2 examines the Environmental factors that
influence his/her interaction with the family.
Sessions 3 and 4 also examine the friendship, personal acceptability and the
heterosexual relationships of the adolescent and how the relationship with both the
same and opposite sex affect his total being either negatively or positively.
The fifth session deals with the types of groups the adolescent comes into contact
with and how he conducts him/her self in the groups.
Finally, a look would be taken at the sixth session which deals with the delinquent
behaviour of the adolescent. I am hopeful that by the time you are through with this
unit you would vividly remember and understand your adolescent period why you
behaved in certain ways and why you at times had conflict with yourself, your
parents and your elders.

UNIT 2 THE ADOLESCENCE AND HIS RELATION TO
OTHERS
Unit Objectives
By the end of the Unit, you should be able to:
1. identify at least 2 roles of the adolescent in the family
2. state at least 2 psychological function of the adolescent’s home
3. explain the impact of socio-economic background of the adolescent on
his/her total life.
4. describe how friends in the school and neighbourhood affect the
personality development of the adolescent
5. mention at least 3 implication of heterosexual relationships on the
adolescent the adolescent.
6. state four deviants characteristics of adolescent delinquent behaviour.
36 UCC CoDE/Post-Di ploma in Basic Educati on

OTHERS SESSION 1
SESSION 1: THE ADOLESCENCE AND HIS FAMILY:

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS
This session critically examines the relationship of the adolescent with

his/her immediate family. It would also take a look at the psychological climates in
different types of homes and their influence on the life of the adolescent.
Finally parental domination and rejection of the adolescent’s life would close the
session.
Objectives
(a) state at least 2 roles of the adolescent in the family;
(b) explain in a sentence the psychological function of the home;
(c) identify 2 different types of homes and the psychological climates; and
(d) describe how these psychological climates affect the life of the
adolescent
Now read on…
1.1 The Role of the Adolescence in his Family

Try to recollect the roles you assign to your children and pupil who are adolescents.
Again recollect the roles that bring about conflict between you and the adolescent
when they are assigned.
Remember the roles assigned to you when you were an adolescent

and the associated conflict between you and your parents. List them
in your jotter for the next face to face.
An adolescent is a human being whose basic reactions to blocking or fulfillment of
his needs, desires, and drives are typically those of a human being of any age.
He/she differs from people of other age levels primarily in his stage of physical
development, his maturity status, the things in life he/she deems most important,
and the peculiar problems presented by his/her environment. Of all these
environmental problems the adolescent in any culture finds that his/her relationship
with adults is very difficult. Sexually mature and seeking independence and
emancipation from adult and parental controls he/she finds him/herself in a
subordinate position which requires him/her to accept a child’s role long after

UNIT 2 THE ADOLESCENCE AND HIS FAMILY:
SESSION 1 INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS
he/she feels that he/she is capable of playing an adult’s role and taking an adult’s
place in society.
In a sense, his/her actual role is a conflicting one, for, as he/she grows older, he/she
is sometimes expected to assume an adult’s, and sometimes a child’s role. His/her
response to his/her subordinate role as he/she seeks independence is sometimes
overtly aggressive or covertly aggressive.
At times his subordination becomes so much a habit and childish protection so

comfortable that it is exceedingly difficult for him to attain social and emotional
maturity. A long and continued dependence may have unfortunate effects
throughout his/her adult life and may, among other things make it difficult or
impossible to adjust to marriage. The competitive adult world becomes one to
which he/she cannot properly adjust as he continually seeks a parent surrogate upon
whom he/she can depend.
In short, even though an adult in years, he/she is still a child emotionally. On the
other hand, an adolescent whose parents have aided the emancipation process or
who has achieved independence and self–reliance during the adolescent period, has
a much better opportunity to function as a mature individual. It thus becomes the
duty of parents and teachers alike to promote emancipation, to give the adolescent
an opportunity to function as an independent person in as many areas as possible
and as early as possible.
One of the basic difficulties here is that of striking a golden mean between denying
an adolescent any help and being over protective and over dominating.
Under the circumstances the adolescent’s role is a difficult and often conflicting one
to which some individuals, because of a combination of environmental factors;
appear to have adjusted better than others. In seeking autonomy, the adolescent is
faced again with the fact that his elders interpret his role as that of a child and
impose upon him a child’s dependency.
He is expected to obey and respect his parents, he must go to school and accept the
child-adult, student-teacher relationship, he is denied an adult’s place and
responsibility in the community, his sex and social life are circumscribed, and above
all, day after day, he/she is constantly dependent upon adults and must accept his
inferior status. Much is forbidden to him/or her and may become impatient or
OTHERS SESSION 1
resentful. At times the adolescent may attempt to fight against his role and status
especially when it appears to be prolonged against all reasons.
One difficulty with the process seeking independence, so far as the adolescent is
concerned, is the inconsistency of the whole process.
1.2 The Psychological Function of the Home

The focal point of the adolescent’s enforced role as a child is his/her home and
family. School and community contracts are only extensions of the home situation
which the adolescent has always before him/her. The home is important to the
adolescent because it transmits and interprets his/her culture to him/her, it decidedly
affects and mould his/her personality, it offers security and affection if it is a good
home, it operates as a status- and role-defining agency and finally, it is central in
promoting his maturity and determining his/her future adjustment as an adult.
Both the school and the home play a police function in child-adult relations.
Though this policing is necessary to a degree, it should be, if properly exercised,
lead to self-reliance. Since homes display considerable individual differences from
one to the other, it is essential for the youth worker to have some concept of what
kinds of homes there are. It is difficult, however, to classify homes because of the
many variables involved although there is agreement that parental attitude is one of
the most important of all.
The two factors basic to an understanding of parent-child relationships appear to be

the variables of dominance- submission and acceptance-rejection, neither of which
may properly be considered apart from the other. Baldwin, in attempting to classify
types of parental attitudes and behaviour, offers three categories; rejectant,
acceptant and casual. Each of the three in turn is sub-categorised.
The rejectant parent is one who does not want his child and who overtly shows it.
His attitude may take an active and overt form or it may be nonchalant and
ignoring. Under the former the child suffers strict rules which under the latter the
child is allowed extraordinary freedom if he does not intrude upon his parents. In
either case intrusion tends to lead to severe punishment.
The acceptance parent falls in one of three categories. First indulgent, in which
his/her behaviour is marked by child-centeredness and a great deal of child-parent
contact with good rapport though with over-protective tendencies. Second, the

democratic parent is well adjusted where his/her child is concerned. The child does
not get undue attention but is given an opportunity to follow his/her own action.
Information rather then orders are given. Third, the democratic-indulgent parents
tend to be more emotional about his/her child, but tends to strike a happy medium
between an indulgent and a democratic attitude.
The behaviour of the casual parent is consistently mild and casual. There are two
types of casual parents. One is autocratic casual in which autocracy is a means of
control rather than a symptom of rejection and dislike.
The second one is indulgent-casual. Parents under this subcategory are haphazard
but always mild in the relationships with their children. They do not make a fetish
of self-sacrifice and do not go out of their way to indulge the child, nor do they, on
the other hand, begrudge the time and effort the child costs.
An understanding of a given parent’s behaviour involves knowing

why he/she adopts the attitudes that he/she does. There are many
different reasons for parental attitudes and reactions. A few include turning to the
child as a source of affection and security when the parent is not adjusted to the
marital partner; over conscientiousness, resentment of the child’s cost in time,
money, and personal freedom; physical status of the child, particularly if he is sickly
or weak; and the ordinal position of the child especially if he/she is the first or last-
born. Of all the parental reactions, rejection and domination, whatever their causes,
are most far-reaching in their effects. A rejected child presents a clinical picture of
inferiority.
He/she is forever seeking security and affection, and when he/she does not receive it
from his/her parents he/she is apt to turn to other sources. The rejected child
typically feels isolated, and any situation in his/her environment which serves to
accent or increase his/her isolation makes matters worse.
I’m sure you have loved reading the session and you are now aware of the type of
family system you are practicing in your home. If it is the wrong type change
immediately for your sake and that of your children. If it is the right type
congratulations and keep it up.
Now try your hands on the following questions and don’t look at the answers.

OTHERS SESSION 1
Exercise 1.1
1. Name two of the problems faced by the adolescent in the

assignment of his/her roles in the home.
2. Why is the home important to the adolescent?
3. Name to two factors basic to the understanding of parent-child relationships.
4. Name Baldwin’s types of parental attitude and behaviour.
5. Two of these parental attitude and behaviour have subcategories,

name them.
6. Explain anyone of the subcategories



OTHERS SESSION 2
SESSION 2: THE ADOLESENCE AND HIS FAMILY:

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
In the previous you learnt about the adolescence and his family.
That is the interpersonal relationships with other members of the
family and how the adolescent is affected by the relationship.
In this session we shall find out how environmental factors influence the personality
of the adolescent.
Objectives
(a) identify some environmental factors that may characterize any given
adolescent’s home;
(b) explain how the socio-economic status of the adolescent’s affect his/her
behaviour;
(c) describe the influence of the geographical location of an adolescent on
his behaviour and attitude; and
(d) state the role of a broken home on the life of an adolescent.
Now read on…
2.1 Environmental Factors that Affect the Life of the Adolescence

There are various environmental factors apart from parental attitudes toward the
adolescent himself, which may characterize any given adolescent’s home. They
may be closely related to attitudes and may cause changes in parental attitudes.
Some of these factors have to do with the physical aspects of the home, and some
are purely psychological or sociological in nature. Included are the socio-economic
status and location of the home, the status of the home whether broken or unbroken,
the ethnic, national, racial, religious status of the home, the geographic location of
the home, the number and interpersonal relations of the siblings living in the home,
the ordinal position of the adolescent in the family and the integration of the home
into the local cultural pattern.
The effects of socio-economic status upon child-rearing practices, opportunities
offered and upheld, and the emotional and social adjustment of children have been
well established. Homes may be categorized with varying degrees of exactness as
upper, lower, and middle-class although there are dangers in generalizing findings
about class structure and its effects from one community to another. It is better
practice to study each community in terms of its own unique structure and to
generalize with considerable caution.
SESSION 2 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
While a child brought up in an upper or middle class home tends to have real
advantages over lower-class children in the attitudes and child-rearing practices of
parents, in general level of developed functional intelligence, in social and
education opportunities, and in future prospects, it is important to remember that a
home of excellent socio-economic status may be a psychologically poor home and
vise versa. Levels of expectation and of accomplishment tend to be highest in
middle-class homes and children who live in them are under great pressures to
achieve. By and large the emancipation process is accelerated in the lower-class
home.
Residentially mobility, which is common in most societies poses for adolescents

and their families problems of adjustment to new communities and people where
they are confronted by various sources of insecurity. Adolescents who have made a
place for themselves in their own community find it particularly difficult to enter a
new school where they must re-establish themselves not only academically but
socially. This is due to the fact that teachers and their methods differ; textbooks and
curricula are not the same.
The new community may present large cultural differences when compared with the
former community. Children of service personnel appear to have less of a problem
because of the military context of the communities they move about in. However,
military service relations and parent status make explicit many differences to which
they have to adjust.
Broken home is in general a focal point of adolescent maladjustment. Children

from broken homes often present problems of social and emotional maladjustment,
and in the case of divorce, difficulty in finding a common ground with a new step-
parent, or of accepting the concept of their parents that the reasons for the divorce
provide. The more sudden and traumatic the home break-up, the more difficult the
provide of adjustment.
The adolescent’s reaction to the disaster of a broken home will depend to a great
extent upon the emotional climate of the home before the break occurs. The broken
home most significant for the personality and happiness of the adolescent is the one
that deprives him/her of the guidance and sympathy of his parents or of an accepting
parent surrogate.

OTHERS SESSION 2
Siblings relationships are important to children and cause them to assume roles in
family relationships that will lead them in a competitive atmosphere to gain the
recognition need. The type of role assumed by a child will depend in part upon
his/her sex, ordinal position in the family, and the roles already assumed by other
children.
Bossard and Boll identified eight major types of child role.

1. The responsible type: These were the older ones characteristic of these
children was their willingness to act as parent surrogate to their sibling.
2. The popular, sociable, well-liked sibling: The child playing the role was
often the second-born, he seeks self-esteem and recognition through
personal charm instead of personal power, children of this type were
either boys or girls.
3. The socially ambitious type. This directs his/her social interest to persons
out side the family. Most of these children were girls and either the third,
forth or fifth born.
4. The studious type: Such children use school achievement as a means of
gaining recognition.
5. The self-centered isolate: These children are often secretive, stubborn,

and antisocial toward siblings and life. They withdraw from family
participation and tend to organize their lives on away from home basis.
6. The irresponsible: These children sit back and refuse to accept any
responsibility from the family.
7. The unwell. These children have a long record of chronic diseases and
physical defects. Some use their illness to gain favours and others to
justify their failure.
8. The spoiled child: This is mostly applicable to last borns. They use
their ordinal positions to their advantage; parents especially mothers use
them as their favourites and the others are discrimated against. They are
pampered and offered the best of everything.

SESSION 2 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Which of the types discussed do you fall under? How do you feel
about that situation? Bring your answers to the next fact to face for
discussion.
An adolescent will often encounter problems in integrating his family role with the
roles he must assume outside the family if he is to become an effective person. The
evidence is unclear as to whether a child is best raised in a large or small family.
Here again the psychological climate and socio-economic status of the home is more
important than the size of the family.
The geographical location of the home in a rural or an urban

community is important in a child’s life in that it provides a context
for growing up. Studies have disagreed as to the personality effects of
urban versus rural living, but there is no reason to believe that either the farm or the
city provides a situation that necessarily presents a child with undue problems. More
serious is the ethnic or national status of the child. The child of foreign parents,
because of problems of bilingualism, cultural differences and the possible
unwillingness of his family to be assimilated, faces problems of integration into the
large culture reflected in his experiences in school and in the attitudes of others
toward him.
I hope you have enjoyed the session. To ensure recall write a gist of what you have
learnt in the session for the next face to face.
Exercise 2.2
1. State the types of social class you read about and explain them.
2. What role does the socio-economic status of the adolescent play in his life.
3. Name all the environmental factors you learnt that has influence on the
behaviour of an adolescence.
4. Mention two of the types of child role identified by Bossard and Boll.

OTHERS SESSION 3
SESSION 3: FRIENDSHIP AND PERSONAL ACCEPTABILITY
In the preceeding session you learnt the Environmental factors of the

home that affect the behaviour of the adolescent. Under the
enviromental factors of the adolescent, the socio-economic status of the family,
residence mobility, broken home, siblings and ordinal position in the family how
they affect the behaviour and personality of the adolescent were extensively
studied.
Now in this session you are going to learn a lot about friendship and the personal
acceptability of the adolescent.
Objectives
(a) identify two qualities the adolescent look for in a friend;
(b) state 3 reasons why an adolescent may be rejected by friends;
(c) explain the situation whereby an adolescent may isolate himself or
herself from friends; and
(d) state in a sentence, the importance of friendship to an adolescent.
Now read on…
3.1 School and Neighbourhood

List some few things you would want from a friend. Also what
attributes do you need to possess to attract your peers to you? Write
your answers in your jotter for the next fact to face.
Now take a critical look at these questions and write your answers for the next face
to fact.
What qualities make for friendship during adolescence? What attributes

does an adolescent need to possess in order to win the liking and the
acceptance of peers?
In actual fact there is no generalized answers to this problem, for it must be

answered in terms of what any given individual needs in his social relations. For
some people the major need may be one for security and the feeling of belonging,
while for others the need for domination may be strongest. Friendship is important
UNIT 2
SESSION 3 FRIENDSHIP AND PERSONAL ACCEPTABILITY
to an individual’s adjustment because it fulfills many of his needs, such as self-
esteem and confidence. What any given individual actually gets out of his
friendships is an individual’s matter and it varies from person to person. In general,
group friendships tend to fulfill more different kinds of needs then do personal
friendships, although the personal friendship may supply many deeply satisfying
experiences.
It must be remembered that acceptance of an individual by another is a solitary

matter. The adolescent accepting a group does so in concert with others. In a real
sense, a mutual bolstering and support of the reasons for being involved in a group,
a sort of mass acceptance which reinforces and continues individual allegiance and
acceptance. If group disapproves of a new member who has been accepted by one
of its own members that member finds him/herself under pressure to relinquish his
acceptance. If the peer-group attachment of the adolescent is strong, it may be a
powerful motivating force in the choice of his friends.
An opportunity and ability to meet the demands of the environment, satisfaction of
psychological and social needs, and physical prowess appear to be the basic
ingredients of friendship, although friendships once formed tend to be maintained
because of common interests, equality of status, or because a particular friendship
tends to supply some specific needs. Appreciation of others rights and ability to
participate successfully in activities popular with adolescents are particularly
important in the formation of adolescent friends. Rather definite sex differences are
to be found in the things boys, as compared to girls, prefer in their friends. On the
whole, girls friendships tend to be more personal in nature than boys.
You have mutual friends, how did you. Come by them? State some characteristics
both of you have and how you get on in your jotters for the next face to face.
In general, the selection of associates and friends seems to be made largely in terms
of psychological make up and to be in large part beyond the control of parents.
With puberty, interest in persons of the opposite sex increases. In the later years of
the developmental cycle, there is more frequent selection of friends and associates
in terms of common interests, activities, common goals and abilities.
Boys tend to be more acceptable to others if they are co-operative, helpful,
courteous, considerate, honest, unselfish, and self-controlled and if they exhibit
leadership qualities. These characteristics will yield an acceptability status greater
than, can be achieved on the basis of being older, more experienced, skilled,
mentally brighter than other members of the group.

OTHERS SESSION 3
Anastasia and Miller identified six characteristics which are most preferred in
friends:
(a) enjoys many friends
(b) friendly
(c) well-mannered
(d) co-operative in a group
(e) enjoys hearing or telling jokes
(f) loyal to friends
Think of other characteristics for the next face to face.

There is some evidence to support the contention that friendships are
formed because the individuals concerned are alike in personality, although mutual
friends are sometimes found to be quite different kinds of persons, lives in the same
neighbourhood and attend the same school, are from the same socio-economic
background, and similar in mental age etc.
In this connection the important thing seems to be that the friendship pair find each
other satisfying in the fulfillment of needs. Often the adolescent will attribute to his
friends qualities which they do not possess, particularly when such qualities are
need-satisfying.
Conversely, nonfriends are often perceived as lacking in desired attributes. Age
changes have been found important in friendship. Many persons find that qualities
which made them popular in their younger days no longer suffice to make them
popular as they become older. The reverse is, of course, equally true. Friendships
tend to grow more stable and to fluctuate less with increasing age, although such
stability is affected by one’s environment, sex, and other factors.
Exclusion of an adolescent from peer-group activities may be due to rejection or

voluntary isolation. Exclusion is often a situational matter and the acceptability
statues of any individual may differ from situation to situation. Each situation has
its own demand character and exclusion or acceptance depends upon the
adolescent’s ability to meet successfully the demands of the environment,
particularly as they are interpreted by peer group opinion. Some individuals,
because of the possession of some personal attributes or material possession are
allowed to participate in group activities without finding any individual acceptance
from their age mates. The role of such an adolescent is difficult, although some
children do not have enough self-insight to recognize or accept their peripheral
status. Peer popularity is gained by behaving appropriately as the group defines
UNIT 2
appropriate behaviour: Social acceptability declines when an individual persists in
behaviour once acceptable but no longer condoned by the group.
Also group solidarity base upon mutual social acceptance grows and adolescents
work together and improve best, when they are placed in an improving atmosphere
of group acceptance where they are allowed to interact with and reinforce each
other.
When a situation of group acceptance is withheld there appears to be a tendency to

withdraw from each other and to make no gains in social acceptability techniques.
Adolescents tend to be exceedingly critical of their friends. There is constant

evaluation and appraisal, and if an individual does not measure up, he is apt to be
frankly criticized in his face or ignored completely. The adolescent appears to have
a few issue against ridiculing his friends. On the other hand the recipients of
ridicule, criticism, and unsolicited advice is expected to accept them gracefully
whether he likes them or not. Nevertheless, criticism is not always easy to accept
and the frankness of one adolescent to another is often a source of difficulty.
In summary, it could be seen that friendship formation and acceptability

in a group depend on a host of environmental and psychological factors.
For instance, an individual’s socio-economic background, neighbour-hood, school
of the adolescent, similar mental age, interests, intelligence etc. Also friendship help
individuals to adjust to situations in life because it fulfills a lot of his/her needs,
such as a feeling of belonging, and the need to dominate others.
Now, write views on friendship and importance to the human society for discussion
during the next face to face.
I hope you have enjoyed reading this session. Prepare for another interesting
sessions.
Answer the following questions to test your understanding for the session you have
just read. Good luck.

OTHERS SESSION 3
Exercise 2.3
1. Name two basis for friendship formation during adolescents.
2. Name 3 characteristics as listed by Anastasia and Miller as being preferred

in friends.
3. State one reason why an adolescent may be excluded from a peer-group.
4. Identify 2 qualities which make an adolescent boy acceptable in a peer-

group.

UNIT 2


OTHERS SESSION 4
SESSION 4: HETEROSEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS

In the last session we learnt about friendship and personal acceptability.
Under the session we had a fruitful discussion on how the school and
the neighbourhood of an individual help in the formation of friends. Also some
important characterstics of friends, how one is rejectd and islotated from a group
were all learnt.
In this session a lot would be learnt about the heterosexual relationship of the
adolescent. Sex education which is important to every human being would be given
a serious attention.
Finally, a critical look would be taken on the cultural influences on sex-social

behaviour.
Objectives
(a) state in a sentence how heterosexual relationships are formed during
adolescence;
(b) identify two importance of sex education to the adolescent;
(c) mention two attributes necessary for sex-social adjustment; and
(d) explain in a sentence or two how the culture of the adolescent influences
his/her sex-social behaviour .
Now read on…
4.1. Development of Interest in the Opposite Sex

One of the outstanding aspects of an adolescent’s social development is his/her
gradual growing interest in members of the opposite sex, an interest which normally
leads him into expanding heterosexual activities following puberty. The difference
in interest in the opposite sex after puberty is one of the sharpest distinction
between childhood and adolescence. To a child, sex and all that it implies is hardly
a matter of special or enduring interest and preoccupation. Later as the impact of
the sex instincts begin to make themselves felt it becomes difficult for boys and
girls to find a really common ground in their play interests, and so accept members
of the opposite sex as just someone to play with.
Girls tend to be interested in boys as boys before boys are ready to reciprocate the
interest. In the early years of puberty, girls tend to play the dominant sex role and
UNIT 2
HETEROSEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS
SESSION 4
either initiate younger boys in the social niceties or seek the company of older boys.
As the years of pubescence proceed girls relinquish their dominant role and tend to
be pursued rather than to pursue. This is not due to their lack of interest in the
opposite sex, but to the increased interest of boys and the cultural pattern which
expects them to dominate.
Thus, the matter of sex becomes important not only because of physical-
physiological changes, but because his culture emphasizes the matter in nearly
every aspect of his daily life. Until adolescence, while the sexes are differentiated
in respect to toys, clothing, hair styles, and other outward ways, they are given
almost equal treatment.
The on-set of puberty bring essential differentiation in sex-role behaviour. At a

time when a child is most insecure as he endeavours to adjust to an altered body and
new sensations he finds that he must adopt unfamiliar behaviour and learn new roles
that appear to be poorly defined.
Generally speaking, the behaviour change expected of the adolescent boy is greater
than the girl, but more consistent. In our culture to become a mature male involves
assumption of those qualities which the culture accepts as evidence of maleness.
An adolescent boy or boys in general are expected to be independent, self-reliant,
and assertive with a general orientation toward material success.
While the physiological changes in adolescence are more pronounced in girls, their
sex-role is more continuous.
According to Schoeppe, girls are not required to abandon their childish dependence
and submission as boys. However this time in the life of the girl means greater
parental supervision and protection on the part of parents in matters involving the
opposite sex which often leads to conflicts with parents more severe than boys.
4.2 Sex Education of Adolescents

Adolescents themselves are interested in sex education. Lee, Kirken Dall and
Hamilton point to children’s demands for more adequate sex information, especially
in the area of neterco sexual relations.
Despite the fact that sex information is badly needed, parents and adults have often
imposed a culture of silence around sex. They pretend it does not exist and when
their attention is called to it they ignore it. Adequate and unemotional sex

OTHERS SESSION 4
instruction is seldom provided and adolescents usually must acquire information

more or less on their own.
On the formal side the schools do very little for obvious reasons that in a city whose
adults maintain a position of official silence as regards sex, a public agency tends to
play safe. Adolescents therefore gather information as best as they can on their
own. Some gather information from their ill-informed age mates or through actual
experimentation and experience.
It is unfortunate that such large numbers of adolescents obtain first knowledge on

masturbation, ejaculation, and nocturnal emissions either from actual experience or
from observation of pornographic films or pictures. In addition to proper sex
education, the attributes which will help an adolescent to work out adequate sex-
social adjustments are requisite social skills.
4.3 Cultural Influences on Sex-Social Behaviour

Social skills are exceedingly important in arriving at sex-social adjustment, and an
adolescent who has been given opportunities to meet and participate in heterosexual
social activities will find adjustment much easier and social experience more
satisfying. The inculcation of social skills is one of the best preliminaries to
satisfying social participation. It is true, however that sections differ and social
skills and habits acceptable in one community or socio-economic class may not be
acceptable in another. Different cultures also will have different social customs and
ways of doing things.
The mere presence of a social programme may not be taken to mean that it is
effective. Schools authorities and others who promote social programmes, must
ensure wide participation and must help those who for one reason or another are not
participating. Both boys and girls have fairly definite ideas about the attributes
which they find acceptable in the opposite sex and their ideas do not agree.
Differences are also to be found in different social classes and different educational
levels.
4.3.1. Dating and Problem of Sex Behaviour

Dating has gathered about itself an extensive folklore. Boys and girls are expected
to “pair off” in some situations and not in others. Some territories are sacred to
boys and some to girls and there are restricted activities. There are specific class
differences in dating practice, and inter-class mobility is not encouraged. There are

UNIT 2
SESSION 4
various well-defined reasons for dating but these will vary from individual to
individual from social class to social class, ad from age to age.
Heterosexual activity first begins as group participation and tends to focus on

bisexual pairs only in middle and late adolescence. Some individuals have an
exceedingly difficult time in adjusting to exceedingly difficult time in adjusting to
Heterosexual activities and relationships and some are never able to find a
satisfactory adjustment.
Sexual behaviour is an important problem in adolescence, more especially since

adolescence is the time of peak sexual capacity and activity. Under the
circumstance of biological necessity which inevitably lead to heterosexual and
bisexual pairing, the restrictions imposed by society upon the sexual activity of the
young and the unmarried pose severe problems.
Society’s attempt to impose complete abstinence upon adolescents appears to have

failed. Premarital intercourse, various levels of petting and necking, and other
tabooed sexual outlets as comparatively common among the adolescent population
and find more toleration than they did in previous generations of the modern era.
Masturbation, which is commonly indulged in by the greater number of the

adolescent population if other outlets are not available, does not appear to have the
unfortunate physical and social bad effects so often attributed to it. Psychological
effects of maturbation may be unfortunate but are usually due to the attitudes of the
adults involved and the misinformation which they provide. Better sex education,
better techniques on the part of adults in providing such information are very much
needed.
In summary, it is important to note that sex education is very vital for

the adolescent so that all erroneous idea about sex is changed. Also it
must be noted that, it is the duty of both parents and teachers to open up and talk
about sex so that the adolescent do not learn wrong information from peers who are
equally ignorant. Nonscientific literature advocates sublimation as the best solution
to the problems posed by moral and social sanction’s against “erotic feeling”, and
various direct sexual outlets.

OTHERS SESSION 4
According to Ramsey sublimation is the ability to redirect sexual arousal into

different channels and thus eliminate direct sexual outlets and thereby expend the
erotic energies into other activities that are not essentially sexual in character.
This is exactly what parents and teachers should do to help the adolescent to over
come the problem of sexual arousal.
I am sure you have enjoyed this all important session. Now try your hands on the
self assessment questions that follow.
Exercise 2.4
1. Explain the term “Sublimation” as used by Ramsey in the text.
2. State two importance of sex education to the adolescent.
3. How do adolescent gather information on sex?
4. Why is it dangerous for adolescence to gather information from the
sources mentioned
5. Name two attributes of sex-social adjustment.

UNIT 2
SESSION 4


OTHERS SESSION 5
SESSION 5: ADOLESCENT GROUPS AND GROUP MEMBERSHIP

So far, in the last session we discussed the heterosexual relationship
and under that sex education an important aspect of an adolescent’s
life was also fully learnt.
In this session, the term groups would be defined. Also the nature of adolescent
groups and group membership would be fully discussed.
Objectives
(a) explain the term “group”
(b) describe the nature of adolescent group; and
(c) state in a sentence how a leader emerges in an adolescent group
Now read on…
5.1 What is a Group?

The term group is an every day expression used by all including teachers like you.
Now, take your jotter and define or explain the term ‘group’ and later
compare with mine.
The Concise Psychological Dictionary edited by Petrovsky and Yaroshevsky

defines group as a social unit differenciated from the social whole on the basis of a
certain characteristic e.g. class affiliation.
The Longman Dictionary of contemporary English also define group as “a number

of people, things or organization placed together or connected in a particular way”.
Compare your answer with mine and find out the similarities and
differences. The term can be defined variously, find more for your
studies.
It has been seen that the peer groups is one of the great motivating forces of
adolescence. The relationship of an adolescent to his peers and his participation in
their activities is usually one of the most important things in his life. His ego-
involvement is such that exclusion can be a tragedy, while acceptance brings
feelings of security and happiness. As such it is very necessary to consider the
nature of a typical adolescence group.
UNIT 2 ADOLESCENT GROUPS AND GROUP
SESSION 5 MEMBERSHIP
5.2 The Nature of the Group

The group as such appears to be more than the individuals who form it. It seems to
have a life of its own, and the adolescent who is a peer-group member is a different
person in his association with the group than he is when away from it. An
adolescent who belongs to a peer group tends to merge into the group and to assume
the attitudes and points of view held by the group. Participation in the activities of
an adolescent group does not mean acceptance, however there are many conditional
or part time members. The adolescent who is not fully accepted by the group may
find that his lot is very difficult, possibly more so than the person who is completely
rejected and is free to look elsewhere. It is also true that there are many different
kinds of adolescent groups, and success or failure in one does not mean success or
failure in others.
5.3 Classification of Groups

Cooley used the terms “primary’ and ‘secondary’ to classify group. He placed
group into four classes in order of increasing size and decreasing intimacy.
1. Intimate groups- such as mother and child, husband and wife, lover and sweet
heart.
2. Primary groups– characterized by face-to-face association, small numbers,
unspecialized purpose, comparative intimacy, relative permanence; The home,
the spontaneous play group, and the old-fashioned neighbourhood and types.
3. Quasi-primary groups – These are organized face-to-face intimate groups,
limited by special purpose and by the fact of organization. e.g. Boy Scout,
Girls Guide. These are many characteristic of primary groups and may
perform the functions of primary groups, yet the limitations of special purpose
give them some of the characteristics of secondary groups.
4. Secondary group – These are groups that lack intimacy of association and
mostly in the other primary and quasi primary characteristics.
One popular classification of adolescent groups categorizes them as cliques crowds,

or gangs.
Hollingshead notes that “the clique is integrated around two types of factors” first, a
commonly shared set of like and dislikes which tie the members together and which
separate them from other groups; and second, standing in the community or class.
The clique is characterized by clannishness, “we” feeling, exclusion of outsiders,
and personal loyalty. Its influence is great, but may be overestimated in some areas
or in the case of some individuals.
OTHERS SESSION 5
Another adolescent group is the crowd. It is a somewhat later development than

the clique and usually grows out of it. The crowd has been defined as a large clique
or as a more or less loosely united group of cliques. The crowd is less personal
than the clique, but selection is still made on the basis of homogeneity, and its
membership tends to be highly restricted. The crowd is more characteristic of later
adolescence and maturity than it is of early adolescence.
Clique and crowd activities include playing, talking, and eating together. The kind
of clique is important since cliques do vary in type, and generalizations may be
inappropriate.
Some writers see a trend toward the formalization of adolescent group activities,
but the majority of adolescents still confine most of their activities to informal as
compared to formal groups. The lower the socio-economic class, the less the
likelihood of formal clique organization.
The gang is another adolescent group, in contrast to the clique or the crowd it is
more highly organized and is usually the result of conflict or outside pressures
against its members which throw them together for mutual aid and support. Gangs
are most likely to appear among more recent immigrant groups or in sections
where there are racial or national tensions. A good proportion of juvenile
delinquency finds its inception in the gang. The reasons for joining a gang and
becoming a juvenile delinquent are often similar. Gang membership is frequently
a normal process rising out of environmental difficulties.
It is essential to remember that all groups are not gangs. Intrinsically, group
activity is needed and is good for adolescents. Adults should do everything in their
power to promote socially desirable adolescent groupings. In such promotion
group solidarity and cohesiveness will insure continuity and vitality of programme
without which a group can have little influence on its members.
In general, however, a group with a high intra-group index of friendship will tend
to be more cohesive, to have a more vital programme, and to last longer than one
with a low friendship index. An adolescent will like his group and, keep
participating in its programme if he is in sympathy with its purposes and mores.
The group must offer him security and fulfill some need in order that he may
participate without undue strain. On the other hand, to be acceptable to the group
he must conform to its beliefs and usages.

Spontaneously formed groups tend to be more cohesive than artificially formed

ones. The multiple purpose group tends to have more cohesiveness than the
single-purpose group. The size of the group appears to be important in group
cohesiveness – more so than age, although advancing age or pre-adolescence
appears to make for less intra-group cohesion. Definite sex differences appear in
the solidarity patterns presented by male and female groups, although there are
numerous similarities.
Leadership constitutes one of the most important group roles. The welfare of the
group as well as the nature and direction of its activity often rests upon the
shoulders of the group’s leaders. Since the welfare of society also depends upon the
excellence and ability of its leaders it becomes important to insure that adolescents
who exhibit leadership qualities are encouraged and aided to develop them along
socially approved lines. Schools should be particularly alert to the personal
adjustment needs of their school leaders.
Early students endeavored to isolate universally applicable characteristics of leader

in one situation would be a leader in any situation.
Successful adolescent leaders use different methods of control than those employed
by child group leaders. The leader who takes into account the wishes and the needs
of his group is most successful. His methods must be comparatively subtle and
must not depart too markedly from acceptable adolescent patterns of behaviour.
In this session, we have learnt that adolescent group is more than the
individuals who compose it. The meaning of group was also learnt
including the nature of group.
In addition groups as classified by Cooley was also studied and the various types or
classifications of groups were extensively dealt with.
I’m sure you loved reading this session and the others.
Now test your brains on the following questions.

OTHERS SESSION 5
Exercise 2.5
1. Define the concept group as dealt with in the text.
2. State the general classes of group as arranged by Cooley.
3. What is an intimate pair groups?
4. Describe a quasi-primary group.
5. Give an example of a quasi-primary group.
6. Briefly define a clique.
7. What is a crowd?



DISCIPLINE AND REBELLION IN ADOLESCENCE UNIT 3
UNIT 3: DISCIPLINE AND REBELLION IN ADOLESCENCE
Unit Outline
Session 1: The Meaning of Discipline
Session 2: Discipline in Schools
Session 3: Adolescent Rebellion
Session 4: The Impact of Literature on the Adolescent Mind
Session 5: The Impact of Movies and T.V on the Adolescent
Session 6: The Impact of Pornography on the Adolescent
Hello, you are most welcome to Unit 3.
In this unit, we are going to learn about Discipline, the different kinds
of bad attitudes that must be rooted out of children and some tools for
doing so. We will study discipline in schools and see how important administrative
leadership is. Then we will look at adolescents and see why they rebel at times.
What kinds of literature do adolescents read? What movies or films do they watch
and what impact are these having on our adolescents?
Finally we shall turn our attention to pornography and its impact on the adolescent.
I know you are not going to put down this Unit until you have digested all the
information. Let us begin our work.
Unit Objectives
1. Compare and contrast discipline and punishment;
2. Point out the importance of school discipline;
3. State causes and remedies for adolescent rebellion;
4. Describe texts that adolescents like to read and the impact of such on
adolescent’s;
5. State and explain the kinds of effect that movies and TV have on young
people;
6. Show methods that can be used to combat adolescent pornography.

UNIT 3 DISCIPLINE AND REBELLION IN ADOLESCENCE


OTHERS SESSION 6
SESSION 6: DELINQUENT BEHAVIOUR: NATURE AND

PERSONAL FACTORS
In the fifth session the adolescent groups and group membership were
discussed and also the definition of group and how leaders emerge in a
group were learnt. In this final session we are going to have a look at the definition
delinquency, delinquent behaviour, the nature and personal factors associated with
delinquent behaviour.
Objectives
(a) define the concepts delinquency and delinquent behaviour;
(b) explain the nature of delinquent behaviour; and
(c) state at least two personal factors associated with delinquent behaviour.
Now read on…
6.1 Nature and Definitions of Delinquency

Anyone familiar with the contents of newspapers, magazines and other media of
mass communication cannot help but show concern about the problem of juvenile
delinquency in the country and the world as a whole. Popular reporting depicts
juvenile delinquency not only as a major problem of the millennium, but also
indicates that its incidence and seriousness is increasing year by year.
Have you come across the term delinquency in your life as a parent and a
teacher before? What are your views on this problem?
From the little knowledge you have on delinquency try and define the term and
what you know or have heard on the concept for the next FTF.
If a child with delinquent behaviour is handed over to your for help,

how are you going to handle him? Write the steps you are going to
take for the next Face to face.
Now, lets try to look at some definitions of delinquency. One of the

great difficulties in considering delinquency. Juvenile delinquency is
its definition, but all the same lets give it a try.

UNIT 2 DELINQUENT BEHAVIOUR: NATURE AND
SESSION 6 PERSONAL FACTORS
“Delinquency” depending on the provisions of a particular statute, may include
deviant behaviours such as truancy, running away from home, “stubbornness”
disobedience and similar conduct referred to as “incorrigibility” or “waywardness”.
Also general attitudes of an anti-social flavour or tendency, such as hostility,
aggressiveness and even guilt feelings leading to some form of deviant behaviour
deemed potentially dangerous to the child and to society are seen as delinquent
behaviour.
Legally defined, a juvenile is technically delinquent if he commits a delinquent act
as stated by law and is adjudicated as such by an appropriate court.
Again, it is defined as a child “between seven and seventeen years of age who
violates any city ordinance or town by-law or commits an offence not punishable by
death”
Legally, the term “wayward child” is defined such a person as one “between seven
and seventeen years of age who habitually associates with vicious or immoral
persons, or who is growing up in circumstances exposing him to lead an immoral or
vicious criminate life”.
Is the definition you have written similar or close to what I have? If yes then
congratulations if no do not despair for as you go on you would learn a lot.
6.2 Interdisciplinary Nature of Delinquency

The delinquent has been of concern over a long period of time to all interested in the
problem of society and in the behaviour and needs of those individuals who
compose society. Hence, the study of delinquency is seen as interdisciplinary in
nature, and each of the various disciplines interested in delinquency has its own
approach to its study and each makes its own unique contributions. Let us take the
stand points of the disciplines one after the other and see their contributions.
The sociologist who studies delinquency typically tries to analyze the major
causative factors in the social processes in the delinquent’s environment.
Neighbourhood disorganization characterized by family instability, lack of
supervision of children, breakdown of social control, peer gang organization and
relationship and economic poverty are seen to be primary factors in delinquency
(Shawetal).

OTHERS SESSION 6
In considering delinquency the psychologist is interested primarily in its

behavioural aspects and their etiology as a result of learning. Thus the psychologist
makes an attempt to seek out factors relating to individual behaviour pattern.
Healy and Bronner have considered that the delinquent act makes meaning to the
individual delinquent. It is meaningful in the sense that, the act can be shown to be
(a) an attempt to fulfill needs, wishes, desires for affection, security recognition
etc
(b) a reaction to thwarting, frustration or blocking of needs, wishes or desires
in familial or peer relationships
Healy and Bronner note that interferences with fundamental wishes” are felt by the
young person as thwarting and deprivations causing keen dissatisfaction”.
Kvaraceus takes the stance that environmental factors such as poverty, unstable
home life and widespread disorganization in community control result in the
frustration of basic psychological needs, and from such frustration sterms
aggression leading to episodes of delinquent behaviour. In general the delinquent is
an uncomfortable person to have about.
Delinquency may be viewed also as an expression of defences and devices with the
purposeful end in view of obtaining greater emotional comfort hostility,
identification, displacement, and denial are common to delinquents and non-
delinquents alike, behaviour is its direction and mode of expression.
In general delinquents differ from non-delinquents in goal direction and in the
nature of the aggression used to attain their goals. An appropriate or an
inappropriate concept of self is an important component in all delinquents.
The home is probably the chief variable in delinquent behaviour, and the early
behaviour of future delinquents is often signaled by home maladjustments including
resentfulness, hostility, and overactivity. Parents often remember delinquents as
difficult” children in their early years.
Not all children from “bad” areas and psychologically poor home become
delinquents. Are you surprised? Some seem to find insulation against
delinquency and for these children some type of needs fulfillment appears
to offer protection. Oftentimes such insulation comes from a close parental
relationship although not all close parental relationship. Produce satisfactory results.
The overindulged child is often a fertile source for delinquent attitudes and
behaviour. A great deal depends upon the kind of social control exercised.

UNIT 2 DELINQUENT BEHAVIOUR: NATURE AND
SESSION 6 PERSONAL FACTORS
It would appear that consistent discipline reasonably exercised by parents, and the
opportunity for the child to assume responsibility pay dividends in preventing
delinquent behaviour. Usually a change in a delinquents behaviour also involves a
change in parental behaviour as a matter of fact a task because parental attitudes are
usually of long duration and involve the parents whole personality organization.
In summary, it has been realized that, delinquency is primarily a

function of under privileged and lower-class environments. Some
investigators have interpreted delinquency as stemming from class maladjustments
and competition.
Delinquency has also been realized to be rampant in so-called better sections and
attributed delinquency patterns to changing times and new technologies including
those of the communication media. The answer appears to be that delinquency rests
on multidimensional causes. No one answer may be given to explain delinquency
since it has too many facets.
The session tried to expose learners to the nature of adolescent delinquency and how
the term has been variously defined. In addition personal factors that contribute to
adolescent delinquent behaviour was also discussed and the interdisciplinary nature
was also discussed.
This is the end of the session and I hope it has enlighten you on delinquency, its
nature, causes and problems. I’m sure you loved reading it.
Now, try your hands at the self assessment questions that follow. Good luck.
Exercise 1.6
1. What is delinquency as used in the session?
2. Explain the concept “delinquent behaviour”.
3. Who is a wayward child?
4. State two personal factors associated with delinquent behaviour.

