Integrated Science VI

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
COURSE TITLE:
Integrated Science VI
© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
CODE PUBLICATIONS, 2019

First printed in 2019 by University of Cape Coast Printing Press
Second printing in 2021 by UCC Press, Cape Coast
© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

(CoDE UCC), 2019, 2021
CoDE PUBLICATIONS, 2021
All right reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted by any form or means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or
otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright holder.
Cover page illustrated by William Jacobs

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It has become a tradition in academic circles to acknowledge the assistance one

received from colleagues in the writing of an academic document. Those who
contributed in diverse ways toward the production of this particular course book
merit more than mere acknowledgement for two main reasons. First, they worked
beyond their normal limits in writing, editing and providing constant support and
encouragement without which the likelihood of giving up the task was very high.
Second, the time span for the writing and editing of this particular course book was
so short that their exceptional commitment and dedication were the major factors
that contributed to its accomplishment.
It is in the foregoing context that the names of Dr. D.K. Asante, Rev. K. A. Wie-
Addo, Dr. J. K. Bentum, Dr. B. Sefa-Ntiri and Prof. D. K. Essumang of
University of Cape Coast, who wrote and edited the content of this course book for
CoDEUCC, will ever remain in the annals of the College. This special remembrance
also applies to those who assisted me in the final editing of the document.
I wish to thank the Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Joseph Ghartey-Ampiah and the Pro-
Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Dora Edu-Buandoh and all the staff of the University’s
Administration without whose diverse support this course book would not have been
completed.
Finally, I am greatly indebted to the entire staff of CoDEUCC, especially Mrs.

Christina Hesse for formatting the scripts.
Any limitations in this course book, however, are exclusively mine. But the good
comments must be shared among those named above.
Prof. Isaac Galyuon

(Provost)
ii
ABOUT THIS BOOK
This Course Book “Integrated Science VI” has been exclusively written by
experts in the discipline to up-date your general knowledge in Education order to
equip you with the basic tool you will require for your professional training as a
teacher and an administrator.
This three-credit course book of thirty-six (36) sessions has been structured to reflect
the weekly three-hour lecture for this course in the University. Thus, each session is
equivalent to a one-hour lecture on campus. As a distance learner, however, you are
expected to spend a minimum of three hours and a maximum of five hours on each
session.
To help you do this effectively, a Study Guide has been particularly designed to
show you how this book can be used. In this study guide, your weekly schedules are
clearly spelt out as well as dates for quizzes, assignments and examinations.
Also included in this book is a list of all symbols and their meanings. They are
meant to draw your attention to vital issues of concern and activities you are
expected to perform.
Blank sheets have been also inserted for your comments on topics that you may find
difficult. Remember to bring these to the attention of your course tutor during your
face-to-face meetings.
We wish you a happy and successful study.
Dr. D.K. Asante

Rev. K. A. Wie-Addo
Dr. J. K. Bentum
Dr. B. Sefa-Ntiri
Prof. D. K. Essumang
CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations i

PRODUCTION
P R O D U C T I O N
C o u r i e r N e w
C o u r i e r N e w p(n ÿÿÿÿ ˜(n
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content Page
About this Book … … … … … … … ... i
Acknowledgement … … … … … … ... … ii
Table of Contents … … … … … … ... iii
Symbols and their Meanings … … … … … ...
UNIT 1: NUTRITION, TRANSPORT AND TRANSPIRATION IN

PLANTS … … … … … … 1
Session 1: Nutrition – Photosynthesis … … … …. … 3
1.1 What is photosynthesis? … … … … 4
1.2 Raw Materials and Products of Photosynthesis … 4
1.3 Outline of Photosynthesis … … … … 4
1.4 The Site and Pigment involved in Photosynthesis … 5
1.5 Conditions Necessary for Photosynthesis … … 6
1.6 The Importance of Photosynthesis in Nature … … 6
Session 2: Nutrition – Mineral Requirement … … … … 9
2.1 Mineral Requirement by Plants … … … 9
2.2 How much of Each Mineral Element is needed by Plants? 10
2.3 Effects of Mineral Deficiency in Plant Nutrition … 14
Session 3: Transport – Root Uptake of Mineral Resources … … 17
3.1 The Structure of the Root and Pathways of
movement of Substances … … … … 18
3.2 Modes by which the Root takes up Minerals in Solution
from the Soil … … … … … … 20
3.3 Structural Adaptations of the Root that enables it to
take up Minerals and Water from the Soil … … 21
Session 4: Transport Tissues of the Plant … … … … 23
4.1 The Route of Water and Mineral Resources up the Stem 24
4.2 The route of photosynthetic products through the stem 26
Session 5: Mechanisms of Transport of Materials in the Plant … 29
5.1 How do Roots of Plants take up Water and Mineral
Nutrients from the Soil? … … … … 29
5.2 Root Pressure … … … … … 30
5.3 Movement of Phosynthetic Products through the Phloem 31
Session 6: Transpiration … … … … … … … 35
6.1 Using Diagrams to Show Movement of Water and
Substances up the Stem … … … … 36
6.2 The Role of Air Pressure in moving Water and Mineral
Nutrients up the Stem of Tall Trees … … … 37
CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.3 The Forces involved in the Transport of Water and Mineral

Nutrients up Tall Trees … … … … 38
6.4 Factors that affect the Rate of Transpiration … … 39
6.5 Importance of Transpiration to the Plant … … 40
UNIT 2: ELECTRONICS … … … … … … 41
Session 1: Electronic Components … … … … … 43
1.1 Electronic Component … … … … 43
1.2 Applications of Electronic Components … … 48
Session 2: Operating Principle of some Electronic Devices … … 51
2.1 Radio Set … … … … … … 51
2.2 Television (TV) system … … … … 54
2.3 Cell Phones … … … … … … 56
2.4 Computer … … … … … … 57
Session 3: Electronic Circuits of Leds … … … … … 61
3.1 Electronic Circuit … … … … … 61
3.2 Electronic Circuit with Light Emitting Diode (LED) 62
Session 4: Electronic Circuit of Capacitors … … … … 69
4.1 Capacitors … … … … … … 69
4.2 Characteristics of a Capacitor … … … 71
4.3 Combination of Capacitors … … … 71
Session 5: Electronic Circuit of Inductors … … … … 77
5.1 Inductors … … … … … … 77
5.2 Types of Inductors … … … … … 79
5.3 Physical Characteristics of an Inductor … … 79
5.4 Inductors in Series … … … … … 80
5.5 Inductors in Parallel … … … … … 81
5.6 Applications of Inductor … … … … 82
5.7 Difference between Capacitor an Inductor … … 82
Session 6: Solids … … … … … … … 85
6.1 Types of Solids … … … … … 85
6.2 Conductors … … … … … … 86
6.3 Insulators … … … … … … 86
6.4 Semiconductor … … … … … 87
6.5 Classification of Semiconductors based on Purity … 87
6.6 Semiconductor Doping … … … … 88
6.7 P-N Junction … … … … … … 90
6.8 P-N Junction Diode … … … … … 91
iv CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations

TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNITE 3: HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS & APPLIANCES … … 95