SESSION 1
SESSION 1: THE MEANING OF DISCIPLINE
My friend, you are welcome to this session. We are going to learn what
discipline means. We shall see whether there is a difference between
discipline and punishment and learn about tools to use to discipline children.
Let us get this clear thought: There is difference between a discipline and
discipline.
A discipline is a branch of a profession or an academic field of knowledge. One
may ask “In what discipline is his doctorate?” In this sense discipline is used as a
field of study or a subject area. We will not use discipline in that sense here in this
session.
We will use discipline in another sense. Listen to this: “Parents must discipline
their children”. Here the idea is for parents to train children by instruction and
practice or teach them to develop self-control. Dis cipline here involves training
and preparing the children to follow a system of rules of conduct and develop traits
of being well behaved.
We can also say: The teacher disciplined the pupils rather frequently. In this sense,
discipline is used to mean puruishment in order to gain-control or enforce
obedience. It means to penalise or inflict purnishment.
Now that we are clear about the different senses in which discipline can be used,
we can now begin our lesson.
Objectives
(a) explain what discipline is, including the different senses in which it is
used;
(b) draw a contrast between discipline and punishment;
(c) point out some specific bad attitudes you should help your children to
avoid; and
(d) tools available for correcting your child.
Now read on…

UNIT 3 THE MEANING OF DISCIPLINE
SESSION 1
1.1 What is Discipline?

To answer this question, let us first accept that indiscipline is eating into the
vitals of our society. If you think this is an exaggeration, then:
• Ask the parents. Most will tell you that their children no longer listen to
them, nor submit to any discipline.
• Ask the schoolteachers, and they will tell you the same sad tale.
• Ask the college professors, and you will find that by college time indiscipline
has grown worse.
• Ask the husbands and they will complain that their wives do not listen to
them nor yield an inch on most issues of difference of opinion
• Ask the employers – they will tell you that today’s labourers or employees
usually take the law into their own hands and do not take any notice of even
the Union bosses unless they dance to their tunes.
• And if you ask the police they will tell you that people at large sadly lack
discipline.
And so on.
So what is discipline? And I tell you that many people cannot think of discipline
except in very negative terms. They cannot hear the word “discipline” without
hearing something negative. Discipline, in its true sense, is positive, encouraging
and even a proof of love. (Hebrews 12:6).
The root word of discipline is “disciple”. When you discipline your children you
are making disciples of them Discipline is defined as training that develops self-
control.
Discipline includes three levels:
Level 3 Corrections
Level 2 Training
Level 1 Instruction
The foundation level of discipline, Level 1, is instruction. Discipline begins with

clearly communicating instruction, and teaching your children.
Level 2 is training. Training means to lead and direct the growth of the child. It
includes helping the child to form habits and develop proficiency in his instruction.

SESSION 1
Level 3 is correction. Correction means to alter or adjust a child’s behaviour by

taking action to cause him to follow previous instruction. Therefore, correction
follows instruction. A child needs correction when we knows your instructions and
doesn’t follow them. It is crucial to take action at this level otherwise your child’s
sense of security and growth in self-control will be damaged. Being direct and
assertive at this level is important.
Write down two specific methods of correction you can use in class
and bring to FTF for discussion.
1.2 Contrasting Discipline and Punishment

We have to understand that there is a difference in meaning of the words discipline
and punishment. Parent, parents for example are instructed by God in the Bible
and Quran to discipline their children, but they are not instructed to punish their
children.
So what is the difference? Try writing an explanation to distinguish

between discipline and punishment, and then compare them to mine.
As pointed out earlier, the root word of discipline is disciple which means learner.
The definition of discipline includes instruction and training, as well as correcting.
Discipline, therefore, is to be motivated by love and concern.
In contrast, punishment implies getting even, retaliating, vengeance and exacting a

penalty.
Let us look at dictionary definitions for these words.
What meanings did you get?
I had the following:

• retaliate: give tit for tat; hit back, strike back get revenge,
• vengeance: revenge, punishment, settling of scores
• penalty: punishment, fine, sentence, consequence
What do all these mean? They mean that punishment involves hitting back to get
revenge in order to settle a score. Would you like to face such consequences
yourself?

SESSION 1
Now let us look at a chart which shows the difference between punishment and
discipline
Comparison of Discipline and Punishment

S/N Item Discipline Punishment
1 Purpose • To inflict penalty for • To correct and promote
offence, to pay back for positive growth.
wrong doing.
2 Focus • Upon the future behavior • Upon the past misdeeds
• Upon restitution and natural • Hurting or depriving
outcome of events. the child.
• Past misdeeds • Focuses on behavior
3 Feeling • Preserves mutual respect of • Ignores feelings and
feelings and dignity. dignity of the child.
• Child feels understood. • Child feels
misunderstood.
• Looks for feelings and
needs that drive behaviour
4 Self-esteem • Raises self-esteem. Leaves • Lowers self-esteem.
child feeling good about Leaves child feeling
himself. bad about himself.
5 Control • Teaches self-control by • Teaches outside control
explaining reason. by offering no
explanation.
6 Parent and • Parent and child feel good • Parent and child feel
Child about each other and the disconnected from each
relationship. other and the
relationship.
• Decreases power struggles, • Increases power
since the needs of parent struggles, because only
and child are met. the needs of the parent
are met.
• Time-In: Parent and child • Time-Out: Parent
decide together on time, decides on time, place,
place, tools and helping tools, and helping
person. person.

SESSION 1
7 Choice • Present Choice • Demands compliance.

8 Motivation • Motivates and encourages • Inspires anger,
doing better next time. resentment, rebellion,
revenge, or withdrawal
Thus a teacher’s/ (parent’s) inner attitude while disciplining is crucial. It is possible

for a parent/teacher to use the same method of correction and be either disciplining
or punishing depending on the teacher’s or parent’s inner attitudes.
1.2.1 Anger is Part of Punishment, not Discipline

Do you know that children have a way of seeing into an adult’s inner attitude
towards them? In fact, a child can many times detect anger on the part of the parent
when the parent does not even know he is angry.
Knowing how to handle anger is a necessary skill so that parents/teachers can

discipline their children and not punish (get even) with their children.
The Good Book says: Fathers, provoke not your children to anger, lest they be
discouraged: (Colossians 3.21).
So, don’t lash out to correct immediately. Don’t hit your child anywhere on his
body, arm, leg, face etc. (There is a difference between hitting and spanking).
When your anger is out of control it is dangerous to use spanking as a method of
discipline. This can lead to child abuse. Separate yourself from the child for a few
minutes. Then, when you are calm, go to your child and then take action to correct
him. What should you do if you have disciplined your child with uncontrolled
anger?
You must make it right. The best way to make it right is to ask your child to forgive
you – not for correcting him, but for being angry while you disciplined him.
Nevertheless, a child’s bad attitudes must be corrected.
1.2.2 Correcting Bad Attitudes

Too often, parents/teachers focus on actions, rather than attitude. We should pay
attention to correcting certain bad attitudes in our children. These attitudes are
windows into the heart of your child. They expose the root of sin in the heart of
your child. If you fail to correct them, then you receive only outward compliance
from your children - and not from the heart.

SESSION 1
So what must you do?
Talk to your children about these attitudes and demonstrate them as you discuss
them. (This can be a lot of fun as you demonstrate some of the expressions that you
see your children present). After demonstrating the negative attitude, show them
the positive attitude. For example.
Children, this is a sour face. (Show sour face)

Now you show me a sour face. (Kinds demonstrate sour faces).
A sour face is a bad attitude. We should put off a sour face and be
cheerful. Now demonstrate a cheerful face for me. (Kids show their
cheerful faces).
From now on I will be correcting you when you show me a sour face
instead of a cheerful face
Now let’s try a cheerful face again. Now let’s try a cheerful face again!
Write down 3 bad attitudes you would want to correct in your children
and compare them to mine?
In this session we learnt discipline is to be thought of as a positive

concept. To discipline is to make a child your disciple; to learn. We
defined discipline as training that develops self-control, having three levels:
instruction; training and correction. We pointed out that there is a difference
between discipline and punishment and that anger is part of punishment, not
discipline. We learnt that bad attitudes in our children must be corrected using
specific tools in a fitting manner and not give in to under discipline.

SESSION 1
Exercise 3.1
1. Write the root word for discipline --------------------
2. A terminology for any kind of training meant to develop control of

oneself or another is --------------------
3. There are three ways to discipline a child. Name them.
4. One word for retaliating in response to your child’s offense, wreaking

vengeance and exacting a penalty of him/her is -----------
5. What sort of character is your child showing when he stomps a ways and
throws his arms at you whilst you talk to him? ------------------
6. When a child willfully disobeys rightful authority, what sort of

correction will you give? ----------------------
7. Good behaviour must be rewarded and reinforced. This is true, but a

terminology for this is. --------------------
8. When your child plays the fool but you simply ignore him/her you want
that behaviour to be ---------------------
9. When a child refuses to share what he has and takes bigger portions of
the piece, he shows a bad attitude of -------------------------
10. Your child commits an offense and falls foul with the law, and you
allow him to be put behind bars. What sort of corrective technique have
you adopted? -----------------------

SESSION 1


SESSION 2
SESSION 2: DISCIPLINE IN SCHOOLS
You are welcome to this session. In this session we are going to learn
about discipline in schools. Can you imagine a school without any
code of behaviour or without any school rules? This cannot be, else discipline will
break down. What will happen in such an environment?
Now let us read on to find answers to these questions.
Objectives
(a) explain school discipline;
(b) list reasons why discipline is important in schools ;
(c) point out school characteristics that are associated with discipline
problems;
(d) explain who an assertive teacher is and why you would want to be one;
(e) describe ways by which schools can decrease disruptive behaviour and
increase positive behaviour; and
(f) state different reasons to show the importance of administrative
leadership.
Now read on…
2.1 What is School Discipline?

School discipline is a kind of discipline found in schools. It means students must
comply with a code of behaviour often known as the school rules. Some of the
school rules may set out the expected standards of clothing, timekeeping,
relationship with peers (both teachers and pupils) and school work. There are
several of such rules in every school.
Write 2 rules of behaviour that exist in your school:

(a) 2 for pupils
(b) 2 for teachers
Sometimes, the term school discipline may not only apply to code of
behaviour/school rules. The term may also be applied to the punishment that is the
consequence of transgression of the school code of behaviour. For this reason the
usage of school discipline sometimes means punishment for breaking school
rules.

UNIT 3 DISCIPLINE IN SCHOOLS
SESSION 2
2.2 Why is Discipline in Schools Important?

The aim of school discipline is to ensure a safe and happy learning environment in
the school and in the classroom. A classroom where a teacher is unable to maintain
order and discipline can lead to low achievement and unhappy students.
School discipline thus, has two main goals: (1) to ensure the safety of staff and
students, and (2) to create an environment conducive to learning. Serious student
misconduct involving violent or criminal behaviour defeats these goals and often
gives the school a bad name or bad reputation. Though there may be problems that
do not involve criminal behaviour or that do not threaten personal safety, they
nevertheless still negatively affect the learning environment.
List any 3 problems in your school that may
(a) involve criminal behaviour
(b) threaten personal safety of teachers or pupils.
Explain how each of the problems will negatively affect learning in your school.
Disruptions can interrupt lessons for all students, and disruptive students can lose
even more learning time. So it is important to keep the ultimate goal in mind when
working to improve school discipline. Effective school discipline strategies seek to
encourage responsible behaviour and to provide all students with a satisfying school
experience as well as to discourage misconduct.
2.3 School Characteristics Associated with Discipline

Historically, school discipline centred on corporal punishment methods such as
smacking and the use of the cane. In modern times, the main emphasis on school
policy has shifted to positive reinforcements such as praise, merit marks, house or
section points and the like. The use of violent methods of punishment in order to
enforce discipline has been seen as inappropriate by modern educators. No violent
methods are expected thus to be used in schools when school rules are broken.
Rather, new methods to use include detention, suspension and ultimately, expulsion
of the student from the school.
This goes to say that there are certain methods for obtaining good discipline in
schools. For instance, the most important aspect of good discipline in a classroom is
teacher assertiveness.

SESSION 2
Who is an assertive teacher?
Assertive teachers are teachers who set clear boundaries, praise

children for appropriate behaviours, and whose punishments are perceived as “fair”
by the children. Such teachers tend to have a calm atmosphere and good academic
results of their pupils.
On the other hand teachers who are not assertive tend to have variable boundaries,
such as ignoring behaviour one day then blowing up in rage at the same behaviour
the next day. Such teachers give inappropriate punishments such as a long
detention for a minor infraction, or allowing the pupils they perceive as “good” to
get away with behaviour that “bad” pupils are punished for. Such practices have
been found to create a frantic or uneasy atmosphere in the classroom, usually
leading to the teacher being disliked by the pupils and less learning being achieved.
Thus certain characteristics exist in schools that bring about discipline problems.
What are some of these characteristics?
It has been found that discipline problems will exist in schools where school rules
are not clear or perceived as unfairly and inconsistently enforced. Students did not
believe in the rules. Teachers and administrators did not know what the rules were
or disagreed on the proper responses to student misconduct. Teacher-administration
co-operation was poor or the administration inactive. Teachers tended to have
punitive attitudes. Misconduct was ignored, and sometimes schools were large or
lacked adequate resources for teaching.
How would you feel if you were a learner in such an environment?

Would you be positively motivated to learn? What would be the effect on
your academic achievement? How would you compare to a colleague
studying in an orderly school?
Orderly schools have been noted to usually balance clearly established and
communicated rules, with a climate of concern for students as individuals. Being
often small schools, such small schools often maintain order successfully with
fewer formal rules. They have a more flexible approach to infractions than large
schools typically have. I hope you can now easily draw differences between
schools with characteristic discipline problems and those that are orderly.

SESSION 2
2.4 How Schools can Decrease Disruptive Behaviour

Working to change the characteristic discipline problems may decrease disruptive
behaviour.
How can this be done? First, rules and the consequences of breaking them should be
clearly specified and communicated to staff, students and parents by such means as
newsletters, student assemblies, handbooks, Parent-Teacher Association meetings,
etc. Meyers & Pawlas (1989) recommend periodically restating the rules,
especially after students return from vacation.
What must be done after communicating the rules?
Once rules have been communicated, fair and consistent enforcement helps to
maintain students’ respect for the school’s discipline system. Consistency will be
greater when fewer individuals are responsible for enforcement.
Again, providing a hearing process for students to present their side of the story and
establishing an appeal process will also increase students and parents’ perceptions
of fairness.
It is suggested for administrators to create smaller schools or divide large schools

into several schools-within-schools to be manageable.
Discipline policies should distinguish between categories of offenses. For example,

minor infractions may be treated flexibly, depending on the circumstances, while
nonnegotiable consequences are set for serious offences. Actual criminal offenses
may be reported to the police as part of a co-operative anticrime effort. (Gaustad,
1991).
2.5 How Schools can Increase Positive Behaviour

It is possible for schools to work to increase positive behaviour. Research has
shown for example that social rewards like smiling, praising, and complimenting are
extremely effective in increasing desirable behaviour.
Schools must also work to increase academic success for low

achievers. Why should that happened? This is because studies indicate
that students who dislike school do poorly academically. Such
students, seeing that they have limited careers ahead of them are more likely to be
disruptive. That is why it is important for schools to work to increase academic
SESSION 2
success for low achievers. This alone is not enough, however. Delinquent
behaviour has been found to decrease in schools that allow students to be socially
involved and attached to the school.
Which school programmes can be effected to involve students socially in school

affairs? One may mention clubs and societies, school sports festivals, cultural
affairs, etc. In other words, discipline problems will be reduced if students find
school enjoyable and interesting.
Sometimes problem behaviour occurs because students simply don’t know how to
act appropriately. In this case the school administration needs to establish
procedures for de-escalating disruptive behaviour, methods/ways for obtaining and
maintaining instructional control, teach alternative behaviours, and prepare students
for classroom re-entry after serving disciplinary action.
2.6. The Importance of Administrative Leadership

Write down (one reason) why you think administrative leadership is
important in your school.
The school head plays an important leadership role in establishing school discipline,
both by effective administration and through the use of personal
example. Heads of well-disciplined students are usually highly visible
models. What does this mean? They engage in what is described as
“management by walking around”, greeting students and teachers and
informally monitoring possible problem areas. Effective heads of schools are liked
and respected, rather than feared. They communicate caring for students as well as
willingness to impose punishment if necessary.
Duckworth (1984) found that teachers’ satisfaction with school discipline policy
was related to their relationship with the head. Good communication and shared
values are important elements in this relationship. Ideally, a head should be able to
create concensus among staff on rules and their enforcement.
Strong district leadership can also be crucial when school heads and teachers know
they will “have the support of the people at the top”. It helps school staff to present
a united front to battle disciplinary behaviour.

SESSION 2
We have learnt in this session that school discipline refers to a code

of behaviour or school rules. It sometimes also refers to punishment
for breaking school rules. We learnt that the importance of discipline
lies in ensuring a safe and happy learning environment for both staff and students.
There is the need for effective discipline strategies for maintaining good behaviour.
We learnt that identifiable characteristics are associated with schools having
discipline problems; that whilst assertive teachers set clear boundaries for
appropriate behaviour, non-assertive one’s don’t, with consequent disciplinary
problems.
We also learnt that orderly schools have clearly established rules which they
communicate to students in a climate of concern for their well being. Through
circumstances like these, disruptive behaviour can be decreased and positive
behaviour increased, particularly in situations where students find themselves
socially involved in school affairs and where they find school enjoyable and
interesting.
Then we learnt the importance of administrative leadership in establishing school

discipline backed by strong school district leader’s (administrators) support. Thus a
united front, both in-school and out-of-school help in establishing discipline in
schools.
Exercise 3.2
1. School discipline has 2 main goals. State them
2. Effective school discipline strategies seek to:

(a) Encourage responsible behaviour
(b) Provide all students with a satisfying school experience
(c) Discourage misconduct
(d) All of the above
3. Write three ways to use when students break school rules?
4. What most important aspect of good discipline must be shown in the

classroom?

SESSION 2
5. In one sentence explain who an assertive teacher is:
6. Write down 5 characteristic of an orderly school.
7. Write down 5 ways for decreasing disruptive behaviour in schools.
8. Write two points to explain how delinquent students may be helped to

desist from disruptive behaviour in school:
9. Write down one key reason why administrative leadership is

important.
.
10. In what way does school administration establish school discipline?
11. Good communication and shared values are important elements of what?

SESSION 2


SESSION 3
SESSION 3: ADOLESCENT REBELLION
My friend, you are welcome to this session where we are going to

learn about rebelliousness in adolescence. We are going to learn why
some of the youth rebel as they do; the types and causes of their rebellion, problems
created by authoritarian parents and why the adolescent youth protest.
We shall then learn a few guidelines for living with the adolescent. Before then let
us try to explain in-brief what adolescence is all about.
Objectives
(a) explain what adolescence is ;
(b) differentiate between rebelliousness and violence;
(c) point out circumstances in which adolescent clothing could be a form of
protest;
(d) state and explain types and causes of adolescent rebelliousness; and
(e) outline some guidelines for living with the adolescent
Now read on…
3.1 Rebelliousness in Adolescence

The dictionary defines the verb “to rebel” as to resist or rise up against a
government or authority. The rebel is therefore a person who dissents from some
accepted moral code or convention of behaviour, dress, language, etc.
Rebelliousness is typical of youth and unusual in childhood. Is this true?
Well let us find out. It is not that children are never disobedient but
their conduct is different from that of the teenager. Before thirteen, the
child disobeys through carelessness or in order to refuse something he dislikes.
After that age, at fourteen, he disobeys, not because it upsets him to be ordered
about, but to protest against the idea of being subordinate to another. The substance
of what he is told is less important to him than the tone of voice of the person giving
the orders.

UNIT 3 ADOLESCENT REBELLION
SESSION 3
In this sense, rebelliousness can be distinguished from being obstinate or stubborn,

nonconforming or the critical sprit which emerges in middle adolescence. There is
nothing wrong in accepting someone’s authority in general but differing with him
on a particular issue, even if the discrepancy is persistent and is expressed in a
stubborn manner. Nevertheless, if such obstinacy and critical spirit are an
expression of a teenager’s desire for independence, they may tend towards
rebelliousness in certain circumstances.
Explain in one sentence what it means to rebel.
Rebelliousness is also different from violence even though both often appear side
by side. Leif and Delay (2002) studied this difference and they say that violence
has no objective and implies a complete and total break with others.
Rebelliousness, on the other hand, has an objective (to say no to something), does
not break completely with others, and is exercised in the name of something
(supports some value). Rebelliousness, then, is more human than violence.
In what way or ways can a teenager’s desire for independence result in

rebellious acts?
The adolescent rebels when:

• he wants to say no to something.
• he wants to continue a relationship with others which he does
not want to break completely from
• he wants to support some value
Now, let me use clothing as a case to throw more light on these points.
3.1.1 Adolescent Clothing as a form of Rebellion

Clothing is a language, a nonverbal system of communication that through its
symbols conveys much about the wearer to the viewer. Before people speak to one
another, their clothing makes a statement that expresses their sex, age, class,
occupation, origin and personality, as well as what they are or what they want to be
at a particular moment. A business person is recognized in a well tailored suit.

SESSION 3
As a language, clothing can range from conventional to eccentric styles. Dress can
identify its wearer with a social group or role that the individual wants to emulate.
Notice how significant jeans are to teenagers. Importance is placed

upon style, cost and labels identified as designer. As a nonverbal
language, the jeans may signal that they are all members of the same
group, no matter how different they may be socially or intellectually. Teenage girls
carry the group identification a step further by sharing clothes. In this way they
share their friendship and group identity, just as they share their slang in creating
their own verbal language. But clothing can and does express more than identity
with a group or role. It can also express the value of that group.
Teenage clothing communicates messages other than that of belonging and

similarity, because teenagers are working out their own set of values different from
those of their parents. Clothing expresses the psychological need for adolescents to
rebel against their parents and other adults in authority in order to seek autonomy
(independence). Protest and rebellion can take the form of enjoyment and pleasure
seeking. Enjoyment conveys messages of freedom and autonomy. The objects and
activities important to the teenager are valuable, in developing his/her
independence.
Adolescent protest is seen in their choice of clothing. Let me just talk about only
are: are “Punk”. It’s appearance combines the conflicting emotions of rage, fear and
pity for the injured child. The “Punk” dress of boys include black jackets, jeans,
torn shirts and trousers held together with safety pins; exposed skin that is bruised
and scratched, and multipierced ears. Girls’ styles may be similar to the boys but
vary with slit skirts, tight fitting hot pants and sweaters.
How does their hair look? Hair and makeup styles include: shaved heads,
hair dyed in vibrant hues – red, blue, green, violet, pink, brown, yellow
…… Faces? – heavily powdered; eyes darkly made up and lips painted

SESSION 3
with gaudy lipstick. Metal bicycle or dog chains hang around the neck or wrapped
around the hips or legs.
Has not something definitely gone wrong somewhere? What message does such
clothing communicate?
The “Punk” style alone transmits a double message. The “Punk” clothing conveys
an angry statement that is sexually charged with energy and violence. The outfits of
leather, chains and exposure of the skin with real and artificial scars are
meant to threaten the adult audience through fear. Another aspect of
“Punk” clothing that may not be as obvious but adds to the disturbing
effect that it has on adult viewers, is its image of the wounded child. Examples of
this are the hair colours, poorly fitting tops and trousers (dirty, torn!), scratched and
scraped faces and knees, and the use of the safety pin to pierce the ear, cheek, nose,
tongue, etc.
Permit me to summarise this section clearly:

• Adolescent dress is a form of communication. It carries nonverbal
messages to its audience composed of teenage peers and adults.
• Adolescent dress represents teenage values – of identity with a
particular peer group, and at the same time expresses a need to be
different from adults.
• Adolescent dress differences symbolize a need for autonomy.
Teenagers strive for independence.
• Adolescent dress is influenced by the media – music video, T.V,
internet. These technological advances in communication using
sophisticated visual and auditory technology produces popular stars
and performers whose clothing styles are creatively adopted by
teens.
1. What is it that the adolescent is rebelling against, in the sense

of the above?
2. What kind of relationship does he/she not want to break
completely from?
3. What values does the adolescent support?

SESSION 3
One thing is clear: juveniles don’t just get up and rebel without a cause.
Rebelliousness is not always outright or persistent. They become so only in certain
cases:
• As a result of mistaken attitudes on the part of parents and, or
• The harmful influence of the environment.
As Guardini (1962) notes: “the genuine crisis point: the tendency to impose oneself
on others begins to emerge with the awakening of the personality – the awareness
of being different from others”. So we find in young people a jealous feeling of
being themselves, an exaggerated way of stressing their own importance, mistrust
of what others may say simply because those who say it are others and not
themselves.
Within the home, this rebelliousness usually becomes acute between the ages 14
and 17 – the stage or time of negative attitudes and impertinence. Outside the
family unit, there is rebelliousness against social customs, values and structures – as
seen in student unrest from age 20 onwards.
Briefly explain the crisis point of adolescence. What kind of

rebelliousness might occur in the home?
3.2 Types and Causes of Rebelliousness

Four types of teenage rebelliousness has been distinguished:
1. Regressive Rebelliousness
This is fear of action which expresses itself in introversion: turning in upon
oneself. Here, teenagers want to return to the carefree life devoid of
responsibilities. This is typical of children. From this refuge, the adolescent
adopts an attitude of silent, passive protest against everything. This is
regressive rebelliousness.
2. Aggressive Rebelliousness
The second type is an aggressive form of rebelliousness, which, unlike the
former, manifests itself in violence. This is typical of the weak person, of
someone who cannot bear the difficulties of daily life and tries to alleviate his
problems by making others suffer.

SESSION 3
3. Transgressive Rebelliousness
The third type consists of going against the rules of society, either out of
selfishness and self-interest, or for the sheer pleasure of flouting them. This is
transgressive rebelliousness.
4. Progressive Rebelliousness
Progressive rebellion is the type of rebelliousness “which is felt as a duty
rather than a right. It is not typical of a person who is frightened or weak. On
the contrary, it is a trait of someone who is not afraid of living but wishes to
live in a dignified way. He is capable of bearing the weight of reality but not
the weight of injustice, who accepts rules made by others but disputes and
criticizes them in order to improve then.” (Tela,1964).
Which of these types of rebelliousness reflected your character as a

youth? Why?
Now note two factors worth stressing here:

1. the endogenous (innate/internal) factor, itself and the fear of relapsing into
the self-centredness of childhood and
2. the exogenous external factor, which appears when the youngster for
becomes aware that in order to be a man he has to seek a place in society
and, to achieve this, he has to compete against adults.
These two (internal and external factors) contribute to the emergence of inner
rebelliousness, conflict, rejection, challenge and reaction against grown-ups who
force him to study or to work according to their traditions and who watch
everything he does. Hence he has the feeling of being on probation (P. Orive,
1964).
Regard also that the tendency to reject the influence and control of adults first
makes itself felt within the family unit. Rebellion against one’s parents is the most
common and most obvious form, doubtless because their authority is the oldest and
has lasted longer than any other. The teenager’s first objective, therefore, is to
sever his dependence on his parents and cease to be regarded as a child. The
rebellious attitude hardens if the desire for independence and self-assertion is met
with an over-protective, authoritarian or, indeed neglectful reaction.

SESSION 3
What does it mean to be overprotective?

Parents are overprotective when they refuse to admit that the child is growing up
and that this process is both physical and mental. They try to prolong his childhood
and, consequently, his dependence on them. This makes it difficult for them to trust
him, to let him decide things for himself and resolve his own problems, not to talk
down to him in a superior tone. Parents too often try to go on being indispensable in
their child’s life, and over protectiveness is nothing but a form of authoritarianism
in disguise.
Now do the following exercise in your jotter:
1. Write and explain the 4 types of rebelliousness in
adolescence.
2. Explain briefly the two factors/characteristics that can be derived from
the 4 types of rebelliousness in adolescence.
3.3 Authoritarianism
There are a number of problems associated with authoritarianism. One concerns
parents who exercise authority arbitrarily. In other words inconsistently. Without
reference to valid principles or as if exercising a special priviledge: the priviledge of
being parents or adults.
This often leads to contradictory standards, for instance, insisting that the child is
old enough to do a certain thing on his own and, at other times that he is not old
enough to do the same thing: they tell him to be responsible but yet they treat him
as a child. This is the type of authority that lays down the law: “because I say so
“or because I know best.” If this is accompanied by methods that humiliate the
child (eg. corporal punishment, reprimands in public, insult, etc) it may provoke an
aggressive reaction or feelings of personal frustration. This can aggravate the
situation enormously. If parents adopt this kind of dictatorial attitude to their
children, it will impede the development of their normal autonomy. The children
will complain bitterly that they are not treated as human beings but are regarded by
their parents as their private property.
Around age seventeen or after, rebelliousness frequently spreads beyond the family
and develops in association with classmates or friends against the whole of society.
They rebel by forming gangs and may commit acts of vandalism. Acts of violence
may be committed.

SESSION 3
However, acts of violence are a symptom of insecurity. A person, who feels secure,
has calm emotions. He will not assert himself through violence. Only someone
suffering from anxiety or unrest, from an inner conflict, which he cannot resolve,
needs to explode, to break out.
1. Explain authoritarianism?
2. Write down two characteristics of authoritarian parents.
3. An adolescent suffering from an inner conflict may explode
violently. Explain how you agree or disagree with this statement.
3.5 Some Guidelines on Helping Adolescents

Considering the subject of juvenile rebelliousness, it is essential to have clear ideas
on how best to help them.
First, there are certain types of rebelliousness, which should be accepted and even
encouraged Gallenger & Harris (1936) pointed out that rebellion must not be tossed
off as just adolescence; to be laughed at, or to be infuriated by. It needs to be
understood as unpleasant evidence that a natural desire to grow up, to become a
self-sustaining individual in one’s own right, is being sought – though in an
awkward fashion.
Secondly, we must distinguish genuine rebelliousness from other attitudes which are
not rebellions. This is because sometimes a youngster is labeled a rebel simply
because he has opinions of his own, and says what he thinks or acts according to his
own principles.
Thirdly, each case and each situation must be dealt with individually. Youngsters
are human beings: being a rebel is something accidental and may have different
causes in each case. Before taking any steps, we must find out what each individual
is rebelling against and why.
To deal with adolescent rebellion, therefore:

• The adolescent needs to be understood and loved
• He must be treated differently from others. He wants to be regarded as an
adult, even though he is not yet one, strictly speaking. He will feel that he is
SESSION 3
being treated as an adult when grown-ups expect and demand of him more
than they expect of children.
He will feel he is being treated as an adult when grown-ups no-longer confine their
dealings with him to issuing orders, forbidding things, giving him advice or telling
him what to do. But also, and more importantly, listen to him, take his ideal into
account, let him act out his own initiative and take him seriously.
But if the adolescent rejects the ideal of being subordinate to his parents, and must
be treated as an adult, does it mean that parents cannot demand their adolescent
children to be obedient?
The law says:

Children are subject to their parents until they come of age. In this sense, therefore,
they can be required to obey.
But children should not obey blindly but use their own free will and decide to do
what they want to do because it is the best thing. This form of obedience is
compatible to using one’s own initiative and intelligence in making decisions.
Youngsters must learn to recognise authority before they agree to submit to it.
Rebelliousness outside the family is more complicated and difficult to handle
because the factors, which cause it, are partly beyond the control of the parents and
others involved.
One promising way to deal with this problem is to get the youngsters to convert
their ineffective protest and criticism, their apathy and violence, into a form of
rebellion that will attack the defects and deficiencies of today’s society in a more
constructive way. They should approach these as a challenge for their own
improvement rather than an excuse for an easy life or for continuing with their
negative, irresponsible conduct.
It is important not to make it too easy for them to achieve everything they want.
On the contrary, it is better to create situations in which they will have to make
some effort to achieve results; they will learn to value something if it has to be
earned, if it requires personal sacrifice and effort.

SESSION 3
Help youngsters to opt for the progressive type of rebellion, the constructive instead
of destructive type. An example is to suggest that they opt for reflection and a
critical sense. Pieper (1974) saw in contemplation a questioning of oneself
concerning the true meaning of things. This is a pressing need for youngsters who
face a society that has lost the meaning of individual and community life.
Encourage them to swim against the current, by rejecting the type of culture based
on the separation of freedom, truth and love by trying to unite these three factors in
one’s own life. This can be done when parents and teachers take advantage of the
youngster’s excessive energy and channel it towards activities that are fully
meaningful to them. It is essential to find, stimulating and interesting jobs for them
to do, get them to carry out some project or help others, and launch them on such
activities.
Their desire to be treated as adults may also be used. Suggest to them that a person
has a right to be treated as a grown-up when he acts as one and not as child. And,
adults are able to govern themselves, control themselves and assume responsibility
for their own development. They should thus learn to control their impulses and use
them in the service of noble ideas.
In this session we have learnt that the youth can rebel by resisting
authority. By rebelling, the youth have an objective of saying no to
something in support of something they value. The crisis point of rebelliousness is
when the personality begins to emerge: when they begin to become aware that they
are different from others, and have an exaggerated view of their own importance.
The youth may rebel in four ways: regressive when they want to live a carefree life
devoid of responsibilities; aggressive - by being violent typical of weaklings;
transgressive – going against societal rules due to selfishness or self-interest, and the
progressive type – who have the trait to live a dignified life and who cannot tolerate
injustice and who may dispute and criticize rules in order to improve them.
Rebelliousness may thus erupt from innate (endogenous) factors or external

(exogenous) factors. Rebellion may begin from the family and extend into the
wider society.
Whilst overprotective parents may want to prolong childhood dependence, they

create problems of authoritarianism by being the law themselves, humiliating
children with insults and corporal punishment and thus provoke aggressive reactions

SESSION 3
and personal frustration to aggravate the situation. Gangsterism may result due to
development of feelings of insecurity, and resort to violence.
The way out is to understand why juveniles rebel, love them and regard them as
adults and treat them like one. Through contemplation: questioning of oneself
concerning the true meaning of things, adolescents may be prodded to resort to
constructive rebellion that leads to betterment of oneself and that of others.
Well, that’s it. This was a great session. Don’t you think so?
Exercise 3.3
1. The youth who dissents from accepted codes of convention is a ------

2. Write down 2 reasons why children around age 14 will rebel?
3. Rebelliousness and violence are the same.
4. Violence has no objective whilst rebelliousness has.
5. If your child wears “Punk” styles, what warning message is he/she
sending you? (Two reasons only)
6. Is there a rebel without a cause? Yes or no?
7. Another terminology that can be used in place of “the awakening
personality” is -----------.
Try your hands on this essay

1. The awakening of the personality
2. Over protectionism and Authoritarianism: fuel for breeding youth rebels.

SESSION 3
This is blank sheet for your short note on:

• Issues that are not clear: and
• Difficult topics if any

UNIT 3
DISCIPLINE AND REBELLION IN ADOLESCENCE
SESSION 4
SESSION 4: THE IMPACT OF LITERATURE ON THE

ADOLESCENT MIND
Dear student! You are welcome to session 4 where we look at

literature and its impact on adolescent minds. Why is literature so
appealing to all?
What are the types/kinds of literature that our adolescents are consuming? In this
session we shall look at the adolescent in an era of multiple literacies, gain insight
from results of research on adolescent literature use, and consider the quality of
media young people are being bombarded with and their effects on the adolescent
mind.
Objectives
(a) explain what literature is;
(b) state why literature can be appealing to all;
(c) tell what adolescent literacy means;
(d) describe contemporary texts that adolescents read;
(e) derive conclusions from an analysis of novels that young people read ;
and
(f) explain what memoirs are and tell the sort of impact they can have on
the adolescent mind.
Now read on…
4.1 Why is Literature Appealing to All?

Do you remember those delightful stories and great books that captured
your mind and will still capture children’s imaginations and instruct
them at the same time? Well, well, think back to your childhood for a moment.
The stories told you e.g. Ananse and the Wisdom Pot, the race of the tortoise and
the hare etc. And the books you read by yourself. Can you picture them ….
Remember the stories …. Recall the characters?
If you answered yes, I’m not surprised. Most of us remember in vivid detail many
of our farourite childhood books. In fact, it is not all uncommon for us to want our
kinds to read the same books we read as children.
In those books you read as a child, you gained valuable insights, practical
information, exposure to various cultures, and a desire to acquire – or avoid –
UNIT 3 THE IMPACT OF LITERATURE ON THE
SESSION 4 ADOLESCENT MIND
certain character qualities. There was literally a world of knowledge and

experience right at your fingertips. And you wanted to enter that world … and
enjoyed it when you visited.
• Literature thus conveys information in an enjoyable format.

• Literature conveys information in a form that is easy to remember.
In school or at home teachers/parents read aloud to children. Children would ask

questions about the story, about the characters, about words they may not have
encountered before. You have the chance to reply to their questions which may
lead to entire conversations.
When your children read on their own, you will find it common for them to initiate
conversation with you without being prompted – because it is enjoyable for children
to talk about especially good stories they are reading.
Literature thus gives a platform in which to explore and discuss the world in the
light of our beliefs. It is a platform where our children learn how to think critically
and logically by listening to and reading all kinds of books and discussing all kinds
of issues. Literature is part of our lifestyle and interaction with our children is vital
to their education. Literature, more than any other educational medium, encourages
this interaction.
• Literature thus encourages interaction.

What then constitutes literature? Write down your answers in your jotter
and compare them to mine.
Literature, is any spoken or written material. It refers to creative works that include
poetry, drama, fiction and many kinds of non-fiction writing. They include oral,
dramatic, and broadcast compositions which are not necessarily preserved in a
written format, such as films and television programmes.
The term literature derives from the Latin littera meaning “an individual written
character (letter). So literature literally means being acquainted with letters. So
books, magazines, articles, plays, short stories, poems – anything that utilizes the
written word is literature.

UNIT 3
SESSION 4
Write down 3 key reasons why you would use literature. The term
literature can be used in many senses. Explain any two.
4.2 Adolescent Literacy

In today’s world, do young readers read wide? What is your pre-
conception regarding young people and their reading habits? What is
the significance of libraries for youngsters?
It is not difficult to observe that school appears to be the most significant arena for
stimulating the urge to read. Libraries thus represent one of the most important
leisure activities for young people, and the best way to introduce them to the world
of literature. Questions, however, need to be answered to determine the relation
between young people, reading and the use of libraries.
Should reading be for pleasure of for improvement? We must point out
that both approaches complement each other. How do you get young
people to read more? More of what? The point is: what do libraries
have to offer and how can we make libraries more attractive to young
people?
Considering the impact that school libraries have on teen literacy, Moje & Young
(2000) observed that “adolescents entering the adult world in the 21st century will
read and write more than at any other time in human history”. “They say that teens
have multiple literacies – i.e. literate in many things. Multiple literacies mean also
that they have multiple texts. That is, in addition to traditional books, one can
expand the concept of what text (letters) are to include film, CD-ROM, the Internet,
pop music, television, magazines and newspapers.
According to Alverman (1998) also, adolescents need spaces in schools to explore
and experiment with multiple literacies and to receive feedback from peers and
adults.
Explain the concept of multiple literacies. List the modest facilities

that any modern school library should have.
What four suggestions do you have for:
a. the improvement of your school library,
b. your schools’ PTA
c your community elders

d. district/Municipal Director of Education on the issue of libraries and

multiple literacies?
4.3 Adolescent Interest of Contemporary Texts
What does the world look like from the perspective of today’s teen’s?
Caroll’s (1997), study of literature for adolescents and young adults revealed that
interests and issues of concern to today’s teems are reflected in contemporary
texts, particularly fiction texts. Drawing on research by adolescent psychologists
in describing what the world looks like from the perspective of today’s
adolescents, ample evidence have been found that topics considered significant for
today’s adolescents are addressed in the literature that they read. They include:
teen poverty; sexual activity, teenage pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases;
gender orientation, drug abuse, including alcohol; abuse, crime, violence and
gangs; hopelessness, depression and suicide; and thrill seeking and death.
You will agree with me that these are not necessarily the topics that teachers of
today’s adolescents were concerned with as teenagers. These were not topics that
appeared frequently in texts written primarily for adolescents and young readers of
your day. Were they? However, because they are topics that draw the interest of
today’s teens, they should be included in the texts that are read and studied in
school settings.
What do you think about this?
This should inform you to correct your misconception that young people today are
only interested in lightweight, fun books.
4.4 An Analysis of Novels That Young Adults Read

Selecting books for young adults is difficult. There are several aspects to this
problem. These aspects include why young adults read, what they read, and who
selects what they read.
Why do you think adolescents read? Write down 2 reasons only.
Adolescents read for information and for pleasure. They read to escape the
confines of their own lives, and to better understand their world. Gender, age and
UNIT 3
SESSION 4
personal reading preferences influence their book selections. Some select books
published for their age level while others select strictly adult books. Young adults
may read a novel because of its plot, theme, style, or other literary characteristics.
Reading interest, reading preference, and reading choice of adolescents have been
studied. Some researchers conclude that adolescents prefer to read about
protagonists who are the same gender as the reader. Others conclude that young
people want stories to take place in the present tense or recent past. Nevertheless,
book choices that young people make reflect their preferences and interests in
reading topics, genres, and literary charactertics.
Let’s try to explain these.