Session 1: Household Chemicals … … … … … 97
1.0 Overview … … … … … … 97
1.1 Chemical Substances … … … … … 97
1.2 Classification of Chemical Substances … … 97
1.3 Chemical Substances and Its Usages … … 99
1.4 Cleansing Action of Soap and Detergent … … 101
Session 2: Hazardous effects of some Household Chemicals … … 107
2.0 Overview … … … … … … 107
2.1 In the Garage … … … … … … 107
2.2 In the Laundry Room/Utility Room … … … 108
2.3 In the Kitchen … … … … … 110
2.4 In the Bathroom … … … … … 110
2.5 In the Living Room … … … … … 111
2.6 In the Bedroom … … … … … 112
2.7 In the Backyard, Pool and Garden Shed … … 112
2.8 Watch out for these Chemicals in your Home … 113
Session 3: Handling of Household Hazardous Chemicals … … 115
3.1 Storing Chemicals Safely at Home … … … 115
3.2 Safety Tips for Storing Chemicals in Your Home … 115
3.3 Disposing of Household Chemicals Safely … … 116
3.3 What to do in a Chemical Emergency … … 116
3.4 Poisoning – What to do while Waiting for Help … 117
Session 4: Household Appliances … … … … … 119
4.0 Overview … … … … … … 119
4.1 Major Appliances … … … … … 119
4.2 Small Appliance … … … … … 120
4.3 Consumer Electronics … … … … 121
4.4 Methods of cleaning household appliances … … 121
4.5 Why is it Important to Clean your Kitchen Appliances? 122
Session 5: Metals and Non-Metals Household Appliance … … 125
5.0 Overview … … … … … … 125
5.1 Metal Household Appliance … … … … 125
5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of using cooking or
canning utensils made of aluminum … … … 127
5.3 Non-metal household appliances … … … 128
5.4 Non-metals in our HOMES … … … … 129
5.5 Elements in our Garden … … … … 129
5.6 Uses for Metals and Non-metals … … … 129
CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations v

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Session 6: Alloys … … … … … … … … 131

6.0 Overview … … … … … … 131
6.1 Some Useful Alloys … … … … … 131
6.2 Stainless Steel … … … … … 132
6.3 Brass … … … … … … … 132
6.4 Bronze … … … … … … 132
UNIT 4: ASPECTS OF ECOLOGY … … … … 133

Session 1: The Ecosystem … … … … … … 135
1.1 Ecology Defined … … … … … 135
1.2 Terminologies … … … … … 135
1.3 Ecosystem … … … … … … 136
Session 2: Inter-Relationships in Communities or Habitats … … 139
2.1 Parasitism … … … … … … 139
2.2 Saprophytism … … … … … 139
2.3 Predation … … … … … 139
2.4 Cooperation … … … … … 139
2.5 Commensalism … … … … … 140
2.6 Amensalism … … … … … 140
2.7 Mutualism … … … … … 140
2.8 Competition … … … … … 140
Session 3: Ecological Pyramids … … … … … 143
3.1 Types of Ecological Pyramids … … … 143
3.2 Inverted Pyramids … … … … … 145
3.3 Limitations of Ecological Pyramids … … 146
Session 4: Population … … … … … … … 147
4.1 Population Defined … … … … … 147
4.2 Characteristics of Population … … … … 147
4.3 Environmental Resistance … … … … 148
4.4 Population Growth … … … … … 148
4.5 Measurement of Population … … … … 149
Session 5: Adaptation … … … … … … … 153
5.1 Adaptation Defined … … … … … 153
5.2 Adaptive Features … … … … … 153
Session 6: Conservation … … … … … … 157
6.1 Conservation Defined … … … … 157
6.2 The Need for Conservation … … … … 157
6.3 Forest Conservation … … … … 157
6.4 Wildlife Conservation … … … … 158
6.5 Soil Conservation … … … … … 159
vi CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations

TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 5: THE SOLAR SYSTEM … … … … 161

Session 1: Components of the Solar System … … … … 163
1.1 The Solar System … … … … … 163
1.2 Distances within the Solar System … … … 164
1.3 The Sun … … … … … … 164
1.4 Interplanetary Space … … … … … 165
Session 2: The Planets … … … … … … … 169
2.1 The Planets … … … … … … 169
2.2 Types of Planets … … … … … 169
2.3 Inferior and Superior Planets … … … … 180
Session 3: The Galaxies and the Big Bang Theory … … … 183
3.1 The Galaxy … … … … … … 183
3.2 Types of Galaxies … … … … … 183
Session 4: Satellites … … … … … … … 189
4.1 Satellite … … … … … … 189
4.2 Natural Satellite … … … … … 189
4.3 Artificial Satellites … … … … … 189
4.4 Applications of Satellite … … … … 191
Session 5: Natural Hazard and Natural Disasters … … … 195

5.1 Natural Hazard and Natural Disaster … … … 195
5.2 Classification of Natural Hazards … … … 196
5.4 Effects of Hazards … … … … … 202
Session 6: Motion of the Earth and Eclipses … … … … 205
6.1 Motion the Earth and Seasonal Changes … … 205
6.2 Phases of the Moon … … … … … 206
6.3 Eclipse … … … … … … 208
6.4 Types of Lunar Eclipse … … … … 208
UNIT 6: TYPES OF WASTE, EFFECTS OF WASTE AND WASTE

MANAGEMENT … … … … … 213
Session 1: Types of Waste … … … … … … 215
1.0 Introduction … … … … … … 215
1.1 What is Waste? … … … … … 215
1.2 Sources of waste … … … … … 216
1.3 Waste Segregation … … … … … 217
Session 2: Classification of Waste … … … … … 219
2.0 Waste and their Classification … … … 219
2.1 Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable waste … 220
2.2 Hazardous Waste … … … … … 220
2.3 Non-hazardous waste … … … … … 220
2.4 Municipal Solid Waste … … … … 221
CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.5 Industrial Wastes … … … … … 221

2.6 Agricultural wastes … … … … … 221
2.7 Commercial Wastes … … … … … 222
2.8 Electronic Waste … … … … … 222
2.9 Managements of E-wastes … … … … 225
Session 3: Effects of Waste on the Environment … … … 229
3.0 Introduction … … … … … … 229
3.1 Pollution Effect of Poor Waste Management … 230
3.2 Impact of Waste Accumulation on Terrestrial Life … 230
3.3 Impact of Waste Accumulation on Fresh Water … 230
3.4 Impact of Waste Accumulation on Marine Life … 231
3.5 Negative Impacts of Improper Solid Waste Management
in Cities … … … … … … 232
3.6 Environmental Issues Associated with Open Dumping 232
Session 4: Effects of Waste on Health … … … … … 235
4.1 Health Hazards … … … … … 235
4.2 Health Hazards due to air Pollution … … … 236
4.3 Health Hazards due to Soil or Land Pollution … 236
Session 5: Waste Management Strategies … … … 239
5.1 Meaning and Purpose of Waste Management … 239
5.2 What is waste management? … … … … 240
5.3 Why is Waste Management Important? … … 240
5.4 Common Ways of Managing Waste … … 241
5.5 The Waste Management Hierarchy … … … 242
5.6 Benefits of Waste Management … … … 245
5.7 Waste Managed Regulations … … … 246
Session 6: Waste Management Strategies in Ghana … … … 249
6.1 What are the Waste Management Challenges? … 249
6.3 The way forward- Solutions for Waste Management … 251
6.4 Efforts to Improve Poor Sanitation in Ghana … 251
References … … … … … … … … … 253
Glossary … … … … … … … … … 255
Answer to Self-Assessment Questions … … … … … 256
viii CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations

SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS
INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW
UNIT OBJECTIVES
SESSION OBJECTIVES
DO AN ACTIVITY
NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT
TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)
REFER TO
READ OR LOOK AT
SUMMARY
SELF- ASSESSMENT TEST
ASSIGNMENT
CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations

ix
THIS MODULE FORMS PART OF CoDEUCC PACKAGE FOR THE
BACHELOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY/FOUNDATIONS
(BEP/BEF) PROGRAMME
FOR FURTHER DETAILS YOU MAY CONTACT
THE PROVOST
(CoDEUCC)
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
CAPE COAST
TEL/FAX O3321-35203, 36947
COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST (CoDEUCC)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced,