A preference is a disposition to receive one object as against another.
Why would you choose to read a certain novel and not another?
The nature of an interest is that it does induce us to seek out particular objects and
activities. For example, a reader who specifically searches for books about
monkeys shows an interest in the animals. It comes from his personal desire for
information about them. Preferences and interests are therefore personal
motivations. Being personal, it is impossible to determine a young person’s exact
motivation for selecting a book – unless we examine what he/she has chosen. A
reading choice then is material selected and read from a collection.
An analysis of novels selected as reading choice by young people has been studied
(Lukens & Cline, 1995).
The study reveals specific characteristics based upon the seven literary elements of:
character, plot, point of view, setting, style, theme, and tone. The most important
finding of this study relates to character. The majority of the novels young adults
selected were character – driven. First protagonists on the novels selected are round
and dynamic, which indicates that they are well developed. (In literature, the
protagonist is the main character or the most important character in a novel, play,
story or other literary work. He is the leading figure or main participant in an event,
for example, a contest or dispute. He is the important or influential supporter or
advocate of something). Another finding was that, the majority of the novels have
conflict that centres on people, person-against-self and person against person.
Thirdly, protagonists tell their stories from first person point of view, providing an
intimidate view of the characters.

Fourth, backdrop settings are used to illuminate character. Fifth, the major theme
idea is becoming self-aware and responsible for one’s own life.
What conclusions do you draw from the results of this analysis? It is possible to
conclude that the readers were searching for characters whom they can relate to or
recognize as they identified their favourite books.
Take your dictionary and look up the meaning for the 7 literary elements.
Write down 4 different insights you have gained about adolescents

nature based on Luken & Clines study results.
4.5. Stage of Reading Development of Adolescents

Several writers and researchers in the field of adolescent literature have concluded
that young people progress through specific stages of reading development as they
mature. In 1960, Margaret J. Early published an article entitled “Stages of
Growth in Literary Appreciation”. There are three stages in her theory:
unconscious enjoyment, self-conscious appreciation, and conscious delight (Early,
1960). For example, in the middle stage of self-conscious appreciation, readers
move away from the simple pleasure of what happen in a story to begin judging
elements of the literary piece. Rather than being swept away with the action of the
story, readers may pause to notice a literary element, such as theme (Carter &
Hanis, 1981).
Carlsen (1980) also noted how rewarding it is to see oneself in a story. The reward
of seeing oneself is “suddenly meeting ourselves, encountering situations similar
to our own, rediscovering our own emotions and relationship. In middle
adolescence Carlsen suggested that for both boys and girls “Literature becomes a
way of seeing themselves and of testing possible solutions to their own problems.”
(Carlsen,1980). In finding themselves in a story, the readers enjoy finding their
friends, enemies and other people of interest; and checking out the “facts”
presented in realistic, problem novels.
What insights do you gain into the reading choices that young adults
make? Write down 5 points only.

UNIT 3
SESSION 4
4.6 Memoirs in Adolescent Literature

Memoirs are very important in adolescent literature. Memoirs are historical
documents. They describe a period of history, and also addresses how universal
and collective human experiences are.
History happens to real people. It is about life, with all its triumphs and failures, its
courage and weakness, its lights and darks. McCullough – an American Pullitzer
Prize Winner in his acceptance speech pointed out:
“We live in an era of momentous change, creating great pressures and tensions. But
history (through our stories) shows that times of tumult are the times when we are
most likely to learn… History really is an extension of life. It enlarges and
intensifies the experience of being alive.”
History thus happens to real people and is not fiction.
Historians tell us that approximately 55 million people lost their lives in World War
2. Besides the Holocaust with its loss of 6 million lives 500,000 civilians, mostly
women, children, and the old, died in allied bombings over Germany. Twenty- two
thousand civilians were killed within an hour and a half in the middle of a sunny
day in Berlin. Those are staggering figures, but they have no human value in
attempting to understand the brutality and inhumanity of war. You might brush this
away: “Oh, this is past. It did not happen here. It happened far away in Europe”.
Eh eh!?! Let me ask you this:

How does it feel to be bombed day after day, night after night, fully
aware the next minute might be the last? What is it like when home and
the last? What is it like when home and neighbourhood become a
battlefield? How did people live in a totally decimated city with none of the basic
necessities: electricity, petrol, food, and drinking water, amidst plunder and rape by
occupation forces? How did war impact on the children physically and
psychologically?
How did they cope with constant fear and insecurity?
In our times, war has happened by Americans attacking and bombing Iraq. Those
of us who saw on T.V extracts of the bombings firing and brightening the night sky
cowered in fear.

On September 11, 2000 the Twin towers in America were bombed killing many.
Come to Africa. Civil war is causing strife all over – in Liberia, in Coted’ Ivoire
there is turmoil; Hutus and Tutsis are killing each other the Darfur problem; in
Ghana trouble is brewing among Abudus and Andanis.
Let me ask you this again! What is the effect of these happenings on children:
physically and psychologically?
In what way does McCullough’s (1995) observation become relevant

in present day circumstances?
In war literature, questions like these are answered in a way that young people, who
personally felt the effects of armed conflict, can understand. Memoirs are written
honestly without political or historical bias and without embellishment, for when a
survivor tells his/her story, history moves from myth to reality.
Eyewitness accounts place us in situations where were share in the experience.
When told in memoirs as a story, it becomes an invitation to readers to make an
imaginative response to reality. It invites them to find their own connection to the
story.
The reader experiences personally by imagining and participating in the life of
another. A Junior High School student once wrote: “Even though your experience
wasn’t mine, the story made me feel as though it were mine”. Indeed, a strange
kind of intimacy spins between the author of a memoir and the reader.
Explain what a memoir is in one sentence and compare it to mine.
As noted, a memoir is a biography or an account of historical events, especially one

written from personal knowledge.
This type of literature reveals so much of human behaviour. It is imbedded with

“instructions” that guide young people through the complexities of life. These
stories offer a different kind of hero from the usual football player, rock star, or
movie idol.
The young heroes or heroines in these memoirs are forced to grow up way before
their time and are often called on to make mature decisions that can affect the life of
others. They deal with the challenges of everyday life courageously and are not
UNIT 3
SESSION 4
swayed by collective thinking. Children of war become streetwise and learn the art
of survival by tapping into deeply buried instincts, finding reserves of strength they
never knew they had. They find hope and reassurance in the ever-repeating cycle of
nature and belief in a higher order of things. They learn to appreciate love of
family, the gift of friendship, and, above all, the preciousness of life itself. The
major theme that binds all these together is the triumph of the human spirit over
adversity.
These are impacts that the young adult experience as he interacts with literature.
These encounters indicate how interconnected we all are as human beings and how
the written word has tremendous power.
Would you include memoirs as part of your literature selection for

your adolescent school pupils? Explain, stating 5 reasons.
In this session we have studied how appealing literature is conveying

information in an enjoyable format, making things easy to remember
and encouraging interaction. We have learnt that young people have multiple
literacy these days and seen the essential need for libraries to be equipped with
relevant material. We have analysed novels young people read and seen that their
choices of novels are those in which characters are developed protagonists in the
thick and thin of affairs; novels that deal with conflict.
We learnt that there are stages in reading development of young people one of
which is that they see themselves in the novel and test possible solutions to their
own problems with it.
We learnt that memoirs are a kind of literature imbedded with instructions that
guide young people to take mature decisions, to face the challenges of life
courageously, to draw upon their spiritual reserves and put their trust and hope in
God – to realize that no matter what happens, the human spirit will triumph over
adversity.

Exercise 3.4
Write down answers to the following:
1. One word for memory tricks that help us memorise raw data is ---------
2. Littera is a Latin word that means ----------
3. If adolescents in the 21st century will read and write more than any other
time in human history, it is because they possess -----------------
4. Which kind of story is it that offers a different kind of hero from the usual
footballer or pop musician? -------------
5. By it, the adolescent realizes the tremendous power of the written word and
the triumph that the human spirit has over adversity. What is it?
Assignment
What impact can literature have on the adolescent mind?

SESSION 5
SESSION 5: THE IMPACT OF MOVIES AND T.V ON THE

ADOLESCENT
Dear student! You are welcome to this session. What is the impact of
movies and the television on the adolescent? We are going to find out
whether watching movies/television has any effect on people, particularly
adolescents.
Objectives
(a) explain what television is;
(b) list different kinds of media apart from television available for young
people’s use
(c) state and explain different kinds of effect that TV/movies have on
adolescents;
(d) explain how TV uses sex manipulation to entice adolescent’s to be
vulnerable to its influence; and
(e) cite examples of literature reviewed to support instances of how
TV/movie viewing can have negative impact on adolescents.
Now read on…
5.1 Youth and Media
A look at the world media landscape for children and youth immediately presents
two themes: opportunities and risks. Technological advances, for example, bring
the promise of new skills and greater youth participation in society, but also
increase the risk of child exploitation and information divide. We all must have a
good look at the print and electronic sources, and the quality and influence of media
– particularly movies and television aimed at them.
The UNICEF (2004) report on young people in the world today points out that
approximately one-third of the world’s population is made up of children, with 2
billion young people under 18. Challenges that face these young ones range from
basic survival to discrimination and exploitation. Besides there are myriad
differences in cultures, traditions and values.
Nevertheless, children and youth everywhere share some universal traits. They are
fundamentally more optimistic, more open and curious than their adult counterparts.
Though many children enjoy unprecedented freedoms in many countries,

UNIT 3 THE IMPACT OF MOVIES AND T.V ON THE
SESSION 5 ADOLESCENT
unfortunately, others are confronted with growing health and social problems –
ranging from deepening poverty and ethnic strife, to substance abuse and sexually
transmitted diseases, political turmoil and warfare. Have you observed this?
Arguably, the proliferation and globablisation of media are among the key factors
that have shaped and defined the current generation of young people. In many
countries, youth have access to a greater number of multi-media choices than ever
before. They include: conventional, satellite and cable TV channels, radio stations,
newspapers and magazines; the internet and computer and video games. In addition
many are exposed to the same programmes, the same characters and the marketing
of products. Today there is greater availability of foreign programmes and media,
with less official censorship and control in many parts of the world. Information, e-
mail and images flow around the world faster and more freely than ever.
The mass media, indeed, is making the world smaller, and culture and media are
packaged increasingly especially for young people.
Write down 3 challenges that young people face in this world.

Enumerate 2 health and 2 social problems that children face in the
world. List 8 possible kinds of media available for young adult choice
5.1.1 Young People and Television/Movies

Television is one of the dominant medium for young people – and adults – around
the world. It is estimated that there are approximately 250 television sets per
thousand inhabitants in the world. Satellite television is capable of reaching all
continents in the world, making more channels available for viewing by all –
including children.
The television then, is a tele-communication system for broadcasting and receiving

moving pictures (movies) and sound over a distance. The term television has come
to refer to all the aspects of television programming and transmission as well. The
word television is a hybrid word, created from both Greek and Latin. Tele is a
Greek for “far”, while – vision is from the Latin visio, meaning “Vision” or “sight”.
It is often abbreviated as TV or telly.
How long do your children sit to watch the telly?

SESSION 5
Average daily use of television among school-age children around the world is
calculated to range between 1½ hours to more than 4 hours; many of these same
children will rarely read a book. Television is one of their major information
sources about the world around them. The prevalence of television viewing among
young people raises serious concerns about the effect it is having on them.
Private and solitary use of both music and television by adolescents is important: it
provides them with an opportunity to deal with the stress and intense emotions of
this stage of development. Teen girls use their bedrooms to read magazines, watch
television, listen to music and talk on the phone. The bedroom becomes a place
where they use media to help them make sense of themselves and their lives. They
have preference for certain kinds of music and films.
It is important to note that the media young adults use – including computer – does
not involve parental supervision. Many have radios, CD players, a television, and
even a computer in their rooms. As a result, many parents are not in a position to
monitor their children’s media activity, nor can they readily provide any feedback
or support for children’s activities.
5.2 The Effect of Television on Teenagers

We have learnt that children spend an average of 1½ hours to 4 hours watching
television. This means they spend more time sitting in front of electronic screens
(TVs, computers, and video games) than they do on any other activity besides
sleeping. Some of this time may be educational and entertaining. But it may also
be full of images of violence, sexuality, stereotypes, drugs, and alcohol. They are
bombarded with TV advertisements on products they do not need.
The question is: What effect has television/films on the teenagers? Teenagers today
are having sex, and unsafe sex, in large numbers. Does television contribute to
this? What effect has television had on our society?
The impact of TV on children and teens is mostly negative. Violence on TV has

been linked to real life aggressive and violent behaviour by kids and teems. Many
studies have documented the prevalence of sex in the popular media. Overall, the
image of sexuality portrayed on television is a carefree one, full of humour and
lacking in responsibility and real-world consequences. This raises the concern that
adolescents, who are beginning to explore their own sexuality, may adopt this view
of sexuality and may copy some of the behaviours they see on television.

Many studies have also shown that the more kids watch TV, the more likely they
are to become obese. Obesity is linked to several major health problems, including
asthma, diabetes, heart disease and sleep apnea (a sleep disorder). In addition, kids
who watch a lot of TV are likely to read less than other students. They are more
likely to get lower grades in school. They may also be more likely to smoke, use
alcohol or drugs, and be sexually active as teens.
Cowstock (1977) reviewing literature on media effects, concluded that violent

stories with the following characteristics are most likely to elicit aggression: when
the violence in the story is
- rewarded
- exciting
- real, and
- justified; when the perpetrator of the violence is
- not criticized for his behaviour and is presented as
- intending to injure his victim (Phillips, 1963)
Thomas et al (1977) observe that exposure to screen violence makes people less
concerned about others and leads them to become more aroused and likely to
behave aggressively.
Recent exposure to violent media can cause short-term increases in aggression

through its impact on a person’s internal state represented by cognitive, affective
and arousal variables (Bushman & Anderson, 2002).
Imitation was demonstrated in experiments inviting children to recall aggressive

acts. All experimental children could perform the aggressive acts they had
witnessed if the circumstances were right (Pennel & Browne, 1999).
1. Write down 2 TV adverts that you think can have negative effect
on teens. Explain.
2. State 2 reasons only to explain why you would argue that TV
can have negative impact on children.

SESSION 5
5.3 Examples of the Effects of Television

Let us ask ourselves the following questions:
• Media Violence
Over one thousand academic studies on the impact of media violence on
children have been completed, with remarkably consistent result: Media
violence makes our kids aggressive, less patient, and more fearful of the
world around them. Watching violence desensitises children to actual acts
of violence.
• Portrayals of Sexual Exploitation and Attitudes

Portrayals of hypersexual behaviour, casual sex encounters without
apparent consequence, and exploitation of sex in advertising have just the
effect that parents fear. They turn up the pressure on teens to have sexual
relations earlier, making causal sexual encounters normal, and confusing
younger kids who may be somewhat traumatized by too early exposure to
sexual issues.
• Impact on Self-Image
Television makes children passive, with the result that they have lowered
physical activity. It increases their aggressiveness and sense of isolation.
• Vulgarity and Rudeness

Lack of respect and courtesy in our culture is becoming a problem. This
relates to lack of consideration of others, and public vulgarity – all the
behaviours that are normalised by the increasing vulgar and rude television
shows. Most media experts believe that television has shaped and
accelerated this trend. Rude and vulgar behaviour on television
“normalizes” the behaviour and breaks down the social barriers that help
children to understand when certain behaviours are appropriate and not
appropriate.
• Intense and Disturbing Imagery

Intense and disturbing imagery, including scenes of extreme violence (and
sometimes including extreme taboos as cannibalism) used to be found
only in ultraviolent films. More and more, however, those images are
appearing on television. Particularly for children and teens, these images

have an effect that can best be described as post-traumatic stress disorder.

The intense and disturbing images return unbidden and at times
obsessively since the children have little ability to process and overcome
(sublimate) the images.
• Passive Watching Syndrome

Excessive television watching of any sort has clear psychological and
physiological effects on children. It decreases children’s creativity and
imagination, decreases physical activity, increases obesity. The
consequences are lowered grades, decreased ability to handle stress and
conflict, and high levels of aggressive behaviour with peers.
• Advertising Manipulation
The effects of commercialism cannot be underestimated. Our children are
besieged with manipulative commercial messages day in an day out, on
TV. This creates a sense of chronic dissatisfaction in children who want
more of every new thing.
• Sex Manipulation
When adolescents are exposed to such repeated images and scenes they
may come to believe that what they see on television are realistic
portrayals of adult behaviour. Movies (many of them R-rated, and usually
available in theatres, on pay–TV channels, and in video rentals) contain
more frequent and more explicit portrayals of sexual behaviour than
broadcast T.V. As in TV, the most frequent sexual activity shown is
unmarried sexual intercourse.
This is often depicted in the context of profane language, alcohol and drug use, and
nudity. And sex is mixed with violence in an attempt to seek further commercial
success.
Soap operas as entertainment on T.V is another factor! The sexual behaviour
portrayed usually involves unmarried sexual intercourse and extended and
passionate kissing, with prostitution, rape, petting, and homosexuality occurring
more often. There is no discussion and portrayal of safe sex and use of
contraceptives here.
Music videos have become increasingly common, and many of the visual elements
are implicitly and explicitly sexual. Visual presentations of sexual activity are

SESSION 5
common, and a majority of music videos containing violence also contain sexual
imagery. Rap music is particularly explicit about both sex and violence.
What is the effect of easy and loose sex on our culture? Why are reports of rape –
even marital rape and wife-battering-on the increase? Read the papers and see.
Why is the divorce rate on the increase and why do people nowadays have more
sexual partners in their personal histories?
Write and explain 6 factors about television watching that can

impact negatively on your children.
5.4 Developing Alternatives to Television/Movies

Piaget has said “Play is the work of children”.
1. Allow children to generate their own play.
You do not have to entertain them all the time. You do not need to provide the
materials they need to stimulate play. Materials, however, should be basic to be
used for multiple purposes e.g. balls, rope, crayons, paper, etc.
A child absorbed in an activity of their own making can be quiet and will provide
parents with free time. Expect messiness, and expect children to clean up their
mess. Two children playing together are easier to manage than one child alone.
Encourage your children to play in multi-age groups. Young children need to learn
from older children. Help young people to fall in love with books.
2. Control Television Use
Take the TV out of the most comfortable room in the house and put it in a closet or
out of the way. Don’t put it in anyone’s bedroom (including your own).
Cover the TV set with cloth so that it is not staring at you and the children. When
you put it in the cabinet keep it closed.
Have rules for television watching and keep to them. Choose a programme to be
watched, then turn the TV off after it is over. Buy a padlock and put it through the
two holes and snap it shut.
Be aware of what the child is watching and preview new videos or shows and/or
watch it with the child

3. Try to Develop Young People to Think Independly

Until your child gets bored, he has no incentive to begin inventing amusements for
him/her. Offer them open ended activities, including hobbies e.g. bird-watching,
caring for animals, sewing, gardening, writing etc. These will help them produce
something that others can see and enjoy. It builds skills of self-evaluation,
decision-making, and goal-setting.
Let them focus on doing things beautifully and well. Try to reduce the idea of
competition and speed because most world-changing ideas take time to develop and
are developed independently. When they make a mistake in doing something, let
them re-do it, and ensure they do it well and beautifully. Model good behaviour
yourself.
In this session we have tried to explain the root of the word television.
We have described different kinds of media apart from television
open to youth. We have tried to explain how TV/movie viewing can have negative
effects on the young and suggested alternatives.
Exercise 3.5
1. Two basic challenges that face children, according to the UNICEF are -------
------- and -------------
2. The term for scenes by media that can make our teens more aggressive
impatient and fearful of the world is -------------
3. T.V watching can make children passive. This will have an impact on what?
4. In soap operas, safe sex and contraceptive use are never discussed. True or
False
5. What theory says imitation of an action will follow when an opportunity

presents itself?

SESSION 6
SESSION 6: THE IMPACT OF PORNOGRAPHY ON THE

ADOLESCENT
Hello, you are welcome to session 6 where we treat the issue of

adolescents and pornography. Pornography involves books,
magazines, videos, and devices and has moved from the periphery of society into
the manistream. It also includes the renting of videos, cassettes, sales of so-called
“soft-porn” magazines, and the airing of sexually explicit movies on TV and in film
theatres. Now get ready to learn more about the different types of “porn”, who the
victims are, methods used to trap adolescents, how porn is used, the effects of porn
on children and tips for parents to guide their children against this social canker.
Objectives
(a) explain what pornography is;
(b) state reasons why you would oppose pornography;
(c) enumerate types of pornography and explain how each operates;
(d) describe child pornography by identifying victims and exploiters and
how they work;
(e) point out effects of computer technology use in pornography;
(f) list way in which child porn is used; and
(h) show other methods of combating porn.
Now read on…
6.1 What is Pornography?

Pornography derives from the Greek word “pornographia” meaning
“writing about or drawings of harlots.” It is the representation of the
human body or human sexual behaviour with the goal of sexual arousal.
In America, a Commission set up to investigate pornography defined it as material

that
“is predominantly sexually explicit and intended primarily for the
purpose of sexual arousal”
Hard core pornography, they explained
“is sexually explicit in the extreme, and devoid of any other apparent
content or purpose.” (1986).

UNIT 3 THE IMPACT OF PORNOGRAPHY ON THE
Another term used for porn is obscenity
In other words, my friend, pornography is nothing but sexually oriented material

that is not considered acceptable to be viewed. It is something that depicts or
advocates the treatment of another human being as less than the son or daughter of
God, usually sexual or erotic in nature. It includes “swimsuit” photos as well as
nude photos. If we consider our bodies as temples then pornography advocates the
defiling of these temples.
Pornography is the depiction or representation of people, often in sexual acts, for

sexual arousal. It uses a variety of mediums and the development of the mass media
has increased the distribution of such material. Magazines and television have both
contributed to the accessibility of pornography, although the greatest development
to it has come from the development of the internet.
They are pictures, videos, and written material that openly show sexual situations
and causes sexual excitement. They often embody violence, coercion,
discrimination, force or brutality on women, men, children, or animals in sexual
acts, and represent them in a degrading position.
What if your child sees things like these? An adolescent child who is seeking for an
identity of his own? What effect will he/she experience: positive or negative?
Think about it my friend, and take action now! Opposition to pornography has
largely been for reasons of moral, religious or feminist concerns.
Write down 3 definitions of pornography. State 3 ways by which such
materials are obtained? Explain 2 reasons why you would oppose
pornography.
6.2 Types of Pornography

Pornography is of various types. Let me explain:
• The first type of pornography is adult magazines. They are primarily
directed toward an adult male audience – but what if children lay hands on
them? They include Playboy, Penthouse, etc and are readily available in
many adult bookstores.
• The second type of pornography is video cassettes/video CDs. These are
rented or sold in most bookstores or by the wayside and have become a

SESSION 6
growth industry. People who would never go into a bookstore or theatre to

watch a pornographic movie will obtain these CDs and video cassettes
through stores- wayside shops or in the mail and watch them in the privacy
of their homes. Usually these videos display a high degree of hard core
pornography and illegal acts.
• The third type of pornography is motion pictures. Rating standards are

being relaxed and many pornographic movies are being shown and
distributed carrying R (adult) ratings – and are considered obscene.
• A fourth type of pornography is television. As in motion pictures,
standards for commercial television have been continuously lowered.
Cable television however poses a greater threat. Whilst public access
stations are regulated, it is not the same with cable. Thus, many porn
movies are shown on cable television. Like video cassettes or CDs,
cable TV provides the average person with easy access to such materials.
People who would never go to an adult bookstore or buy from the
wayside can now view the same sexually explicit material in the privacy
of their homes because of cable T.V.
• A fifth type of pornography is cyberporn. Hard core pictures, movies,
online chat, and even live sex acts can be downloaded and viewed by
virtually anyone through the Internet. Sexually explicit images can be
found on web pages and in news groups and are far too easy for anyone
of any age to view. What was once only available to a small number of
people willing to drive to the bad side of town can now be viewed at any
time in the privacy of one’s home.
• A final type of pornography is audio porn. This includes “Dial-a-porn”
telephone calls and are the fastest growing market of pornography.
These businesses continue to thrive and are often used mostly by
children.
Are you frightened? Hmm! You will be. Listen to this: it is estimated
that 70% of the pornographic magazines sold, end up in the hands of
minors; and that about 1.2 million children are annually exploited in
commercial sex (child pornography and prostitution).
(a) Make a list of types of pornography.
(b) Explain how each operates.
6.3 Child Pornography

Child pornography is another kind to be concerned about. The Council of Europe

(1993) defines child pornography as
“any audiovisual material which uses children in sexual content”.
The International Criminal Police Organisation (INTERPOL” 1995) define child
pornography as
“the visual depiction of the sexual exploitation of a child, focusing on the
child’s sexual behaviour or genitals”
In these senses, therefore, child pornography refers to “sexually explicit

reproduction of a child’s image”.
6.3.1 Identifying the victims
Girls and boys of all ages, including infants, are used to produce pornography
around the world. Their numbers range from thousands to hundred thousands.
In most countries – including Ghana – street children, poor children, juveniles from
broken homes, and disabled minors are especially vulnerable. They are sexually
exploited and seduced or are being seduced or coerced into the production of the
material. These children, however, are not the only victims. Sex exploiters
frequently target neighbourhood children or those with whom they have contact
through their vocations or avocations. Additionally, pornographic activity is a
common part of life for teen prostitutes.
Yes! I said teen prostitutes. You heard me right! Finally, child victims may come
from homes where their own parents use them to create child pornography or where
their parents offer them to others for the same purpose.
6.3.2 Identifying the Exploiters

The exploiters come from the larger community – including the highly esteemed.
They seek occupations that bring them into habitual contact with children. They
are: producers (including photographers, publishers and creators of home videos),
middlemen (including procurers and parents), distributors, (including advertisers
and those who trade) as well as child pornography collectors. All these are included
in the category of exploiters.
The most significant exploiters are paedophliles. They particularly have sexual
attraction for prepubescent children, generally age 13 and under. They have a
disorder and need psychiatric diagnosis. They are adults with a sexual preference

SESSION 6
for individuals legally considered children. Some paedophiles are attracted to

children of the same sex, but majority of paedophiles are hetero sexual.
Another growing segment of producers and consumers are individuals who do not
necessarily have a sexual preference for children, but who have seen the gamut of
adult pornography and who are searching for more bizarre material.
Write in 3 sentences only to explain why you will scrutinise the

activities of any one who has something to do with your children.
(Teachers included!).
6.4 Computer Technology and Pornography

Computer technology has transformed the production of child pornography into a
sophisticated global village. Through the recent technological advances, computers
or computer equipment is used to record or transport child pornography. This can
be done through the use of digital cameras, flatbed scanners, video capture cards,
which all can be used to convert photograph, film or videotape to digital image file
format.
The pictures that are scanned and the video clips made can be captured into a
computer without any loss of quality either over time or when copies are made. It is
now possible to attach these images and video clips to e-mail text. Once an image
is introduced on the Internet, it can be downloaded by any number of users and can
be reproduced repeatedly without any loss of quality.
Images can now be altered by computer. For example, it is not difficult to add
objects to an image. One can also delete objects or parts of a photo. An individual
may superimpose a child’s face on an adult’s body, erase pubic hair or facial hair,
and reduce and minimize the breasts so as to make adult images look like children.
What if it is your picture or face that is used? Eh? Listen: it is possible to insert
digital images of a person into a video in which they have not appeared.
Supposing you have a penfriend abroad.
(a) Explain how he/she can send you his/her picture by internet.
(b) How will you be sure whether the picture/photo you receive is his/hers?
(c) Explain how you will get a hard copy (i.e. a printout) of the photo from
the computer.

So, my friend, sex exploiters have easy access to children via computer – especially
lonely and troubled teens – by tuning in to chat sessions, and making contact with
children. The technique they use to seduce the child into sexual activity is by
capitalizing on the child’s natural need for attention, affection and approval. A
number of these computer relationships end up with actual contact and sexual
activity with the teen.
(a) Explain in 3 sentences the tactics used by exploiters to

hire teens into pornography and sex.
(b) What advice will you be giving your children concerning
such sex exploitation?
6.5 Uses of Child Pornography

There are several reasons why individuals collect child pornography.
1. Arousal and gratification: Individuals use it to stimulate their sexual
drive and to aid in sexual stimulation. Some may only fantasise while
others may use it as a prelude to actual sex with minors or adults.
2. Validation and justification of paedophile behaviour:

The paedophile uses pornography to convince himself/herself that his
behaviour or obsession is not abnormal, but is shared by other sensitive,
intelligent and caring people.
3. To lower a child’s inhibitions: child abusers use pictures of other

children having sex to assist in the seduction of a child and encourage
reluctant children to freely participate. Images are often used as a way to
show a child what the offender wants the child victim to do.
Pornography may be used under the guise of “sex education” to create sexual
arousal in the child.
4. Blackmail: Sexually explicit images are used to ensure the lifelong
silence of the victimized child by threatening to show the pictures to
parents, peers or others. Child victims will not always report pictorial
records –even if they report sexual abuse – because they may be
ashamed of what happened to them as well as of their participation in the
pornography.

SESSION 6
5. A medium of exchange: Paedophiles use it as exchange with other

paedophiles as proof of their good intentions when establishing contact
with other exploiters.
6. Access: Some exploiters exchange pornography to gain access to other

markets and to other children.
7. Profit: Some child molesters sell home-made videos and photos on a

one-to-one basis. Some sell their self-produced materials to finance trips
overseas to popular sex tourist destinations.
In a sense then, child pornography does not merely involve the abuse of the
individual child victim, but used to perpetuate the sexual exploitation of other
children who have not been pornographically exploited. Furthermore, child
pornography serves to desensitise society and to send a message that children are
legitimate sex partners.
Explain in what ways child porn can be used by exploiters.
6.6 Effects of Pornography on Children

Porn has serious effects on children and adults. Psychologically it has been found
that even a brief exposure to violent forms of pornography can lead to antisocial
attitudes and behaviour. Male viewers tend to be more aggressive toward women
and less responsive to pain and suffering of rape victims. If you watch porn –
especially violent pornography – it can influence you to commit undesirables acts
such as rape and /or coerce people to have sex with you.
Continued exposure to porn has serious adverse effects on beliefs about sexuality in
general and on attitudes towards women in particular.
In the case of child pornography where a real child is video-taped or photographed,
there is always a victim. The distribution of that depiction repeats the vitimisation
over and over again, long after the original misdeed took place.
There are two ways in which children can be harmed.
1. Children who are exposed to pornography are in danger of being
desensitized and seduced into thinking that porn activity is “normal” for
children
2. Children’s learning experience and behaviour will be negative: they will
connect sex to exploitation, force, or violence.
The impact on the child victim who is exploited to produce porn is often serious.
They often experience symptoms including real physical illness, emotional
withdrawal, anti-social behaviour, mood swings, depression, fear and anxiety.
Children who are sexually abused or exploited are at high risk of becoming
perpetrators or abusers themselves. Those who have been photographed may take
drastic measures e.g. burning the house were the pictures are located or stealing
back the record of their exploitation. Some carry special shame about their
participation in pornography. It must however be emphasised that whether minors
agreed to sexual exploitations, profited from it, or enjoyed it, they are always the
victims of an unlawful and often destructive act.
(a) Youth who are sexually abused or sexually exploited

may run the risk of falling foul with the law. Explain.
(b) Look up the word “arson” in your dictionary.
In what way or ways can adolescent behaviour be linked with arson?
6.7 Steps to Combat Porn

First, parents must teach a wholesome, religious view of sex to their children.
Second, we must evaluate our exposure to media (Magazines, TV shows, rock
music) that has inappropriate sexual themes. Parents should set a positive example
for their children, and take time to discuss these stories/programmes and songs with
them.
Third, pastors/priests/Imams should warn their congregation’s about the dangers of

pornography and instruct them in the proper view of sexuality. Like Joseph in the
Old Testament, we should flee immorality which can entice us into sin. Messages
should also be given to build a strong Christian/Muslim home.
Fourth, parents/internet café’s should block cyberporn with software. There are
special software that can screen and block areas that children may try to investigate.
Parents should also try to be around their kids when they are on the Internet and ask
them questions about on-line computing. Extensive late night use may be an
indication of a problem.

SESSION 6
• Be open when discussing sex with your children. People raised in

families where sex is treated as taboo may be more susceptible to the
influences of sexually explicit media than those reared in homes where
sex is a permissible subject of conversation.
A warm and communicative parent-child relationship reduces sexual risk-taking.

Make sure your child gets sex-education. Use the internet or other media with your
child.
Put the computer in a public place in your home. If at all possible, do not let your
children have a computer with internet access in their room.
In this session we have explained what pornography is and pointed

out types and how they operate. We have identified victims and
exploiters in child porn and learnt uses of child porn. We have had a dose of
scriptural advice on how to combat porn as parents.
Exercise 3.6
1. Another terminology used for pornography is --------------
-------
2. The key objective for depicting people in sexual acts is ---------
3. INTERPOL is an abbreviation for what? ---------------------------
4. In child porn there are 3 types of exploiters. Name them
5. They are exploiters who have a preference for prepubescent children.

Who are they?



ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOUR ACTIVITIES AND UNIT 4
INTEREST
UNIT 4: ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOUR ACTIVITIES AND

INTEREST
Unit Outline
Session 1: Bases and outcomes of adolescent behaviour
Session 2: Psychological needs during adolescence
Session 3: Interests and activities: Nature and Social aspects
Session 4: Interests and activities: Personal aspects
Session 5: Attitudes, ideals and values
Session 6: Vocational interests and abilities
Hello, you are welcome to this unit. I am sure you had a nice time
learning the first three units of this module. If you did enjoy reading
them, why not congratulate yourself?
In the first three units you were introduced to the meaning, nature and scope of
adolescence, adolescents and their relations to others, and discipline and rebellion in
adolescence. In this unit, we shall focus our attention on adolescent behaviour,
activities and interests.
In order to get a better understanding of the issues involved in this topic, we shall
devote a considerable time to look at topics such as bases and outcomes of
adolescent behaviour and psychological needs during adolescence.
Other topics that would be looked at include; the social and personal aspects of
adolescents’ interests and activities, attitudes, ideals and values of adolescents, and
vocational interests and abilities of adolescents. Doesn’t it sound interesting and
fascinating to read about all these topics in this unit? The text is now for your
study.
Unit Objectives
1. explain the bases and outcomes of adolescent behaviour;
2. classify and categorize the psychological needs of adolescents;
3. explain the nature and social aspects of adolescents’ interests and
activities;
4. state and discuss the personal aspects of adolescents’ interests and
activities;
ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOUR ACTIVITIES AND
UNIT 4 INTEREST
5. appreciate the attitudes, ideals and values that adolescents’ hold in high
esteem; and
6. describe the vocational interests of adolescents in relation to their
abilities.

INTERESTS SESSION 1
SESSION 1: BASES AND OUTCOMES OF ADOLESCENT

BEHAVIOUR
My friend, you are welcome to this session. In this session, we will

be looking at the bases and outcomes of adolescent behaviour. The
session is in three parts. Part one covers adolescent behaviour viewed as a human
behaviour. This will be followed by the psychological bases of human behaviour in
relation to the adolescents’ mode of adjustment. The final part deals with habit as a
determinant of behaviour.
Objectives
(a) explain adolescents’ behaviour in the light of human behaviour;
(b) explain and appreciate the behaviour of adolescents as a result of their
psychological state; and
(c) explain the role that habits play in the behaviour adolescents put up.
Now read on…
1.1 Adolescent Behaviour Viewed as Human Behaviour

• When you are hungry how do you behave?
• When you are rewarded for a good work done how you do feel?
• As an adult, when someone offends you how do you react?
• When you lose something very dear to you how do you feel?
• When you set out to attain a goal and your efforts are thwarted, how do you
feel?
All the above situations when encountered by an individual makes him/her to put up
a certain type of behaviour. The particular type of behaviour exhibited by an
individual in any of the above situations must first of all be under stood as a human
behaviour and not peculiar to that individual or group of individuals. In the same
vain, the adolescent must first be seen as human before being classified as an
adolescent, and much of his/her behaviour is “human behaviour” rather than
“adolescent behaviour”. Adolescence is only a special case of human behaviour.”
Parents and all adults must always remember that an adolescent
undergoing an emotional upset is experiencing the same psychological
events as a person of any age who is emotionally upset. The adolescents’
reactions to frustration or to success may be expressed in terms of the same
psychological symbols. What is your view about the above statement?
UNIT 4
BASES AND OUT5COMES OF ADOLESCENT
SESSION 1 BEHAVIOUR
The adolescent differs in the kind of stimulus that may cause him/her joy or cause
him/her to be emotionally disturbed and frustrated, but the fact of emotional
disturbance or joy is a human rather than an exclusively adolescent phenomenon.
The adolescent may differ from an adult or younger child in the
specific course of action he/she will take following an emotional
disturbance. But the necessity of a course of action of some kind in
such a situation is human rather than an adolescent behavioural reaction.
List out some of the reactions that an adolescent will put in situations
like frustration, joy, emotional disturbance, and success that you
think may be different from what an adult will do for FTF
discussion.
1.2 Psychological Bases of Human Behaviour: Modes of

Adjustment
Human behaviour occurs either as a product of an interaction between an individual
and his/her environment or as a result of a psychological intra personal reaction.
Behaviour may be overt or convert, and in so far as it is covert, it may be observed
and interpreted by someone possessing the requisite knowledge and skill. However,
much that causes behaviour is unseen and often unrealized even by the person
displaying the behaviour. It is not uncommon for a person when confronted with
the underlying causes of his/her behaviour to vigorously deny them in all sincerity.
What is your position on the above statement? Write down your

reaction for FTF discussion.
As a first step in understanding human behaviour it may be assumed that every
manifestation of behaviour is goal-directed or at least symptomatic of an organism’s
striving towards a goal. The goals may or may not be known and accepted by the
individual, but this factor is unimportant. The importance rests in the existence of a
goal and in the struggles of the organism to attain it.
The speed, strength and persistence to approach a goal is determined by the strength
of the drive or motive to attain that goal. The greater the value that an individual
places upon the attainment of a given goal, the greater will be the strength and
persistence of the behavioural reaction.

INTERESTS SESSION 1
In adolescence for instance, peer approval and emancipation from adult authority
and controls are goals that are important to children. Consequently, the motivation
of most adolescents is such that greater deal of their behaviour is directed toward
the attainment of these goals.
The strength and persistence of goal-directed behaviour may fall into

one of two major categories. First, there are fundamental physiological
drives such as hunger, thirst, sex satisfaction, rest when tired, sleep etc.
In your opinion, which of these physiological drives is very strong in
adolescence? It might be difficult to generalize that a particular physiological drive
has greatest motivational strength or intensity. However, the consensus about the
relative intensity of the fundamental physiological drives seems to indicate that,
even among laboratory animals such intensity is a matter of individual differences
and of the environmental situation in which the drive must operate and the goal
appears. So far as human beings are concerned not only individual differences and
personality organization, but also cultural sanctions, mores, folkways and other
specific human factors influence the intensity of drives.
List four cultural sanctions that limit the strength and intensity of an
individual’s behaviour towards a goals in your area.
The second category is what may be called the elaborated drive. Shaffer as cited
by Chauhan (1987) discussed this category in terms of the “elaboration of drives
into motives”. He listed seven headings under this category: These are, subsistence
motives, motives derived chiefly from emotional tension, mastery motives, social
approval motives, conformity motives, sex motives and mixed motives.
As stated earlier in this session, every behaviour is goal-directed. In the course of
events, however, sometimes it becomes impossible to attain every goal striven for.
When progress toward a goal is slowed, impeded or made impossible, the goal is
said to be blocked, and as a result, the individual becomes frustrated. The origins of
a block may be environmental or it may occur within the individual. In the case of
the adolescent, environmental blocks may include; lack of money to do something
he/she wishes, forbidding of some desired act by parents or teachers, an obstacle of
time or of distance or the disapproval by the peer group. Blocks that originate
within the individual may be caused by a personal defect imagined or real that
prevents the adolescent from attempting or attaining his/her preferred goals.

UNIT 4
SESSION 1 BEHAVIOUR
If such state of affairs continues, an individual’s experience with previous

blockings may cause him/her to develop personablity difficulties, including
pronounced feelings of insecurity or inferiority which often prevents him/her from
attempting to attain his/her goals. From the point of view of human behaviour, an
individual selects his/her goals consciously or unconsciously; and the strength and
persistence of his/her efforts to attain them is an index of their importance to
him/her. If due to internal or external reasons, his/her goals are blocked, the
individual becomes frustrated and tries to attain his/her goals by other means or he
may seek substitute goals.
An adolescent who is frustrated because his/her goals are blocked will tend to
display aggressive behaviour, the amount and strength of the aggression being a
direct function of the amount of frustration. Aggressive behaviour is attack
behaviour in which an individual tries to do something to his/her environment in
order to attain his/her goals or find release from his/her tensions.
Like all other behaviours, aggression tends to be cumulative in its effects. An

individual who has attained his/her ends by aggressive behaviour or who has
grown into the habit of displaying such behaviour will tend to repeat it. There are
other varieties of aggressive responses to frustration which are called
defense mechanisms. These include; rationalization identification,
projection, and compensation. Let us now take each of these defense
mechanisms and explain them.
• Rationalization is giving socially approved or “face-saving” reasons for

one’s behaviour instead of the real reasons which would place the
individual in a poor light in his/her own eyes or in those of others. For
example, an adolescent who is not doing well in psychology may
rationalize by saying that psychology is of no use to him/her in his/her
future vocation. The implication here is that he/she could do well if he/she
wanted.
• Identification: This may preserve the individual’s security or protect
him/her from feeling of inferiority. Here the individual identifies
himself/herself with other people, group activities, or ideas which will add
to his/her prestige. For example, an adolescent will feel that his/her school
is the best school in town or his/her team is the best team in the league and
he/she will bask in their reflected glory.

INTERESTS SESSION 1
• Projection: This is a mechanism by which an individual feels that others

posses his/her faults or are operating with his/her motives. Adolescent who
customarily acts in a dishonest manner or whose motives are selfish will
tend to feel that others are acting in a similar manner or are actuated by the
same motives.
• Compensation: In psychological terms, compensation is a process of
counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other
arenas. By emphasizing and focusing on one’s strengths, a person is
recognizing that he/she cannot be strong at all things and in all areas in live.
For example, when a person says, “I may not know how to cook, but I am
sure I can do the dishes. In this case, the individual is trying to compensate
for the lack of cooking skills by emphasizing his/her cleaning skills instead.
When done appropriately and not in an attempt to over-compensate,
compensation is a defense mechanism that helps reinforce a person’s self-
esteem and self-image. That is great. Is it not?
Can you recall some instances in the past that you had any such
experience?
• Withdrawal: Another type of behaviour which follows frustration hand in

hand with aggression is withdrawal. When confronted by a block, a person
may withdraw and refuse to attempt to cope with or over come the blocks.
Psychologically, withdrawing behaviour is much more serious than
aggressive behaviour. An individual who withdraws tends to admit defeat,
and if continued blocking and frustration cause frequent withdrawing, a
habit of withdrawal may be built-up that will make it more difficult for
him/her to face reality and find answers to everyday life.
Look out for more defense mechanisms and list them for FTF.
1.3 Habit as a Determinant of Behaviour

Any understanding of the bases of human behaviour must of necessity include a
recognition of the importance of habit. Habit may be defined as the tendency of an
individual to react in a certain way when confronted by a stimulus. In considering
habit, there is an observe side of the coin. Habit is usually thought of in terms of
overt, positive performance. In reality, covert performance and the inhibition of
performance would also have to be included. For example an adolescent could be
said to have developed a habit of not responding.