Stored in a retrieval system or transmitted by any form or means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying or otherwise without the prior permission of the
copyright holder.
NUTRITION, TRANSPORT AND TRANSPIRATION
IN PLANTS UNIT 1
UNIT 1: NUTRITION, TRANSPORT AND TRANSPIRATION IN

PLANTS
Unit Outline
Session 1: Nutrition – Photosynthesis
Session 2: Nutrition – Mineral requirement
Session 3: Transport – Root Uptake of mineral resources
Session 4: Transport – Transport Tissues of the Plant
Session 5: Transport - Mechanisms of Transport of materials in the plant
Session 6: Transpiration
Getting energy out of food! The mode of acquiring the resources

that make the food and taking them from the surroundings and
moving them through the plant body; and that unique form of gaseous exchange
found only in plants where carbon dioxide is taken in and oxygen given out; which
results in water loss to the plant. In brief this is what the Unit is about: nutrition,
transport and transpiration in plants!!
Unit Objectives
So by the end of the study you should be able to:
1. describe the process of photosynthesis
2. list the mineral requirements for plant growth
3. Outline:
i. The processes involved in the uptake of materials by the roots from
the soil
ii. The processes involved in moving materials up the stem into the
leaves
4. Describe two mechanisms that are responsible for transport in plants
5. Describe transpiration in plants.
CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations 1

UNIT 1 IN PLANTS
This is a blank sheet for short notes on:

• Issues that are not clear; and
• Difficult topics, if any
2 CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations

NUTRITION, TRANSPORT AND TRANSPIRATION UNIT 1
IN PLANTS SESSION 1
SESSION 1: NUTRITION - PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Food is important for life. But food on its own is not useful until the
organisms process it to derive the energy it contains to use. So the means
or manner by which organisms obtain energy from food is called nutrition. There are
two ways organisms obtain energy from food. They are either autotrophic or
heterotrophic. In autotrophic nutrition, organisms make their own food from simple
substances in the environment; whilst in heterotrophic nutrition, organisms take food
already prepared by autotrophic organisms. Our focus in this session will be on the
autotrophic nutrition because Photosynthesis is an example of autotrophic nutrition.
Figure 1: Photosynthesis. Courtesy (http://physicscatalyst.com/class-7/nutrition-in-

plants.php)
Objectives
So by the end of the session you should be able to:
1. Define photosynthesis
2. List the raw materials and products of photosynthesis
3. Outline the processes that take place in photosynthesis
4. Give the site of and the pigment involved in photosynthesis
5. State the conditions necessary for photosynthesis and
6. Show the roles photosynthesis plays in nature.
Come along then …

UNIT 1 NUTRITION - PHOTOSYNTHESIS
SESSION 1
1.1 What is photosynthesis?

Certainly you have heard about or come across the word Photosynthesis before. Haven’t
you? Well! Go ahead pull out your jotter and put down what you can remember.
Did your write up include the following:?
• Name (s) of organisms that perform photosynthesis
• Substances used in the process
• Pigment/catalyst
• Energy input and products of the process?
Hmmm! Good!! Now just take a look once again at Figure 1. Study it carefully; use it to
polish what you wrote down in your jotter.
Photosynthesis is made of two words: photo and synthesis. Photo means light and
Synthesis means build up; so the word literally would mean building up with light. So
using Figure 1 as a guide photosynthesis would simply be a process whereby carbon
dioxide and water are combined using solar energy (light) by green plants to produce
sugar and oxygen which is released into air.
The process is usually represented by this reaction equation:
light
6CO2 + 6H2O mmm C6H12O6 + 6O2
Green plant
There! Now you got it!! Try saying that aloud to yourself without looking at the text.
Hope you got it. Good! Tell me; what are the raw materials and products of
photosynthesis?
1.2 Raw Materials and Products of Photosynthesis

Again studying Figure 1, you notice that the raw materials for photosynthesis are:
• Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
• Water and minerals from the soil
• Solar energy or light is used by green plants converting it into chemical energy.
The products are:

• Simple sugar called glucose which is first produced but stored as starch
• Oxygen, which is released into the atmosphere.
I hope you got it right first time. Good! How does the process of photosynthesis take
place?
1.3 Outline of Photosynthesis

Can you hazard a guess, looking at Figure 1 what steps are involved in
photosynthesis?
Does your effort agree with mine? If it doesn’t don’t worry. Now you know.

IN PLANTS SESSION 1
Photosynthesis takes place in the following three steps: (courtesy: physicscatalyst.com)

1. Absorption of sunlight energy by plant leaves.
2. Conversion of light energy into chemical energy, and splitting of water into
hydrogen and oxygen by light energy.
3. Reduction of carbon dioxide by hydrogen to form carbohydrate like glucose by
utilizing the chemical energy.
[Details of these steps can be found in the Module Secondary School Science 1 Unit 6]
1.4 The Site and Pigment involved in Photosynthesis

In Figure 1 you do notice the sunlight hitting the leaves of the plant, right? So we can
say for certain that it is the leaves of plants that capture the light energy and so:
• Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves of the plants that have food making
factories called Chloroplasts
• Leaves have green pigment called chlorophyll located in the chloroplasts. The
chlorophyll is the light capturing pigment. It is the reason all plant leaves usually
look green
• It helps leaves capture the energy of the sunlight which is then used to prepare
food from carbon di oxide and water.
Figure 2: Leaf in cross-section showing the location of chloroplasts in leaf cells.

Courtesy: physicscatalyst.com
Figure 2 shows how the chloroplasts are positioned in the leaf cells. Leaves in all plants
are perfectly placed no matter their number on a plant so that they can efficiently and
effectively capture the light energy for photosynthesis. The leaf arrangement on the
plant to capture light rays effectively is called leaf mosaic. There are other features of
both the leaf and chloroplasts that adapt them perfectly for capturing sunlight for

SESSION 1
photosynthesis you can find in Secondary School Science 1, Unit 6 by Wie-Addo et al

(2012).
1.5 Conditions Necessary for Photosynthesis

Take a quick look again at Figure 1. What could you point out from the environment
that could affect the process of photosynthesis?
The conditions necessary for photosynthesis to take place are:
1. Sunlight
2. Chlorophyll
3. Carbon dioxide
4. Water
You notice that the conditions listed are simply a reproduction of the raw materials
needed for photosynthesis to take place. This means that the absence of any one of these
would mean that photosynthesis cannot take place.
1.6 The Importance of Photosynthesis in Nature

Now take your jotter, write down what you think makes the process of photosynthesis
so important in nature. Do that before you read on.
Photosynthesis is so very important to nature that it is always said that when the last
tree dies life ends. This is because of the following:
1. You remember, at the start of our discussion, we said there are two modes of
nutrition, right? What are they? Autotrophic nutrition and Heterotrophic
nutrition. Did you get that without referring to the text? Good!!
Now all heterotrophic organisms have to depend on plants for their food because
they are not able unlike plants to make their own food. This means that the
ability plants have to capture the energy of sunlight to convert into chemical
energy in the various plant foods (list as many food from plants that both
humans and other organisms depend on) that all other living organisms depend
on to survive. This shows that without plants there can be no life on earth!
2. Now just take a moment to review the chemical formula that describes
photosynthesis.
light
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Green plant ↑↑↑↑↑
Note that on the left side of the equation constituting the raw materials, carbon
dioxide is utilized. This means that during the process of photosynthesis, carbon
dioxide is taken out or removed from the environment as a raw material and converted
into simple sugar.
On the right side of the equation, constituting the products are sugar and oxygen.
Oxygen is released into the atmosphere. This replaces the carbon dioxide taken out; and
so refreshes the environment with life dependent oxygen!