UNIT 4
SESSION 1 BEHAVIOUR
The occurrence of a habit in adolescent or any human being for that matter is
dependent upon the situation. Various exterior aspects may for that situation
increase or decrease habit potential. The presence of a drive, either learned or
physiological, may increases or decrease the potential or strength of the habit for
that occurrence. For example, thirst may make a habit more likely to occur if it will
serve to reduce thirst or if it will lead to the general activity common to persons in
the first stages of thirst.
Habits presumably retain and even increase their strength and potential when
satisfaction follow their occurrence. Lack of satisfaction leads to decreased
strength and eventually to extinction of the habit. There are certain habits which are
characteristic of a cultural category of persons usually to be characteristic to a
“typical” member of that category as an adolescent. Here we have simply a special
case of a habit. It is still an individual matter, but its roots, sanctions and
impulsions may be sought in the culture.
Can you think of any such habits? List them for FTF.
Thus, the life of an adolescent is composed of many personal habits which are
his/hers as a unique individual. He/she possesses various additional habits known
as customs which, as a member of a culture and simultaneously of various
subcultures within that larger culture he/she shares with other persons. Habits and
cultures do not exist in isolation from one another. They are interrelated and
interact and influence each other both positively and negatively. One habit may
lead to, and facilitate the acquiring of another habit. Or may inhibit the potential of
an already existing habit by changing reward values, by causing it to operate only
with difficulty, or by decreasing its tendency. A new habit may change or alter an
existing habit.
The influence of habits extends even beyond the individual, as the habits and
customs of one individual, or their results influence those with whom he/she comes
in contact even as theirs in turn influence him/her. The action of habits and
customs is thus both an individual and a group matter.
By way of summary, we have seen that adolescent behaviour, must first of

been seen as a human behaviour and not only consigned to the adolescent
as a group or individual. We have seen further how goals that adolescents need to
attain generate tensions and the need for activity and the various ways in which

INTERESTS SESSION 1
these goals may be thwarted. The more common or usual ways of responding to
frustration are; by aggression, defense, or withdrawing have been discussed.
Finally, habit and customs were defined and their place as determinants of
behaviour explained.
Exercise 4.1
1. An adolescent who is undergoing an emotional upset is not experiencing the

same psychological events as any person.
True False
2. Human behaviour occurs as a product of ------------------------
a. Interaction between an individual and his/her environment
b. Interaction between an individual and his/her biological make-up
c. Interaction between an individual and his/her parents
3. Which type of behaviour can be observed and interpreted by persons with
requisite knowledge.
(a) Overt behaviour
(b) Covert behaviour
(c) Vicarious behaviour
4. What is the first step in understanding human behaviour?
(a) The assumption that every behaviour is goal-directed
(b) The speed, strength and persistence of behaviour is determined by the
drive or motive.
(c) Behaviour is directed by hunger, sex and thirst
5. What causes frustration?
(a) When progress toward a goal is slowed, impeded or made impossible to
achieve.
(b) When progress toward a goal is facilitated
(c) When progress toward a goal is rewarded.
6. What type of personality difficulty may arise if an individual is unable to attain
a goal because of personal defect, imagined or real?
(a) Pronounced feelings of insecurity or inferiority
(b) Pronounced deflated personality
(c) Pronounced inflated personality
UNIT 4
SESSION 1 BEHAVIOUR
7. ---------------- behaviour is attack behaviour in which an individual tries to do

something to his/her environment in order to attain his/her goals or release
tension.
a. Facilitative
b. Aggressive
c. Repulsive
8. ------------------ may be defined as the tendency of an individual to react in a
certain way when confronted by a stimulus.
a. Behaviour
b. Habit
c. Attitude
9. Habits and cultures exist in isolation from are another.

True False
10. One habit may lead to and facilitate the acquisition of another habit.
True False

INTERESTS SESSION 2
SESSION 2: PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS DURING ADOLESCENCE
In the first session we looked at the bases and outcomes of adolescent

behaviour. Specfic topics we looked at in that session were;
adolescent behaviour viewed as a human behaviour, psychological bases of human
behavior and habit as a determinant of behaviour.
I hope you were able to understand the issues raised in the session. That is good.
I wish to heartily welcome you to this session. In this session we shall discuss the
psychological needs during adolescence. We shall concentrate our efforts on topics
such as; definition of need, classification of needs, categories of psychological
needs, needs and the social context, and sex differences in the development of
needs.
Objectives
(a) define needs;
(b) identify and explain at least two groups or classification of needs;
(c) list and explain at least six psychological needs of adolescents; and
(d) list and discuss at least three sex differences in the development of
needs.
Now read on…
2.1 Definition of Need

According to Horrocks (1962) psychological need is an abstraction from a
classification of the observed directional aspects of behaviour. It is assumed that
the organization of any individual’s behaviour has evolved over the period of
his/her life upon two bases; the growth and development of inherent biological
structures and the process of learning. It is further assumed that a large part of
learning has been a process of socialization.
Need and the behaviour that follows it are viewed as having two
major characteristics; directionality and tension-reduction qualities.
Thus, every act of behaviour is conceived of as providing a tension
directed to the achievement of a goal, the successful attainment of which results in
need reduction. List two characteristics of need and behaviour that follows it.

UNIT 4 PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS DURING
2.2 Classification of Needs

Psychologists who over the past years have written on the subject of needs can be
classified into two groups – those who regard their postulated motivating factors as
innate or instinctual, and those who place no such restrictions on their postulations.
Some psychologists in the second have implied that motivating forces may not be
derived from the more basic physiological drives through learning in the culture.
Others did not specifically state that their constructs represent innate tendencies.
Adler, Freud, Cattell and McDougall belong to the innate forces or drive category.
Among the psychologists who do not characterize motivational factors in behaviour

are Dewey, and Angell. They recognized the necessity of a motivational view of
behaviour.
Thomas, Lewin, Allport, Murray, Frankel-Brunswil and Tolman were more specific
about postulating motivational constructs and defining them.
Maslow (1946) proposes five levels of needs. The order of needs starts from basic
survival or lower order needs to higher order needs. The hierarchy is as follows:
5 Self actualization need

4 Esteem needs
3 Belongingness and love needs
2 Safety needs
1 Physiological need
The hierarchical structure of needs may be diagrammed as in figure 1.
Self-ac
tualization
Self-esteem
Belong
ing-ness & love
Safety needs
Physiological need
Fig 1

INTERESTS SESSION 2
List any physiological needs for FTF.
2.3 Categories of Psychological Needs

A classification of the major needs categories discussed in educational and
psychological literature reveals twelve relatively distinct categories of
psychological needs. These categories are discussed below.
i. Acceptance: The need to feel that others’ attitudes toward one are
favourable or positive. To feel that others respect, sanction or approve of
one. To be secure in the feeling that one is a worthy person in another’s
eyes. To feel that others regard one as equal. To feel that one is not
rejected.
ii. Achievement: The need to acquire, gain, receive win, or strive to
accomplish goals, token of status and respect, or knowledge. To attain,
secure, prove, surmount through praise worthy exertion.
iii. Affection: The need to be loved, cherished emotionally wanted for one’s
own sake; to receive unconditional love and affection. To receive
emotional love from parents, relatives, friends or lover.
iv. Approval: The need to have others’ behaviour toward one indicate that
one is a satisfactory person, or that one’s deeds are satisfactory. To seek
overt rewards or other signs of approval. To be given overt demonstration
by others of one’s worthiness. To avoid blame, criticism, and punishment.
v. Belonging: The need to feel a part of a group or institution. To identify
oneself with a person, group, institution or ideas. To be a member of a
congenial group
vi. Conformity. The need to be like others, to avoid marked departure from
the mode. To yield or conform to custom. To avoid being different in
dress, behaviour, attitudes, ideals.
vii. Dependence: The need to have to ask for or depend on others for
emotional support, protection care, encouragement, forgiveness, help etc.
viii. Independence: The need to be free of external control by friends, family,
associates, and others. To do things in a self-determing manner, to make
one’s decisions, to be self-sufficient, to rely on oneself.
ix. Mastery-dominance: The need to control, to be in power, to lead, to
manage, govern, overcome people problems, obstacles. To influence the
behaviour, feelings or ideas of others.

x. Recognition: The need to be noticed, to be known. To avoid effacement of

one’s individuality. To be identified by others as a unique individual, to be
regarded as an important human being.
xi. Self-realisation: The need to function at one’s ability level. To learn,
understand; perform to the best of one’s ability, to avoid performing at a
mediocre level. To strive for increasingly better accomplishment within the
limits of one’s capacity.
xii. To be understood: The need to feel in sympathetic rapport with parents,
relatives, friends, associates. To feel at one with others. To feel free to
express one’s inner most thoughts and problems to one or more persons
without loss of affection or personal status. To feel that another identifies
with oneself.
2.4 Needs and Social Context

Every individual’s behaviour occurs within the reference frames of a multitude of
different environmental complexes. In considering the needs of adolescents it must
be remembered that most needs operate within a social context. Behaviour may
differ but little or it may differ radically from situation to situation. The demands of
a hetero-sexual situation on any adolescent may be quite different from the demands
of a homosexual situation. The social environmental settings in which adolescent
needs manifest themselves are eight in number. These are; unisex peer groups,
heterosexual peer groups, Unisex pairs, heterosexual pairs, the family, the school,
adults in the community and the self. To understand the need status of any given
adolescent it would be well to observe the operation of the need in as any of the
foregoing eight situations as possible.
Do you know any other social settings in which adolescent needs

manifest themselves? List them for FTF.
2.5 Sex Differences in the Development of Needs

There are some interesting sex differences as well as similarities in the expression of
needs during adolescence. Girls as they grow older display less interest in group
membership than do boys. They are more anxious to maintain a favourable
personal status in the groups they respect or wish to join.
In their group relationships girls appear more egocentric than do boys and more apt
to use the group for purposes of personal aggrandizement. Girls express a wider
range of emotional needs to peer relationships than do boys, and girls express a
stronger need for conformity that at times borders on dependence.
INTERESTS SESSION 2
In contrast to girls, boys display more interest in groups for organization than for
personal aggrandisement reasons. Most girls like to see themselves as integral
members of a group, but a great deal of their interest consists in maintaining the
group’s identity and in carrying out its activities. While in social matters boys
conform less than girls, they do like to be proper, correct, and adept. It is a rare boy
who does not actively try to avoid being the object of blame and who does not seek
to become the special recipient of approval.
Girls visualise the group as important for the prestige and for the personal security
and oneness it brings; boys value the group for participative purposes. Boys
appear to need to make a display of proficiency and are more tolerant of criticism
in matters where their proficiency is called into action.
Among older adolescents of both sexes, (ages 16 through 19 for girls, from age 17
for boys) there is an especially strong need to play self assertive roles characteristic
of adults; to assume increasingly adequate relationships both with the opposite sex
and with adults, and to display competence and effectiveness in activities of most
personal concern such as dancing, and occupational endeavour.
By way of summary, we looked at the definition of need. We
indicated that need and behaviour that follows it have two major
characteristic; directionality and tension-reduction qualities. We also looked at the
classification of needs we focused our attention on Maslow’s need hierarchy. We
indicated that physiological needs in Maslow’s view are the lowest whilst self-
actualization is the highest human need. In this session too, discussed categories of
psychological needs and sex differences in the development of needs.
Exercise 4.2
1. One of the following is a major characteristic of need and the
behaviour that follows it.
(a) Reduction in tension
(b) Increase in tension
(c) Facilitate tension

2. ------------------ proposed five levels of need.

(a) Allport
(b) Frankel – Brunswik
(c) Maslow
3. -------------------- do not characterize motivational factors in behaviour
(a) Deway and Angell
(b) Adler and Freud
(c) Cattell and McDougall
4. Which is the highest in Maslow’s hierarchical of needs?
(a) Physiological needs
(b) Self-esteem
(c) Self-actualization
5. --------------------- is the need to acquire, gain, receive or strive to accomplish goals.
(a) Acceptance
(b) Achievement
(c) Approval
6. ---------------------- is the need to feel a part of a group or institution
(a) Affection
(b) Belonging
(c) Conformity
7. ----------------------- is the need to control, to be in power, to lead, to overcome

people and problems.
(a) Independence
(b) Mastery – dominance
(c) Dependence

INTERESTS SESSION 3
SESSION 3: INTERESTS AND ACTIVITIES: NATURE AND

SOCIAL ASPECTS
You are welcome to this session. In the previous session we focused

our attention on psychological needs during adolescence. In this
session, we shall be looking at the nature and social aspects of adolescent interest
and activities. In our discussion of the above topic, we shall focus our attention on;
the nature and importance of interest as a motivating factor in human activity. The
discussion will also include; characteristics of adolescent interest, differences in
interest, and interest as represented by group activity.
Objectives
(a) explain the nature of adolescent interest;
(b) explain the importance of interest as a motivating factor in
human activity;
(c) list and explain at least three characteristics of adolescent interest and;
(d) state and discuss at least four factors that account for differences in
interests during adolescence.
Now read on…
3.1 The Nature and Importance of Interest as a Motivating Factor

in Human Activity
In your view, what is interest?
Interest means to show a difference in terms of preference. It describes why an
organism tends to favour some situations and thus comes to react to them in a very
selective manner. Interest and attention are closely related. Interest plays an
important role in the development of behaviour and personality. Interest is any
activity that drives or motivates the individual for action.
The most effective way to motivation and control of a person’s behaviour lies in the
things that interest him/her.
What is your view about the above statement?

UNIT 4 INTERESTS AND ACTIVITIES: NATURE AND
SESSION 3 SOCIAL ASPECTS
List out your views for FTF.
However, the study of interests is complicated by the fact that the specific
expression of the interests of individuals vary so much from year to year and from
community to community and are so much affected by individual differences and
problems of interest media, including economic factors.
For instance, what interests an individual living along the coast may not
interest an individual living in the forest area or in the savannah area.
Similarly, what is true in 1990 is surprisingly different from what was true
in 1980 or will be true in 2000. The manifestation of an interest is a passing thing
varying with the times, but the psychological elements underlying the interest
remain.
In considering interests, there are two aspects that must be taken into account. First,
what interest does an individual of a given status generally have? Second, what does
he/she do, or fail to do about that interest?
In psychology, the term “interest” is generally defined in positive terms.

One is interested in those things which give pleasure or satisfaction, which
compel and hold attention, or which offer a welcome challenge. Interest
may be thought of in goal-drive and tension-reduction terms. Some objects, activities
or sensations appear to have a positive valence for some individuals. In effect the
stronger the attraction, the greater the interest.
The individual’s opportunity to do something about his/her interests is a function of

his/her environment, his/her abilities, status, cultural relationships, the roles in life
which he/she habitually plays, his/her inhibitions, the time in history during which
he/she lives, and the actual amount of interest drive he/she has. Some adolescents
are interested in games, but do not know how to play games. They may be unable to
participate because they are isolated from other children by physical distance, or by
barriers of race, religion, or social rejection or some other basis.
An individual who would like to participate in a game such as soccer, but lacks the
skill will refuse to participate because he/she is afraid of being laughed at or
ridiculed. Lack of money or of intellectual capacity as well as parental objection are
all obvious reasons why an individual will refrain from doing things which interests
him/her.
INTERESTS SESSION 3
There is also the question of success. Some adolescents have failed so often when
they have attempted to do things that they have accepted the habit of refusing to
participate.
List out other things that you think can serve as a hindrance to an
adolescent’s participation in activities for FTF.
Interests, apart from certain fundamental physical drives which soon become
culturally conditioned in any event, are not innate. One is not congenitally
interested in anything, one is interested because the immediate environment and
one’s experiences and cultural milieu have one’s engendered interests. Larcebeau
S. (1979) indicates that it is difficult to separate interests from needs, attitudes and
motivation.
General and specific abilities will enable an individual to derive certain

satisfaction or success experiences from some kinds of activities, but this
merely means that one is able to make the most of one’s environment
because of physical structure. It is important to realize the place of opportunity in
interest formation. People with specific interests have them because they have had
an opportunity to develop them. An individual cannot be expected to be interested
in something that individual has neither seen nor hear about.
3.2 Characteristics of Adolescents’ Interest

(i) Instability: In early adolescence, boys and girls have a variety of interests.
Everything which is new draws their attention. For example, “aposkeleke”
and “Otto Fister” which are modes of dressing have caught up well with
most girls and boys in Ghana in recent times.
List out the new things that you think can attract the attention of
adolescents for FTF.
By the end of adolescence interest stabilizes. The individual is able to concentrate

on selected interests.
(ii) Interest in adolescence expands: Many of the childhood interests are carried
over and some new ones emerge. The field of interests expands with the
development of intellectual and social development. Adolescent starts taking

interest in national and international affairs. With the advancing age, by the
end of adolescence, the interests become stable and specialised.
(iii) Interests of adolescents shift in value: Another characteristic of adolescent

interest is the shift in values of different interests. The major interests of
childhood may become minor and some new interests may become major
interests.
3.3 Differences in Interests

Interests are highly individual actions. The variations in the interests are
influenced by a number of factors. These factors are discussed below:
(i) Physical Development: Physical development is very important in

deciding the development of interest. If the adolescent is physically sound
and strong, he/she can participate in those sports and games which require
strength. But if the adolescent is physically handicapped, then his/her
interests will be confined to different kinds of activities, mostly indoor.
(ii) Sex differences: There is a great difference between the interests of

adolescent boys and girls. The difference may be attributed to the
physiological differences and cultural influences. Girls participate in those
games and sports which need less vigor. Boys like competitive games of
muscular dexterity.
The differences among the play interests of boys and girls are not only
caused by sex differences, but by cultural conditions, educational level and
environmental conditions are also important factors.
(iii) Environment: Environment plays an important role in deciding the interests
of adolescents. It influences in giving the opportunity to come into contact
with various items of interests. The geographical conditions, climatic
conditions influence the interests of adolescents. There is a great difference
in the interests of boys and girls from rural and urban areas. Culture also
influences the interests of adolescents.
(iv) Socio-economic status: Socio-economic conditions of the family also plays
an important role in deciding the interests of adolescents. Adolescents
belonging to lower socio-economic condition remain busy in the world.

INTERESTS SESSION 3
They do not have money to purchase articles of games or books, magazines

etc. Woody noted that the play activities of children from schools with
“contrasting environments” exhibited specific differences. Children of

lower socio-economic status resisted changing patterns of play behaviour
while upper-level socio-economic children were more eager to adopt adult
forms of behaviour.
(v) Intellectual differences: A number of studies have investigated children’s
activities in relation to their level of intellectual capacity. In such studies
which usually relate intelligence of children to their hobbies, extra curricular
activities in schools and out-of-school activities several trends appear:
(a) Children with higher Intelligence Quotient (1Q) tend to have a wider range
of hobby interests and to be more mature in their interest than do children of
lesser intelligence.
(b) Children who participate in extra curricular activities are of higher average
intelligence than are non-participants.
(c) Extracurricular activities emphasizing social activities tend to attract a lower

1.Q group while activities such as drama and school publications draw the
children of higher 1.Q.
Lehaman and Witty (1927) conducted a survey of interest in play activities as

shown by gifted and dull adolescents. They concluded that gifted adolescents
participate in solitary types of play. They prefer games which involve rules and
well organized system. They do not like those activities which require muscular
strength but on the other hand they like problem solving activities. Dull boys
participate in social games requiring muscular strength.
Can you think of any differences? List them for FTF.
3.4 Interests as Represented by Group Activity

Group activities among adolescents are highly cherished. However, informal
groups play a much more important part in the life of the adolescent than do
formally orgainsed groups. Informal groups may be thought of as a focal area of
experience in the process of coming of age. The activities participated in by the
members of such informal groups may be seen as a way of examining adolescent

interests. Such and examination may be made with particular reference to those
attitudes and activities which contrast one group to another as well as to the
commonalities which bind them all together as part of the larger adolescent peer
society.
Phelps and Horrocks (1958) in a study of the activities of informal adolescent
groups in Midwestern town in the USA were able to categorize the informal groups
that existed in the community on the basis of a list of nine different factors. That is,
it was found that each informal grouping of adolescents in the community focused
its interests and had its reason for being in one specific constellation of attitudes and
interests that set it off from other groups. The kinds of groups identified were as
follows:
(a) A group exhibiting a pattern of pressures leading to assumption of the adult
role, emancipation from home, and assumption of heterosexual interests.
None of the activities interesting to this grouping of children were home
centred or home influenced to any degree. Associated with their extra-home
interests appeared a need ranging about and going some distance from the
community for social participation. Most of the children in this type of
grouping were older adolescents of lower socio-economic status and of
average intelligence or less.
(b) A grouping governed by a pattern of pressures assuming the form of a moral
code approved by the school and upper socio-economic home: The children
in this grouping were younger adolescents from younger socio-economic
homes. They disapproved of behaviour and attitudes generally considered
to be socially unacceptable and exhibited a moralistic point of view which
seemed to indicate a need to conform to certain social standards.
(c) A none emancipated group exhibiting home, school and community centred
activity patterns: Children in this type of grouping were younger adolescents
and usually were all-girl groups. Ordinarily the groups would consist of
seven or more persons, all of middle-class socio-economic status. Most of
their activities were ones which would generally, be approved by parents
and teachers. Of particular interest were activities relating to school life
such as going to school affairs, studying together, going to the library, and
assemblies.
(d) A group exhibiting a pattern of activities and values deriving from a very
low socio-economic status: Children in groupings of this type lived in the
poorest housing section of the city. They liked to form their groups from

INTERESTS SESSION 3
people who lived in their neighbourhood and were about the same age.
Physical strength was seen as important to them.
(e) A group exhibiting a pattern of pressures leading to the assumption of an
upper socio-economic quasi-adult social role: Such groupings were usually
large and consisted of middle and upper-class boys and girls of above
average intelligence from better houses. Many of their activities depended
(f) upon being a member of a family in average or better socio-economic

circumstances. This grouping exhibited a need on the part of the members
to satisfy heterosexual interests and to participate in activities away from
home.
(g) Grouping showing pressures toward social conformity manifested by a
concern for good appearances and rejection of a noisy “show off” type of
behaviour: Adolescents in such groupings rejected persons who want to quit
school, smoke, and too noisy etc.
Good clothing and manners were essential, good looks were very important,
members like school and have jobs after school and they did not disagree among
themselves.
(h) Grouping exhibiting patterns of pressures and needs involved in playing a
muscular role: Favourite activities were football, basketball, swimming,
tennis, wresting fishing and hunting etc. Most members were boys but there
was a 50-50 chance that any such group would contain some girls.
(i) Groups characterized by a pattern of pressures resulting from adult
domination and lack of emancipation from the home: Grouping of this type
consisted of persons who strive to please parents and teachers. Group
members wanted their friends to be good friends, plan on going to college,
to stay out of trouble with teachers and to mind their parents.
(j) Groups manifesting need for approval and status growing out of pressures
applied by the middle-class family:
Groupings of this type were mostly middle-class older girls whose need for
approval and status found its expression in maintaining the very best of
appearances, having good intentions, associating with the right people and
avoiding activities which might mark one as uncouth or unlady - like person.
In discussing their findings, Phelps and Horrocks note that the same activity may
have different meanings to different adolescents and hence may represent different
interests and attitudes, depending upon the needs of the participant.
In trying to understand adolescent behaviour, one most important key

is a knowledge and appreciation of their activities and interests. In
considering adolescent interests, we noticed that individuals vary, but similarities
do exists; deviations from group preferences are often significant. We noticed that
in psychology, interest is best defined positively in terms of goal drive and tension
reduction. Activity is in part a result of interest; but the natures and the direction of
the activity is a function of the environment which may inhibit activity even where
strong drives and interests exist.
We also saw that interest is itself directly dependent upon the environment and
upon cultural factors, both for its inception and its sustenance. Thus, interest is
environmentally or biologically engendered and may not be thought of as being
innate.
We realised in a survey of interests and activity that certain general patterns and
differences based upon age, sex, geography, socio-economic background and time
in history exist. In the text it was revealed that informal groups play a significant
role in adolescent group activity. Informal groups can be put into categories under
which such groups may be identified, each category representing a constellation of
attitudes and activities which govern the group’s behaviour.
Exercise 4.3
1. Interests are not highly an individual’s actions.
True False
2. What is interest closely related to?
(a) Perception
(b) Attention
(c) Motivation
3. The manifestation of an interest is a passing thing varying with the times.
What elements underlying interests however remain?
(a) Physical elements
(b) Social elements
(c) Psychological elements
4. One of the following is not a function of an individual’s opportunity to do
something about his/her interest.
(a) His/her environment
INTERESTS SESSION 3
(b) His/her status

(c) His/her friends
5. Individuals are congenitally interested in anything.
True False
6. According to Larcebeau it is difficult to separate interests from needs,
attitudes and motivation.
True False
7. The environment does not play an important role in deciding interests of
individuals.
True False
8. Formally organized groups play a much more important part in the life of
the adolescent than do informally organized groups do.
True False
9. In considering interests, there are two aspects that must be taken into
account. List these two aspects.
i.……………………………………………………………………………
ii……………………………………………………………………………
10. Success does not facilitate interest

True False



INTERESTS SESSION 4
SESSION 4: INTERESTS AND ACTIVITIES: PERSONAL

ASPECTS
You are welcome to this session of unit 4. I am looking forward to

having a very fruitful interaction with you in this session. In the last
session we discussed the social aspects of adolescents’ interests and activities. In
this session we shall shift our attention to the personal aspects of adolescents’
interest and activities. We shall limit ourselves to the following areas of the topic.
• Overview of adolescent personal interests

• Problems of adolescents
• Adolescents’ “wishes”
• Sexual behaviour, sex education and adolescents
• Solitary activities of adolescents
Objectives
(a) state at least four wishes of adolescents;
(b) explain briefly four problems of adolescents; and
(c) outline and explain at least five sources that provide
knowledge about sex to adolescents.
Now read on…
4.1 Oview of Adolescents’ Personal Interests

Adolescents are more interested in show off than any other thing. They want to
attract the attention of others by their muscular body and facial beauty, attractive
clothes, hair “dos” and their gait.
Social success in adolescence depends on physical appearance. The areas of
personal appearance are the body size, hair style, face and nails in girls.
Adolescents take interest in developing their body size according to the standard of
the culture they live in. He/she dresses his/her hair in new styles and makes use of
cosmetics to beautify his/her face.
Interest in clothes also becomes prominent in the life of the adolescent. The
adolescent wants to wear bright coloured and new style clothes. The adolescent girl
who wears extreme fashionable dresses draws more attention of people, particularly
UNIT 4 INTERESTS AND ACTIVITIES: PERSONAL
SESSION 4 ASPECTS
young men and arouses feelings of admiration and envy on the part of other girls or
boys. For instance adolescents in Ghana today, appreciate wearing dresses that are
described as “aposkeleke” and “I am aware”. They feel that “aposkeleke” and “I am
aware” are the type of dresses that are appealing to the men around and thus make
them attractive.
Similarly, the adolescent or young boy also prefers wearing what they call “otto
fister” because this type of dressing singles them out for admiration from the young
ladies around. Adolescents learn from their experiences in society that clothes are a
major factor to make or mar ones future.
Adolescents are also interested and conscious of physical health and its importance
in society. They know the value and influence of good health on their general well-
being in the society. They become interested to know how to avoid diseases and
how to develop good health.
4.2 Problems of Adolescents

Any period of change is likely to be accompanied by many potential difficulties.
Adolescence is a period of transition from childhood which implies many
developmental changes. Hall as cited by Chauhan (1978) described adolescence as
a period of strain and stress fraught with many problems.
Other psychologists have, however, laid emphasis on the cultural conditions as the
causes of problems in adolescence.
What is your view about the source of adolescents’ problems? List

your points for FTF.
Laycock, S.R as cited by Chauhan grouped the problems of adolescents under the
following major tasks:
(i) adjustment in home, school, society and to opposite sex
(ii) freedom from home
(iii) adjustment in suitable vocation
(iv) developing a sound philosophy of life.
Charlotte Pope in an extensive study of the problems of adolescent boys and girls
reported the following areas of problems.
(i) Teaching-Learning relationship in school.
154 CoDEUCC/ Post-Diploma in Basic Education

INTERESTS SESSION 4
Most of the adolescents face a great problem in adjustment with teachers.

Some teachers are rigid, conservative and do not change their attitude.
Some adolescents reported the problem of showing favour by their teachers
to some students.
(ii) Occupational adjustment: The greatest single problem which bothers the
mind of adolescent boys in most parts of the world in vocation. The
problem of what will I do after study? haunts the mind of adolescent boys.
The problem becomes even more haunting when the adolescent boy sees that
many adolescents are unemployed.
(iii) Financial Problem: There are many activities of adolescents which
involve money. They feel ashamed of begging for money from parents.
Parents are conservative in providing money for extra activities to their sons
and daughters.
(iv) Home life relationship and social adjustment. Adolescents want more
freedom to attend social functions but parents do not permit them to move
out side the home. This is particularly in the case of girls in rural areas.
Second, in importance is parents’ high aspiration regarding achievement of
their sons and daughters and when they do not come up to this aspiration,
there is constant quarreling among parents and adolescents. Sometimes
these quarrels result in dire consequences.
(v) Health adjustment. Physical health is a very important factor for adequate
societal adjustment. Both boys and girls are very particular regarding their
physical appearance.
Those adolescents who are either under-developed or over developed have great
problem in adjustment.
4.3 Adolescents’ “Wishes”

It is a common occurrence of daily life to hope for wishes to “come true”. But for
this to happen there must be either an actual effort on the part of the wish or a
combination of more or less by chance that make possible the fulfillment of the
wish. Washburne as cited by Horrocks summarized the probable genesis of a wish
as follows:
(i) “somatic or environmental stimuli that gives rise attention, this in turn gives
rise to;
(ii) an impulsion toward that to which attention is directed, and

SESSION 4 ASPECTS
(iii) almost simultaneously other impulsions arise (due to a shift of attention to

other aspects of the situation, imaginative projections, a concept of
consequences, recall etc).
(iv) from among these, one is selected and acted upon or
(v) perceived as a resolution or a wish, depending upon the probability or
remoteness of success”.
This, according to Washburne, wishes are an index of attitudes or directions of

impulsions.
The kinds of things adolescents wish for are varied. The most popular wishes
during adolescence however, are those things which promote personal adequacy
such as skills in school or athletics, happiness and health, and for those things
which have display or prestige-building value such as wealth, automobile, clothes
and in recent times mobile phones.
Family welfare ranks high on the list, but for the most part, the welfare or good
adjustment of others or service functions, appear to be comparatively unpopular as
wishes.
In order to get a clearer understanding of wishes, one needs to look behind the wish
and decide on the nature of the motivating factors that are promoting it. These
motivating factors include both primary drives, such as hunger, sex, fatigue and
secondary drives like curiosity, gregariousness, self-assertion, self-abasement and
imitativeness. The above drives are, of course, present in human beings in general.
With wishes, as the concrete activities, characteristic sex and age differences appear
during adolescence. Spear as cited by Horrocks found that girls expressed a greater
desire “to have things” and had more “personal” wishes than did their older brothers
and sisters.
Washburne as cited by Horrocks (1941) in a study found that wishes are closely
related to age and tend to change with increase image. He noted as a corollary that
the effect of wishes on increases in mental age was parallel to the effect of increases
in chronological age. He explained that wishes for adventure and play drop with
boys after the age of thirteen years whilst in girls wishes for adventurous activities
are apparently seldom popular at any age. Wishes for success increases with age for
both sexes, but with a reversal of comparative position at ten and at seventeen. At
ten years of age, girls are more apt than boys to wish for success while at seventeen
boys forge ahead and are much more apt to list success as one of their wishes than
are girls. This reversal of position, with the stabilizing of girls wishes for success
INTERESTS SESSION 4
after fourteen, is probably a cultural-economic function. For boys, involvement in

the world of work is usually the only possibility of survival, while for girls marriage
tends to be the important thing and it is probable that they do not check their
marriage aspirations under the category “success”.
At all ages, girls’ wishes for others (social wishes) are in advance of boys’ although
both sexes show increases with age. The kinds of wishes expressed by an individual
appear to be in part a function of his/her social adjustment. In general, better
adjusted adolescents, in contrast to those who are socially maladjusted, tend to be
willing to make wishes whose outcome might involve some sustained effort on their
part and exhibit some recognition of the other person’s rights and privileges.
Washburne differentiates the two by citing the characteristics which appear to be
indicated by the wishes of well adjusted groups as;
(i) social or friendly impulsions,
(ii) high standards, idealism, sensitivity
(iii) interest in achievement involving sustained effort,
(iv) co-operativeness,
(v) a desire for peace, quiet and time to work
(vi) an appreciation of primary values,
(vii) self-criticism, and
(viii) consciousness of well defined remote goals.
The characteristics which appear to be indicated by the maladjusted group he

summarized as;
(i) a social or ugly impulsions
(ii) low standards
(iii) lack of effort
(iv) flippancy
(v) lack of co-operation
(vi) suspicion and resistance
(vii) superficial or secondary drives
(viii) desire for thrills, excitement, and change
(ix) awareness of maladjustment, unhappiness, lack of self control
(x) contradictory desires, lack of balance
(xi) vague, undefined desires
(xii) lack of self criticism, and
(xiii) romanticism, sentimentality

SESSION 4 ASPECTS
Horrocks and Flory (1983) in a developmental study of wishes reported that;

(i) socio-economic factors influence wishes are more than chronological age,
(ii) wishes are related to specific experiences one has encountered in his/her
environment
(iii) environmental conditions are important in shaping any given individual’s
wishes;
(iv) and mature students’ wishes are more general and altruistic than immature
students’ wishes.
It goes without saying that a knowledge of individual’s wishes may be an important
factor in guiding his/her adjustment. Not only does the presence of a given wish or
desire offer the opportunity to use its fulfillment as a motivating device or an
incentive, but recognition of it may promote understanding of any given
individual.
4.4 Sexual Behaviour Sex Education and the Adolescent

Many adolescents first experience sexuality in masturbation, and or self-stimulation
of the genitals. Teenage boys are more likely than girls to masturbate and to begin
masturbating at a younger age (Hyde, 1993). From masturbation, sex progresses to
kissing, romancing and intercourse. Although most boys and girls have sex at some
point during adolescence, sexual activity has very different meanings for boys and
girls (Brooks-Gunn & Paikoff 1993).
Girls tend to describe their first sexual partner as “someone they love” but boys
describe their first partner as a “casual date”.
Girls report stronger feeling of love for their first sexual partner than for a later
partner, but boys don’t. Girls have mixed feelings after their first sexual experience
– fear & guilt mixed with happiness and excitement whereas boys’ feelings are
more uniformly positive.
Generally, for boys sexual behaviour is viewed as recreational and self-oriented; for
girls, sexual behaviour is viewed as romantic and is interpreted through their
capacity to form intimate interpersonal relationship (Sternberg, 1999).
In your opinion why are some adolescents sexually active whereas

others are not? List your views for FTF.

INTERESTS SESSION 4
A number of factors may account for the reasons why some adolescents are
sexually active whereas others are not. One key factor is parents’ and peers
attitudes toward sex play. In a study of high school students, Trebaix Busch-
Rossnagel (1990) found out that positive attitudes toward sex by parents and
friends were associated with students’ positive attitudes, which in turn, were
associated with more frequent and more intense sexual behaviour. In another study
of junior high and high school students, Diblasio & Benda, (1990) found out that
sexually active adolescents believed that their friends were also sexually active.
They thought the rewards of sex, eg emotional and physical closeness out weighed
the costs eg. guilt and fear of pregnancy or disease. Thus, sexual activity reflects
the influence of parents and peers as well as an individual’s beliefs and values.
As adolescents explore their interests in sexual activities, they come to know about
sex and its problems. Surveys made by Ramsey and Hamulton as cited by Chauhan
(1987) proved that children cannot be kept ignorant of sex knowledge. The
following are the important sources which provide sex knowledge to children;
(i) friends
(ii) literature
(iii) old people
(iv) movies
(v) drawings
(vi) reproduction in animal life
(vii) physiological development
List any other sources that you think provide children knowledge about
sex for FTF.
These sources and a number of other sources are responsible for providing
adolescents knowledge of sex. The knowledge which is received from these sources
is sometimes injurious to mental and physical health of adolescents.
Many boys and girls suffer from veneral diseases because of their wrong
information about sex and lack of proper guidance. The society has hitherto blamed
this phenomenon on the school that fails to provide sex education in the school
curriculum. The school on the other hand attributes causes of sexual and moral
laxity to parents whose moral duty is to impart sex education to their children and
wards tend to do nothing about it. To avert this situation professionals such as
teachers, psychologists, social workers and other well meaning individuals have
called for the introduction of sex education to children and adolescents.
SESSION 4 ASPECTS
Discussing the purpose of sex education, Olayinka (1987) argued that sex education
is designed to:
(i) prepare the youth to cope with their developmental tasks of becoming
responsible men and women in future
(ii) give correct and factual information and understanding of problems of sex
such as its development, function and expression.
(iii) give the youth cogent reasons so that they can avoid sex abuse and cultivate
wholesome attitudes to sexual experiences when they are matured enough to
do so;
(iv) enlighten the youth and prevent them from developing a sense of guilt, horror,
disgust or fear of sex, especially when they perform sex act at the right time,
for right purposes and with the right person, and
(v) enable the youth to develop self-respect and self-control with due
consideration for spouses (p 50).
Psychologists have generally found that love and sex feelings exist in varying
degrees is nearly all the dealings between the sexes. On the average, the love
emotions in girls develop before the sex emotion; but the reverse is the case in boys.
It is therefore important for adults, parents and teachers to teach girls and for girls
to learn that teenage boys have strong sexual feeling and they are easily excited
sexually.
A boy’s genital organs may be aroused by looking at a girl, thinking about sexual
intercourse, seeing a girl indecently dressed or interpreting the way a girl is
behaving as if she wants intercourse. Girls enjoy the physical expressions of love
without feeling the urge for sexual intimacy. It is this presence of love and
generalized sexual feelings in girls and women which are exploited by boys and
men who are naturally more inclined to satisfying their sexual feelings rather than
expressing their love or thinking of marriage.
4.5 Solitary Activity of Adolescents

One type of activity common to both boys and girls of all ages is self-entertainment
carried on as a solitary, unaccompanied activity. There are many reasons why a
child may engage in solitary activities.

INTERESTS SESSION 4
A child living in a rural section or in an apartment in a great city may lack

opportunities for free participation, or parental restrictions and the necessity for
working may deny him/her a proper social life.
Solitary activities may be classified as watching (movies, games, contests), listening
(radio), reading (books, magazines comic strips or comic books) or indulging in
some other activity that may be carried on alone, such as loafing, whistling etc.
Reading books appears to be a popular activity at all ages during adolescence in
terms of both preference and activity. Watching films is the activity most commonly
engaged in by both sexes at all ages, but there is an increasing tendency to ignore
this as a “most-liked” activity as individuals get older even though it continues to
hold its position as the single activity most frequently indulged in. Reading news
papers, magazines and short stories becomes increasingly popular with boys and
girls after age fifteen. Smoking gains great popularity with boys but not with girls.
One distinctive interest of younger girls which is lacking in older ones and is
apparently of little importance to boys at any age is looking at pictures. Adolescent
girls most often look at pictures of fashion and individuals they consider heroes or
models in magazines.
Closely related to solitary self-entertainment is the type of activity in which one is
entertained by someone else. This activity requires only the physical presence of the
participant. His/her role is passive. He/she sees, hears but his/her reaction for the
most part are not translated into overt physical activity unless, per chance he/she
happens to boo the umpire, cheer or turn the dial of his/her radio or television in
disgust.
The similarity between passive entertainment and self entertainment lies essentially
in the fact that both activities are individual rather than group oriented. The
individual in a sense depends upon himself/herself. One of the most consistently
popular activities more so with boys and men than with women and girls is that of
watching athletic sports.
At the other end of the pole from solitary activity is the kind of activity that require
group participation. In any given day, an adolescent is apt to spend more time in
solitary or spectative amusement than he/she will in group amusements, but there
appears to be a wider range of variety in different kinds of activities requiring group
participation.

SESSION 4 ASPECTS
Group activity tends to require either a great deal of hard physical exercise or
comparatively no physical activity. Among the non physical group activities
adolescents engage in are; going to parties and picnics, telling riddles, having dates,
visiting or entertaining, meeting in social clubs or being with the group gang, teasing
somebody and playing cards games.
The group activities requiring endeavours which are physically more active may be
classified as either competitive or non competitive. Competitive activities include
team games such as soccer, basketball, wrestling, boxing, running races and other
various games. No competitive activities include social dancing, playing catch etc.
Wishes are important index to a person’s interests and seem to

reflect both his/her attitudes and his/her social adjustment. In
general, interests tend to fluctuate with age and with time in history; girls being
somewhat more stable than boys. Changes in environment can effect change in
attitude. In general, younger children tend to be more interested in gaining personal
and material possession, but as they grow older their wishes become more general
and less self-centred.
Solitary activity fill an important part of any adolescents’ life. Adolescents in
general face problems. These problems range from adjustment to developing a
sound philosophy of life. The extent to which the adolescent is able to resolve
his/her problems may depend upon the social environment in which the adolescent
finds himself/herself.
Exercise 4.4
1. On what does social success in adolescence depend?
(a) Physical appearance
(b) Social interaction
(c) Peer acceptance
2. Laycock grouped the problems of adolescents under four major tasks. List
any two of these major tasks.
(i) …………………………………………………………………………...
(ii) …………………………………………………………………………..

INTERESTS SESSION 4
3. According to Washburne wishes are an index of …………………………

(a) Perception
(b) Attitudes
(c) Motives
4. What did Horrocks and Flory find to influence wishes more than
chronological age?
(a) Socio-economic factors
(b) Plus siological factors
(c) Cognitive factors
5. Which of the following is a key factor that makes some adolescents sexually
that active.
(a) Parents’ and peers attitudes toward sex play
(b) Parents and teachers’ attitudes toward sex play
(c) Teachers and peers attitudes toward sex play
6. What did Trebouk and Busah-Rossnagel (1990) find to be associated with

students’ positive attitude toward sexually behaviour?
(a) Positive attitude toward sex by parents
(b) Positive attitude toward sex by friends
(c) Positive attitude toward sex by parents and friends
7. Which of the following solitary activities is the most popular among children
of all ages?
(a) Listening to radio
(b) Watching movies, games and contests
(c) Reading books, magazines and comic book
8. Which of the following solitary activities is most commonly engage by

children of both sexes at all ages but as time progressed interest in it weans
greatly.
9. Which distinctive interest of younger girls is apparently of little importance to
boys at any age?
(a) Looking at pictures
(b) Visiting friends
(c) Reading magazines

SESSION 4 ASPECTS
10. Which is the most consistent and popular activity that is associated with boys
and men than girls and women?
(a) Looking at fashion pictures
(b) Watching athletic sports
(c) Visiting friends

ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOUR, ACTIVITIES AND UNIT 4
INTERESTS SESSION 5
SESSION 5: ATTITUDES IDEALS AND VALUES
You are warmly welcome to this session of unit four. I hope you had a
nice time reading through session four. In this session we shall focus
our attention on adolescents’ attitudes and ideals. We shall specifically deal with
the topics listed below;
(a) Definition of attitudes and common attitude patterns
(b) Definition of ideal
(c) The adolescent as an idealist
(d) The relationship between attitudes and character
(e) Promotion of acceptable attitudes and ideals in adolescents
(f) Factors shaping adolescent attitudes
Objectives
It is expected that after you have read through this session, you should be
able to:
(a) Define attitude, state and discuss three common attitude patterns;
(b) Explain ideal in your own words;
(c) Discuss and show the relationship between attitudes and character;
(d) State at least three ways of promoting acceptable attitudes in an
adolescent; and
(e) State three factors that can help in shaping adolescents’ attitudes.
Now read on…
5.1 Definition of Attitudes and Common Attitude Patterns

The adolescent, in a transitionary period is continually subjected to new
experiences, his/her knowledge is growing and expanding and he/she is leaving
childhood and nearing adulthood with its new points of reference and inevitably
will experience significant changes in attitudes and ideals. The extent to which the
attitudes and ideals will be characteristic of the adolescent is a controversial
question. There is, however, little doubt that an individual’s attitudes and ideals are
an expression of his/her personality. As such, they emerge from his/her past and are
the resultant of a long series of events, internal and external which he/she has
previously experienced.

UNIT 4 ATTITUDES IDEALS AND VALUES
SESSION 5
He/she interprets each new situation partly in terns of the attitudes and ideals he/she
brings to it. The new situation in its turn becomes part of his/her past experience,
and as such plays its part in shaping and modifying his/her future attitudes and
ideals.
An attitude is an expression by word or deed of one’s reaction toward or feeling

about a person, a thing or a situation. It may be thought of as an expression of a
person’s values. An adolescent who expresses an attitude of distance or rejection
toward a person advocating a given course of action such as stealing or clandestine
love-making may be assumed to have a system of values which motivate the
expression of his/her attitude. It is necessary, however, to note that a person’s
expressed attitudes may be superficial or synthetic and may serve to conceal his/her
real feelings and values.
Attitudes are complex. There are many subtle variations and apparent
contradictions. There is so much variation that no two people are like. As
circumstances change, no one person remains the same. However, there
are fundamental consistencies that underlie attitudes. These consistencies can be
understood. They assist us to see the purposes that attitudes serve, to understand
how they develop and most importantly, they give us an idea of what we can do to
improve attitudes and get people co-operating effectively.
There are three basic types of attitudes found within every person. The
three sets of attitudes have three different foci; self, others and reality.
Each set of attitudes is appropriate for addressing a different situation.
These situations are fundamental and create different sets of needs. The needs
generate values, which, in turn, generate the attitudes and govern the behaviours that
address those.
Let’s now take each one and explain what they mean.
(i) Self-focused Attitudes: Every person begins life helpless and dominated by
basic self-needs associated with security, comfort, food, sleep, warmth etc.
The behaviours and attitudes of infants focus on self. With these attitudes,
the individual can be thought of as selfish, but they serve useful purposes
beginning with survival. It is natural that as children grow, they learn how
to take care of their basic needs. The more easily they are able to attend to
these needs, the less they have to pay attention to them. However,
throughout life, self needs never go away. Even in the healthiest adults, self
needs lie close beneath the surface ready to reassert themselves when a
INTERESTS SESSION 5
situation demands. When they are discomforted or threatened, healthy

adults respond with values, behaviours and attitudes that attend to these
needs.
(ii) Other-focused attitudes (Social): Normal individuals as they grow, develop

attitudes and behaviours that reflect caring for others. This begins at home
with important others such as their parents, siblings, playmates etc. The
social values of children deal with caring, sharing fair play etc. Some
children develop these values far more than others. With puberty, social
values come on with a rush. Bursting sexuality combines with an
overwhelming need for acceptance as a grown up. The family has difficulty
filling these needs because their caring and support keep teenagers feeling
like dependent children. On the other hand, the support of teenage peers fill
this need for acceptance beautifully.
Friends of their own age are very important. Do you accept this passion?
Why do you think so? They share simplistic understandings while
repeatedly seeking reassurance and confirmation. With adolescence, the social-
needs are dominated by the need to be accepted as adults. The flip side of
acceptance is rejection and anguish. Acceptance requires that they satisfy standards
of older people. But those standards are much more difficult than those of their
peers, so young people generally give much attention to the standards and
acceptance of their peers (even though those standards are riddled with superficial
fantasies and the acceptance is clearly not that of adult society). While these
standards are reasonable and easy to meet in the eyes of those who set them they are
often seen as noxious and unfair by the younger entrants. Rather than appreciating
that they have a lot to learn, there is a tendency for them to convince themselves
that they know better.
Self-righteousness plays a major role behaviour. They tend towards impatience and
finding fault with authority figures in general. They reinforce their fault finding
with high ideals, always at least a little higher than performances of elders they are
criticizing. While these self-righteous and fault finding attitudes and behaviours are
sometimes exasperating to parents, teachers and many other adults, they do serve
useful purposes. They help to bind strong friendship among the young people and
the high ideals occasionally serve as motivation for outstanding performances as
some of these young people become reality- focused adults.

SESSION 5
(iii) Reality-focused Attitudes: Adolescents as they grow come to realize that

some of the criticism they directed at adults, particularly their parents were
not real.
They are often surprised at how their parents have improved. Most young people
continue to feel that the self-righteous, idealistic attitudes they held during
adolescence were justified. Their social attitudes tend to persist, but they also
develop new values based on the needs of adult life.
5.2 Definition of an Ideal

An ideal, as the term is ordinarily used, is an attitude or a series of
attitudes toward one’s own or other’s behaviour and motives which
endeavours to have such behaviour and motives express or embody
perfection or at least represent the highest examples of their type. Ideals are an
attempt on the part of the individual to build for himself/herself, and to expect from
others, values on a high moral and service plane.
The “idealistic” person is one who emphasizes ideals over reality. A person who is
idealistic about human social relations tends to accept altruism and not allowing
oneself to do what one wants as standards of behaviour.
A person of high ideals thinks of himself/herself as honest, loyal and
interested in the common good. What is more, he/she expects the same
attitudes and behaviour on the part of others. The idealistic person will
tend often, to discount reality and expect people to “rise above themselves” and to
be possessed of “good” motives.
Ordinarily when one speaks of the idealistic person or the person who possesses
high ideals, one interprets the term to mean ideals which society would approve of
and recognize as good.
Can you think of such ideals? List them for FTF discussion.
5.3 The Adolescent as an Idealist

The adolescent as a person tends to be highly idealistic. He/she is likely to adopt a
high standard of values and to think about them a great deal. Unfortunately, he/she
is immature and inexperienced and his/her values may be exceedingly unrealistic.

INTERESTS SESSION 5
Can you think of such values? List them for FTF discussion.
He/she is also as a person, highly critical of others, particularly as
they deviate from that which he/she accepts as right or proper. Hence, it is not
unusual to find an adolescent exceedingly intolerant and always looking for
mistakes and faults in other people and wanting to criticize them because they do
not conform to his/her point of view.
The adolescent because of his/her limited experience, is also likely to be unaware of

one important fact of individual differences and to generalize on the basis of one
case, event or situation. That is, an adolescent who believes in a particularly high
standard of moral conduct may witness a lapse on the part of some other person and
come to feel that “everyone is like that”. If the person who displays such a lapse
happens to be well known to him/her even idealized by him the adolescent’s
disillusionment may be severe. In some cases it may lead to various kinds of
problem behaviours on his/her part. Therefore, one of the problems in working with
an idealistic adolescent is that of protecting him/her from disillusionment until
he/she gains the experience and the ability to understand behaviour that does not
always meet his/her own standards.
5.4 The Relationship between Attitudes and Character

Acceptable attitudes, good values and fine ideals on the part of an
individual result in his/her possessing what is called “good character”.
Character as a term is however, elusive in meaning and its interpretation
varies widely from person to person. Ordinarily, the term is one of approval and is
applied to a person whose system of values, conduct and belief is in accord with
that of the person using the term, it may also indicate that the course of action or
inaction of the person categorized as having character is approved or admired.
Theories have been expounded to show that attitudes influence conduct and
character. Prescott (1975) listed the function of attitudes held by an individual in
determining his/her personality and character. These are;
i. They supply the code or measuring rod by which the behaviour of the
individual and of others is judged.
ii. They supply principles on the basis of which choices are made, when body
conditions demand action, they determine what may not be done.

SESSION 5
iii. They represent the crystallized meaning of accumulated experience, the

philosophy of life of the individual. This is the unifying or integrating
thread which runs through and colours the interpretation of all experience,
thus supplying unity and individuality.
iv. They supply the basis of envisaging the future world and for projecting the
place of the individual in that world. They become the bases for goals of
behaviour, for both short term and long term purposes which are, at the
same time, social and personal to sum up all these functions is to say in the
terminology of Lewin, that attitudes determine the valence in most of the
situations that we face in life.
Look for more functions for FTF discussion.
It is worth noting, however, that most of the studies which have attempted to
establish the effect of attitudes upon conduct and character have been made with
typical children, particularly those with a record of juvenile delinquency or problem
behaviour. There is a paucity of studies dealing with non-deviating children. There
is also the problem of cause and effect.
5.5 Promotion of Acceptable Attitudes and Ideals

All societies the world over evolve a set of values and procedures which are held to
be exceedingly important. Sometimes such values and procedures find their origin
in attempts to protect and to perpetuate the societies. For example, most societies,
modern and primitive alike build for themselves a set of laws, rules, taboos or
folkways intended to punish the person who commits acts against the best interests
of that society, or what the society conceives to be the best interest of the
individual. `
The nature of such acts and the seriousness with which they are regarded vary from
society to society and depend upon how important a threat the act may be against
the security and sustenance of that society.
What are some of that acts that the Ghanaian society in general abhors?
List them for FTF discussion.
Whatever the source or the validity of the values held, there is nearly always a
strong desire on the part of parents and the various community agencies of
education, and recreation to emphasize the development of character and the

INTERESTS SESSION 5
inculcation of a proper set of values in their children’ upbringing. Such a desire is

in itself worthy beyond questioning.
A society composed of individuals of good character and of high ideals and values
is likely to function for the common good, and a child reared in such an
environment will be a better person if he/she learns and accepts the values of the
society. It is important, therefore, that a programme of character education actually
attempt to inculcate the values of the society and at the same time try to preserve the
integrity of the individual.
What programme has Ghana put in place to inculcate her values to the
youth? List year answer for FTF discussion?
The question that needs to be answered is whether or not it is possible to modify or

to guide an adolescent’s existing attitudes and values in a desired direction? In
answering this question it should be borne in mind that individuals and situations
differ and that the significance of an attitude to an individual will vary from attitude
to attitude and from time to time.
Various studies have been carried out to show that individual and group attitudes
have been modified as a result of outside experience. Martin (1963) observed that
values and standards are inculcated first, through the learning of behaviour by
imitation and reinforcement, and second, by the definition of values reached
inductively from behaviour. This means that values are acquired over a period of
years, first, from the parents or parent substitute and later from other persons with
whom the adolescent comes into contact – peers, teachers and hero figures.
Ausubel in discussing changes in values during adolescence notes, “values and
goals are still acquired intellectual stabilization, that is as by- products of
subservience to others on whom the individual is dependent for derived status, but
now personal loyalities have been transferred from parents to age-mates and such
other parent surrogates as teachers, adult group leaders and representatives of the
church”.
In general, it would appear that attitudes and values held by adolescents grow out
of their environments and the influences to which they have been subjected. So
pervasive is the effect of the environment that with increasing age the attitudes and
points of view of adolescents tend more and more to conform to those of the adults
around them.

SESSION 5
Not only does the adolescents attitudes resemble increasingly those of the adults
around him/her as he/she grows older but it also becomes increasingly difficult for
him/her to change his/her attitudes. Thorndike’s cites imitation as one of the
important factors in attitude modification. He notes that a person acquires the
emotional attitudes which his/her family or group displays toward a situation. It is
Thorndike’s contention that attitude changes may be brought about by association
or contiguity. He believes that a person will tend to like a school taught by a well-
liked teacher and dislike a subject taught by a disliked teachers. Saardi and
Farnsworth reported that statements are generally accepted as true when linked
with a liked person and untrue when linked with a disliked person.
Close contact under favourable circumstances appears to modify attitudes in

favour of the things or person it is associated with. Smith reported that college
students who made a series of visit to Harlem were more friendly toward Negroes
than they had been before going there.
Group opinion is also important in modifying attitudes. Wheeler and Jordan in a

study of the individual opinions of twenty-six college students report that
individuals’ opinions are facilitated when they agree with those of the group with
which they associate, and are inhibited when they disagree.
5.6 Factors Shaping Adolescent Attitude

The influence of adults other than parents upon the attitudes of children is more
uncertain. Some studies have shown high and some negligible correlations.
Longstreet as cited by Horrock’s a successful effort to create unfavourable
attitudes toward war among students enrolled in high school social studies and
Kroll as cited by Horrocks reported that teachers with radical views had a definite
effect upon the attitudes of their twelfth-grade students. On the other hand,
Rosander (1981) reported that the personal beliefs of college professors toward the
constitution had little if any effect upon those held by their students.
Studies of the effect of institutions such as church, mosque, the school, youth
organizations and the home upon adolescents’ attitudes appear to indicate that such
environmental factors have considerable effect upon adolescents attitudes when
their methods and procedures are good and take into consideration the psychology
of the children with whom they are dealing. When such is not the case opposite
effects to those intended may occur.

INTERESTS SESSION 5
There are, of course, many factors other than those of physical or social
environment which are instrumental in shaping an adolescents attitudes. Among
these are the vicarious experiences he/she encounters in books, the movies, the radio
and other media of communication. Typical among the work done in this area is a
study by Peterson and Thurston (1972) of the effect of five movies upon the
attitudes of children. Four of the five movies produced significantly and
persistently changed attitudes toward racial and social problems among the children
who had observed them.
Sometimes, experiences which are vivid for the individual and which constitute for
him/her intense emotional experiences are likely to have a profound effect upon
his/her attitudes, values, and future behaviour. Studies have shown the effect of
strong emotional reactions upon the attitudes of individuals. When proper
precautions are not taken, too strong an emotional appeal may have a disintegrating
effect upon the individual. Teachers and others who guide the education and
development of adolescents are advised to make occasional and common sense use
of emotional appeals, but to be careful of over doing it because some individuals are
less capable of accepting and adjusting to sustained emotional appeal than are
others. It is worth noting that too frequent use of a motivating device serves to
decrease its effectiveness and may even produce reactions opposite to those which
are sought.
In discussing the implications of the Character Education Inquiry, Hartshorne, May

and Shuttleworth note that it does little good for teachers or others to urge honest
behaviour by discussing standards and ideals of honesty, no matter to what degree
such appeals are emotionalized “Preaching” does not lead to the control of conduct
and may result in unwholesome or undesirable effects. These investigators do not
feel that the teaching of general ideals, standards and ideals is either undesirable or
unnecessary, but they do point out that prevailing “preaching” techniques are of no
value and may be harmful.
They believe that a character education programme would be based upon a careful
educational analysis of situations in which deceit or dishonesty are likely to occur.
Teachers and parents should then make explicit the nature of the direct honest mode
of response in detail, so that the child may have an opportunity to practice direct
methods of adjustment. Hartshorne, May and Shuttleworth recommended that an
effort be made to show the child that deceit may be viewed in terms of personal

SESSION 5
relations and that honesty may be distinguished from dishonesty as a way of social
interaction.
He/she should be shown that social consequences must be considered in choosing

the way he/she should behave in any given situation. They feel that adults should
make a real effort to understand why an individual acts as he/she does before
blaming him/her on the basis of an arbitrary use of external values.
They believe that educators should be less interested in devices for teaching honesty
and any other “trait” in isolation and be interested in reconstructing school
experiences which will provide consistent and regular opportunities for the
successful use by both teachers and students of the forms of conduct which make
for the common good.
In summary, Hartshorne, May and Shuttleworth feel that:

(i) What is to be learned must be experienced
(ii) What is to be experienced must be represented in situations to which
children are exposed.
(iii) If what is to be learned is some form of conduct or mode of adjustment
then the situations to which children are exposed, must be opportunities to
pursue interests which lead to the conduct to be learned.
(iv) This conduct must be carried on in relation to the particular situations
which is the preferred mode of response.
(v) A common and potent factor in such situations is the established practice
and code of the group, which by colouring the situation may either hinder
or assist the acquisition of desirable responses on the part of its members
(vi) If standards and ideals, whether already in the possession of the group or
not, are to function as controlling factors, they must become a part of the
situation to which the child responds and assist in the achievement of
satisfactory modes of adjustment to those aspects of the situation which are
independent of these standards and ideals – they must be tools rather than
effects of aesthetic appreciation.
(vii) The achievement of specific standards, attitudes and modes of conduct does
not imply their integration. Integration is itself a specific achievement.
Adolescence as a transitionary period brings with it new attitudes

and ideals which help to shape the adolescent’s personality and
adjustment to life.

INTERESTS SESSION 5
Such attitudes and ideals are individual matters and are the result of present and
past experiences. It is unlikely that there are “characteristic” adolescent attitudes
and ideals since individuals differ so largely and have such diverse experiences.
There are three basic types of attitudes found within every individual. These three
attitudes have different foci-self, others and reality.
The adolescent tends to be an idealist. His/her standards are apt to be high and
he/she tends to be intolerant of those which fail to meet them. He/she is likely to
generalize on the basis of one case and may be severely disillusioned if those to
which he/she is closely attached display attitudes or conduct of which he/she
disapproves. This adolescent needs to be guided to accept people as they are, while
retaining his/her own integrity.
A person who has acceptable attitudes, high ideals and fine values is usually
categorized as having a “good character”.
Environmental factors such as the peer group, parents, institutions and vicarious
experiences are important in shaping an adolescent’s attitudes. Of these, parental
and peer group influences are the most significant. In general, the adolescent will
tend to be more greatly influenced by those he/she likes and by those who use good
techniques than he/she will be by those he/she dislikes or who use poor techniques
in attempting to guide him/her.
Exercise 4.5
1. Which two factors play a significant role in determining an individuals
attitudes and ideals
(a) Internal and external factors
(b) Internal and personality factors
(c) External and Socio economic factors
2. An attitude may be thought of as an expression of ……………………..
(a) A person’s perception
(b) A person’s values
(c) A person views
3. An attitude is an expression………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

SESSION 5
4. List the three basic types of attitudes found within all individuals
(a) ………………………………………………………………………...
(b)…………………………………………………………………………
(c)…………………………………………………………………………
5. “An idealistic” person is one who emphasizes …………………………

(a) ideals over reality
(b) reality over ideal
(c) ideals reality over illusion
6. An individual possessing acceptable attitudes, good values and find ideals is

said to have a ………………………………………………
(a) good personality
(b) good character
(c) good perception
6 According to Thorndike attitude changes may be brought about by

(a) Reinforcement or punishment
(b) Association or contiguity
(c) Imitation and observation
8. What did Wheeler and Jordan report could facilitate an individual’s

opinions?
(a) Group opinion
(b) Individual opinion
(c) Parents’ opinion
9. Institutions such as churches, mosques, the school, youth organizations and

the home can have an effect on an adolescent’s attitudes only when they
take into consideration that individuals ……………………................
(a) Psychology
(b) Perception
(c) Traits
10. Vicarious experiences do not shape an individual’s attitudes.

True False.

INTERESTS SESSION 6
SESSION 6: VOCATIONAL INTERESTS AND ABILITIES OF

ADOLESCENTS
Hello, you are welcome to this session. In the previous session. In

the previous session we looked at issues related to attitudes and
interests of adolescents. In this session, we shall discuss topics related to the
vocational intersts and abilities of adolescents. Specifically, we shall focus on the
following topics:
(a) Vocational development and Theories of career Development
(b) Necessity for a vocation
(c) The Occupatioal Preferences
(d) Comparison between abilities and vocational choices
(e) Factors influencing Vocational Interests
Objectives
It is expected that by the end of the session you should be able to:
(a) State and explain at least three variables that psychologists
believe come into play when individuals want to choose a vocation;
(b) State and explain at least three reasons that account for the need for a
vocation
(c) Discuss the views of at least two theories of career development
(d) List at least four occupations that adolescents prefer and explain the
reasons for such a preference
(e) State and discuss at least three factors that influence vocational interests
of adolescents.
Now read on…
6.1 Vocational Development

Vocational psychologists for many years have been researching into how
adolescents make career decisions, which adolescents are likely to be undecided,
and how to improve adolescents’ decision making.
Frank Parsons (1909/1989) wrote, “Choosing a Vocation” to deal with the very
issue of school – to – work transitions for inner city youth in Boston at the turn of
the century. His three-part model of good vocational decision making was
knowledge of self, knowledge of the world of work and “true reasoning” between
the two.
UNIT 4
ATTITUDES IDEALS AND VALUES
SESSION 6
The latter is literally “uniting as far as may be possible the best abilities and
enthusiasm of the developed man with the daily work he has to do “(p.13). In other
words, to make a good vocational choice, a person matches his/her abilities to the
work best suited for these abilities.
Vocational psychologists have expanded on Parson’s work over the years to be

more inclusive person – environment fit model. Some theorists have added other
important components to this model but the foundation of vocational psychology
remains a matching model between the individual and the environment.
Two contemporary vocational theories are relevant to the model of school – to –

work transition. The first is Holland’s (1997) theory of vocational types and the
second is Super’s (Super, Savickas and Super, 1996) developmental life space, life
span theory.
Holland (1997) developed a theory to predict the characteristics of persons and

environments that lead to positive and negative vocational outcomes as well as the
characteristics that lead to vocational stability. Holland’s theory was based on the
belief that vocational career choice is an expression of one’s personality. According
to Holland, once individuals find a career that fits their personality, they are more
likely to enjoy that particular career and to stay in a job for a longer period of time
than individuals who work at jobs not suited to their personality. Holland believes
that six basic personality types need to be considered when matching the
individual’s psychological make-up to a career. The six types are; realistic,
intellectual, social, conventional enterprising and artistic. Each personality type is
thought to demonstrate a particular set of skills and values and to predict
preferences for particular activities. These may be vocational or a vocational.
• Realistic: These individuals are physically strong, deal in
practical ways with problems, and have very little social
know-how. They are best oriented toward practical careers,
such as labour, farming, truck driving and construction.
• Intellectual: These individuals are conceptually and theoretically
oriented. They are thinkers rather than doers. They often avoid
interpersonal relations and are best suited to careers in Mathematics
and Science.

INTERESTS SESSION 6
• Social: Individuals who fall in this category often have good verbal skills
and interpersonal relations. They are likely to be best equipped to enter
“people” professions, such as teaching, social work, counselling etc.
• Conventional: These individuals show a distaste for unstructured activities.
They are best suited for jobs as subordinates, such as bank tellers,
secretaries, and file clerks.
• Enterprising: These individuals energize their verbal abilities toward
leading others, dominating individuals and selling people on issues or
products. They are best counseled to enter careers such as sales, politics and
management.
• Artistic: Individuals in this category prefer to interact with their world
through artistic expression avoiding conventional and interpersonal
situations in many instances. These youth should be oriented toward such
careers as art and writing.
Environments were also categorized, determined by the vocational personality type

of the preponderance of the individuals within the environment. The person and
environment come together when “people search for environment that will let them
exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on
agreeable problems and roles” (Holland, 1997 p.4).
Thus, it is important for individuals to know their vocational personality types

within occupations. Matching the two is known as congruence. Individuals are in a
congruent occupation if that occupation is the same or close to their vocational
types.
Donald Super, criticising the matching modes for being too static, took a different
approach and focused on vocational choice as a series of events. He believed that
by the time an adolescent is ready to transit from secondary school to work or to
further his/her education, that adolescent has made a number of choices already. He
further proposed that careers were life long, and he outlined five major stages of
career development to account for the range of changes and decisions that
individuals make from career entry to retirement; each stage has unique set of tasks.
These stages are: Growth (roughly to age 11), Exploration (11-20),
Establishment (20 to mid-adulthood), and Disengagement (late adulthood).
Although Super originally viewed these stages as chronological, he later revised his
theory to acknowledge that individuals may infact go through exploration and
establishment in middle adulthood as they, for example, choose another career.
UNIT 4
SESSION 6
Incorporated into the notion of developmental tasks is career maturity in which the
individual demonstrates his or her ability to effectively master the tasks of that stage
in preparation for moving to the next stage.
The most salient stage for adolescents transitioning from school to work is the
exploration stage (11-20 yrs). The primary tasks of this stage are crystallizing,
specifying and implementing career choices. (Super, Savickas, Super, 1996). In
other words, in this stage adolescents evaluate their skills and values and determine
a general area or field of choice (Crystallizing), narrow that choice down to a
specific area (Specifying), and then take the necessary steps to implement that
choice. To do this, however, adolescents must know themselves and know the
world of work.
A critical notion within Super’s theory is that in making a vocational choice an

individual is expressing his/her self-concept. Thus it is critical that students have
accurate knowledge about themselves, or they may choose occupations that do not
match well with their interests and skills.
6.2 Necessity for a Vocation

Children aside from occasional choices or part-time work to earn spending money,
are happily free from the necessity of earning their own living. Some, of course, are
required to find minor jobs and contribute to the family expenses, but in the main
these are few children who do not realize that, in an emergency, they may rely upon
their family or those who are responsible for them. Nor does society expect
children to have jobs or to support themselves.
An adolescent on the other hand, is nearing the close of childhood; sooner or later
he/she begins to realize that he/she must one day be responsible for his/her own
living. Moreover, he/she finds that society’s leniency to him/her as a vocationless
child has been replaced by an assumption that as an adult a considerable portion of
his/her time will be spent in some remunerative employment. As he/she meets more
and more people he/she finds that in the society at least the first thing one wishes to
know about a new acquaintance is about his/her occupation and how good he/she is
at it. He/she finds that success tends to be judged largely in terms of income and
that people are considerably interested in other people’s income.
Adolescent boys in particular spend a great deal of time in asking each other about
their plans after completing school. Parents especially are virtually interested in the
vocational future of their children. It is not unusual for parents to press their

INTERESTS SESSION 6
adolescent sons and daughters to make up their minds or to announce that the
adolescent involved is “going in” to some occupational field selected by the parent.
As a consequence of all these pressures the adolescent begins to consider job

possibilities and to plan for his/her vocational future. Sometime this planning
activity arises out of his/her own interests, but just as frequently it is the result of a
desire to do the accepted thing and to conform to what is expected of him/her.
A typical adolescent tends to be a conservative person who conforms closely to the
patterns established and carried out by the other adolescents whom he/she knows. If
the others are thinking about their vocational futures, the he/she tends to do likewise
or at least to feel somewhat guilty and left out if he/she does not conform. There
are, however, incentives other than adult pressure or peer group pressure conformity
which urge an adolescent to consider his/her vocational future.
One of the most important of these is the adolescent’s desire for personal freedom
and economic independence. This is part and parcel of every well-adjusted
adolescent’s desire for emancipation from parental and other adult controls. As a
member of a family, the adolescent occupies an inferior position. It is expected that
he/she will do as he/she is told. There are certain restrictions which he/she must
obey, such as coming home at a given hour, doing household chores, obeying
family rules, and following parental dictates in his/her choice of friends and
activities. If he/she disobeys, he/she may be punished or denied certain activities or
he/she may have to submit to a humiliating “call down”. His/her expenditures of
money are controlled and he/she must usually appeal to his/her parents, either for
permission to spend money he/she has saved. As an independent wage earner, not
only may he/she spend as he/she pleases, but he/she is also in some measure
financially independent of his/her parent and consequently is free of their control.
Thus, he/she feels that he/she may do as he/she wishes.
Another motivating factor is the marriage incentive, possibly of greater interest to

girls during adolescent years than it is to boys, although late adolescence finds boys
becoming more and more concerned with marriage. Prior to marriage, the boy may
decide several different times that he wants to marry the “right girl” or in the case
of girls, “the right boy”. Each time this happens, marriage and its responsibilities
are considered and may even exert a strong attraction. But to be married means to
assure financial responsibility, which again comes as the result of a job. Thus,
another incentive is added. Think of some other incentives that make it necessary
for adolescent to have a vocation.
UNIT 4
SESSION 6
List them for FTF discussion
6.3 Occupational Preferences of Adolescents

An important aid to an understanding of the vocational selection problems of
adolescents is some knowledge of the patterns of occupational choice which appear
to characterize boys and girls of various age. While large individual differences
appear, there are certain significant preferences common to all.
Do you know the occupation that adolescents cherish and prefer

most? List them for FTF discussion
Occupational preferences are, of course, a matter of environmental opportunity.
The things that an adolescent has heard about and the time in history during which
he/she is living will dictate his/her vocational choices.
In a study in the USA during the period of the World War II, Bradley as cited by
Horrocks found out that military occupations occupied a leading place, particularly,
for younger boys, although a steady decrease to popularity followed increasing age.
Girls, particularly older adolescents, however, showed little interest in military
occupations even in war time. In peace time, preferences for military occupation
vanishes although very young adolescents sometimes perceive the military as
something glamorous to be equated with policemen, fares rangers, professional
athletes and explorers.
In a peacetime poll of the occupational preferences of 75, 141 high school students
conducted by the Institute of Student Opinion, somewhat different results were
found. Professions rated highest for both boys and girls, with trade and industry in
second place with boys and office and clerical work rating second with girls.
In a series of interviews obtained by high school newspaper reporters, the majority

of high school students preferred jobs or careers that would insure three meals a day
and offer a reasonable amount of individual freedom. One of the reasons for the
popularity of the professions was the belief that the best opportunities and the most
freedom could be found in professional work. This shows that most adolescents
preferred certain vocations not because of the interest they had for the vocations.

INTERESTS SESSION 6
If vocational selection was based purely on interest, a considerable amount of

fluctuation could be expected as the general change and development of an
individual’s interest passes through the period of adolescence.
Unfortunately, perhaps vocational selections are based on a multitude of factors,

ranging from parental advice or command to purely fortuitous circumstances. The
result is that, since some of these more or less extraneous factors remain
comparatively constant, there tends to be a smaller amount of overall fluctuation.
For example, fluctuation in occupational choice as well as the nature of the choice
itself tends to be greater and to remain more in line with the recognized general
interest patterns of children and younger adolescents than is true for older
adolescents. Freeston as cited by Horrocks notes that the child from eight to
fourteen is confused by the possibilities of vocational choice and is quite apt to
make impossible selections, but that the number of occupations which older
children seem to know testifies to a growing awareness of the surrounding world.
In general, during the earlier as well as the later period, environmental influences
seemed the most powerful factor in vocational choice.
Sex differences in vocational choices are apparent all along the line. Lehman and
Witly (1963) in a study of over 25,000 boys and girls aged eight and one-half to
eighteen and one-half, found 90% of the girls’ choices to be some what sedentary in
nature while boys’ seldom are forty-five percent of boys’ choices involved travel as
compared to only 15% for girls. In general, it may be said that with physical and
mental maturity, interests tend to stabilise and to remain fairly constant, changes
usually being slow and gradual.
Occupational choices of students tend to gain in realism as the end of school
approaches, and less glamorous selections are frequently made particularly if the
boy or girl has had an opportunity to learn the facts of the case. This is, of course,
part of the function of guidance, and in schools where an adequate guidance
programme is absent, the trend toward realism may well be lacking.
6.4 Comparison between Abilities and Vocational Choices

The relationship existing between intellectual capacity and vocational choice has
witnessed considerable study. A number of studies have considered the relationship
between occupation and test intelligence and have reported the presence of a
hierarchy of occupational structure closely related to intelligence whether the
classification is based on the individuals occupation or that of his/her father. Those
UNIT 4
SESSION 6
engaged in professional occupations of whose fathers were members of a profession

rank highest in intelligence, with clerical and business groups following and with
farmers and unskilled workers ranking lowest. The most important single criterion
of an individual’s ability to succeed or fail in any given occupational endeavour
seems to be the level of mental ability. The vocational counsellor in his/her
endeavour to guide and counsel young people in reference to their occupational
future usually starts with an assessment of the individual’s level of intelligence. A
given degree of mental ability is no guarantee however, that a particular individual
will succeed in any occupation for which he/she has the intellectual capacity. It is
merely an indication that, other things being equal, he/she has the capacity to
succeed at least so far as intelligence is concerned. His/her actual success will
depend upon an often unforeseeable combination of fortuitous circumstances,
motivation and drive, educational opportunity, special aptitude, and many other
factors. Conversely, however, it is known within certain limits that an individual
with too low a general mental ability will be unable to succeed in certain
occupations requiring, both in training and in on-the-job practice, a high level of
mental ability.
Great motivation and intense application will sometimes permit a less intelligent
individual to over achieve to the point when he/she may surpass a more intelligent
individual, particularly where the motivation and application of the latter are
deficient. But in an equal competitive situation, the less intelligent person will
always have a difficulty if not an insurmountable problem.
Frequently, the guidance worker will advise a less intelligent individual to avoid
certain occupations, not because he/she would be unable to make his/her way if
he/she showed great effort, but because success for him/her would come only at the
expense of excessive and unwise mental and emotional strain, with mediocrity in
his/her occupation more than a possibility while the more intelligent person would
have a comparatively easy time.
It is not to be supposed, however, that a high level of mental ability is the best
guarantee of success in any occupation. There are numerous occupations in which a
high level of mental ability is not only unnecessary, but may even be a real
detriment. For example, if routine work like ordinary assembly-line work is
required, or if simple directions must be followed day after day without the
necessity for either independent thinking or creativity, the less intelligent person
makes the more efficient and better adjusted worker. There are also many
occupations in which a specialized ability is the most important factor, such as in
INTERESTS SESSION 6
certain types of mechanical work, some aspects of musical or artistic work and
salesmanship. In some of these fields a high level of mental ability is also required,
but in many it is not. It becomes the job of the vocational counselor, teacher or
other youth workers to help an adolescent select the types of work which his/her
particular level of mental ability will permit him/her to do most effectively and
which will gain him/her the maximum adjustment and happiness in life.
It is important that the student of adolescence knows something of the relationship

between vocational choice and mental ability. In general, the typical adolescent
bases his/her vocational interests on factors other than intellectual capacity,
although past unsuccessful experiences may make some types of occupational
classification distasteful to the person with inferior mental ability. Usually,
however, occupations are selected on the basis of very little information and an
individual will signify his/her interest in an occupation because he/she has
misinterpreted what that occupational choice involves. For instance, an adolescent
who wishes to become a surgeon usually over looks the drudgery of medical school,
the long years of preparation and the dangerous aspects of the job. He/she sees
instead the gleaming operating theatre, the mysterious masked figures in white, the
brilliant manipulation of instruments before an admiring audience and the glamour
of screaming sirens in the night.
6.5 Factors Influencing Vocational Interests

Vocational choice is influenced by many factors other than personality. Such factors
include: individual preferences, the influence of parents, peers and teachers, and
socio cultural dimensions. We shall examine some of these factors in this session.
(a) Cognitive Factors
Exploration, decision making, and planning play important roles in adolescents
career choices (Spokane, 2000). In countries where equal employment
opportunities have emerged such as the USA, Canada, Britain and France
exploration of various career paths is critical in adolescents career development.
Adolescents often approach career exploration and decision making with
considerable ambiguity, uncertainty, and stress. Many of the career decisions made
by the youth involves floundering and unplanned changes. Many adolescents do
not adequately explore careers on their own and also receive little direction from
guidance counselors at their schools.
One of the important aspects of planning in career development is awareness of the
educational requirements for a particular career. In one investigation, a sample of
UNIT 4
SESSION 6
6, 029 high school seniors from fifty-seven different school districts in Texas was
studied (Grotevant & Durrett, 1980) Students lacked accurate information about
two aspects of careers
(i) the educational requirements of careers they desired; and
(ii) the vocational interests predominantly associated with their career choices.
Career development is related to identity development in adolescence. Career
decidedness and planning are positively related to identity achievement, whereas
career planning and decidedness are negatively related to identify moratorium and
identity diffusion status eg. (Wallace-Broscious, Sarifica, & Osipow, 1994).
Adolescents who farther along in the process of identity formation are better able to
articulate their occupational choices and their next step in obtaining short-term and
long-term goals (Raskin, 1985). By contrast, adolescents in the moratorium and
diffusion statuses of identity are more likely to struggle with making occupational
plans and decisions.
(b) Social Contexts

The socio-cultural experiences of individuals exert strong influences on career
choices from among the wide range available. Among the important social contexts
that influence career development are socioeconomic status, parents and peer,
schools and gender.
• Socioeconomic Status: The channels of upward mobility open to lower
socio-economic status youth are largely educational in nature (Shade, Kelly
& Oberg 1997). The school hierarchy from basic school through high
school, as well as through college and graduate school, is programmed to
orient individuals toward some type of career.
During the era before independence and few years after independence in
Ghana Standard four certificate was all that an individual needed for
vocational competence, and anything beyond that qualified the individual for
advanced placement in higher status occupations.
• Parents and Peers: Parents and peers have strong influences on adolescents
career choice. From an early age, children see and hear about what jobs their
parents have. In some cases, parents even take their children to work to live
vicariously through their son’s or daughter’s career achievements. The
mother who did not make it into the medical school and the father who did
not make it as a professional athlete may pressure their youth to achieve a
career status beyond the youth’s talent.
INTERESTS SESSION 6
Many factors influence parents’ role in adolescents career development (Young,

1994). For one, mothers who work regularly outside the home and show effort and
pride in their work probably have strong influences on their adolescents’ career
choices. A reasonable conclusion is that when both parents work and enjoy their
work, adolescents learn work values from both parents.
Anna Roe (1956) argued that parent-child relationships play an important role in
occupation selection. For example she said that individuals who have warm and
accepting parents are likely to choose careers that include working with people,
such as sales positions and public relations jobs. By contrast, she stated, individuals
who have rejecting or neglectful parents are more likely to choose careers that do
not require a good “personality” or strong social skills, such as accounting and
engineering.
Critics argue that Roe’s ideas are speculative, might not hold in today’s world, and
are too simple (Grotevant, 1996). Although peers may play a less influential role
than parents or schools in influencing adolescents’ long-term educational and
occupational plans, they are clearly a significant indirect influence. In one
investigation, when adolescents had friends and parents with high career standards,
they were more likely to seek higher status careers, even if they came from low
income families (Simpson, 1962).
• School Influences: Schools, teachers and counsellors can exert a powerful

influence on adolescents’ career development. School is the primary setting
where individuals first encounter the world of work. School provides an
atmosphere for continuing self development in relation to achievement and
work. And school in the only institution in society that is presently capable
of providing the delivery systems necessary for career education –
instruction, guidance, placement and community connections.
Schools may inadvertently play a role in school dropout and occupational
attainment. Social critics argue that schools present numerous institutional barriers
(e.g. tracking, teacher attitudes, curriculum advising) that steer young people
toward some educational endeavours and away from others (Ogbu, 1978). The
ways in which students are exposed to which curricular, restrict opportunities for
those placed in lower or regular tracks. Where they also encounter less stimulating
and challenging curricula, which may further discourage school achievement and
involvement.

UNIT 4
SESSION 6
• Gender: Because many females have been socialized to adopt nurturing roles
rather than career or achieving roles, they traditionally have not planned
seriously for careers, have not explored career options extensively, and have
restricted their career choices to careers that are gender-stereotyped
(Jozefowiez, Barber, & Mollasis 1994). The motivation for work is the same
for both sexes. However, females and males make different choices because
of their socialization experiences and the ways that social forces structure the
opportunities available to them.
• Occupational Attractiveness: Adolescents are led to make their vocational
choice by the prestige, income, and social recognition to the profession by the
society. Socio-economic class, and intellectual level and availability of
vocation are important factors which affect the choice of career of adolescents.
Vocational planning is a major problem of late adolescent. Various

theories have been postulated on adolescents’ career development.
Among these theories are the theories by Holland and Super. Holland’s theory was
based on the belief that vocational career choice is an expression of an individual’s
personality. Holland believed that six basic personality types come into play when
matching individuals’ psychological make-up to a career. Super on the other hand
outlined five major stages of career development. Super explained that the most
salient stage for adolescents’ transition from school to work is the exploration stage.
The vocational aspirations of the youth tend to be high and are particularly
conditioned by the socio-economic level of the parents. An understanding of
adolescents vocational interests required some knowledge of the occupational
interest patterns which are characteristic of various ages. Great individual
differences are to be found but there are also many interests fairly common to all
adolescents. In general, boys show more scatter in their interest than do girls,
although both sexes are interested in jobs and a future career as a means of gaining
freedom, making money, increasing opportunities and securing prestige.
A considerable amount of fluctuation occurs in vocational choice, however, it tends
to lessen with increasing age. Older adolescents are likely to become somewhat
more realistic in their vocational choices, while younger adolescents tend to select
more exclusively on the basis of their interests or what they interpret as their
interest. Sex differences in vocational choice are quite apparent.