IN PLANTS SESSION 1
• Photosynthesis is an example of autotrophic nutrition

• Chlorophyll in plant leaves capture sunlight and use its energy to
make sugar out of carbon dioxide and water.
• Oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis
• Chlorophyll is a light capturing pigment located in chloroplasts in plant cells
Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.1
1. Define photosynthesis
2. Give an outline of the process of photosynthesis
3. List the conditions necessary for photosynthesis
4. Draw and label the cross-section of the leaf to show the chloroplasts
5. Explain why you think photosynthesis is important to life?

SESSION 1


UNIT 1
IN PLANTS SESSION 2
SESSION 2: NUTRITION – MINERAL REQUIREMENT

In Session 1 we talked about photosynthesis that it produces glucose, a
simple sugar. But actually plants go on to produce other organic
compounds like proteins, where the primary product, glucose is combined with nitrogen
and other elements they get from soil solution. In addition to the food they make for
themselves they also require some minerals from the soil solution for their growth and
proper development. What are these elements required as mineral nutrition for the
plants? What role do they play in the life of the plant? Well, we will find out soon!
Come along!!
Objectives
So by the end of the session, you should be able to:
1. List the elements that plant require for nutrition
2. Categorize the elements according to their need by plants
3. Show the role each element plays in the development of the plant.
4. Give the effects of mineral deficiencies in plant nutrition
Now read on…
2.1 Mineral Requirement by Plants

You should have read or heard about the nutritional benefits of a number of food items.
Haven’t you? They are usually about fruits and or vegetables. You may find such
trending information in newspapers and maybe on your WhatsApp platform. Good!! So
before you read on make a list in your jotter what mineral elements plants need for their
nutrition and their development.
Now read on and compare your list with what is here. I hope you learn
something new.
Plants require about 20 mineral elements for their growth and development.
Was your list up to 20? Hmmm
The following constitute the mineral elements that plants require. They get the supply of
these from the air, water and soil.
1. Carbon ©
2. Hydrogen (H)
3. Oxygen (O)
4. Nitrogen (N)
5. Phosphorus (P)
6. Potassium (K)
7. Calcium (Ca)

UNIT 1 NUTRITION – MINERAL REQUIREMENT
SESSION 2
8. Magnesium (Mg)
9. Sulphur (S)
10. Boron (B)
11. Chlorine (Cl)
12. Copper (Cu)
13. Iron (Fe)
14. Manganese (Mn)
15. Sodium (Na)
16. Zinc (Zn)
17. Molybdenum (Mo)
18. Nickel (Ni)
19. Silicon (Si)
20. Cobalt (Co)
Wow! That’s quite a long list isn’t it!! But just how much of each of these is
actually needed by the plant? Let’s find out …
2.2 How much of Each Mineral Element is needed by Plants?

Yes, what do you think? The answer to the above question isn’t a straight forward one.
The amount of and the reasons for the mineral elements for plant nutrition is as varied
as there are different types of plants.
But to help grasp an understanding of how each element works in the life of a plant,
Emanuel Epstein (1972).defined two criteria for an element to be essential for plant
growth:
1. in its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle.
2. or that the element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite.
Much earlier, though, Arnon and Stout (1939) had defined three criteria for mineral
element essentiality for the plant:
1. The element must be required for the normal growth and reproduction of the
plant
2. The element must be specific in requirement and their deficiency should not be
supplemented by another element. That is there can be no substitute for the
particular element for the plant need.
3. The element must be directly involved in the metabolism of plants
So there; we have to sets of criteria for plant mineral nutrition. How are they similar or
dissimilar? Why don’t you take it up with your class at the next FTF. It should be an
interesting discussion!!
Amongst the list of 20 given above, some are needed in relatively large quantities and
are called Macronutrients. Now do some brainstorming here: which elements in the 20
would you consider as macronutrients? Compare your attempt with this list: Carbon

UNIT 1
IN PLANTS SESSION 2
(C), hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O) Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Calcium
(Ca), Magnesium (Mg), and Sulfur (S).
I hope you got all correct. If you didn’t, now you know. Let’s continue …
The rest of the elements are required in trace amounts. They are called Micronutrients.
Come on let’s list them: Boron (B), Chlorine (Cl), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Manganese
(Mn), Sodium (Na), Zinc (Zn), Molybdenum (Mo), Nickel (Ni) Silicon (Si) and Cobalt
(Co).
The list above has 20 elements. But usually 17 mineral elements are talked about in
plant mineral nutrition because of their essentiality.
Now what is this about an element being essential?
Such elements are usually:
• Part of biomolecules used in the body structure of plants
• Needed for energy producing compounds eg. ATP and
• Used to activate/inhibit enzymatic actions. Eg. Molybdenum (Mo) activates the
nitragenase enzyme for nitrogen fixation.
There is another aspect of plant mineral nutrition that is also considered. The aspect
referred to as beneficial mineral elements/nutrients.
Beneficial elements are those that can compensate for toxic effects of other elements or
may replace mineral nutrients in some other less specific function such as the
maintenance of osmotic pressure. The beneficial elements have not been deemed
essential for all plants but may be essential for some
Sodium (Na), Silicon (Si), and Cobalt (Co) for example are some elements beneficial to
some plants but not to all plants.
What functions or roles do these elements play in the life of plants?
We will find out in the subsection below where we reproduce material retrieved
from Roles of Mineral Elements in Plants (Burton &. Guttman, (1999))
The following is a brief guideline of the role of essential and beneficial mineral
nutrients that are crucial for growth. Eliminate any one of these elements, and plants
will display abnormalities of growth, deficiency symptoms, or may not reproduce
normally.
Macronutrients
Carbon forms the backbone of most plant biomolecules, including proteins, starches
and cellulose. Carbon is fixed through photosynthesis; this converts carbon dioxide
from the air into carbohydrates which are used to store and transport energy within the
plant.
Hydrogen also is necessary for building sugars and building the plant. It is obtained
almost entirely from water. Hydrogen ions are imperative for a proton gradient to help
drive the electron transport chain in photosynthesis and for respiration
Oxygen is a component of many organic and inorganic molecules within the plant, and
is acquired in many forms. These include: O2 and CO2 (mainly from the air via leaves)
and H2O, NO−3, H2PO−4 and SO2−4 (mainly from the soil water via roots). Plants

SESSION 2
produce oxygen gas (O2) along with glucose during photosynthesis but then require O2
to undergo aerobic cellular respiration and break down this glucose to produce ATP.
Nitrogen is a major component of proteins, hormones, chlorophyll, vitamins and
enzymes essential for plant life. Nitrogen metabolism is a major factor in stem and leaf
growth (vegetative growth). Too much can delay flowering and fruiting. Deficiencies
can reduce yields, cause yellowing of the leaves and stunt growth.
Phosphorus is necessary for seed germination, photosynthesis, protein formation and
almost all aspects of growth and metabolism in plants. It is essential for flower and fruit
formation. Low pH (<4) results in phosphate being chemically locked up in organic
soils. Deficiency symptoms are purple stems and leaves; maturity and growth are
retarded. Yields of fruit and flowers are poor. Premature drop of fruits and flowers may
often occur. Phosphorus must be applied close to the plant's roots in order for the plant
to utilize it. Large applications of phosphorus without adequate levels of zinc can cause
a zinc deficiency.
Potassium is necessary for formation of sugars, starches, carbohydrates, protein
synthesis and cell division in roots and other parts of the plant. It helps to adjust water
balance, improves stem rigidity and cold hardiness, enhances flavor and color on fruit
and vegetable crops, increases the oil content of fruits and is important for leafy crops.
Deficiencies result in low yields, mottled, spotted or curled leaves, scorched or burned
look to leaves..
Sulfur is a structural component of amino acids, proteins, vitamins and enzymes and is
essential to produce chlorophyll. It imparts flavor to many vegetables. Deficiencies
show as light green leaves. Sulfur is readily lost by leaching from soils and should be
applied with a nutrient formula. Some water supplies may contain Sulfur.
Magnesium is a critical structural component of the chlorophyll molecule and is
necessary for functioning of plant enzymes to produce carbohydrates, sugars and fats. It
is used for fruit and nut formation and essential for germination of seeds. Deficient
plants appear chlorotic, show yellowing between veins of older leaves; leaves may
droop. Magnesium is leached by watering and must be supplied when feeding. It can be
applied as a foliar spray to correct deficiencies.
Calcium activates enzymes, is a structural component of cell walls, influences water
movement in cells and is necessary for cell growth and division. Some plants must have
calcium to take up nitrogen and other minerals. Calcium is easily leached. Calcium,
once deposited in plant tissue, is immobile (non-translocatable) so there must be a
constant supply for growth. Deficiency causes stunting of new growth in stems, flowers
and roots. Symptoms range from distorted new growth to black spots on leaves and
fruit. Yellow leaf margins may also appear.
Micronutrients
Iron is necessary for many enzyme functions and as a catalyst for the synthesis of
chlorophyll. It is essential for the young growing parts of plants. Deficiencies are pale
leaf color of young leaves followed by yellowing of leaves and large veins. Iron is lost
by leaching and is held in the lower portions of the soil structure. Under conditions of