INTERESTS SESSION 6
Girls tend to be somewhat more mature in their vocational choices than are boys of
the same chronological age, and they usually select more sedentary types of
occupations.
Among the factors influencing vocational choice are socio-economic status, parents
and peers, school, gender and occupational attractiveness
Exercise 4.6
1. According to Holland what type of job is likely to make
individuals happy
Jobs that
(a) fit their personality
(b) are more rewarding terms of pay
(c) help them make more friends
(d) open more opportunities for them
2. An individual who energizes his/hers verbal abilities towards leading others and
dominating individuals is in which category of personality as expounded by
Holland?
(a) Conventional
(b) Artistic
(c) Enterprising
(d) Realistic
3. Who proposed that careers choice was a series of events?

(a) Holland
(b) Super
(c) Parson
(d) Savickas
4. According to super which is the most salient stage for adolescents transition for
school to work?
(a) Exploration
(b) Establishment
(c) Disengagement
(d) Growth

UNIT 4
SESSION 6
5. Environmental opportunity does not play any role in occupational preferences

of adolescents.
True False
6 Boys are prone to choosing sedentary occupations than girls

True False
7. Single criterion of an individual’s ability to succeed or fail in a given

occupational endeavour
(a) Ability to talk
(b) Level of mental ability
(c) Special aptitude
(d) Socio-economic status
8. Parent – Child relationship does not play any role in occupation selection.
True False
9. At which stage of career development according to super does the individual

crystallize, specify and take the necessary step to implement his/her choice?
(a) Growth
(b) Exploration
(c) Establishment
(d) Disengagement
10. Individuals with ---------------- personality type according to Holland are

physically strong, deal in practical ways with problems and have very little
social know-how.
(a) Intellectual
(b) Social
(c) Realistic
(d) Conventional.

ADOLESCENT IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT UNIT 5
UNIT 5: ADOLESCENT IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
Unit Outline
Session 1: Explanation of Identity Development
Session 2: The Timing of Identity Formation
Session 3: The Personal Contextual Milieu for Identity Formation
Session 4: The Social-Environmental Milieu for Identity Formation
Session 5: Cultural and Ethnic Aspects of Identity
Session 6: Improving Adolescent Identity Development
Hello! I welcome you heartily to the last but one unit of this course.
In unit 4 of this course, your study centred on Adolescent Behaviour,
Activities and Interests. How did you find it? I believe you enriched your
knowledge about the adolescent. That’s great.
Unit 5 is a follow-up of unit 4 and it has been organised under six sessions. The
first session focuses on explanation of identity development while the second
session looks at the timing of identity development. Sessions three and four
highlight on the personal contextual milieu for identity formation and the social-
environmental milieu for identity formation respectively. Session five is devoted
to cultural and ethnic aspects of identity while the final session addresses issues
concerning improving adolescent identity development.
Unit Objectives
1. explain adolescent identity development
2. describe the timing of identity formation;
3. differentiate between personal and socio-environmental milieu for
identity formation
4. identify cultural and ethnic aspects of identify
5. tabulate ways of improving adolescent identity development.

UNIT 5 ADOLESCENT IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT


SESSION 1
SESSION 1: EXPLANATION OF IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
This session will look at what is meant by identity development, the

four statuses of identity, development of sense of identity and end
with why identity development in adolescence is considered as a very important
issue.
When you were an adolescent did you ever think of who you are?
What to do with your life? What is different about you as a person?
How you can make it on your own? These are common and universal
questions and concerns that come up during adolescence. Our concern, for now, is
adolescence identity.
Objectives
(a) explain the concept of adolescent identity development;
(b) describe the development of sense of identity;
(c) outline the four statuses of identity; and
(d) state the importance of identity development in adolescent.
Now read on…
1.1 What is identity Development?

Identity is believed to be a key concept in adolescent development. Do
you remember the name Erik Erikson? In which course did you come
across the name? He was the first to point out how central identity is to the
understanding of adolescent development.
Erikson believes that adolescents face an overwhelming number of choices and at

some point during youth they enter a period of psychological moratorium. During
this moratorium they try out different roles and personalities before they reach a
stable sense of self. They may be argumentative one moment, co-operative the next
moment. They may dress neatly one day, sloppily the next day. They may like a
particular friend one week, despise the friend the next week. This personality
experimentation is a deliberate effort on the part of adolescents to find out where
they fit in the world. What then is identity development?
Identity development is the development of an awareness of one’s self-

sameness and continuity that coincides with the perceptions of what other
people think of the individual. This means development of an ego that
UNIT 5 EXPLANATION OF IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
SESSION 1
has the characteristics of centrality, initiative and wholeness. This goes along with
a new level of self-respect and ability to reality-test events and situations that
appear to be threatening while, at the same time, keeping oneself open with fluid
boundaries. It also means knowing when those boundaries need to be drawn and/or
defended.
Success in this endeavour puts a person on the road to mature individuation and
social responsibility. Failure may result in time diffusion (just marking time and
going nowhere), abnormal preoccupation with who one is, role fixation, work
paralysis, confusion about sex roles, authority confusion and confusion of values.
Most of these dilemmas are experienced by adolescents, at some point, as they
navigate this stage of development, and not all come out of it
successfully. This sounds like a very complex concept. Don’t you think
so? Don’t worry as we move on it will become clearer.
1.2 The Four Statuses of Identity

Now that you have an idea about what adolescent identity is, it is just proper for us
to move a step forward by looking at the statuses of identity.
Can you think of what the statuses are? Take your jotter and try to
list what you think constitute the statuses of identity. Try to
compare your idea with the following.
Eriksonian researcher James Marcia (1960, 1980, 1989, 1981,1994) believed that
Erikson’s theory of identity development contains four statues of identity, or ways
of resolving the identity crisis. The extent of an adolescent’s crisis and
commitment is used to classify the individual according to one of the four
identity statuses. What do you think the words crisis and commitment as
used here mean?
Crisis is defined as a period of identity development during which the
adolescent is choosing among meaningful alternatives. Most researchers
use the term exploration rather than crisis. However, in the spirit of Marcia’s
formulation, the term crisis is used here. Are you comfortable with that? Good.
Let’s go on to the second term. Commitment is part of identity development in
which adolescents show a personal investment in what they are going to do. Let’s
turn our attention now to the four identity statuses.

SESSION 1
1.2.1 Identity Diffusion
This is the term Marcia used for adolescents who have not yet
experienced a crisis. In otherwords, they have not yet explored
meaningful alternatives or made any commitments. What is the
implication of this? I think the implication is that not only are they undecided about
occupational and ideological choices, they are also likely to show little interest in
such matters.
1.2.2 Identity Foreclosure
Marcias uses this term to refer to adolescents who have made a
commitment but not experienced a crisis. Can you think of some
instances where we can have this situation? This occurs most often when
parents hand down commitments to their adolescents, usually in an authoritarian
way. In these circumstances, adolescents have not had adequate opportunities to
explore different approaches, ideologies, and vocations on their own.
1.2.3 Identity Moratorium

This term refers to adolescents who are in the midst of a crisis, but whose
commitments either are absent or are only vaguely defined.
1.2.4 Identity Achievement

Identity achievement is Marcias’s term for adolescents who have undergone a crisis
and have made a commitment.
Try to summarize the four statuses of identity development in a

tabular form to help you in your studies. Have you done that?
Good.
Before we end our study on the statuses of identity, it is important to

point out that the identity status approach has been sharply criticized by
some researchers and theoreticians. Some of such people are Blasi,
1988; Cote and Levine, 1988a, 1988b, 1989; Lapsley & Pomer, 1988; Lerner,
1981). They believe that the identity status approach distorts and trivializes
Erikson’s notion of crisis and commitment. On the otherhand, Archer, 1989;
Marcia, 1989; and Waterman, 1989 still believe that the identity status approach is a
valuable contribution to understanding identity.

SESSION 1
1.3 Development of Sense of Identity
Let’s now turn our attention to how sense of identity is developed.
1.3.1 Development of a Stable Identity
Identity has been found to be associated with positive interpersonal relationships,
psychological and behavioural stability, and productive adulthood (Grotevant,
1996). During the identity development process, adolescents’ sense of competency,
connectedness, and control is brought to bear on the task of unifying their sense of
self into a stable and consistent identity and integrating this self-concept into their
understanding of society, so us to feel a part of the larger culture (Erikson, 1968;
Grotevant, 1996; Yates and Youniss, 1995)
1.3.2 Identity Development is Fostered When:
• Adolescents are provided with the opportunity to become

involved in community service (Yates and Youniss, 1995).
Take your jotter and try to list 3 such services. The issue will
come up during your next FTF discussion.
• They receive support for their future goals from family
members, teachers, and friends (Cooper, Jackson, Azmitia,
Lopez, and Dumber, 1996). Tabulate one way each in which
you think family members, teachers, and friends can support
future goals of adolescents.
• They have opportunities to express and develop their own
points of view in their families (Grotevant and Cooper,
1985). Think of two ways in which this is possible and note
them down for the next FTF session.
1.4 Importance of Identity Development in Adolescence

Let’s end this session by finding out why we have to bother ourselves
studying identity development in adolescence. With what we have done
so far, why do you think the study of identity development is important?
Now study the following closely:
• Identify development is a lengthy process. In many instances it is a more

gradual and less cataclysmic transition than Erikson’s term crisis implies
(Baumeister, 1991).
• Identity development is extra ordinarily complex. It neither begins nor ends
with adolescence. It begins with the appearance of attachment, the
development of a sense of self, and the emergence of independence in
SESSION 1
infancy and reaches its final phase with a life review and integration in old
age.
• For the first time, physical development, cognitive development, and social
development advance to the point at which the individual can sort through
and synthesize childhood identities and identifications to construct a viable
path toward adult maturity.
• Resolution of the identity issue at adolescence does not mean that identity
will be stable through the remainder of life. An individual who develops a
healthy identity is flexible and adaptive, open to changes in society in
relationships, and in careers (Adams, Gulotta and Montemayor 1992).
• Identity formation does not happen neatly and it usually does not happen
cataclysmically. At the bare minimum, it involves commitment to a
vocational direction, an ideological stance, and a sexual orientation.
Synthesizing the identity components can be a long and drawn-out process,
with many negations and affirmations of various roles and faces.
• Identity development gets done in bits and pieces. Decisions are not made
once and for all, but have to be made again and again. The decisions may
seem trivial at the time. For example, who to date, whether or not to break
up whether or not to have intercourse, whether or not to take drugs, whether
or not to go to college or finish high school and get a job, etc.
Over the years of adolescence, the decisions begin to form a core of what
the individual is all about as a human being – what is called his or her
identity. Do you now see the importance of identity development in the
adolescent stage? I hope so.
In summary, we began this session by exploring what identity

development is, the four statuses of identity, development of sense of
identity and ended with the importance of identity development in
adolescence.
I hope you enjoyed studying this session. Try to assess yourself by answering the
following questions.
Exercise 5.1
1. The characteristic features of ego that commensurate with identity
development are centrality, initiative and –
(a) oneness (b) sameness (c) uniqueness (d) wholeness
SESSION 1
2. Success in identity development guarantees mature individuation and –
responsibility
(a) economic (b) political (c) psychological (d) social
3. Failure in identity development leads to all the following except
(a) confusion about sex roles (b) role fixation
(c) subordinate confusion (d) work paralysis.
4. The psychological term used for just marking time and making no
progress is – time.
(a) confusion (b) diffusion (c) mismanagement
(d) wastefulness
5. The assertion that adolescents face a lot of choices as they enter a period
of psychological moratorium is the brain child of:
(a) Archer (b) Erik Erikson (c) James Marcia
(d) Jean Piaget
6. The fact that an adolescent can be argumentative one moment and very
co-operative the next moment is a mark of entering a period of
psychological:
(a) disorder (b) fixation (c) moratorium (d) trauma
7. How is the period of adolescent identity development during which the
individual chooses among meaningful alternatives referred to?
(a) crisis (b) fixation (c) moratorium (d) storm and stress
8. Commitment as part of adolescent identity development refers to
(a) communal spirit to a task
(b) exhibiting high spirited behaviour
(c) personal investment to a task
(d) staying on off-task behaviour
9. Identity development is fostered when adolescents are provided with the
opportunity to become involved in community service
(a) True (b) False
10. Identity development is a rapid process (a) True (b) False
Refer to the last page for answers to all SAQ items. Did you score above
7? Good job done. Keep it up.

SESSION 2
SESSION 2: THE TIMING OF IDENTITY FORMATION
You are welcome to the second session of this unit. We are hopeful
that we shall have a very fruitful interaction with you in this session.
Having studied what identity development in adolescence is we shall now turn our
attention to the timing of identity formation. In Unit 1 of this course, we studied the
various stages of adolescent development. Prominent among them were physical,
intellectual, emotional, social and moral development. Alongside these
developmental issues come the development of the sense of identity. Our concern
in this session is to study the timing of identity formation in adolescence.
Objectives
(a) explain Erikson’s fifth developmental stage which refers to identity
versus identity confusion; and
(b) describe developmental changes that characterise adolescence identity
development;
Now read on…
2.1 Erikson’s views on Identity and the Human Life Cycle

In Unit 2 of Psychological Foundations of Education course, you studied
the psychological theory of Erik Erikson. Do you recall the various stages
of psychosocial development? Try to do so now. Have you been able to
tabulate 8 stages? Good; you are doing well. Let’s now turn our focus to the fifth
stage.
Identity versus identity confusion is Erikson’s fifth developmental stage which

individuals experience during the adolescent years. Erikson assigns 12-18 years to
the period.
At this time, adolescents face finding out who they are, what they are all about, and
where they are going in life. Adolescents are confronted with many new roles, such
as vocational and romantic roles. Erikson used a term to describe the gap between
childhood security and adult autonomy that adolescents experience as part of their
identity exploration. He called it Psychological moratorium. Do you
remember this term as used in Session 1 of this unit? Take note of it for it
is the core of identity development in adolescence.
UCCCoDE/ Post-Diploma in Basic Education 199
SESSION 2
As adolescents explore and search their culture’s identity files, they often
experiment with different roles. Youth who successfully cope with these
conflicting identities emerge with a new sense of self that is both refreshing and
acceptable. Adolescents who do not successfully resolve this identity crisis suffer
what Erikson calls identity confusion.
The confusion takes one of two courses. Try to picture what would happen to such
individuals:
• withdraw by isolating themselves from peers and family, or
• immerse themselves in the world of peers and lose their identity in the
crowd.
These indicators give as a clue about the timing of identity development in terms of
whether the adolescent will develop a new sense of self that is both refreshing and
acceptable or will experience identity confusion.
2.2 Developmental Changes

Closely related to the timing of adolescent identity development is some
developmental changes that characterize the stage. Let’s now shift our focus to
these changes.
Young adolescents are primarily in Marcia’s identity diffusion or moratorium

statuses. According to Marcia (1987) there are at least three aspects of the young
adolescent’s development that are important in identity formation.
They are: the young adolescents must –

• establish confidence in parental support,
• develop a sense of industry, and
• gain a self-reflective perspective on their future.
Some researchers believe the most important identity changes take place in youth
rather than earlier in adolescence (Kroger, 1992). Do you agree with this assertion?
Let’s now look at what others say.
Alan Waterman, (1985, 1981, 1992) has found that from the year
preceding high school through the last few years of college, there is
an increase in the number of individuals who are identity achieved,

SESSION 2
along with a decrease in those who are identity diffused. Continuing students in
colleges are more likely to be identity achieved than are college freshmen or high
school students.
What do you think about this view? Note your view for the next FTF
session. For now, let’s go on.
Many young adolescents are identity diffused. These developmental changes are
especially true for vocational choice. For religious beliefs and political ideology,
fewer college students have reached the identity-achieved status, with a substantial
number characterized by foreclosure and diffusion. Thus, the timing of identity
may depend on the particular role involved, and many college students are still
wrestling with ideological commitments.
Many identity status researchers believe that a common pattern of individuals who
develop positive identities is to follow what are called “MAMA” cycles. What does
this bring to mine? At least you brings memories of your mother to you. In any
case let us find out what it is. According to Archer, (1989) MAMA cycles refer to
“moratorium – achievement – moratorium – achievement”. Fracis, Fraser and
Marcia (1989) believed strongly that these cycles may be repeated throughout life.
Personal, family, and societal changes are inevitable, and as they occur, the
flexibility and skill required to explore new alternatives and develop new
commitments are likely to facilitate an individual’s coping skills.
2.3 Coping with Problems Associated with Timing of Identity

Development
As a teacher, you have some crucial roles to play in trying to help your adolescent
students overcome problems associated with timing of identity development. Study
the following suggestions carefully for a more detailed discussion during the next
FTF session.
• Develop education materials to help instruct all persons in the community
regarding high-risk behaviour and their consequences to increase prevention
knowledge.
• Adolescent clinics, working in concert with social workers and school staff,
could become advocates for adolescents from deteriorating families.
• Integrate youth centres into the clinic setting to help encourage the youth to
use preventive services.

SESSION 2
• Examine teacher expectations of students, making teachers aware of

personal stereotypes and prejudices that may affect student – teacher
relations.
• Include representatives of the youth in your programme planning to
facilitate use of health services and prevention programs.
• Develop leadership training for adolescents to help bridge the gap between
health care providers with their peers.
• Develop specific risk-factor programs, such as dropout prevention, to target
potentially high-risk individuals. Provision of health services, counseling,
and self-efficacy/work-study programs may help these individuals remain in
school.
• Establish referral systems with health service providers such as public health
facilities and emergency rooms, to target the youth who are out of school
and may not have access to care.
Together with the schools, develop communication strategies such as

school presentations, one-on-one dialogues, and small-group discussions to
encourage these youth to explore their feelings and attitudes regarding ethnicity,
family, and community. Identify discrepancies between adolescents and their
parents regarding degree of acculturation and ethnic identification to stimulate
changes in health – related behaviour and motivate these students to take an active
role in their own health education.
Have you been using any of these suggestions in dealing with your
adolescent students? I think you have ever used some but not all. I believe
you can now make use of most of them confidently in your teaching.
By way of summary, this session dealt with the timing of identity

formation. Three main issues were considered under this heading.
They are: Erikson’s views on identity and the human life cycle, developmental
changes, and coping problems associated with timing of identity development. I
hope you were comfortable with studying this session. Now, assess yourself on the

SESSION 2
Exercise 5.2
1. Erikson’s Identity versus Identity confusion belongs to which
developmental stage?
(a) Second (b) Third (c) Fourth (d) Fifth
2. What is the age range of Erikson’s Identity versus Identity confusion?

(a) 10-15 yrs (b) 11-16 yrs (c) 12-18 yrs
(d) 12-15 yrs
3. During Erikson’s Identity versus confusion stage all the following

confront the adolescent except: first finding out
(a) what they are all about (b) where they are going in life
(c) who they are (d) who they will become in future
4. Adolescents are confronted with many new roles such as vocational and
– roles.
(a) parental (b) peer (c) romantic (d) social
5. The term that Erikson used to describe the gap between childhood
security and adult autonomy that adolescence experience as part of their
identity exploration is called psychological……
(a) achievement (b) diffusion (c) foreclosure
(d) moratorium
6. Which of the following issues in identity diffusion is not very important in

adolescent development according to Marcia?
(a) establish confidence in parental support
(b) develop a sense of industry
(c) gain a self-reflective perspective on their future
(d) recognize the role of peer support
7. What does the term “MAMA cycles” refer to in adolescent development?

(a) achievement – moratorium – achievement – moratorium
(b) moratorium – achievement – moratorium – achievement
(c) achievement – achievement – moratorium – moratorium
(d) moratorium – moratorium – achievement – achievement

SESSION 2
8. Individuals who suffer identity confusion withdraw themselves in the

world of peer and loose their identity in the crowd
(a) True (b) False
9. Individuals who suffer identity confusion withdraw themselves in the

world of peers and family (a) True (b) False
10. The timing of identity may depend on the particular role involved.
(a) True (b) False
Refer to the lost page for answers to all SAQ items
How did you perform on these questions? I guess you had more than 6 correct.
That is great. Continue that way.

SESSION 3
SESSION 3: THE PERSONAL CONTEXTUAL MILIEU

FOR IDENTITY FORMATION
We have studied the statuses of adolescent identity development. We
also examined the timing of identity formation in terms of the
developmental changes that characterize the period and offered some suggestions
on how to address some of the problems associated with the timing. At this stage,
let us turn our focus on the personal contextual milieu for identity formation.
This session focuses on the biophysical characteristics of individuals. Although
numerous biophysical characteristics have been studied as potential influences on
developmental pathways, those that are particularly salient for the majority of
adolescents and therefore relevant to our study are: temperament, the experience of
puberty, gender, and cognitive development.
Before we take each one for a closer study, we need to note that individuals bring to
their social interactions, multiple characteristics based on their genetic inheritance
and prenatal environments. (i.e. biological, neurological, and physiological
characteristics) These characteristics do not determine specific developmental
pathways. Rather, they are aspects of persons that have a potential to affect the
nature of their interactions with the environment.
Objectives
(a) explain how individual’s temperament affect his identity formation;
(b) describe how the experience of puberty affects identity formation;
(c) account for the role of gender in identity formation; and
(d) outline how cognitive development affects identity formation.
Now read on…
3.1 Temperament and Identity Formation

What does the word temperament bring into your mind? Temperament
describes the mood, activity levels, and tendency toward excitability that
characterize individuals from early infancy. Some infants may be
termed “easy babies; they are generally pleasant in nature, easy to soothe, easy to
read with respect to cues, and socially responsive. Other “more difficult babies”
may be often irritable and difficult to soother and may exhibit high activity levels.
UCC CoDE/ Post-Diploma in Basic Educati on 203

UNIT 5 THE PERSONAL CONTEXTUAL MILIEU FOR
SESSION 3 IDENTITY FORMATION
Reflect on your own general disposition and assess yourself, were

you an “easy baby” or “more difficult baby”. Keep the answer to
yourself.
It is not clear why infants’ temperaments differ, but it has been found that
temperamental characteristics exhibited in infancy often appear to persist
throughout childhood and to be associated with differential outcomes during
adolescence. Research has found that being an “easy baby” is associated with
positive developmental outcomes in adolescence (Cains and Cains, 1994; Werner
and Smith, 1992). On the otherhand, being a “more difficult baby” is associated
with antisocial behaviour in early childhood (Sampson and Laub, 1994). This in
turn has been found to be a strong predictor of life-course persistent antisocial
behaviour (Moffit, 1993; Reid and Patherson, 1991; Sampson and Laub, 1994).
The potential challenges in bonding with “more difficult babies” and applying
sanctions in a loving and consistent manner suggest that temperament may affect
children’s opportunities to experience interactions that nurture the development of a
sense of connectedness to others and control over their lives. Parents of infants who
exhibit high irritability and activity levels may need guidance and support in their
interactions with these children to ensure that they develop a sense that they are
cared about and that the outcomes of their behaviours are consistent and predictable.
Are you convinced that temperament actually plays a vital role in identity
formation? That is the reality of human nature.
3.2 The Experience of Puberty on Identity Formation

I hope the word puberty is not new to you. Is it? Puberty is not only universally
experienced by adolescents but almost always affect the nature of adolescents but
almost always affect the nature of adolescents’ reciprocal interactions. In societies
in which puberty marks entry into adult status, changes in the quality of social
interactions are dramatic. In contemporary American society, puberty is
just one of many events that occur in the transition from childhood to
adulthood. As a result, changes in expectations and in the quality of
interactions are less dramatic, although they are still apparent. The reverse is the
case in most traditional settings in Africa. Did you go through puberty rites when
you were an adolescent?

SESSION 3
Since entering puberty is believed to affect the quality of the reciprocal

interactions experienced by individuals, extensive research has been
conducted on how the age of onset of puberty impacts on developmental
outcomes. The current consensus is that the age at which individuals begin puberty
has minimal influences on developmental outcomes. In general, early puberty for
boys and on-time puberty for girls have been associated with slightly easier
adjustment, whereas very late puberty for boys and very early puberty for girls
have been associated with slight increases in adjustment problems (Brooks-Gunn
and Reiter, 1996; Lerner, 1992, 1995).
Other researchers such as Brook-Gunn and Reiter, (1990); Clausen, (1975); Lerner,
(1992); Magnusson, (1988), McGhee (1984), Statlin and Magnusson, (1990) have
found that puberty’s influence on developmental path ways depends primarily on
the perceptions and expectations of the social context. When pubertal changes are
responded to positively within adolescents’ social contexts, particularly by families
and members of the community, the event appears to be experienced without
significant adjustment problems, regardless of the age of onset. Did you experience
any adjustment problems when you entered puberty?
3.3 Gender and Identity Formation

Gender is considered to be a deciding factor in many issues. However, whether it
has some impact on identity formation is what we want to consider now. Gender
has considerable implications for the nature of reciprocal interactions that
individuals experience in their social context. Males and females, from infancy to
old age, experience similar environmental contexts in different ways. Contextual
characteristics that have been found to act as stressors, risk factors, protective
factors, or primary influences on positive development for girls have not been found
to serve the same function for boys, and vice versa (Cairns and Cairns, 1994;
Werner and Smith, 1992). Relationships with peers and family members also vary
considerably as a function of the gender of both children and parents (Youniss and
Smollar, 1985).
Similarly, the actions of various aspects of the social contexts (i.e. society,
community, family, and peers) toward children and adolescents often are guided by
gender. Even the characteristics of competency, connectedness and control can be
gender related, with competency and control viewed as important attributes for
male development and connectedness as important for female development.
Despite potential differences in the content of social interactions experienced by

males and females, the form of these interactions must be similar if children are to
develop along positive pathways. For example, although developing a sense of
competency for males and females may require engaging in different types of
productive activities, both males and females need to win recognition for their
productivity in order to develop a strong sense of competency.
3.4 Cognitive Development and Identity Formation

I believe you would be wondering about what cognitive development has got to do
with identity formation. Don’t worry just read on and you would be better informed
about the issue very soon.
A striking transition that occurs during adolescence is the shift in

cognitive development from concrete to formal-logical thought
(Furth, 1969; Piaget, 1965). Do you remember the four stages of
Piaget’s cognitive development? Take your jotter and write them out. Could you
recall all without a problem?
Great! You are on course.

With formal-logical thought, the individual moves from thinking about real or
known objects to “thinking about thinking”. What do you understand by this? This
enables an individual to construct various logical possibilities. For example, “what
if – “or formulate cause-and- effect hypotheses such as “if… then” about possible
relationships in the physical or social world.
Formal-logical thought is important not only in the development of problem solving

and negotiation skills and the ability to perform in academic settings requiring
abstract thought (Barone, Aguirre – Deandreis, and Trickett, 1991. Youniss and
Smoller, 1985), but also for development of a sense of competency, connectedness,
control, and identity. Full development of these psychosocial characteristics is
predicated on individuals’ abilities to reflect on their interactions with others and
construct meaning from these interactions based on logical possibilities.
On the whole, the shift to formal-logical cognitive abilities during adolescence has
implications for almost all areas of functioning, ranging from performances on
academic tests to relationships with mothers and fathers. Although it is generally
agreed that this shift in thought processes is universally experienced at some time
during the adolescent era, the direction in which formal – logical thinking will
SESSION 3
develop in children is primarily shaped by the society and culture in which they live
(Grotevant, 1996). When a society or culture provides adolescents with
experiences that expose them to ideas and ways of thinking that require formal-
logical thought, then adolescents will have more opportunities to develop these
processes.
How do you reconcile the findings here with the Ghanaian saying that “a child
should be seen and not heard?” Interesting I suppose?
In this session, we noted the crucial role that temperament,

experience with puberty, gender and cognitive development play in
identity formation in adolescence. Specific research findings were cited to support
the assertions in the literature.
How do you find this session? I think it has been interesting.
Assess yourself by answering the following questions
Exercise 5.3
1. Which of the following cannot be considered as a description of
temperament?
(a) mood (b) activity levels
(c) tendency towards excitability (d) attempt
2. Infants who are generally pleasant in nature and easy to read with
respect to cues are refered to as ….babies
(a) easy (b) difficult
(c) moderate (d) very difficult
3. Infants who are often irritable and may exhibit high activity levels are
termed as – babies
(a) easy (b) difficult
(c) moderate (d) very difficult
4. Being an “easy baby” is associated with antisocial behaviour in early
childhood.
(a) True (b) False
5. Puberty always affects the nature of adolescent’s reciprocal interaction.

(a) True (b) False
6. Entering puberty affects the quality of reciprocal interactions

experienced by individuals. (a) True (b) False
7. Which of the following authorities is not associated with the finding that
puberty’s influence on developmental pathways depends mainly on the
perceptions and expectations of the social context.
(a) Brook-Gunn (b) McGhee
(c) Statin and Magnusson (d) Werner and Smith
8. Which of the following contextual characteristics do not have primary

influences on positive development of girls?
(a) Adjustment (b) Protective factors
(c) Risk factors (d) Stressors
9. What should be done for males and females to win recognition for their
productivity? They need to develop a strong sense of:
(a) Competency (b) Connectedness
(c) Control (d) Identity
10. The direction in which formal-logical thinking will develop in children

is basically shaped by the:
(a) Church (b) Community
(c) Peers (d) Society.

SESSION 4
SESSION 4: THE SOCIAL-ENVIRONMENTA MILIEU FOR

IDENTITY FORMATION
I hope you have realized that so far, we have looked at what identity
formation in adolescence is and its timing. We also examined the
issues involved in the personal contextual milieu for identity formation. We want
to move a step further. Our concern in this session is to look at the social-
environmental milieu for identity formation. I am very optimistic that you will
enjoy studying this session because it will prepare you to be more functional as a
professional teacher.
Objectives
(a) identify the three main social-environmental factors used in the study of
identity formation;
(b) explain how economic and employment conditions influence identity
formation:
(c) describe how discrimination and prejudice affect identity formation; and
(d) explain the extent to which educational institutions impact on identity
formation.
Now read on…
Three main variables have been identified in the literature as far as social-
environmental milieu for identity formation is concerned. These are: economic and
employment conditions, discrimination and prejudice, and educational institutions.
Let’s take a closer look at each one of these variables.
4.1 Economic and Employment Conditions

An important arena in which adolescents are able to develop a sense of identity is
the world of work. When adolescents perceive their futures in terms of
jobs or careers that will allow them to have positive work experiences
and become economically self-sufficient, they are more likely to feel a
sense of connectedness to society and control over their fate in life.
However, recent economic conditions in America suggest that up to one-third of
today’s youth will face serious obstacles in obtaining employment and are at risk of
never achieving economic self-sufficiency (Smith, Moore house, and Trist, 1988).
The situation in Africa is even worse.

UNIT 5 THE SOCIAL-ENVIRONMENTAL MILIEU FOR
Assisting youth in developing a sense of competency, connectedness,

control, and identity is difficult when labour market conditions are
unfavourable. Some studies suggest that holding a part-time job during
high school can foster a sense of competency if the job is challenging and gives the
youth an opportunity to use cognitive skills, receive support from adults, take
initiative, and receive feedback and recognition for their performance (Hamilton
and Powers, 1990; MacAllum and Ma, 1995).
However, the positive impacts of these experiences will not last if adequate
employment after graduating from high school is not available.
Think about the following points that also affect the development of a
sense of competency, connectedness to society, control over one’s fate,
and identity for the next FTF discussion.
• A reduction in a family’s financial resources has been found to be associated

with increases in abusive family processes, parental depression and stress, and
disruptions in care giving, all of which have negative implications for
adolescent development.
• Living in poverty for extended periods of time has been found to have
potentially adverse effects on adolescent development through its impact on
the ability of parents to monitor and discipline their children effectively.
How can these people be helped?
Families who experience extended unemployment or loss of financial

resources will need guidance and support in maintaining positive family
relationships despite stressors created by living in poverty or a reduction in family
resources.
For example, research has established that when communities provide parents with
support in their parenting efforts through both informal and formal institutional
networks, the potentially negative impact of poverty on adolescent development is
buffered (McLoyd, 1990; Sampson and Laub, 1994).
4.2 Discrimination and Prejudice

Have you ever been discriminated against? How did you feel like? Let’s
see what normally happens in such situations. Experiencing prejudice and
SESSION 4
discrimination based on race, ethnicity, social class, and/or sexual orientation also
influences development of a sense of competency, control, connectedness to societal
institutions, and identity. The presence of prejudice and discrimination in American
society means that some youth must cope with expressions of group rejection, in
addition to the more generic in securities and identity pursuits inherent in the
adolescent era.
Youth who encounter discrimination and prejudice report experiencing frustration,
confusion, and bewilderment, which lead to feelings of anger, distrust, lack of
connectedness with the larger society, and feelings of helplessness and
hopelessness.
How can we address this issue? The negative effects of discrimination
may be moderated to some extent by positive experiences in the family
and the community, particularly support from non-parental adults in the
community and involvement in youth organizations, hobbies, and community
service activities.
Another contextual arena that has the potential to moderate the effects of
discrimination and prejudice is the community school. What is a
community school? In our Ghanaian context, they are the public schools
or cyto schools. Community schools can function as protective factors for children
and youth who experience prejudice and discrimination if administrators and
teachers maintain high expectations for youth regardless of their race, ethnicity, or
socioeconomic status. Do you think that is possible?
4.3 Educational Institutions

As noted earlier, adolescents’ school experiences can have both positive and
negative influences on the development of a sense of competency, connectedness to
society, control, and identity. One feature of American and also Ghanaian school
system that appears to have a particularly negative influence on adolescent
development is its structure.
Throughout Ghanaian community, the public school system is structured so that

children move from primary to middle or JSS and then to SSS. Several studies have
found that the transitions from school to school often have adverse effects on
developmental pathways. For example, the transition to middle or JSS from
primary school was found to be associated with decreases in academic motivation,
grade point averages, and self-esteem as well as increases in negative
attitudes toward school. The transition to high schools was found to be
associated with further decreases in academic motivation and increases in negative

attitudes toward school. However, when students make the transition to SSS from
primary schools with kindergarten through JSS there do not
appear to be similar detrimental effects (Eceles etal; 1993; Lord et al.,

1994). What do you think accounts for this phenomenon? We shall now
turn our attention to that.
The adverse effects of transitioning from primary to JSS have been attributed to a
“mismatch” between the developmental needs of early adolescents and the new
school environment. This is because at the onset of adolescence, children’s needs
for adult support and guidance and academic challenges increase. However, with
the transition to middle or JSS to SSS, children usually experience decreased
opportunities to develop close relationships with teachers, larger classrooms, less
challenging work, increased demands on performance, and less personal support
from school personnel. With this awareness, what is our role as teachers in
resolving this problem?
Assisting adolescents in making successful transitions at each school level requires

consideration of their developmental and educational needs. Research has found
that when middle school or JSS environments are structured to provide more
personal student-teacher interactions, less emphasis on competition, more
challenging work, and more small group and individual instruction, the association
between the transition to middle school or JSS and increases in negative behaviours
and attitudes is moderated (Eccles et al; 1993; Lord et al. 1994).
This session looked at three main social-environmental factors for

identity formation. They are: economic and employment conditions,
discrimination and prejudice, and educational institutions. The point was made that
adolescents are able to develop a sense of identity in the world of work.
Discrimination and prejudice account for frustration, confusion and bewilderment
among the youth. Finally, it was realized that transitions from school to school
often have adverse effects on developmental pathways of adolescents.
I hope you have been very comfortable with this session. Now, try to answer the

SESSION 4
Exercise 5. 4
1. The three main variables associated with social-environmental milieu for

identity formation are the following except:
(a) discrimination and prejudice
(b) economic and employment conditions
(c) educational discrimination
(d) educational institutions
2. What makes assisting the youth in developing a sense of competency and

identity difficult?
(a) falling standards of education (b) lack of counseling service
(c) lack of skilled labour in the youth
(d) unfavourable labour market conditions
3. Holding a part-time job during high school can foster a sense of complesancy
if the job is challenging.
(a) True (b) False
4. What will happen if the positive impacts of adequate part-time job

experiences is not available? The experience will:
(a) last longer (b) not lost long
(c) lead to the acquisition of essential skills
(d) lead to skills acquired becoming rasty
5. Discrimination and prejudice are based on social class, sexual orientation, race
and …..
(a) ethnicity (b) identity
(c) level of education (d) nationality
6. Discrimination and prejudice in the youth leads to feelings of

(a) anger (b) frustration
(c) joy (d) loneliness

7. Private schools can function as protector to the youth who experience

prejudice and discrimination.
(a) True (b) False
8. What makes the structure of public school system to be perceived

negatively?
(a) lack of discipline (b) poor infrastructure
(c) the principle of one teacher one class
(d) the transition from school to school
9. Schools with kindergarten appear to have similar detrimental effects on

adolescence in their transition to SSS from primary school.
(a) True (b) False
10. Why do we have a “Mismatch” between developmental needs of early

adolescents and their new school environment? Because at the onset of
adolescence, children’s needs for:
(a) adult support, guidance and academic challenges increase
(b) independence from adult control increases
(c) teacher support decreases
(d) teacher support increases

SESSION 5
SESSION 5: CULTURAL AND ETHNIC ASPECTS OF IDENTITY

You would recall that in session 4 we looked at economic and
employment conditions, discrimination and prejudice and educational
institutions as the three main socio-environmental factors that contribute to identity
formation. In this session, our focus will be on the cultural and ethnic aspects of
identity. An attempt would be made to define community culture, describe the role
of culture in identity development and finally, we shall tabulate a model of minority
identity development.
Objectives
(a) explain what community culture is;
(b) describe the role of culture in identity development; and
(c) outline Cross’s model of minority identity development.
Now read on…
5.1 What is Community Culture?

Community culture refers to the values and guiding tenets underlying the beliefs
and behaviours of a particular group within any society. In communities in which
the culture is consistent with that of the larger society, adolescents will experience
interactions that support the development of both a sense of connectedness to
society and a belief in their competency to function within that society.
However, when a community culture differs in significant ways from that of
the larger society, the youth often are required to become “bicultural” in the
sense of being capable of demonstrating competence in both the larger society and
their own communities. Do you observe this pattern in the community in which
you are teaching?
5.2 Role of Culture in Identity Development

Erikson was especially sensitive to the role of culture in identity development. He
pointed out that throughout the world, ethnic minority groups have struggled to
maintain their cultural identities while blending into the dominant culture. Erikson
said that this struggle for an inclusive identity, or identity within the larger culture,
has been the driving force in the founding of churches, empires, and revolutions
throughout history. Do you share the same view with Erikson?
For ethnic minority individuals, adolescence is often a special stage in their
development. Although children are aware of some ethnic and cultural differences,
most ethnic minority individuals consciously confront their ethnicity for the first
UCCCoDE/Post-Di pl oma in Basic Education 215
UNIT 5 CULTURAL AND ETHNIC ASPECTS OF IDENTITY
SESSION 5
time in adolescence. In contrast to children, adolescents have the ability to interpret
ethnic and cultural information, to reflect on the past, and to speculate about the
future. As they cognitively mature, ethnic minority adolescents become acutely
aware of the evaluations at their ethnic group by the majority white culture.
Ethnic minority youth’s awareness of negative appraisals, conflicting values, and

restricted occupational opportunities can influence their life choices and plans for
the future.
The contexts in which ethnic minority youth live influence their identity
development. Many ethnic minority youth in the United States and many
parts of Africa live in low-income urban settings where support for developing a
positive identity is absent. Many of these youth live in pockets of poverty, are
exposed to drugs, gangs, and criminal activities. They interact with other youth and
adults who have dropped out of school and/or are unemployed. In such settings,
effective organizations and programs for youth can make important contributions to
developing a positive identity.
Shirley Heath and Milbrey McLaughlin (1993) studied sixty youth organizations
that involved 24,000 adolescents over a period of 5 years. They found that these
organizations were especially good at building a sense of ethnic pride in inner city
ethnic youth. Heath and McLaughlin believe that many inner-city youth have too
much time on their hands, two little to do, and too few places to go. Inner-city
youth want to participate in organizations that nurture them and respond positively
to their needs and interests. Organizations that perceive youth as fearful, vulnerable,
and lonely but also frame them as capable, worthy, and eager to have a healthy and
productive life contribute in positive ways to the identity development of ethnic
minority youth.
Do you notice these characteristics in adolescents in your area?
5.3 Model of Minority Identity Development

Evidence in the literature suggests that there are a number of stages involved in the
development of an ethnic identity, whether for minorities or for whites. For the
purposes of our study, we shall limit ourselves to Cross’s model as amended by
Helms to include four stages. Take time off and study these closely.
Stage 1: Preencounter. In this first stage, ethnic minority individuals prefer

dominant cultural values to those of their own culture. Their role models,
lifestyles, and value systems are adopted from the dominant group, while the
SESSION 5
physical and/or cultural characteristics that single them out as ethnic minority
individuals are a source of pain and stress.
Take your jotter and write out an example of this stage. Compare
your answer to this one. African Americans may perceive their own
physical features as undesirable and their African cultural values
and ways a handicap to success in American society.
Stage 2: Encounter: In the encounter stage, ethnic minority individuals begin to

break through their denial. For example, those who feel ashamed of their
cultural upbringing may have conversations with others who are proud of
their cultural heritage. Ethnic minority individuals become aware during
the encounter stage that not all cultural values of the
dominant group are beneficial to them. Conflicting attitudes
about the self, minority group culture, and the dominant
culture are characteristic of the encounter stage. Ethnic
minority individuals want to know how to develop this identity. The
recognition that an identity must be developed and not found leads to the
third stage.
Stage 3: Immersion/Emersion: At the beginning of the immersion stage ethnic

minority individuals completely endorse minority views and reject the
dominant society. Individuals become strongly motivated to eliminate the
oppression of their ethnic minority group. Movement into this stage likely
occurs because:
(i) individuals begin to resolve some conflicts from the previous stage and
develop a better understanding of such societal forces as racism,
oppression, and discrimination; and
(ii) individuals begin to ask themselves; why should I feel ashamed of who I
am? The answer at this point often elicit both guilt and anger- the guilt of
“selling out” in the past, which is perceived as contributing to the ethnic
minority group’s oppression, and anger at having been oppressed and
“brainwashed” by the dominant group.
In the second phase of this stage, which is the emersion stage, individuals
experience feelings of discontent and discomfort with their rigid views of the
immersion phrase and develop notions of greater individual autonomy.
Emersion allows them to vent the anger that characterized the beginning of
this stage, through rap groups, explorations of their own culture, discussions
SESSION 5
of racial/ethnic issues, and so on. Education and opportunities to expel hostile
feelings allow individuals, emotions to level off, so that they can think more
clearly and adaptively. They no longer find it necessary to reject everything
from their own culture. They now have the autonomy to determine the
strengths and weaknesses of their culture and to decide which parts of the
culture will become a part of their identity.
It is important to note that although the identity development models include

distinct stages, the boundaries between the stages are not always abrupt and dearly
defined. In many instances, one stage blends into the next. Also, not all
individuals experience the entire range of these stages in their lifetime. Some
individuals are born and raised in a family functioning at stage 4.
How do you find this session on cultural and ethnic aspects of identity?
Very interesting, I suppose. Try to answer the self-assessment questions
to access your understanding of the lesson.
Exercise 5.5
1. The values and guiding tenets underlying the beliefs and behaviours of a
particular group within in society are referred to as community
(a) constitution (b) conventions
(c) culture (d) norms
2. When is one said to be ‘bicultural’? When one demonstrates competence in

both
(a) in the community and school (b) school and in church
(c) the larger society and their own communities
(d) the larger society and in school
3. Throughout history what has been the driving force behind the founding of
churches, empires and revolutions? The struggle for
(a) ethnic identity (b) exclusive identity
(c) identity diffusion (d) inclusive identity
4. Adolescence is always a special junction in the development of ethnic minority
individuals.
(a) True (b) False
SESSION 5
5. Adolescents have the ability to interpret ethnic and cultural information to

reflect the past and to speculate about the future.
(a) True (b) False
6. What influence can ethnic minority youth’s awareness of negative appraisals,

conflicting values, and restricted occupational opportunities have on
adolescence?
(a) ability to take early decision
(b) further education and awareness
(c) life choices and plans for the future
(d) occupational choices through education
7. The contexts in which ethnic minority youth live influence their identity
development.
(a) True (b) False
For items 8 – 10, match the description of development of an ethnic identity labeled
X with the corresponding stage labeled in the column Y.
8. Prefer dominant cultural values to those of their (a) Encounter

own.
9. Begin to break through their denial (b) Immersion/

Emersion
10. Completely endorse minority views and
reject the dominant society (c) Pre encounter
(d) Post encounter
How did perform on this quiz? I hope you scored above 7.

Good job done. Keep it up.

SESSION 5


SESSION 6
SESSION 6: IMPROVING ADOLESCENT IDENTITY

DEVELOPMENT
So far in this unit, we have looked at the concept of identity formation,

its timing, the personal and social-environmental milieu for identity
formation, and the cultural and ethnic aspects of identity. Do you recollect some of
the main issues we raised in each session? I am sure you do.
Having come this far, I believe you would be wondering what can be done to either
solve or minimize the problems that adolescents face in identity development.
Don’t worry, just get ready and study carefully the following sub-sessions and you
will feel more confident to help the adolescents that you teach.
Objectives
(a) describe the role of the community in assisting children with the task of
developing identity in adolescence;
(b) identify the sources of support in the community for identity formation;
(c) tabulate the role of quality youth-serving institutions and organization
in identity formation;
(d) explain the implications of youth development for interventions.
Now read on…
6.1 Role of Community Schools

I hope you are aware of the fact that apart from inculcating knowledge, schools are
expected to teach values. It is in line with this that community schools are
considered an important resource for assisting children with the task of developing
a sense of competency in their communities and in the larger society.
Why is this so? The answer is simple: the schools are linked to both of
these contexts. How do the schools do it?
As a resource, school administrators and teachers must acknowledge the influences

of community culture and the importance of maintaining it as part of the
adolescents’ sense of competency, connectedness, and identity. In some
communities this may require that schools transform their routine

UNIT 5
CULTURAL AND ETHNIC ASPECTS OF IDENTITY
SESSION 6
educational approaches and develop those that are more culturally responsive in
order to enhance the academic outcomes and competency of the youth they serve.
Don’t you think so?
In addition, schools in some communities will need to recognize that the youth they
serve may not experience adolescence in the same manner as youth in other
communities. For example, some researchers have suggested that in disadvantaged
African-American and other minority communities, adolescence may not be a clear
development stage (Burton et al. 1995; Mcttale, 1995). Although these youth may
be viewed as adolescents by the society, within their communities they
often have already assumed the roles and status of adults. This is
because many youth in these communities grow up in “age-
condensed” families. The families in which parents are only 14 to 16
year older than their children, shoulder heavy family responsibilities such as child
care and contributing to family finances, compete with older residents for available
employment opportunities, and experience early parenthood. Adolescents who
experience these events in their lives tend to view themselves as adults and to
perceive the schools as treating them like children. Have you heard of this term
before? I am not sure.
6.2 Availability of Sources of Support in the Community

When communities provide high-levels of both formal and informal support for
parents, the ability of parents to effectively monitor and control their children’s
behaviours is enhanced. The presence of community support factors has been found
to buffer the negative effects of other community dimensions, particularly poverty,
on youth’s developmental pathways. Support for parents is highest in communities
in which:
(i) there are dense friendship networks among adults;
(ii) articulation and support for common values about child and youth
development;
(iii)monitoring and supervision of youth, especially by non parental adults; and
(iv) mutual accountability among adults on behalf of youth.
The availability of prosocial support for adolescents from non parental

adults in the community ecologies that promote positive
developmental path ways from those that do not. However, the
salience of this type of support for individual adolescents appears to vary by gender
and ethnicity. Formal sources of support include support from teachers, counselors,
and coaches.

SESSION 6
6.3 Availability of Quality Youth-Serving Institutions and

Organizations
High-quality, youth-serving organizations are those in which activities are
deliberately structured to provide a set of operational procedures, values, and mores
that teach and encourage prosocial behaviour. These organizations include extra
curricular, school-based organizations as well as broad-based community
organizations such as Boys and Girls clubs, church groups, YMCAs, YWCAs and
sports leagues.
The availability of these organizations in a community provides support to parents

by engaging youth in structured activities that endorse parental values. They also
provide support to youth by creating points of contact between adolescents and
other adults in the community who may serve as sources of encouragement and
advice. This promotes the social integration of the youth with their community.
Larson (1994) found in a study that involvement during high school in
organizations related to hobbies and interests is associated with diminished
delinquent behaviour during adolescence for both girls and boys and predicts
continued involvement in similar organizations in adulthood. In addition, it has
been established that involvement in these groups and organizations provide
adolescents with the opportunity to engage in productive activities and win
recognition for their productivity, thus fostering the development of a sense of
industry and competency.
The presence of high-quality, youth-serving organizations in a community also

means that children will have access to attractive, organized, and positive activities
during their out-of-school hours. This is important because the combination of high
levels of youth idleness and lack of shared positive activities with adults in urban
communities has been found to be directly related to higher levels of youth crime
(Connell and Walker, 1994).
In some communities, the churches and church-sponsored youth organizations often

are the primary organizations serving the youth. In these communities, the church
performs an instrumental as well as a spiritual role to provide youth with alternative
coping mechanisms and experiences that foster the development of connectedness
to community and society, competency, and identity (Winfield, 1995).

UNIT 5
SESSION 6
6.4 Implications of Youth Development for Intervention

What are interventions? What intervention techniques do you use when
teaching?
Interventions are defined here as activities, services, or public policies designed to

assist youth in making a successful transition to adulthood. These interventions
may target youth directly or may focus on their parents, other significant adults,
and/or community organizations and institutions. For some adolescents,
interventions may be needed to redirect them to positive pathways.
Since development occurs through reciprocal interactions between individuals and

their social context, interventions must focus on providing adolescents with
opportunities to experience the kinds of interactions that promote positive
developmental outcomes. Those that have been identified in the research literature
as most productive of positive outcomes include the following:
• Interactions that engage children with recognition for their productivity.
• Interactions that involve adult monitoring and supervision of adolescents’
behaviours and activities.
• Interactions in which adults consistently and in a caring manner, provide
approval for prosocial behaviours and negative sanctions for antisocial
behaviours.
• Interactions with adults and peers that involve giving and receiving
emotional support, encouragement, and practical advice.
• Interactions between adolescents and adults that are predicated on
acceptance of the adolescent as an individual with a unique history of
experiences based on temperamental, gender-related, societal, cultural,
and family factors.
Can you think of the role of these interactions in youth development?

Take your jotter and list some that you can think of. Compare your
answer with the following.
(i) These interactions foster the development of a sense of industry and

competency; connectedness to other persons and through them to community
and society; control over one’s fate in life and identity. The presence of these
psychosocial characteristies in an individual has been found to be associated

SESSION 6
with positive school performances, prosocial behaviours during adolescence,

membership in non-deviant peer groups, and positive relationships with
parents and peers.
(ii) In providing opportunities for youth to engage in these types of interactions, it

is important to understand that although the form of developmentally
productive interactions may be generalizable across adolescents, the contents
may need to be individualized. Individuals bring to their social interactions
unique histories, and therefore they will not construct the same meaning from
similar experiences. Studies have shown, for example that males and females
respond differently to interactions in which adults provide support or
encouragement to them. Furthermore, their perceptions of the value of that
support often vary depending on characteristics such as gender, age, status,
and ethnicity.
(iii) In designing interventions to promote positive youth development, it is also

important to recognize that even in the most ideal family and interpersonal
situations, the experiences of poverty, prejudice, and discrimination are likely
to have negative effects on developmental pathways. Eliminating poverty,
prejudice, and discrimination requires social and institutional changes that are
beyond the scope of social service programmes of family services agencies.
However, having a sense of competency connectedness, control, and identity
has been found to buffer many of the negative effects of these experiences.
As a result, providing economically or socially disadvantaged youth with
opportunities to engage in interactions that foster the development of these
characteristics may allow them to cope more effectively with social problems
over which they in fact have little control.
(iv) Interventions that promote positive pathways of growth for adolescents should
not be restricted to adolescents and their families. Aspects of the community
such as schools, youth organizations, and other potential sources of support
for parents and adolescents also should be targeted for policy or programmatic
interventions. For example, research suggests that schools have the potential
to buffer the negative effects of growing up in poverty or experiencing
discrimination, prejudice, or an unstable family environment. However, they
will not be able to serve this function unless they are responsive to the
developmental needs of children of all ages and to the cultural features of the
particular community they serve. At present, many community schools are

UNIT 5
SESSION 6
structured on the basis of political or economic conditions rather than
children’s developmental needs. Furthermore, their educational approaches
reflect universally proscribed educational objectives rather than responding to
community or cultural differences.
(v) Finally, interventions must address the problems of youth, families, and
communities as a whole. Although it may be possible to redirect
developmental pathways for a few individual adolescents through targeting
interventions to them and their parents, far larger numbers will be reached
through interventions that encompass all levels of a community and are
available to families with children of all ages.
From our study so far, we realize that these interventions have very serious
implications for adolescent identity development. Don’t you think so?
In sum, we have examined the role of community schools in

improving identity development. We also studied the availability of
sources of support in the community and quality youth-serving institutions and
organizations. Finally, we looked at the implications of youth development for
intervention.
Now try to answer the following questions.
Exercise 6.6
1. As a resource, school administrators and teachers must acknowledge the
influences of community culture and the importance of maintaining it.
(a) True (b) False
2. Why are schools required to transform their routine educational approaches
and develop those that are more culturally responsive?
(a) To enhance the academic outcomes and competency of the youth
(b) To ensure that the youth become competent
(c) To improve academic performance
(d) To improve cultural practices in schools
3. All youth experience adolescence in the same manner in all communities
(a) True (b) False

SESSION 6
4. Families in which parents are only 14 to 16 years older than their children are
termed as – families.
(a) “age-condensed” (b) “youth – condensed”
(c) “sex – condensed” (d) “community-condensed”
5. Why do adolescents who grow up in “age – condensed” families
consider themselves as adults?
(a) They shoulder heavy family responsibilities
(b) They are exposed to all adult experience
(c) They look just like adults
(d) They also begin making their own families
6. How do adolescents who group up in “age – condensed” families perceive the
school? As treating them like
(a) adolescents (b) adults
(c) children (d) young adults
7. What results from the provision of high-levels of both formal and informal
support form communities? Parents:
(a) cannot effectively control their children’s behaviour
(b) are assured of good behaviour from their children
(c) effectively monitor and control children’s behaviour
(d) ensure that everybody in the community checks bad behaviour in
children
8. The presence of community support factors controls the negative effects of other
community dimensions on youth’s developmental pathways.
(a) True (b) False
9. Support for parents is lowest in communities in which there are dense

friendship networks among adults.
(a) True (b) False
10. Which of the following may not be considered as a formal source of support in
the community?
(a) clergy (b) counsellors
(c) policemen (d) teachers

UNIT 5
SESSION 6
Refer to the last page for answers to all SAQ items. I hope you scored above 7 on
the SAQ. That’s great.
Keep it up.
Written Assignments
1. Explain the concept of adolescent identity development and outline the
four statuses of identity.
2. Describe 5 ways you would help your adolescent pupils overcome
problems associated with the timing of identity development.
3. With the use of practical examples, explain how the individual’s
temperaments affect his identity formation.
4. Tabulate and describe each of the three main social-environmental
factors used in the study of identity formation.
5. What role does culture play in identity development.
6. With concrete examples to support your claim, explain 5 implications of
youth development for intervention.

UNIT 6: COUNSELLING THE ADOLESCENT
Unit Outline
Session 1: Identifying Problems of the Adolescent
Session 2: Problems Associated with Adolescent Transitions
Session 3: Conflict Management In Schools
Session 4: The Youth Development Services
Session 5: General Techniques of Counselling the Adolescent
Session 6: Counselling the Adolescent Special Needs
Hello! You are most welcome to the last unit of this course. In unit
5, you studied adolescent identity development paying particular
attention to the approaches, timing, diversity and the milieu in which it takes place.
Unit 6 is a follow-up of unit 5 and it has been organised under six sessions. It starts
with identifying problems of the adolescent. This is then followed by problems
associated with adolescent transition. The next session involves conflict
management in schools. Session 4 is devoted to youth development services. The
next session concerns general techniques of counseling the adolescent whilst the
final session addresses issues about counseling the adolescent special needs.
A thorough understanding of this unit will equip you with the skills of handing
adolescents well.
Unit Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
1. identity 4 major problems of the adolescent;
2. explain 4 problems associated with adolescent transition;
3. manage conflicts associated with adolescents in schools;
4. list and explain 4 services of youth development;
5. describe 5 general techniques of counselling the adolescent; and
6. counsel the adolescent on three special needs.

UNIT 6 COUNSELLING THE ADOLESCENT


SESSION 1
SESSION 1: IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS OF THE ADOLESCENT
This session is a modest attempt to identify problems of the adolescent

for counseling. Too many adolescents are left with the scars of
psychological problems that do not allow them to reach their full potential.
Although not all adolescents have problems or disorders, most of them are at risk
of serious problems
Objectives
(a) outline problems that confront adolescents;
(b) explain the nature of the problems, and
(c) describe the typical problems that adolescents face in your locality.
Now read on…
Do you know that very- high-risk youth have multiple problem

behaviours and make up as many as 10 percent of adolescents?
They include adolescents who have been arrested or have committed serious
offenses, have dropped out of school or are behind their grade level, and users of
heavy drugs, drink heavily, regularly use cigarettes and marijuana, and are
sexually active but do not use contraception. Let’s now consider some specific
problems of the adolescent for counseling.
1.1 Sex-roles
As a direct response to sexual maturation in adolescence, sex roles become more
rigidly enforced by the culture. There may be an inherent wisdom in the roles that
have been in existence for thousands of years in terms of protection
of the children and the social group. What are some of these roles?
Take your jotter and list the roles of male and female separately.
In our milieu, women’s insistence on equal rights has upset the apple
cart. What do you understand by apple cart? Find out for the next FTF
session discussion.
As a result of this change, new adaptations must be made to take care of the needs
of children, sexual needs of adults and the establishment of home life. Fewer
UCC CoDE/ Post - Diploma Degree in Basic Educati on 231
UNIT 6 IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS OF THE ADOLESCENT
SESSION 1
people want to do house work and child care on a full time basis any more, and
those who do are often demigrated. So it is easy to see why adolescents might be
confused about how to find their place in the world.
1.2 Inferiority versus Self-esteem

Self-esteem is based on feelings of competence and confidence. Do
you remember what we said about this? This means that we can feel
capable of controlling, when necessary, the events and people who are
in a position to make demands upon us. We need to feel we are
attractive to others and that others want to be our friends. We would like to be
successful in school and at the same time, maintain the respect of our peers. We
want to be pretty or handsome and attractive to the opposite sex.
All through elementary school, children have been experimenting with

behaviours to see what works for them toward acceptance and
recognition. Now, in adolescence, they find themselves in a new
context, (high school) with new strangers to get to know and accelerating academic
goals to achieve. At the same time, their bodies are betraying them by becoming
awkward and different. All of this tends to upset earlier convictions of confidence,
particularly social competence.
1.3 Peer Influences and Need to Belong

In one of his writings, Howlett (1988) said many of us grow up with little or no
awareness of how often and much we adjust our perceiving to accommodate our
needs for acceptance, approval and belonging. Do you accept this assertion? Well,
let’s find out what it entails.
High schools can be a cemetery of shattered ideals, hopes and dreams for many
adolescents. The need to belong is probably more acute in adolescence than at any
other time of life. This is, at least in part, due to the transition that is being made
from dependence upon family members for our self-esteem, attention and love to
that of our peers. This shift is part of the identity crisis, a move toward
independence and personal integration. However, the peer group cannot
function as a family substitute unless a person is accepted into a group
and not all individuals are. Don’t you think so?

SESSION 1
There is a huge demand to conform in order to be accepted into a group. In

addition, there are variables like appearance, family background, who your friends
are, your level of maturity, etc that play critical roles in your acceptance. We could
say that there is a cult of popularity based on what, from an adult point of view,
seems to be a pretty superficial set of criteria. Furthermore, the criteria may differ
from one high school to another. Another factor that seems to be important is how
long you have been around. Newcomers may have difficulty breaking into
established groups unless they have stellar qualities.
1.4 The Longing

In an attempt to find deeper level of belongingness than peer acceptance,
adolescents search for models that can show them how to become
intimate. These are not easy to come by especially in an age where
disintegration of the family is rampant. Now think about this. If our
parents cannot stay together and live happily in the same house, where
can we possibly find out how to do it?
One way the need to be intimate is occasionally confronted is to become sexually

involved with someone. What do you say about this? There is considerable
evidence to support the idea that sex may serve as an intimacy substitute, in young
girls especially. Many allow themselves to become pregnant even when they have
access to contraceptives because they want a child to love them. No one else does.
This story is heard repeatedly in women’s shelters and crisis centres. Or they think
the father will marry them if they become pregnant, but he does not. It has not been
that long since the sexual norms of abstinence until marriage prevented a great deal
of this tragedy but increasing social acceptance of adolescent sexual intercourse has
removed the one protection young girls had going for them. It is true that there is
no panacea to prevent teen pregnancies, but we did not need to remove the ones we
had. This problem is not limited to adolescent girls. There are plenty of adult
women who are motivated by the same need to be intimate who engage in
unwanted sexual intercourse in order to be embraced or held close. This raises
some critical issues about how we want to be together.
1.5 Romantic Love and Dating

Have you ever seen young adolescents exclaim Aahhh only for you to
realize that the ecstasy is about being in love? Ask anybody of any age
and you would be told it is timeless. No matter how many times we get
hurt, we keep going back for more. It is like a drug to which you get addicted.

SESSION 1
When we are not feeling it, our lives seem flat somehow, edgy and irritable, or we
give up on ever experiencing it again. The fact that falling in love only really
begins to take shape in adolescence suggests that there is a sexual component to it.
That it persists well into old age long after the sexual desires have lost their urgency
implies that there is something more afoot here.
In adolescence, romantic love often takes the form of dating. However, patterns
change from one generation to another. Have you ever head of blind dating? It is a
common practice between Casfodians and students of Adehye Hall of the
University of Cape Coast. In our day, couples went out on single or double dates.
Our children’s peers went out in mixed groups and sometimes paired up and
sometimes they did not. In any case, the primal urges of sexuality trigger the
process of trying to find a compatible mate.
The brain gets into the act by supplying the necessary hormones both for attraction
and for the ecstasy that accompanies falling in love. The idea that these are not
necessarily the same hormones is supported by the fact that it is possible to fall in
love without experiencing a sexual attraction.
1.6 Negativity and Rebellion

Adolescents are known for their tendencies to rebel against their parents, teachers,
and authority figures including the society as a whole. Do you hold a contrary
view? This is no doubt related to the search for independence, but it is also a
response to the gap between an ideal and the actual world in which they live. This
suggests that the veil of socialization has not yet fully enshrouded them, so they can
still see the hypocrisy of social conventions.
1.7 Broken Heartedness

According to James O’ Dea (2001) we cannot fix on the outside what is
broken deep within the human heart and psyche. The need to belong is
basic to human nature. What is the origin of this need? It comes from the
fact that human infants could not survive for the first two years without
constant care and protection by adults. Humans take a very long time to mature
compared to other species, as we have an innate instinct to live in mutually
interdependent groups. There are cultures in the world where, if an individual is
ostracized by the group, he or she will die even without any physical pathology.

SESSION 1
Maslow (1970) placed the need to belong in the centre of his hierarchy of needs. It
comes just after the need for food, water and safety.
Since the need is so strong and because adolescents are trying to move
away from the birth family as a source of support, rejection by the peer
group is especially debilitating. It results in an unwelcome isolation
that creates incredible stress and grief especially since, most times, the person does
not know how to remedy the situation.
When young people are rejected over long periods of time without relief, the pain
eventually becomes unbearable, so the heart is closed down. It is as if there is a
threshold for the endurance of emotional pain and when it is reached, defenses must
be brought in to deal with the wounding.
In this session, we have tried to identify seven adolescent problems

bothering on identity for counseling. They are sex-roles, inferiority
versus self-esteem, peer influences and need to belong. Others are longing,
romantic love and dating. The rest are negativity and rebellion, and broken
heartedness.
I believe you have learnt a lot from this session.
Now try to assess yourself by answering the following questions.
Exercise 6.1
1. Why are sex roles rigidly enforced by the culture during
adolescence? It is a direct response to…….
(a) adolescence maturation.
(b) early maturation in adolescence.
(c) peer pressure.
(d) sexual maturation.
2. What is the outcome of women’s insistence on equal rights?
(a) Establishment of home life.
(b) Increase in sexual needs of adolescence.
(c) More care for children.
(d) Upset of the apple cart.
SESSION 1
3. Inferiority is based on feelings of competence and confidence.

(a) True (b) False
4. Which of the following is not related to the feeling of competence and
confidence?
(a) Being capable of controlling events and people.
(b) Maintaining the respect of our peers.
(c) To be pretty or handsome and unattractive to the opposite sex
(d) To be successful in school.
5. The need to belong is probably less acute in adolescence than at any
other time in life. (a) True (b) False
6. Why is there huge demand to conform in adolescence?
(a) To be accepted into a group.
(b) To be influencial in the peer group.
(c) To strive to be a leader in a group.
(d) To win support of parents.
7. New comers need steller qualities to break into established groups
(a) True (b) False
8. What do adolescents do to find deeper level of belongingness than peer
acceptance? Search for models that…..
(a) can show them how to become intimate.
(b) join church groups.
(c) search for peer groups.
(d) seek counseling.
9. Why do many adolescents allow themselves to become pregnant even
when they have access to contraceptives? They ………….
(a) cannot control themselves
(b) want a child to love them
(c) want man to love them
(d) want to show that they are matured
10. The ecstasy of being in love is timeless.

(a) True (b) False

COUNSELLING THE ADOLESCENT UNIT 6
SESSION 2
SESSION 2: PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH ADOLESCENT

TRANSITIONS
In session 1 of this unit, we dwelt on some specific problems of the

adolescent. Some of them are sex-roles, inferiority vernus self-
esteem, and peer influence and need to belong. Others are longing, romantic love
and dating, negativity and rebellion. The rest is broken heartedness. In this
session we shall move further to examine problems associated with adolescent
transition.
Objectives
(a) tabulate at least 5 problems associated with adolescent transition;
(b) recognize the need for counseling that addresses developmental needs
of young people;
(c) explain 5 counselling strategies that facilitate a smoother transition for
adolescents.
Now read on…
Adolescents face a range of developmental issues. Havighurst (1952) suggested
that two important areas included work and relationships. Levinson (1978)
focused on changing relationships and on exploration, while Erikson (1968)
commented on intimacy and commitment to goals. Supper (1963) indicated that
exploring and crystallizing vocational choice are important to older adolescents
and young adults. What seems evident is that older adolescents and young adults
enter transitions with the goal of becoming independently functioning adults, as
they strive to meet evolving personal and career related needs. Rapid and
escalating changes in labour market and post-second educational opportunities
mean that adolescents now are confronted with the challenge of meeting their
personal and career needs. When neither can offer certainty or a sense of personal
control.
To address this broad range of issues, we have employed a competence
model with eight main areas. These are purpose, problem solving,
communication skills, theoretical knowledge, applied knowledge, organizational
adaptability, human-relations skills, and self-confidence.
UCCCoDE/Post-Di ploma in Basic Education 237

UNIT 6 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH ADOLESCENT
SESSION 2 TRANSITIONS
Counselling Strategies
Borgen and Amundeon (2001) have developed a number of counseling strategies
that facilitate a smoother transition. Let’s take a closer look at each one of the
strategies.
2.1 Developing Multiple Plans

Many young people leave high school with a narrow plan of action and
with few alternatives. Do you remember what your plans were when you
completed Senior High School? Did you plan for alternatives should in
case your original plan did not work? Most adolescents expect to be
successful with their plans and are not prepared to face any barriers. Developing
flexibility in career planning requires a sense of purpose, problem solving skills, and
several plans. Helpful strategies include visualization, lateral thinking, assessing
options, and decision making in a context of uncertainty (Gelatt, 1989).
2.2 Self-Advocacy and Marketing

As young people move towards further education, or into the labour
market, it is critical for them to market and advocate for themselves.
However, they have scarce opportunities and confusing bureaucracies to
grapple with. What then should be done to help this young people? There is the
need to develop communication skills, self-confidence, organizational adaptability,
and effectiveness in human relations. This requires activities such as mentoring,
role-played practice, and ongoing economic, emotional, and informational support.
2.3 Managing Changing Relationships

The emotional and social changes adolescents experience can challenge young
people as they try to cope with barriers in the education system and labour market.
Friends provide emotional support, but this is a time when friendship patterns are
changing. What then should be done? Parents are needed for emotional, material,
and information support, but, at the sametime, they need to allow young people
sufficient room to develop their own sense of identity. Coping with relationship
issues can be facilitated through communication, human relationship training, and
problem solving, which blurs most of the traditional distinction between career and
personal counselling.
238 UCCCoDE/Post-Di ploma in Basic Educati on

SESSION 2
2.4 Meeting Basic Needs

Young people have a strong need for community. Other central needs include
having a sense of meaning in life, physical and emotional security, and basic
structure in relationships and living. As young people move beyond senior high
school, many of these basic needs require revaluation. In addition to changing
relationships, questions emerge as to how to make a living, how to plan meaningful
activities, and how to effectively manage time. To facilitate these changes, young
people need to establish a sense of purpose and understand how they are meeting
their current and future needs. Counsellors can help clarify these issues. Without
this type of developmental assistance, young people often lack the resilience to
manoeuver within increasingly competitive educational and labour market
environments.
2.5 Coping with Loss

Are you surprised at the extent to which young people are influenced by
various personal losses? What loss are we talking about? These losses
involved death in the family (usually grandparents) and the experience of
parental separation and divorce. The impact of these losses upon events are
considerable, suggesting a definite need for youth to develop competence in
handling loss and grieving. Counselling in this domain blurs many of the
traditional distinctions between the personal and career areas.
2.6 Coping with Stress

Adolescence is a period of considerable stress. While much of the stress
can be minimized through support, persistence, and active decision
making and planning, there still will be times when young people find
themselves in difficult situations. Coping with stress is associated with various
competencies such as organizational adaptability, human relations, problem solving,
and self-confidence. Particular strategies for stress management include relaxation
techniques, managing ‘self talk’, focusing, and using support systems.
2.7 Bridging Programmes

Many young people lack “hands-on” experience as they attempt to
enter the world of work. Many also are unfamiliar with, and
fearful of, moving into post-secondary education. Take you jotter
and try to list 2 ways in which these people can be helped to overcome their
problem. Compare your list to the following ones. To address this concern,

counsellors need to develop work experience and co-op education programmes to

help young people acquire the necessary experience. Post-Secondary education
entry programmes can also play an important role in easing transition difficulties.
2.8 Information and Information Access

The challenge in the information age is not only how to gather
information, but how to turn information into personally relevant
knowledge. Young people need up-to-date information on careers,
education programmes, and market trends. Try to list some
sources of information that you know in your jotter for face-to-face discussion.
Adolescents also need to develop skills to assess the relevance of information.

Acquiring these skills involves both theoretical and applied knowledge.
Counselling streategies within this domain include helping young people develop
research, interviewing, and critical analysis skills.
In summary, we notice in this session from the breadth of issues

raised that career counselling needs to encompass a greater range of
issues. It is clear also that personal and career issues are inextricably intertwined for
young people. Furthermore, the ways in which young people make some of their
transition experiences greatly influence their psychological well being. Finally,
families and friends form a strong base for support in the transition period.
I hope you are at home with this session. Now try to answer the following
questions.
Exercise 6.2
1. Which of the following is required in developing flexibility in career
planning?
(a) open mind (b) problem solving mind
(c) sense of purpose (d) specific plans
2. Public advocacy is one critical area as adolescents move toward further

education.
(a) True (b) False

SESSION 2
3. Relationship issues can be facilitated through all the following except

(a) communication (b) human relationship training
(c) problem identification (d) problem solving
4. What is the major hindrance between traditional distinction between

career and personal counselling
(a) insufficient number of trained counsellors
(b) problem identification
(c) problem solving
(d) too many problems
5. Young people have a strong need for basic structure in relationship and
living.
(a) True (b) False
6. What do young people need in order to facilitate the changing needs that
they go through? A sense of ……..
(a) control (b) direction
(c) initiative (d) purpose
7. Much of the stress that adolescents go through can be minimized

through all of the following except.
(a) active decision making (b) insistence
(c) planning (d) support
8. Death in the family, experience of parental separation and divorce are

termed as societal loss.
(a) True (b) False
9. In what way can counselors help adolescents to acquire “hands-on”

experience in their attempt to enter the world of work? To
(a) develop work experience and co-op education programmes
(b) invite professionals to talk to the youth
(c) organize career guidance for them
(d) organize open days in schools

10. Apart from the problem of how to gather information what other
problem do adolescents have with information? How to ……. into
personally relevant knowledge.
(a) manage information (b) retrieve information
(c) store information (d) turn into
Refer to the last page of the module for answers to all SAQ items
How did you perform on this quiz? Was your score above 7?
That is great. Continue that way.

SESSION 3
SESSION 3: CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN SCHOOL
So far, in this unit, we have identified general and transitional

problems that adolescents face and how to deal with them through
counseling.
Having come this far, we shall now turn our attention to school programmes geared
toward conflict resolution. Schools are filled with conflicts. The frequency of
clashes among students and the increasing severity of the ensuing violence makes
managing such incidents very costly in terms of time lost to instructional,
administrative, and learning efforts.
If schools are to be orderly and peaceful places in which high-quality education can
take place, students must learn to manage conflicts constructively without physical
or verbal violence.
Objectives
(a) outline 5 causes of conflict in school;
(b) tabulate the six key principles used in conflict resolution; and
(c) explain each of the six key principles.
Now read on…
School Programmes for Conflict Resolution
The best school programmes in conflict resolution tend to follow six
key principles. Before you continue, try to list 4 ways in which you
manage conflict in your school in your jotter. Now read on and try to
compare with your list as you go on.
3.1 Go beyond Violence Prevention to Conflict Resolution

Training
To curb violence among students, many schools have implemented violence
prevention programmes. Some schools focus on anger management and general
social skills. Others invite guest speakers, for example, police officers, to school,
employ metal detectors, or ask police to patrol the school. Still others show video
tapes of violent encounters and structure discussions around how fights start and
alternative ways to manage aggression Webster (1993) found no evidence that such
programmes produce long-term changes in violent behaviour or decrease the risk of

UNIT 6 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN SCHOOLS
SESSION 3
victimization. The main function of such programmes, Webster argues, is to

provide political cover for school officials and politicians. Why don’t violence
prevention programmes work? Here are a few possible reasons.
• Many programmes are poorly targeted.
• The programmes provide materials but don’t focus on programme
implementation.
• Proponents of violence prevention programmes confuse methods that work
in neighbourhoods with those that work in schools.
• Many programmes are unrealistic about the strength of the social forces that
impel children toward violence.
3.2 Don’t Attempt to Eliminate all Conflicts
The elimination of violence does not mean the elimination of conflict.
Some conflicts can have positive outcomes (Johnson and Johnson 1991,
1992). They can increase achievement, motivation to learn, higher-level
reasoning, long-term retention, healthy social and cognitive development, and the
fun students have in school. Conflicts can also enrich relationships, clarify personal
identity, increase ego strength, promote resilience in the face of adversity, and
clarify how one needs to change.
It is not the presence of conflict that is to be feared but, rather its destructive
management. Attempts to deny, suppress, repress, and ignore conflicts may, in fact,
be a major contributor to the occurance of violence in schools. Given the many
positive outcomes of conflicts, schools need to teach students how to manage
conflicts constructively.
3.3 Create a Cooperative Context
The best conflict resolution programmes seeks to do more than change individual
students. Instead, they try to transform the total school environment into a learning
community in which students live by a credo of nonviolence.
Two contexts for conflict are possible. What are they? Try to list them. According
to Deutsch (1973), and Johnson and Johnson (1989) they are cooperative and
competitive. In a competitive context, individuals strive to win while ensuring their
opponents lose. Those, few who perform the best receive the rewards. In this
contexts, competitions often misperceive one another’s positions and motivations,
avoid communicating with one another, are suspicious of one another, and see the
situation from only their own perspective.

SESSION 3
In a cooperative context, conflicts tend to be resolved constructively. Students have

clear perceptions of one another’s positions and motivation, and define conflicts as
mutual problems to be solved. Cooperators typically have a long-term time
orientation and focus their energies both on achieving mutual goals and on
maintaining good working relationships with others.
Students cannot learn to manage conflicts constructively when their

school experience is competitive and individualistic. In such a context,
constructive conflict resolution procedures are often ineffective and, in
fact, may make the students who use them vulnerable to exploitation. Instead,
schools should seek to create a cooperative context for conflict management, which
is easier to do when the majority of learning situations are cooperative (Johnson and
Johnson 1989, Jonson et al, 1993).
3.4 Decrease in-school Risk Factors

Three factors place children and adolescents at risk for violent behaviour. The first
is academic failure. The second factor that puts children and adolescents at risk for
violent and destructive behaviour is alienation from schoolmates. Third, children
and adolescents who have high levels of psychological pathology are more at risk
for violent and destructive behaviour than students who are psychologically well
adjusted. Think about these factors very well because they will be
discussed further during the next face-to-face meeting.
3.5 Use Academic Controversy to Increase Learning

To show students that conflicts can have positive results, schools should make
academic controversies an inherent and daily part of learning situations. It is
unclear whether cognitive, social, and moral development can take place in the
absence of conflict.
Academic controversy exists when one student’s ideas, information, conclusions,

theories, and opinions are incompatible with those of another, and the two seek to
reach an agreement. How can they reach such an agreement in the mist of
controversy?
For instance, teachers can assign students to cooperative learning groups of four,
divided into two pairs. One pair is assigned a pro position on an issue and the other
pair, the con position. Each pair prepares a persuasive presentation, consisting of a
thesis statement, rationale, and conclusion, to convince the other side of the
position’s validity. The two pairs then meet, and each side presents the best case
SESSION 3
possible for its position. After trying to view the issue from both perspectives
simultaneously, the students drop all advocacy and come to a consensus about their
“best reasoned judgement” based on a synthesis of the two positions.
Studies have established that academic controversy results in increased

student achievement, critical thinking, higher-level reasoning, intrinsic
motivation to learn, perspective-taking, and a number of other important
educational outcomes.
3.6 Teach all Students how to Resolve Conflicts Constructively

Most of the diverse conflict resolution programmes present in schools
are either cadre or total student body programmes. Were you a member
of a cadre corp while in Senior High School? In the cadre approach, a
small number of students are trained to serve as peer mediators for the
entire school. While this approach is relatively easy and inexpensive to implement,
having a few peer mediators with limited training is not likely to decrease the
severity and frequency of conflicts in a school.
In the total student body approach, every student learns how to manage conflicts
constructively by negotiating agreements and mediating their schoolmates’
conflicts. The responsibility for peer mediation is rotated throughout the entire
student body (or class) so that every student gains experience as a mediator. A
disadvantage of this approach is the time and commitment required by the school
authorities.
An example of the total student body approach is the Teaching Students to be
Peacemakers Programme which involves a spiral curriculum involving sophisticated
negotiation and mediation procedures.
The negotiation procedures consist of six steps. Students in conflict:
• define what they want;
• describe their feelings,
• explain the reasons underlying those wants and feelings
Then the students:
• reverse perspectives in order to view the conflict from both sides,
• generate at least three optional agreements with maximum benefits for both
parties; and
• agree on the wisest course of action.

SESSION 3
How do you find these steps? Are they workable? Can you try them in
your school? Go ahead then.
On the other hand, the mediation procedure consists of four steps:

• stop the hostilities;
• ensure that the disputants are committed to the mediation process,
• facilitate negotiations between the disputants, and
• formalize the agreement.
Don’t you think this is interesting? I believe you would use these steps
in your mediation efforts.
Once the students complete negotiation and mediation training, the school (or
teacher) implements the Peace-makers Programme by selecting two students as
mediators each day. It is the actual experience of being a mediator that best teaches
students how to negotiate and resolve conflicts. In addition to using the procedures,
students receive additional training twice a week for the rest of the school year to
expand and refine their skills.
To sum up, it is obvious from this session that it may take longer time
to ensure that children and adolescents can manage conflicts
constructively. The more years that students spend learning and
practicing the skills of peer mediation and conflict resolution, the more likely they
will be to actually use those skills both in the classroom and beyond the school
door.
I hope you enjoyed studying this session. Now, assess yourself on the following
questions.
Exercise 6.3
1. The main function of violence prevention programmes in
schools according to Webster is to provide…………
(a) control of violence.
(b) reduction of violence.
(c) political cover for school officials and politicians.
(d) solution to the problem once and for all.

SESSION 3
2. The following are reasons why violence prevention programmes do not

work except…
(a) methods that work in neighbourhoods are confused with those that
do work in schools.
(b) they are poorly targeted.
(c) they provide materials but do not focus on programme
implementation.
(d) unrealistic programmes about the strength of the social forces that
impel children towards violence.
3. All conflicts can have positive outcomes
(a) True (b) False
4. It is not the presence of conflict that is to be feared but rather its
destructive management
(a) True (b) False
5. The two contexts for conflict that are possible are co-operative and
(a) antagonistic (b) comparative
(c) competitive (d) persuasive
6. Conflicts that result when individuals strive to win while ensuring their
opponents lose are termed as….
(a) anatagoinstic (b) comparative
(c) competitive (d) persuasive
7. Which of the following may not be a direct outcome of conflict in a

cooperative context?
(a) students define conflict as mutual problems to be solved.
(b) students have clear perceptions of one another’s positions.
(c) students mistrust one another.
(d) students motivate, communicate accurately and completely.
8. Which of the following is not a factor that places children and
adolescents at risk for violent behaviour?
(a) academic failure. (b) alienation from school mates.
(c) children and adolescents who have high levels of psychological
pathology.
(d) sicklings.
SESSION 3
9. Academic controversy results in decreased student achievement critical

thinking, and higher- level reasoning
(a) True (b) False
10. The major disadvantage of the total student body approach to conflict
resolution is ……
(a) time and commitment required (b) training and time
(c) training and space required (d) space and commitment
Refer to the last page for answers to all SAQ items.

Did you score above 7 on this quiz? That is wonderful. Keep it up.

SESSION 3


SESSION 4
SESSION 4: PROMOTING YOUTH DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES
In session 3, we discussed conflict management in schools. The focus

was on the causes of conflict and six key principles used in conflict
resolution. Teenagers develop better in the absence of conflict. In this session, we
shall consider issues that promote youth development. The model we want to
consider is based on the proposition that development occurs through reciprocal and
dynamic interactions that take place between individuals and various aspects of
their environment.
Objectives
(a) identify the 3 main pathways for promoting youth development;
(b) explain interactions that promote youth development; and
(c) enumerate problems that hinder good adolescent interaction.
Now read on…
4.1 Developmental Pathways

Pathways to adulthood may take many forms and particular experiences or events
may be viewed as turning points for individuals during which new directions may
be taken. Research findings indicate that positive developmental pathways are
fostered when adolescents have developed the following:
4.1.1 A Sense of Industry and Competency

What does this mean? A sense of industry and competency refers to individuals’
belief in their own abilities. According to research findings, interactions that appear
to nurture the development of a sense of competency are those in which children are
engaged in particular activities and win recognition for their productivity. Erikson
(1963, 1968) postulated that during the elementary school years, children begin to
win recognition by becoming productive persons in the school environment.
Through this recognition, they develop a sense of industry and competency. This
fosters the development of a stable identity during adolescence the perception of the
self as a potentially productive member of society.
Although Erikson attributed development of a sense of industry and competency to

the child’s experiences in school, several studies suggest that other contexts foster it
as well. For example, a sense of industry and competency can be developed
through experiences in the home or community.