UNIT 1
IN PLANTS SESSION 2
high pH (alkaline) iron is rendered unavailable to plants. When soils are alkaline, iron
may be abundant but unavailable. Applications of an acid nutrient formula containing
iron chelates, held in soluble form, should correct the problem.
Manganese is involved in enzyme activity for photosynthesis, respiration, and nitrogen
metabolism. Deficiency in young leaves may show a network of green veins on a light
green background similar to an iron deficiency. In the advanced stages the light green
parts become white, and leaves are shed. Brownish, black, or grayish spots may appear
next to the veins. In neutral or alkaline soils plants often show deficiency symptoms. In
highly acid soils, manganese may be available to the extent that it results in toxicity.
Boron is necessary for cell wall formation, membrane integrity, calcium uptake and
may aid in the translocation of sugars. Boron affects at least 16 functions in plants.
These functions include flowering, pollen germination, fruiting, cell division, water
relationships and the movement of hormones. Boron must be available throughout the
life of the plant. It is not translocated and is easily leached from soils. Deficiencies kill
terminal buds leaving a rosette effect on the plant. Leaves are thick, curled and brittle.
Fruits, tubers and roots are discolored, cracked and flecked with brown spots.
Zinc is a component of enzymes or a functional cofactor of a large number of enzymes
including auxins (plant growth hormones). It is essential to carbohydrate metabolism,
protein synthesis and internodal elongation (stem growth). Deficient plants have
mottled leaves with irregular chlorotic areas. Zinc deficiency leads to iron deficiency
causing similar symptoms. Deficiency occurs on eroded soils and is least available at a
pH range of 5.5 - 7.0. Lowering the pH can render zinc more available to the point of
toxicity.
Copper is concentrated in roots of plants and plays a part in nitrogen metabolism. It is
a component of several enzymes and may be part of the enzyme systems that use
carbohydrates and proteins. Deficiencies cause die back of the shoot tips, and terminal
leaves develop brown spots. Copper is bound tightly in organic matter and may be
deficient in highly organic soils. It is not readily lost from soil but may often be
unavailable. Too much copper can cause toxicity.
Molybdenum is a structural component of the enzyme that reduces nitrates to ammonia.
Without it, the synthesis of proteins is blocked and plant growth ceases. Root nodule
(nitrogen fixing) bacteria also require it. Seeds may not form completely, and nitrogen
deficiency may occur if plants are lacking molybdenum. Deficiency signs are pale green
leaves with rolled or cupped margins.
Chlorine is involved in osmosis (movement of water or solutes in cells), the ionic
balance necessary for plants to take up mineral elements and in photosynthesis.
Deficiency symptoms include wilting, stubby roots, chlorosis (yellowing) and bronzing.
Odors in some plants may be decreased. Chloride, the ionic form of chlorine used by
plants, is usually found in soluble forms and is lost by leaching. Some plants may show
signs of toxicity if levels are too high.
Nickel has just recently won the status as an essential trace element for plants
according to the Agricultural Research Service Plant, Soil and Nutrition Laboratory in

SESSION 2
Ithaca, NY. It is required for the enzyme urease to break down urea to liberate the
nitrogen into a usable form for plants. Nickel is required for iron absorption. Seeds
need nickel in order to germinate. Plants grown without additional nickel will gradually
reach a deficient level at about the time they mature and begin reproductive growth. If
nickel is deficient plants may fail to produce viable seeds.
Sodium is involved in osmotic (water movement) and ionic balance in plants.
Cobalt is required for nitrogen fixation in legumes and in root nodules of nonlegumes.
The demand for cobalt is much higher for nitrogen fixation than for ammonium
nutrition. Deficient levels could result in nitrogen deficiency symptoms.
Silicon is found as a component of cell walls. Plants with supplies of soluble silicon
produce stronger, tougher cell walls making them a mechanical barrier to piercing and
sucking insects. This significantly enhances plant heat and drought tolerance. Foliar
sprays of silicon have also shown benefits reducing populations of aphids on field
crops. Tests have also found that silicon can be deposited by the plants at the site of
infection by fungus to combat the penetration of the cell walls by the attacking fungus.
Improved leaf erectness, stem strength and prevention or depression of iron and
manganese toxicity have all been noted as effects from silicon. Silicon has not been
determined essential for all plants but may be beneficial for many.
2.3 Effects of Mineral Deficiency in Plant Nutrition

You noted earlier on, that one of the criterion for a an element being essential for plant
nutrition was that the element must be necessary for the normal life cycle of the plant.
What is the direct implication of this criterion on the plant?
The list below should give you an idea of what happens to a plant should it be lacking
these essential elements:
i. Depression of growth rate
ii. Stunting
iii. Deformity
iv. Discolouration
v. Growth distress and
vi. Death .
Now let us elaborate this list with the Table below.

Table 2.4 Deficiency Symptoms of Some Major Plant Mineral Nutrients (Courtesy
‘Biology’ Burton &. Guttman, 1999).
S/N Element Signs of Deficiency
1. Boron Tissues hard, brittle; stems rough and cracked; growing tips
damaged; flowering inhibited; heart rot of root crops; poor legume
nitrogen fixation.
2. Calcium Dieback of growing points; affects meristems (undeveloped
terminal buds); stunted root growth; leaves curl
3. Chlorine Young leaves blue-green colour and shiny, then become

UNIT 1
IN PLANTS SESSION 2
chlorotic, necrotic, bronzed

4. Copper Dieback of growing points; leaves chlorotic or blue-green in
colour, elongated; leaf margins curl or roll
5. Iron Chlorosis of young leaves, but larger veins remain green; short,
slender stems
6. Magnesium Marginal chlorosis and red, purple, or brown pigments in mature
leaves first, with green venation
7. Manganese Stunting, interveinal chlorosis in leaves, pale overall colouring,
leaves malformed with necrotic spots
8. Molybdenum Interveinal chlorosis, pale, distorted, yellow leaves with margins
that curl or roll; stunting
9. Nitrogen Chlorosis of leaves, beginning with lower leaves, retarded growth
10. Phosphorus Retarded growth, blue-green or dark colour; red, purple or brown
pigments along veins, beginning on underside of leaf
11. Potassium Dieback of growing points; blue-green or dark green colour;
necrotic spots; leaf margins necrotic (“scorched”)
12. Sulphur Chlorosis of whole plant; retarded growth
13. Zinc “Little leaf”, rosette formation; leaves necrotic, twisted,
misshapen; late summer mottling of leaves
So there, at a glance you could tell the import of the deficiency of some of the essential
mineral/elements on the life of the plant. Study the Table well and next time you are
walking through a vegetable garden or farm, you look out for some of these signs and
the reason behind them. Good!
Now you know the mineral elements that are essential or beneficial to the nutrition of
plants. You also know the distinction between essential and beneficial elements to the
life of plants and the criteria for declaring a mineral element essential/beneficial to the
plant. The signs of deficiency of these elements on the plant have been outlined.
Exercise 1.2
1. Make a list of mineral elements that are both beneficial and essential
for plants.
2. Explain why some elements in plant nutrition are considered essential and others
beneficial.
3. Show the role each element plays in the development of the plant.
4. Give the effects of mineral deficiencies in plant nutrition.

SESSION 2


IN PLANTS SESSION 3
SESSION 3: TRANSPORT – ROOT UPTAKE OF MINERAL

RESOURCES
In Session 2, we dealt with the minerals/elements required in plant
nutrition. If you take a brief look at the list of minerals/elements, you
can guess easily that carbon is obtained from the air as carbon dioxide; hydrogen and
oxygen from water. The water is supplied from the soil. All the other minerals are
obtained as ions from soil solution. That is why the focus of this session is to look at
how the root enables the plant to access its mineral needs from the soil. I hope you
will enjoy studying the session.
Objectives
So then, by the end of the session you should be able to:
1. show the pathways of movement of water and mineral substances across the
structure of the root
2. describe the various modes by which the root takes up minerals in solution
from the soil
3. outline the structural adaptations of the root that enables it to take up minerals
and water from the soil.
Here we go! Let’s begin …

UNIT 1 TRANSPORT – ROOT UPTAKE OF MINERAL
SESSION 3 RESOURCES
3.1 The Structure of the Root and Pathways of movement of

Substances
Figure 3.1 A. B. C The Structure of the Root and Pathways of movement of

Substances (Courtesy C.J. Clegg, Biology for the IB Diploma)

IN PLANTS SESSION 3
You have to do a careful study of Figure 3.1. Note that the part of the root of
significance where movement of water and mineral substances take place is the root
hairs region, shown in A. and magnified in B. Now the root hairs are extensions of
root epidermal cells. As you can see in the Figure 3.1, they are in close contact with
soil particles and so with soil solution.
Here! Come along … let’s follow the arrows in C. write down what you think are the
pathways for water movement through the root. There are three pathways for water
to move from the root hairs through the root cells into the plant. Movement of water
is by:
1. Mass Flow
2. Diffusion and
3. Osmosis.
Mass Flow
This is the movement of water through the free spaces in between the cellulose fibres
of the cell walls. This is a very important route. Just take a look at the arrows again,
those between the cytoplasm and cell walls. This route avoids all the living content
of the cells along the way and so it is called Apoplast. It can also be called the
Apoplastic route.
Diffusion
Before we move on a reminder of what diffusion is necessary. What is diffusion?
Diffusion is the movement of substances from a region of high concentration to a
region of lower concentration until equilibrium is attained in other words till the
entire region is evenly filled with the substance.
Now if you consider the two regions outside the root- the soil filled with soil solution
(water) and the inside of the root cells (cytoplasmic content with less water), water
will flow from the soil solution high water concentration into the root hair cells with
low water concentration.
And as you can see in the diagram, the arrows showing water movement outside the
cell vacuoles actually are going through the cytoplasmic connections of the cells.
This cytoplasmic links between the cells is called Plasmodesmata. This route of
water through the root cells is called the Symplastic route or simply the Simplast.
Which of the two routes, the apoplast and the simplast will water move faster and
freer?
What reason (s) do you give for your answer? Discuss at the next Face to
Face Session.

SESSION 3 RESOURCES
Osmosis
What is osmosis? Do you remember? Note diffusion involves movement of
substances but osmosis involves movement of only water molecules from a region
of high concentration of water molecules to a region of lower concentration of water
molecules until there is no longer an osmotic gradient between the two regions.
This route is through the cell vacuoles (see the arrows?), where water concentration
is always low. It is the means by which root cells absorb water.
Which of these routes will be most significant in the supply of water to the plant?
The answer is obvious, isn’t it? The Apoplast!
3.2 Modes by which the Root takes up Minerals in Solution from

the Soil
Remember we said earlier somewhere that minerals exist as ions in the soil solutions,
so your guess would be as good as mine that, ions of elements may move freely
along with the mass flow of water in solution into the plant. But this is not the means
by which plants get their supply of minerals from the soil solution!
Now, there I got you! By what means do you think plants get their supply of
minerals from the soil solution?
Plants get their supply of mineral requirement from the surrounding soil solution by
active transport. What did I say? Plants get their supply of minerals from the soil
solution by Active Transport.
Metabolic energy is needed to move minerals from the soil solution into the plant
first through the roots that is why it is described as active transport. It has the
following characteristics:
i. It is always against the concentration gradient. This is because plant
cells ensure that there is always a stock pile of valuable ions like
nitrates, calcium etc. within the cytoplasm so that as long as there is
present these minerals in solution in the surrounding soil the root
cells will take up or absorb these minerals.
ii. It is a selective process. In other words by active transport, the plant
takes up only the preferred minerals that it needs against all else.
iii. The use of special molecules of the membrane called pumps. Now
you can visualize these special molecules as vehicles. They carry
the minerals from one end of the cell membrane to the inside where
it is released. The pumps are made up of globular proteins. These
pumps, the globular proteins need to react with ATP before they can
do their job of carrying minerals from one place to another. And
they are very specific too. This means that every mineral has its
own carrier molecule. This underscores why active transport is a
selective process.

IN PLANTS SESSION 3
There you are! We have described how plants take up mineral elements from the soil
solution around the root hairs. But the question we need to ask is: How is the plants
constant need of minerals supply sustained or achieved? We would find out in
Session 4.
3.3 Structural Adaptations of the Root that enables it to take up

Minerals and Water from the Soil
Go again to Figure 3.1. What structural features do you notice in the root that makes
its role of mineral and water uptake from the soil so efficient?
1. Root hairs are epidermal extensions of the epidermis of roots
2. They are very thin and numerous
3. They lie very closely attached to the soil particles making them completely
surrounded by the soil solution.
4. The root hairs have very thin cell walls so that water and mineral ions have
very small distance to cross.
All the above features make the root hair provide a large surface area over which
absorption can take place. [Figure 3.3]
With regard to the active uptake process the root hairs tips are involved in
vigorous arobic respiration to enable a constant supply of ATP to provide the
energy for the globular protein pumps.
Figure 3.3 Root Hair in Close Relation with Soil Particles and Soil Solution
(Courtesy: https://pmgbiology.com/2015/03/21/mineral-ions-in-plants-a-u)
In this Session, we have shown the pathways of movement of water

and mineral substances across the structure of the root. We have also
described the various modes by which the root takes up water and minerals in
solution from the soil. We concluded the session outlining the structural adaptations
of the root that enables it to take up minerals and water from the soil.

SESSION 3 RESOURCES
Exercise 1.3
1. Explain how the plant is able to meet its mineral requirement needs
2. Make an annoted diagram to show the pathways of water into the root of
plants.
3. Give an account of how the root is able to perform its role of water and
mineral uptake from the soil.