UNIT 6 YOUTH DEVELOPMENT SERVICES
SESSION 4
Take your jotter and try to list 3 contexts that you think can also
foster a sense of industry and competency.
Compare your list to the following:

Participation in sports, extracurricular activities involving the arts and hobbies,
community service, religious organizations, part-time jobs (particularly
apprenticeships), and clubs or community organizations also has been found to
provide children and youth with the opportunity to win recognition for their
productivity and thus to develop a sense of competency (Earls, Cains, and Mercy,
1993; Hamilton and Powers, 1990; Hanks and Eckland, 1978; Larson, 1994; Yates
and Youniss, 1995). In addition, there does not appear to be an age limit to the
beneficial outcomes of these types of activities. Teachers need to do everything in
their power to promote these activities in the school and communities.
4.1.2 A feeling of connectedness to others and to society

Several studies have found that a strong predictor of positive
developmental pathways during adolescence is the adolescents’ sense
that they are connected to other persons their community, and the
society (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1994; Hirschi, 1969; Sampson and
Laub, 1994). For example, adolescents who have a high sense of connectedness to
their parents, particularly their mothers, tend to be less likely than other youth to
engage in antisocial behaviours (Hirschi, 1969). Those who have a greater sense of
connectedness to school tend to be more likely than other youth to perform well
academically and to stay in school (Connel, Spencer and Aber, 1994).
Interactions that appear to promote development of a sense of connectedness to

other persons are those in which adults provide social and emotional support to
adolescents while permitting them psychological and emotional independence
(Barber, Olsen, and Shagle, 1995; Youniss and Smollar, 1985). Interactions in
which adults attempt to control adolescents’ behaviours through monitoring their
activities also appear to promote the development of a sense of connectedness
because they signal to adolescents that adults in the family or community care about
them and are willing to become involved in their lives (Patterson and Dishion, 1985;
Sampson and Laub, 1994). In addition, peer interactions based on mutual respect
and reciprocity foster development of a sense of connectedness because it is through
these interactions that individuals develop empathy and intimacy. Do you
attempt to do these things in your school? I believe you are going to
promote positive interactions with adolescents.
252 UCCCoDE/ Post-Diploma in Basic Educati on
SESSION 4
4.1.3 A Belief in their Control over their Fate in Life

Adolescents who have a sense of control over their fate in life believe that they can
affect their futures. This belief appears to be nurtured when children and
adolescents are engaged in interactions in which they can successfully predict the
outcomes of their actions (Paterson and Dishion, 1985 Sampson, 1992).
When parents or other adults consistently respond to prosocial behaviours with

positive sanctions and misbehaviours with negative sanctions, children learn that
their behaviours are related to particular responses. Similarly, when teachers or
other adults in the community respond to adolescents’ actual behaviours – rather
than to their preconceived ideas regarding adolescent behaviours – then
adolescents learn that they will be treated fairly based on their own actions
(Spencer, Kim, and Marshell, 1987).
Some studies have found that having a sense of control over one’s fate in life
provides individuals with a basis for coping effectively with factors over which
they infact have little control, such as poverty and discrimination (Connell and
Walker, 1994; Werner and Smith, 1992). This may be true because having a sense
of control also fosters a sense of hope within individuals that they can change their
lives through their own actions.
4.2 Interactions that Promote Youth Development

Competency, connectedness, and control are outcomes of the developmental
process as well as affecting future development. They develop through
individuals’ interactions in their communities families, schools, and peer
relationships. The following kinds of interactions appear to promote development
of these characteristics.
• Interactions in which children engage in productive activities and win
recognition for their productivity;
• Interactions in which parents and other adults control and monitor
adolescents’ behaviours in a consistent and caring manner while allowing
them psychological and emotional independence;
• Interactions in which parents and other adults provide emotional support,
encouragement, and practical advice to adolescence; and
• Interactions in which adolescents are accepted as individuals with unique
experiences based on the temperament; gender; biosocial development; and
family, cultural, and societal factors.

SESSION 4
The issues raised in this sub-session on interactions are quiet crucial in promoting
youth development. Research has identified aspects of the social context that
promote or serve as barriers to adolescents’ opportunities to engage in these types
of interactions. These aspects include the following:
4.3 Barriers to Good Adolescent Interactions

• Biophysical Aspects of the Individual
Biophysical characteristics that have been found to influence developmental
pathways during adolescence include temperament, gender, cognitive
development, and the age of onset of puberty. The influence of these factors
on development depends to a large extent on how they are reacted to by
others in the social context.
Individuals bring these aspects of self to the interactions in which they

are engaged, and the reactions of the social context to these aspects
determines the quality and nature of the interactions. Have you taken
particular notice of these characteristics?
• Aspects of the Society

What do you understand by society from the psychological
perspective? Try to write a definition of society in your jotter.
Society may be understood as the economic and institutional structures, values,

and mores that constitute a national identity. Some of the aspects of society that
influence the development of a sense of competency, connectedness, control, and
identity are current economic and employment conditions, discrimination and
prejudice, and educational institutions.
Societal factors not only influence adolescent development directly but also
indirectly through their effects on communities and families. The societal factors
of prejudice and discrimination often present barriers to positive developmental
pathways for minority and/or economically disadvantaged youth. For these youth,
community and family contexts are particularly important for moderating the
potentially negative influences of societal factors.

SESSION 4
• Aspects of the Community
I hope you have notice that there is difference between society and
community. What does community mean to you as a psychologist?
The community context (neighbourhoods or towns) incorporates where
individuals spend their time and with whom they spend it. The aspects of the
community context that have been studied with respect to their effects on
adolescent development include community culture, availability of sources of
support to parents and youth, and availability of quality community institutional or
organizational resources for children and youth.
As with societal factors, community factors have both direct and indirect
influences on developmental pathways during adolescence. Formal and informal
broad-based community institutions and organizations, in particular, influence
adolescent development directly by teaching and encouraging prosocial
behaviours and indirectly by supporting parents in their parenting efforts. Do you
encourage prosocial behaviours among adolescents?
• Aspects of the Family

Take your jotter and try to list 3 ways in which aspects of the
family can serve as barrier to adolescent development. Continue
reading new and find out if your list have been captured in this
sub-session.
The following aspects of the family context have received considerable research
attention with respect to their influences on developmental pathways:
(i) the quality of the parent-child relationship
(ii) parenting styles or practices,
(iii) family structure, and
(iv) family dysfunction.
In general, family practices that serve to monitor and control adolescents
behaviours in a caring and consistent manner, provide support and encouragement
to adolescents, and allow them psychological and emotional independence appear to
be most effective in fostering the development of a sense of competency,
connectedness, control over one’s fate in life, and identity.
• Aspects of Peer Relationships
For sometime now, we always perceive peer relationship negatively.
Why is this so? Research findings do not support the popular notion that
adolescent problem behaviours are the result of peer pressure. In fact,
current research suggests that peers do not direct adolescents to new
SESSION 4
behaviours as much as they reinforce existing dispositions that helped direct

the adolescent to a particular peer group in the first place. Close friendship
with peers during adolescence have been found to promote positive growth
because they foster the development of conceptions of fairness, mutual respect,
empathy, and intimacy. Through these conceptions, the youth are able to
develop a sense of connectedness to others and a stable sense of identity.
In summary, the information in this session suggests that interventions

designed to assist the youth in making successful transitions to
adulthood will need to provide adolescents, either directly or through
working with parents and community resources, with opportunities to engage in
interactions that foster the development of a sense of competency, connectedness,
control and identity. It goes further to suggest that interventions must address
children, families, and communities as a unit if they are to be effective for large
numbers of children and families.
I hope this session was very “friendly”.
Now try your hands on the following questions.
Exercise 6.4
1. Negative developmental pathways are fostered when adolescents have
developed a sense of industry and competency.
(a) True (b) False
2. At what time do children begin to win recognition? During …..
(a) elementary school years (b) junior secondary school years
(c) senior secondary school years (d) university years
3. What fosters the development of a stable identity during adolescence?
(a) A sense of being a productive member of society
(b) A sense of industry and competency
(c) A sense of recognition
(d) Perception of the self

SESSION 4
4. Which of the following do not provide children and youth with the opportunity
to win recognition?
(a) extra curricular activities
(b) full time jobs
(c) religious organizations
(d) sports
5. The sense of feeling connected to other persons, community and the society is
a strong predictor of positive developmental pathways during adolescence.
(a) True (b) False
6. Which of the following is not true about adolescent feeling of connectedness
to others and to society?
(a) They are more likely than other youth to perform well academically
(b) They do not stay in school
(c) They provide social and emotional support to adolescents
(d) They tend to be less likely than other youth to engage in antisocial
behaviours
7. Why do peer interactions based on mutual respect and reciprocity foster
development of a sense of connectedness? Because.
(a) individuals are assured of sympathy and endurance
(b) it is the only way parents are assured of having productive youth
(c) it is through these interactions that individuals develop empathy and
intimacy
(d) they are sure ways of achieving academic excellence
8. Adolescents who have a sense of control over their fate in life believe that they
cannot affect their futures.
(a) True (b) False
9. Which of the following interactions do not promote youth development?

(a) concern (b) connectedness
(c) control (d) competency
10. Community and societal factors have both direct and indirect influences on
developmental pathways.
(a) True (b) False
Refer to the last page of the module for answers to the SAQ items.
Did you score above 8? Well done. Keep it up.

SESSION 4


SESSION 5
SESSION 5: GENERAL TECHNIQUES OF COUNSELLING

THE ADOLESCENT
In our study of this unit so far, we have identified general and

transitional problems that adolescents face for counseling. We
also studied some school programmes geared toward conflict resolution.
In this session, we shall shift our focus to examine closely some general techniques
of counseling adolescents. Counselling is a supportive process where the
counsellor and the adolescent develop better outcomes for everyone involved. The
problems of the adolescent are such that they need carefully programmed
techniques to counsel them.
Objectives
(a) use counselling to fit violence prevention into teenage
development;
(b) use counseling to teach adolescents;
(c) follow the steps used in counseling adolescents; and
(d) counsel adolescents suffering from peer pressure and gangs.
Now read on…
General Counselling Techniques
5.1 How to Get Started

If you are counseling a teenager about violence whether you are a teenager, a parent
or a counselor, here are some suggested ways to discuss it.
It is very important to note that counseling a teenager or anyone else

means that you have a caring relationship with that person. Telling people
that you don’t really like how they “ought” to live their lives is rude. In
other words, everything that I might suggest that a parent, teacher or teen counsellor
might say is worthless without a caring person saying it. That person can adopt the
advice to the particular individual.

UNIT 6 GENERAL TECHNIQUES OF COUNSELLING THE
A teacher or counsellor might just say the lines, “I’m not sure my ideas are the best
advice for what you face, but I’d like to discuss them with you, and you can see it
they make sense to you.”
5.2 How to Teach It

The best way to counsel adolescents through teaching is to talk to them.
What are we expected to talk about? For example, you can say “I want to
talk to you about handling fighting. I care about you and don’t ever want
you hurt. I want to tell you things that I do that might help you get out of a fight.
No kid wants to be a victim, but that does not mean he has to fight.
It is best to settle a disagreement before an argument starts. Similarly, most people

who get hear the point where they want to fight are upset. They might be high on
alcohol or some other kind of drug. They start to use triggers that will make you
begin to get angry: talking about your family, swearing, insulting you, using racial
slurs. What should teenagers do in such situations?
When adolescents hear those ‘triggers’ they don’t even have to begin to get angry.
They need to keep their calmness and keep their courage. Think that “this guy is
upset and wants to use fighting to solve this conflict”.
Adolescents need to be taught to use words that sound like:

• I have nothing against you…
• I don’t want to have anything against you later…
• This is not worth fighting about
• If you have a problem with me I’ll talk to you about it, but I won’t
fight you about this…
• We can settle this by talking when we are both calmed down…
• I’ll get in trouble with my parents if I fight”
Think about two other phrases that can be used in this respect for
face-to-face discussion.
5.3 Talking with Teenagers about Violence

Parents and counsellors can help teenagers deal with violence better if they
understand the normal need of teenagers to move toward forming a more adult
relationship with their parents. All parents want their children to become assertive,
kind, adults who are close to them.
SESSION 5
Concerning violence, they want to hear parents advice about how to act
safely but courageously in the outside world. They may experiment in their
minds with different ideas about violence but they want to remain connected to their
parents. They want to know how you would handle street fighting, bullying, and
coercive dating relationship.
All “advice” needs to be tailored to an individual. It is bad advice to suggest to an

aggressive child that he should be assertive and always stand up for himself. He can
easily hear the message that reinforces his own tendencies toward violence.
Having said that, here are some other words of caution when counseling
adolescents:
• Think about your own beliefs and experiences with violence
• Do not create fear
• Handling the conflict non violently means handling the conflict
• First establish a caring relationship
• Don’t advise a kid to stay and talk if he feels fear or a lot of fear
5.4 Peer Pressure and Gongs

Peer pressure works both ways. Does that sound strange to you? Peer pressure can
push a child into risky behaviours, but it can also create a caring supportive group
which has as its goal wanting good things for children. Teenagers can usually tell if
his friends are good for him if they want him to be successful.
Organised groups for teenagers in the school or community can match teenager’s
interests and temperament. Schools, community organizations, synagogues and
churches can run good adolescent groups or clubs. Parents can evaluate these clubs
to be sure the adults do not allow bullying, do not treat people outside the group as
“less good” than the group members and meet an adolescent’s particular interests
and needs for quiet or excitement. The peer pressure of healthy groups can help
children grow in more healthy ways.
In counseling the adolescent, we need to be aware of any group that says “other
people” or those outside the group don’t deserve to be treated with respect or
decency. Those groups will not teach the lesson that each teenager is valuable and
that all other people they meet are, in ultimate scheme of things, equally valuable.
Those groups may teach your child that you cannot resolve conflict with the
“others’ without using meanness or violence.
Furthermore, if a community does not have a wide variety of programmes where

teenagers can congregate and be supervised and guided by sensible adults who
teach good skills and good values, youth parents can band together and suggest a
range of youth groups. Local politicians may want to assist groups that help young
people develop into healthy non violent adults.
5.5 Getting Others to Help

Teenagers are not in terms of growing and they will make mistakes. It is the job of
parents and the community to correct their mistakes and teach them the right way to
go. Teenagers need to hear the same messages of respect, enjoyment of life,
handling frustration well, communicating well and loving themselves and the world
from the variety of different sources.
A healthy community has a variety of programmes for teenagers of all

interests. These programmes need to be led by caring adults who are kind,
set good limits create atmospheres where there is no fear and when there is
mutual respect for everyone. At home, at school and in the community, children
need to be praised when they do the right thing and gently and firmly corrected
when they are wrong. They need guidance.
It is obvious that this guidance should not include any physical punishment, which
allows a child to waste time on resentment and anger and keeps them from hearing
the major lessons you want to teach. There is no place for corporal punishment,
screaming at teenagers aggressively or pushing them around.
Do you agree with this assertion? Why?
This “community” of caring parents, relatives, school, youth groups and community
groups should help teenagers believe in themselves, feel that there is hope and grow
to become healthy adults.
Parents do the best they can realizing that they cannot raise adolescents done.
Parents may feel frightened because they know that sometimes people can mess up.
Use the resources around you. Children need help with all kinds of issues and
parents may not be the best person to talk to about a particular problem.
Can you imagine situations in which parents may not be the best people to
talk to?

SESSION 5
Try to assemble a list of all the resources and friends a teenager has.
Even a troubled teenager will see that there are adults and other
teenagers who can help him.
At the end of adolescence, most people become pretty normal adults who can deal
with life quite well.
In this session, we discussed general techniques of counseling the

adolescent. We specifically looked at how to get started, how to
teach it, talking with teenagers about violence, dealing with peer pressure, and
gangs, and getting others involved in the counseling process.
How do you find this session? Very informative. I guess
Try to answer the self-assessment question to assess your understanding of the

lesson.
Exercise 6.5
1. The most important thing that counselors should note when
counseling a teenager or anyone else is, He/she………
(a) has a caring relationship with that person
(b) is a role model
(c) means a lot to the client
(d) should remember the skills learnt
2. The best way to counsel adolescents through teaching is to talk to them

(a) True (b) False
3. What do adolescents want to hear about violence from parents?

Advice about how to:
(a) act safely but courageously in the outside world.
(b) counter violence with soberness.
(c) listen to elders.
(d) pray and want on the Lord.

4. One needs to think about one’s own beliefs and experiences with
violence when counseling adolescents.
(a) True (b) False
5. In counseling the adolescent about violence prevention, one needs to

create fear in him/her
(a) True (b) False
6. When counseling adolescents, one needs to remember that handling the

conflict violently means handling the conflict.
(a) True (b) False
7. What can children benefit from peer pressure of healthy groups?

(a) Development of more ideas
(b) Growth in more healthy ways
(c) Hardiness and combat readiness
(d) Uninterrupted growth
8. Peer pressure works in both positive and negative ways

(a) True (b) False
9. Why should parents and the community be brought in to help adolescents?

(a) It is their job to correct mistakes and teach adolescents the right
way to go.
(b) That is the design of nature.
(c) They are more informed about violence.
(d) They can support the young ones in handling violence.
10. Why should guidance not include any physical punishment? It will
prevent them from:
(a) accepting themselves as worth of praise.
(b) accepting you as an authority figure.
(c) hearing the major lessons you want to teach.
(d) respecting what you are saying.
Turn to the end of the module for answers to all SAQ items
What was your performance on this quiz? Did you score above 6?
You are on the right path. Keep on trying.

SESSION 6
SESSION 6: COUNSELLING THE ADOLESCENT’S

SPECIFICE NEEDS
You would recall that in session 5, we outlined some general

techniques of counseling the adolescent. The success of counseling
services for adolescents depends to a very large extent on the attention that the
whole programme receives. The needs of the adolescent are complex and varied.
The last session of this course, you are about to study, will be devoted to how to
address some specific needs of the adolescent. I believe you are eager to know
more about these needs. Just get you mind well prepared and we will start. I hope
you will find this last session very useful and interesting.
Objectives
(a) explain the sexual behaviour of adolescents and the AIDS pandemic;
(b) counsel adolescents having early and late maturation problems;
(c) explain why adolescents generally are concerned about career guidance
and counseling; and
(d) describe value systems of adolescents in terms of counseling.
Now read on…
6.1 Counselling Adolescents with Sexual Behavior Problems

• According to Awusabo-Asare and Anarfi (1999) since
adolescents spend long years in school, there is increased
interaction among both male and female students and this
creates conditions for sexual networking. In view of this, the school
counselor must challenge students with programmes that seek to clarify
their misconception about their sexuality. He must also demonstrate
willingness to honestly deal with the adolescents’ sexual concerns
without moralizing them.
• Adolescents have frequently explained their unprotected sex as
impromptu (Kirby & Waszak, 1991). The counsellor’s programmes
must therefore seek to reduce the frequency of unprotected sex by either
reducing sexual intercourse or increasing the expectedness of and the
planning for intercourse.
• The counselor can also work towards changing peer norms such as those
that label adolescents who do not have boy/girl friend and those that seem to
make sexual intercourse “normal” to adolescents by involving respected
peers in his/her programmes. Many studies have shown that peer support
works in changing risky behaviours.
• Changing high-risk sexual behaviour of adolescents is a particularly difficult
problem because the decision to adopt protective measures occurs in the
context of people’s social relationships and life styles (Diclemante, 1994).
Group counselling has been found to provide the environment for deeper
self-understanding and self-acceptance needed for taking pertinent personal
decision that lead to genuine behavioural changes. The counselor must
therefore engage small groups of students in experiential activities that
would allow them to personalize information on AIDS preventive practices.
According to Kirby and Coyle (1994) model, refusal, assertiveness skills and
practice through role-playing are effective means of reducing high-risk
sexual behaviour.
• The counselor must also assist students to clarify their values. The issue of
sex values presents two problems to the adolescent. First, the premarital
chastity they emphasize has not been very appealing to most adolescents.
Since values influence feelings, thought and behaviour (Denga, 1982; Okon,
1984), the counselor must assist students to clarify their values related to
sex, pre-marital chastity and sexual practices. He can even manipulate
reinforcement contingencies to alter their value systems (Fajonyoni, 2002).
Second, most adolescents appear confused about sex because adults have generally
failed to provide for the models of right sex values. The counselor must, therefore,
aim at influencing teachers’ and parents’ own values on sex and adolescent
sexuality.
• Finally, the counselor must note that effective HIV/AIDS prevention

programmes are characterized by the following: modeling of and practice in
communication and refusal skills, teaching methods that involve participants
and help them personalize information, materials that are appropriate to the
age, sexual experience and culture of the students (Kirby, 2003).

SESSION 6
6.2 Problems of Late-Maturing Boys and Girls

When we consider the problems of the late-maturing boy, we find a complete
reversal of the situation that exists for late-maturing girls. The slow-maturing boy is
too small to gain acceptance in athletics. He is too immature to get dates with girls
of his own age. He frequently develops inferiority feelings that may persist for a
lifetime.
In what way can the counselor be of help?
School teachers and counselors should do everything in their power to

reassure late-maturing boys that when they reach maturity they will be as tall as
earlier-maturing boys and that their rates of growth are perfectly normal. It is
important that late-maturing boys do not try to adjust by withdrawing from
competition and becoming submissive and self-effacing. If late-maturing boys can
gain sufficient feeling of security, many of them will also be less noisy and
aggressive and less prone to seek excessive attention.
Furthermore, the teacher, psychological counselor, or athletic coach is in a position

to offer sympathetic help and advice to adolescents who are distressed because of
real or imagined physical defects or somatic deviations. It is important to note that
no adolescent wants to be thought of as being abnormal.
6.3 Career Guidance and Counselling for Adolescents

Adolescents are generally concerned about career guidance and counselling and
would be willing to make use of them if made available. The individual also feels
the mounting pressure to face the necessity of making concrete and realistic
decisions about the vocational future. It is logical, therefore, that the adolescents
yearn for career guidance and counselling. It has been observed that adolescent
students desire self-awareness, vocational information, and career decision making
skills to assist them in their career exploration, decision making and choice making.
Against this background what should be done?
Guidance and Counselling Co-ordinators, teachers, school administrators and all

individuals and agencies responsible for the provision of career guidance and
counselling services to the students should not relent in their efforts.

Research has established that adolescent girls show greater concern for their
vocational future than boys. Although both sexes developmentally share similar
interests and concerns, the forces of feminism in the contemporary would,
demanding equality between males and females could be responsible for making the
girls more radical than their boy counterparts in their vocational aspiration and
therefore more concerned for career guidance and counselling to assist them
achieve their desires.
Another possible reason could be that because of the forces of feminism stereotypes
are being discarded and girls are looking wider afield in their occupational choice.
Furthermore, it is fashionable these days for suitors to look for women with good
jobs for wives and this could possibly be a driving force behind the heightened
awareness of females over their male counterparts of the need to look for assistance
to facilitate appropriate vocational choice to enhance their chances of getting good
husbands.
6.4 Counselling Implications of Adolescent Value System

Social institutions dictate the type of value systems or structures developed by its
members. The issue of values is crucial in ethical, psychological and sociological
discourse. Because of the conviction that value influences behaviour, affect
thought, feelings and in addition, it generates attitudes and action. Counsellors
should, therefore, take into consideration the influence of the milieu in value
development and in evolving counselling strategies. In essence, it is suggestive that
the environment by way of providing reinforcement facilitates or otherwise values
development. At the level of social engineering reinforcement contingencies could
be manipulated to alter someone’s value system, therefore one can rightly say that
value could be learned (Okon, 1984, Ench, 1999).
However, one should not lose sight that there are “inner variables” that control
someone’s feelings, thoughts and values. The discussion thus far points to the fact
that counselors need to get the “reinforcers” at home, schools and from the
government. Ipaye (1987) has identified these reinforcers as leadership of the social
institutions. The counselling implications of this are that counselors should create
and encourage the organization of meetings of leadership as well as participate
actively in such meetings. During such form, value intervention procedures such as
modeling, role playing, confrontation, value counselling and guidance could be sold

SESSION 6
to, and practised by the participants. This might help in shaping the value
orientation of the adolescents.
In addition, at such meetings of the social institution leadership, the participants

could emphasize that they are the first model for young ones to see and emulate.
Ipaye (1987) says that youths base their self-instruction, self-reinforcement and self-
control on the observed actions demonstrated by adults, meaning that action speaks
louder than what they read from the constitution about the right values they should
imbibe.
Research findings suggests that the value system could be modified through training
and retraining programmes, which could be on three dimensions.
• First, counselors could map out strategies capable of observing and assessing the
value orientation of the youths, by giving them inventories, conducting
interviews, using adolescents as case studies, filling questionnaire and analyzing
such data for effective intervention strategies to be put in place.
• Second, there should be training programme on how to reinforce the right values
through actions such as verbalization, final expression, modeling, role playing of
the desired values and effective discipline meant to correct the wrong values
displayed.
• Third, there should be training on how to counsel the youth using

different techniques including reality therapy unconditioned positive
regards for everyone irrespective of where the person comes from or
what social class, status and religion he belongs to, and simple conditioning as
explained by Lee (1979). Patterson (1971) noted that such training could take
place in the counseling laboratory, school environment and even at home.
Counselling at home proposes that the counselor should establish good rapport
with the families concerned.
Concerning the counselors influencing government, it is regrettable that the

counsellors do not set rules, regulations, legislation and policies. However,
the counselors can suggest ideas on legislation that will create and sustain
positive value orientation in the youths and adolescents. Also the youths should see
that sanctions are meted out to erring members in the society fairly and justly
without discrimination and undue exceptions. It is obvious that any misbehaviour
punished would serve as deterrent to others including the adolescents.

In sum, four specific needs of adolescents were identified and

strategies mapped out for counseling. They are in the areas of sexual
behaviour, late-maturing boys and girls, career guidance, and adolescent value
system.
Now try to answer the following questions.
Exercise 6.6
1. What accounts for the increase interaction among both male and female
adolescent students?
(a) Leadership style of teachers (b) Long years in schools
(c) School climate (d) Short years in schools
2. What explanation do adolescents offer for their unprotected sex?

It was …………
(a) impromptu (b) long overdue
(c) timely (d) to avoid adult attention
3. In what way can the counsellor change peer norms that label adolescents
that do not have boy/girl friend?
(a) Counselling adolescents on the dangers of SYDs
(b) Involving respected peers in the counsellor’s programme
(c) Involving respected peers in the counsellor’s programme
(d) Talking to adolescents on sex
4. According to Kirby and Coyle (1984) which of the following is not an

effective means of reducing high-risk sexual behaviour?
(a) acceptance (b) assertiveness skills
(c) model (d) practice through role-playing
5. Why do most adolescents appear confused about sex? Because…….

(a) adults have generally failed to provide for them models of right sex
values
(b) counselors are not themselves well informed about right sex values
(c) counselors have generally failed to provide the right sex values
(d) teachers are afraid to talk to them about right sex values.

SESSION 6
6. Which of the following is not true about the late-maturing boy?

(a) He competes favourably with peers for girls of his own age
(b) He frequently develops inferiority feelings that may persist for a life
time.
(c) He is too immature to get dates with girls of his own age
(d) He is too small to gain acceptance in athletics
7. Adolescent boys show greater concern for their vocational future than girls.
(a) True (b) False
8. Why do adolescent girls show greater concern for their vocational future
than boys? Because of………
(a) forces of feminism
(b) forces of nature
(c) societal demands on them
(d) the fact that they are mothers who should feed the family
9. The issue of value influences all the following except:

(a) attitudes and action
(b) behaviour
(c) feelings
(d) judgement
10. Value system could be modified through training and retraining

prgorammes
(a) True (b) False
Refer to the last page of the module for answers to all SAQ items.
What was your score? Was it above 7 Excellent!



ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENTS QUESTIONS
UNIT 1: THE MEANING NATURE AND SCOPE OF ADOLESCENCE
Exercise 1.1
1a. It is a transitional period from childhood to adulthood
b. It’s a descriptive term for the period during which a teenaged, immature
individual of limited experience approaches the culmination of his physical and
mental growth.
2. Development of breast, break in voice increase in height and weight,
enlargement of sex-organs, production of sex hormones nocturnal emissions
etc.
3. a Transition from dependent childhood to a self-sufficient adult.
4. The girl in Nepal marks her transition to adolescent by changing the short skirt
to an ankle length wrapped skirt.
Exercise 1.2
1. The culture of the adolescent creates and determines his/her behaviour.
2. It is a stage which is critical, charged with conflict and mood swings.
3. It helps to understand the adolescent nature very well.
4. a. A time of physical growth and development
b. A time of intellectual expansion, development, and academic experience.
c. A time of seeking status as an individual
Exercise 1.3
1. Estrogen
2. Stimulates growth of the genitals and the breasts.
3. The male hormones stimulates growth of the male genitals and body hair
4. Menarche
5. Ovary
6. Girl - 9½ years boys - 10½ and 16 years.
7. Girl – Pelvis widens, layers of fat laid down under skin to give a mature
appearance development of breast etc.
Boys – becomes larger, shoulders grow wider, legs longer relative to his
trunk forearms longer relative to his upper arms and his height.
8. Primary sex characteristics – Girls –ovaries uterus and vagina
Boys – testes, prostrate glands, penis and the seminal vesicles.
Secondary sex characteristics – Girls – menarche, Boys. Break in voice,
production of male hormones.
CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Basic Education 283

Exercise 1.4
1. As “a dynamic succession of developing functions in the hierarchy depending
on the prior maturing of earlier simpler ones”.
2. Reasoning, predict the future, manipulate the environment, transcend in his
thinking the barriers, of time and space etc.
3. The home, school etc.
Exercise 1.5
1. Emotions involve physiological changes, Emotions lead to express and goal
directed behaviour, emotions are subjecture experiences or external states,
often brought on by external circumstances.
2. Destructive and constructive emotions eg. fear, anger, anxiety, jealousy, envy
are destructive emotions. Constructive emotions – happiness, love, affection,
joy, sympathy etc.
3. A process by which children learn the behaviour that their culture considers
appropriate for each sex.
Exercise 1.6
1. Learning the expectations and values of one’s society.
2. That is how the physical, sexual and social demands on adolescents foster in
them a need to clarify who they are as individuals and how they relate to
society and the adult world they are about to enter.
3. Thoughts, feelings and behaviours regarding standards of right and wrong.
4. Three (3).
UNIT 2: THE ADOLESCENCE AND HIS RELATION TO

OTHERS
Exercise 2.1
1. Adjustments, decision making
2. It selects and transmits the culture of the society to the younger generations,
interprete what is transmitted, and evaluates what is transmitted.
3. Variables of dominance – submission acceptance –transmitted.
4. Rejectant, acceptant and casual
5. Nonchalant, active, Autocratic Indulgent.
6. Nonchalant – rejectant Ignores children and has little to do with them.
284 UCCCoDE/Post-Diploma in Basic Education
Active-rejectant – Don’t like children but cannot leave them. They lay down rules,
insists upon strict observance, make children uncomfortable. Autocratic-casual –
Use autocratic means to control.
Exercise 2.2
1. Upper class, Middle class, Lower class
2. Offers opportunities that are either rich or poor, gives social status to the
adolescent, offer emotional and adjustment stability.
3. Geographical location of the home ordinal position, religious structure
socio-economic states, family size etc.
Exercise 2.3
1. Socio-economic background, attending same school and living in the same
environment. Having similar mental age, sharing similar interest and
intelligence.
2. Having many friends, being friendly well mannered, co-operative, loyal to
friend and enjoys hearing or telling jokes.
3. Due to rejection forbad behaviour or voluntary isolation.
4. Honesty, helpful, courteous, unselfish have self-control and exhibit
leadership qualities.
Exercise 2.4
1. The ability to redirect sexual arousal into different channels that are more
profitable.
2. Enlightens them on sex, offers personal hygiene techniques offer counseling
to adolescence.
3. From peers, reading materials, films etc.
4. Most of the information is miscounted
5. Requisite social skills, and a past history of social experience.
Exercise 2.5
1. A social unit differentiated from the social whole on the basis of a certain
characteristics.
2. a. Intimate pair groups, b. Primary groups
c. Quasi-primary groups d. Secondary groups
3. It is the mother, and child husband and wife lever and sweetheart
association.

4. It is an organized face-to-face intimate groups, limited in some degree by
special purpose and by the fact of organization
5. Boy scout.
6. A small intimate social participation group consisting of persons of the some
social status and in agreement concerning the exclusion of other individuals
from the group.
7. It is composed of a group of individuals selected because of mutual
interests, likes, dislikes, and social ideals.
Exercise 2.6
1. Delinquency is defined as a behaviour exhibited by young people, that is not
in accordance with accepted social standards or with the law.
2. Delinquent behaviour is an antisocial tendency, such as hostility,
aggressiveness and guilt feelings leading to some deviant behaviour which
is dangerous to the child and society.
3. A “wayward child” is a person between seven and seventeen years of age
who is habitually associated with vicious or immoral person.
4. Unstable family, lack of supervision, economic poverty breakdown of social
control.
UNIT 3: DISCIPLINE AND REBELLION IN ADOLESCENCE
Exercise 3.1
1. Disciple 2. Discipline
3. Correct Train Instruct
4. Punishment
5. Bad character
6. Spanking
7. Positive reinforcent
8 Extinct
9. Selfishness
10. Allowing natural consequences
Exercise 3.2
1. Ensuring staff and student safely
Creating an environment conducive to learning.
2. D
3. Detention
Suspension

Expulsion
Referred to a correction agency
4. Teacher assertiveness.
5. Answer: a teacher who sets clear boundanes for appropriate behaviour in
the class and whose punishments children see as fair.
6. Clearly laid down rules
Rules are communicated to students
There is concern for students as individuals
They are often small schools (and can be family successfully managed)
7. Communication of clearly specified rules and the consequences for breaking
them.
Periodic re-stating of the rules
Consistent enforcement of rules
A fair process of hearing/getting the students side of a story/case
An appeal process to be made possible
Creation of smaller schools or dividing large schools into several school within
schools for proper management
School policy should indicate which offenses are major and which are minor
infractions.
Criminal offenses may be reported to the police as part of a co-operative anti-
crime effort.
8. Low achievers to helped to achieve academic success
Student to be involved socially in school programmes to develop emotional
attachment to the school eg. school sports, games, etc.
School administration must establish specific rules and principles of appropriate
behaviour for students to learn.
9 a. It is the administration that establishes school discipline
b. By effective administration
By personal example of the leader
10. They are important elements of how teachers relate to their head concerning
school discipline policy.

Exercise 3.3
1. Rebel
2. When dislike the idea of being subordinate of another
When they think the tone of voice of a person giving them orders does not
respect their person.
3. False 4. True
5. a. You have wounded him in some way
b. He/she is telling you to be careful with him/her else…
6. (No)
7. “The awareness of being different from others”
Exercise 3.4
1. Mnemonics
2. An individual letter (character) that can be writer
3. Multiple literacy
4. Memoir
5. Memoir
Exercise 3.5
1. Survival
Discrimination
Exploitation
2. Media Violence
3. Self-image
4. True
5. Social Learning Theory.
Exercise 3.6
1. Obscenity
2. Sexual arousal
3. International Criminal Police Organisation
4. Producers Middlemen Distributors
5. Paedophiles

UNIT 4: ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOUR ACTIVITIES AND INTEREST

Exercise 4.1
1. A 2. A 3. A 4. A 5. A
6. A 7. B 8. B 9. False 10. True
Exercise 4.2
1. A 2. C 3. A 4. C 5. B
6. B 7.
Exercise 4.3
1. False 2. B 3. C 4. C 5. False
6. True 7. False 8 False
9. (i) What interest does an individual of a given status generally have?
(ii) What does he/she do, or fail to do about that interest?
10. False.
Exercise 4.4
1. A
2. (i) Adjustment in home, school, society and to the opposite sex
(ii) Freedom from home
(iii) Adjustment in suitable vocation
(iv) Developing a sound philosophy of life
3. B 4. A 5 A 6. A 7. C
6. A 7. B 8. C 9. A 10. B
Exercise 4.5
1. A 2. B
3. By word or deed, of one’s reaction toward or feeling about a person, a thing
or a situation.
4. (i) Self-focused attitudes
(ii) Other – focused attitudes
(iii) Reality- focused attitudes
5. A 6. B 7. B 8. A 9 10. False
Exercise 4.6
1. A 2 D 3. B 4. A 5. False
6. False 7. B 8. False 9 B 10. C

UNIT 5: ADOLESCENT IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
Exercise 5.1
1. D 2. D 3. C 4. B 5. B
6. C 7. A 8. C 9. A 10. B
Exercise 5.2
1. D 2. C 3. D 4. C 5. D
6. D 7. B 8. B 9. A 10. A
Exercise 5.3
1. D 2. A 3. D 4.. B 5. A
6. A 7. D 8 A 9 A 10 D
Exercise 5.4
1. C 2. D. 3. B 4. B 5. A
6. A 7. B 8. D 9. B 10. A
Exercise 5.5
1. C 2. C 3. D 4. B 5. A
6. C 7. A 8. C 9. B 10. A
Exercise 5.6
1. A 2. A 3. B 4. A 5. A
6. C 7. C 8. A 9. B 10. C
UNIT 6: COUNSELLING THE ADOLESCENT

Exercise 6.1
1. D 2. D 3. B 4. C 5. B
6. A 7. A 8. A 9. B 10. A
Exercise 6.2
1. C 2. B. 3. C 4. C 5. A
6. D 7. B 8. B 9. A 10. D
Exercise 6.3
1. C 2. A 3. B 4. A 5. C
6. C 7. C 8. D 9. B 10. A

Exercise 6.4
1. B 2. A 3. B 4. B 5 A
6. B 7. C 8. B 9. A 10. A
Exercise 6.5
1. A 2. A 3. A 4. A 5. B
6. B 7. B 8. A 9. A 10. C
Exercise 6.6
1. B 2. A 3. C 4. A 5. A
6. A 7. B. 8. A 9. D 10. A

GLOSSORY
Commitment: The part of identity development in which adolescents

show a personal interest in what they are going to do.
Connectedness: A crucial element in adolescent identity development.
It consists of mutuality and permeability.
Crisis: A period of identity development during which the
adolescent is choosing among meaningful alternatives.
Culture: The behaviour patterns, beliefs and all other products
of a group that pre passed from generation to
generation
Curiosity: To get more stimulation from some distant and
unfamiliar object.
Ethnic identity: An individual develops a sense of membership based
upon the language, religions, customs, values, history,
and race of an ethnic group.
Gregariousness: To seek and stay in the presence of others
Identity achievement: Adolescents who have undergone a crisis and have
made a commitment.
Identity diffusion: Adolescents who are yet to experience any form of
crisis or make any commitments.
Identity foreclosure: Adolescents who have made a commitment but have
not experienced a crisis.
Identity moratorium: Adolescents who are in the midst of a crisis, but

whose commitments either are absent or are only
vaguely defined.
Mutuality: Sensitivity to and respect for other peoples’ view.
Peers: Children or adolescents who are of about the same age
or maturity level.
Permeability: Openness to other peoples’ view
Self-esteem: The universal evaluative dimension of the self. It is
also referred to as self – worth or self image.
Stress: Stressors are circumstances and events that threaten or
tax an individual’s coping ability. Stress is the
response to stressors.
Time diffusion: Coming to a standstill or marking time without
making any progress in life.
UCCCoDE/Post-Diploma in Basic Education 281

GLOSSORY
Gregariousness: To seek and stay in the presence of others.

Self-assertion: To dominate and control others
Self-abasement: To submit to others
Imitativeness: To copy the ends pursued by others
Identity diffusion: The state in which adolescents have not yet
experienced a crisis or made any commitment.
Identity Moratorium: The state in which adolescents are in a midst of a
crisis, but whose commitments either are absent or are
only vaguely defined.
282 UCCCoDE/Post-Diploma Degree in Basic Education

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First printed in 2015 by Hampton Press, Cape Coast

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

CoDE PUBLICATIONS, 2019

Cover page illustrated by R. Y. Essiam

Driven by the desire to always deliver quality, cost-effective tertiary education to

Special thanks go to Ms. Alberta S. F. Gogovi and Ms Victoria Garbrah for

Prof. Isaac Galyuon

This Course Book “Psychology of Adolescence has been exclusively written by

We wish you a happy and successful study.

UCCCoDE/Post-Diploma in Basic Education i

FOR FURTHER DETAILS YOU MAY CONTACT:

THE PROVOST, (CoDEUCC)

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a

About this Book … … … … … … … i

UNIT 1: THE MEANING NATURE AND SCOPE OF

UNIT 2: THE ADOLESCENCE AND HIS RELATION

UNIT 3: DISCIPLINE AND REBELLION IN

Session 6: Vocational Interests and Abilities of

UNIT 5: ADOLESCENT IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT 183

Session 3: Conflict Management In School … … 237

NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT

TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)

SELF- ASSESSMENT TEST

UCCCoDE/Post-Diploma in Basic Education vii

UNIT 1: THE MEANING NATURE AND SCOPE OF

Hello! Students you are most welcome to an interesting and informed

UCC CoDE/Post-Di pl oma in Basic Education 1

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

2 UCC CoDE/ Post-Diploma in Basic Education

SESSION 1: DEFINITION AND MEANING OF ADOLESCENCE

In this session, we shall try to define adolescence as we understand it

Now read on…

UCC CoDE/ Post - Diploma in Basic Education 3

Psychologists also define adolescence as a “marginal situation” in which new

According to the psychologist, adolescence is a passing stage, in which one tries to

4 UCC CoDE/ Post-Diploma in Basic Education

In advanced societies, adolescence period is prolonged and this is due to schooling

According to Robert E. Slavin, adolescence is a period of rapid physical and

1.2 Who is an Adolescent?

What do you understand by puberty as a teacher and parent?

UCC CoDE/ Post - Diploma in Basic Education 5

A psychologist by name Stanely Hall in a scientific book he wrote on adolescence

From what has been discussed so far adolescence can be viewed as a

This is the end of the first session.

I hope you enjoyed reading it.

2. State at least three characteristic of an adolescent.

3. Describe in a sentence or two the sociologists stand on adolescence.

4. Explain briefly how a girl in Nepal is urshered into womanhood

UCC CoDE/ Post - Diploma in Basic Education 7

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

8 UCC CoDE/ Post-Diploma in Basic Education

SESSION 2: NATURE AND SCOPE OF ADOLESCENCE

In the first session of the Unit, definitions of adolescence were treated.

2.1 Nature Scope and Point of View of Adolescence

UCC CoDE/Post - Diploma in Basic Education 9

Adolescence is a descriptive term for the period during which a teenaged,

10 UCCCoDE/Post-Di pl oma in Basic Education

An understanding of a given adolescent requires a wide and extensive knowledge of

1.2 The Purpose of Studying Adolescence

UCC CoDE/Post - Diploma in Basic Education 11

Adolescence is viewed as a period of adjustment to cultural demands;

2. What is “storm and stress” as used in the text.

3. Why is individual differences important in adolescence.