IN PLANTS SESSION 4
SESSION 4: TRANSPORT TISSUES OF THE PLANT

The stem as you know is the above ground part of a plant. It holds the
branches and leaves of a plant in the air. In the just ended session we
considered how the roots of a plant take up water and mineral substances in solution
from the surrounding soil water. In this session we will focus on the transport tissues
of the plant.
Do the plants have ‘pipes’ that help transport water, mineral resources and food
through the plant?
Well! Let’s see …
Objectives
By the end of this session, then, you should be able to:
1. show:
a. the route of water and mineral resources up the stem
b. the route of photosynthetic products through the stem
2. state the names of the tissues through which water, mineral resources and
food move through the stem
3. make a simple diagram to show the relative positions of the transport tissues
in the stem
4. describe the structure of the transport tissues
5. draw the phloem tissue
Here we go …
Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of the transverse section through the stem showing the
relative positions of the transport tissues: Xylem and Phloem. (Courtesy:
https://www.bbc.com/education)

UNIT 1 TRANSPORT TISSUES OF THE PLANT
SESSION 4
A quick look at Figure 4 should let you know that there are two tissues responsible
for movement of water and substances through the stem.
What are these tissues?
The Xylem and the Phloem! Correct.
The xylem is responsible for the movement or transport of water and mineral
resources in solution from the roots through the stem to the branches and leaves. The
phloem is the tissue that transports photosynthetic products-food from the leaves for
distribution through the plant.
Now let us look at each one in turn …
4.1 The Route of Water and Mineral Resources up the Stem

The xylem tissue is made up of elongated cells arranged end to end. They are living
when young, but at maturity, the end walls dissolve away and the living content
become cellulose thickenings in the inside of lateral walls. The walls are further
hardened by the deposition of lignin. Thus at maturity the xylem tissue become a
very tough long continuous hollow tube stretching from the roots throughout the
plant body.
What could you liken the xylem to in construction?
Why should the xylem at maturity be made up of strong hardened long tubes?
(Share your answers for discussion at the next FTF)
The structure of the xylem helps to support the weight of the plant. For this reason,
the transport systems are arranged differently in root and stem – in the root it has to
resist forces that could pull the plant out of the ground. In the stem it has to resist
compression and bending forces caused by the weight of the plant and the wind.
Figure 4.2: Schematic diagram of the transverse section of the root (Courtesy
https://www.bbc.com/education)

IN PLANTS SESSION 4
Note that, the xylem in the root is centrally located forming a star, with the
phloem lying between the arms of the star.
Figure 4.3: Scanning Electron Micrograph (SEM) of spirally thickened Xylem

vessels.
How spectacular! Look at the hollow tubes, just the structure for transport of water
and substances in solution, isn’t it!!
4.2 The route of photosynthetic products through the stem

I hope you know what photosynthetic products are. They the sugars and other sugar
products produced in the leaves of a plant during photosynthesis. When these are
produced they must be distributed throughout the plant to feed it.
What is the name of the tissue for the transport of food in the plant?
The tissue responsible for the transport of food produced in the leaves to all parts of
the plant is the Phloem.
The phloem as a tissue is made up of sieve tubes and companion cells.
What are Sieve tubes? What are Companion cells?
Well, let’s find out!
Sieve tubes

SESSION 4
Figure 4.4 A diagram of the Structure of the Phloem Tissue
Together let’s study Figure 4.4 and then try to describe what we see in the diagram.
The phloem tissue is made up of two cells: companion cell and sieve tube. The
companion cell is living and has all the organelles of a living cell. The sieve tube on
the other hand, though living has only cytoplasm with protoplasmic strands without a
nucleus. It is believed that the nucleus of the companion cells direct the control of
the phloem tissue. The sieve tubes are elongated cells joined end to end separated by
sieve plates with perforations or pores. The companion cells are in close touch with
the sieve tubes through gabs in the cell walls between them called pits
So the sieve tubes at maturity have only a lining of cytoplasm without nucleus and
forming long continuous tubes separated by sieve plates with pores for the transport
of photosynthetic products throughout the plant body.
Transport through the phloem is by active transport.
The Xylem and the Phloem tissues are responsible for transport of
water, mineral resources in solution and photosynthetic products in
the plant. Their structure and arrangement in the stem and the root are adapted to
provide support and strength to the plant and also to ensure the mass flow or
movement of substances through the plant. The Xylem carries water and mineral
resources from the root to the aerial parts of the plant. The phloem carries
photosynthetic products throughout the plant. The Xylem is a dead tissue (wood) at
maturity; the phloem is a living tissue at maturity.

IN PLANTS SESSION 4
Exercise 1.4
1. Describe the structure of the xylem and show how it provides
strength and support for the plant
2. Describe the phloem tissue and point out the relationship between the phloem
cells and the companion cells.
3. Make an annotated diagram of the phloem tissue.

SESSION 4


IN PLANTS SESSION 5
SESSION 5: MECHANISMS OF TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS

IN THE PLANT
Going back to Sessions 3 and 4 we covered Root Uptake of mineral

resources and Tissues of the Plant responsible for movement of water
and mineral resources taken up from the soil by the roots.
How are these substances moved up the plant for distribution?
How are the sugars and allied products produced by photosynthesis in the leaves
distributed to all parts of the plant?
The answers to these questions will be realised when we consider the topic for this
session: Mechanisms of Transport of materials in the plant.
Objectives
Hence by the end of this discussion, you should be able to:
1. Outline the mechanisms that enable the plant roots to take up water and
mineral resources from the soil solution
2. Describe root pressure that moves water and mineral nutrients in solution up
herbaceous plants and
3. Give an account of the mass-flow hypotheses that explains the movement of
photosynthates from the leaves to all parts of the plant that need to be fed.
Let’s begin our discussion with a question …
5.1 How do Roots of Plants take up Water and Mineral Nutrients

from the Soil?
Three mechanisms are involved. Two are true to all plants but one is only found in
certain species of plants.
What mechanisms are we talking about?
• You remember the mass flow apoplast way discussed above? Right! It is the
source of passive inflow of mineral ions from the soil solution to wash around
the root hair cells.
• Then the active uptake of ions from the surrounding cell membranes
continuously maintain concentration gradient tilted towards the inside of the
cells that allows for minerals being poured into the cells by diffusion. Why is
this so? You see the active removal of ions from the cell membranes into the
cells reduces the ionic concentration around the surface of the membranes
making the apoplast solution always higher in concentration and so enabling a
continuous stream of mineral ions into the plant roots.

UNIT 1 MECHANISMS OF TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS
SESSION 5 IN THE PLANT
• Mutualistic dependence of certain species of plants with soil organisms: fungi

and bacteria. These symbiotic organisms provide the plants that are in
mutualistic association with them the needed nitrate requirements whilst they
benefit from the sugars produced by the plants.
5.2 Root Pressure

To know what root pressure is, we need to consider the processes of water and solute
movement in the root cells. Here we would turn to the Module: Science for Basic
School Teachers II, Unit 5 Session 5 where this has been treated beautifully to
reproduce it for our benefit.
But first you would need to go back to Session 3 and refresh your mind on the
apoplastic and the symplastic routes of water movement in and around the root cells and
through cytoplasm of root cells.
The bulk of water movement along with dissolved substances if you would remember
takes place by the apoplastic route. But before it reaches the root xylem, its path is
blocked by a waxy strip in the endodermis called the Casparian Strip. The flow of
water with mineral substances is directed through the symplast where cell to cell
osmosis becomes the mode of movement of water along with mineral substances.
Water and minerals enter the stele through the symplast, but, you remember, xylem is
part of the apoplast
How then do water and minerals get across this obstacle?
Transfer cells selectively pump ions out of the symplast into the apoplast so they may
enter the xylem. This action requires energy. So as you can see, the endodermis, as a
result of the casparian strip regulates what should enter the xylem for upward passage to
the rest of the plant.
The continued movement of water and dissolved mineral salts from the cortex into the
xylem gradually build up a force as the volume of water increases in the xylem. This
force is called the root pressure. It is responsible for pushing water up the root xylem
into the stem
I hope you can now tell what root pressure is, can’t you? Am sure you’d be
wondering whether this pressure can be seen in nature …, well yes.
Root pressures develop particularly at night, and early in the morning, on the apices of
grasses in particular, we sometimes see a resulting phenomenon of root pressure called
guttation, where droplets of water have accumulated overnight.
We can demonstrate this phenomenon in the laboratory even in our homes.

IN PLANTS SESSION 5
Root pressure can be demonstrated by cutting the stem of a potted plant about two
centimeters from the base. A piece of rubber tubing fitted to a glass tube about 0.3m
long is bound on to the stump.
To prevent evaporation from the soil, the pot is enclosed in a polythene bag. The month
of the bag is tied firmly around the base of the stem. The glass tube you’ll notice will
gradually fill with liquid.
Figure 5.1 Demonstrating Root Pressure
Is root pressure responsible for carrying water and dissolved mineral substances up tall
trees? For the answer we would treat the whole subject under transpiration in Session
6.
5.3 Movement of Phosynthetic Products through the Phloem

The main products of photosynthesis are mainly sugars dissolved in water which is
called cell sap.
How is the cell sap transported to all part of the plant?
The mechanism of transport of phloem sap has been found to be a pressure-flow

system, called the mass-flow system.

Figure 5.2: Schematic diagram explaining the Mass Flow Hypothesis (Courtesy:
Biology for the IB Diploma)

IN PLANTS SESSION 5
Study Figure 5.2 carefully. Take your jotter, try to outline the process depicted in the
diagram, then come and compare with mine here.
- sucrose is produced at a source, for the plant it is the photosynthesising leaf
- sucrose produced is actively transported into sieve tube members by companion
cells
- The concentration of sucrose thus increases in the phloem
- and waters flows in by osmosis
- in the sink, and in this case the root or other non-photosynthetic part of the plant ,
sucrose is needed
- companion cells actively transport sucrose out of the phloem
- Again water follows the concentration gradient so created
- The high hydrostatic (water) pressure in the phloem near the source and the low
pressure near the sink cause the rapid flow of the sap.
This session has been quite interesting. Following an outline of

mechanisms that enable root hair cells to take up water and mineral
nutrients from the soil solution, we went on to describe root pressure as the means of
pushing water and mineral nutrients up herbaceous plants. An outline of the mass flow
hypothesis the mechanism that transports products of photosynthesis from the leaves to
all parts of the plant concluded the session.
Exercise 1.5
1. Outline the mechanisms that enable the plant roots to take up water and
mineral resources from the soil solution
2. Describe root pressure that moves water and mineral nutrients in solution up
herbaceous plants and
3. Give an account of the mass-flow hypotheses that explains the movement of
photosynthates from the leaves to all parts of the plant that need to be fed.



IN PLANTS SESSION 6
SESSION 6: TRANSPIRATION
In Session 5, we noted that root pressure is able to lift or move water
and mineral nutrients in solution up to about only a meter above
ground. This means that only small shrubs or herbaceous plants can rely on root
pressure for transport of water and mineral nutrients absorbed from the soil.
How do tall plants like Odum and Mahogany get water and mineral nutrients
up from the soil to the leaves?
This, we would soon find out!
Objectives
So by the end of the session you should be able to:
1. be guided by diagrams to show how water and mineral nutrients in
solution move up the stem of tall plants.
2. describe the role of air pressure in moving water and mineral nutrients up the
stem of tall trees
3. explain the forces involved in the transport of water and mineral nutrients up
tall trees
4. define transpiration
5. describe the role of guard cells in the process of transpiration
6. give an outline of the factors that affect transpiration.
7. explain how transpiration is important for the plant
Come along! It will sure be fun!!

UNIT 1 TRANSPIRATION
SESSION 6
6.1 Using Diagrams to Show Movement of Water and Substances

up the Stem
Figure 6:1 A Schematic diagram showing the movement of water and nutrients from
the roots and up through the Stem to the Leaves (Courtesy: Biology for the IB
Diploma)

IN PLANTS SESSION 6
Study Figure 6.1 carefully; now let us together try to describe what it seeks to tell.
I hope you do notice that the parts of the root and stem drawn are actually magnified
sections of the root and shoot systems to show the pathway water and substances
move through the plant.
The movement through the root has already been dealt with in the previous session.
So let’s concentrate on the part highlighting the shoot system. I hope you know that
the shoot is made up of the above ground part of a plant: stem, branches and leaves.
Right? Good!
Where do we start? We can I suppose just as well start from the leaves as
from the stem.
Let us start from the stem, from the xylem actually. For shrubs and small herbaceous
plants we can agree that root pressure has pushed up water along with dissolved
substances into the stem xylem.
Using the apoplastic route mostly water moves from the xylem into and around the
palisade and spongy cells of the leaves.
Note that the appoplastic route ends or opens into the empty spaces around the
spongy mesophyll cells.
Heat energy from the sun hitting the leaves causes the water in the air spaces in the
leaves to heat up and become vapour.
The water vapour then passes out into the atmosphere through the stomata on the
underside of leaves. As the vapour passes out a concentration gradient is created
which extends from the spongy and palisade cells to the stem xylem to ensure a
continuous flow of water along with dissolved substances from the xylem to be
distributed throughout the branches and leaves of the plant.
How is the continuous flow of water along with dissolved substances from the
stem xylem to the leaves sustained?
What do think?
Come on … let’s find out …
6.2 The Role of Air Pressure in moving Water and Mineral

Nutrients up the Stem of Tall Trees
Yeah! It doesn’t sound probable heh! It is indeed. It has been proved that at sea level
air pressure over comes the pull of gravity and keeps columns of water in small
capillary tubes just as the xylem vessels in plants.
How? Still skeptical?
Just try out this for yourself …
• Get an empty litter plastic bottle of voltic, coke; in fact just get an empty
plastic bottle.

SESSION 6
• Get a trough/bowl made of plastic or aluminium.

• Now fill both the bottle and the trough/bowl with water.
• Cover the mouth of the bottle with your palm and turn it upside down
ensuring that no water is spilled
• In that position submerge your palm covering the mouth of the bottle into the
water in the trough/bowl
• Ensure that the mouth of the bottle is also submerged.
• Now remove your palm from the mouth of the bottle
Voila! Water in the bottle stays put!! If you didn’t get full water in the bottle, it
means you had some spilled before you removed your palm from the mouth of the
bottle. Even so you’d still have the bottle more than three quarters full of water
above the water level in the trough/bowl.
The reason the water remained held up in the bottle is air pressure. Air pressure
pushes onto the surface of the water which moves water into the bottle and keeps it
there.
In fact this is what happens in nature. At sea level, air pressure overcomes the pull of
gravity on a column of water in a microscopically thin tube – capillary tube – such as
xylem in plants, pushing it to a height of about 10.4 meters –i.e. 31 feet or 3½
stories!.
So how does this long column of water remain unbroken in the xylem vessels
up that high?
6.3 The Forces involved in the Transport of Water and Mineral

Nutrients up Tall Trees
Two forces are involved that keep the long column of water unbroken in the xylem
vessels.
They are the forces of adhesion and cohesion. The force of adhesion is the attraction
between the water molecules and the walls of the xylem vessels. It causes the water
molecules to stick to the walls of the xylem.
The force of cohesion on the other hand is the attraction that holds water molecules
together, sticking to each other forming long unbroken chains.
So the two forces together keep the water molecules unbroken to the sides of the
walls of the xylem with hydrogen bonds. These are weak chemical bonds.
So there, we have explained how the thin long column of water is held in the xylem
vessels without it collapsing!
But how does the water with the dissolved mineral substances reach the leaves of the
very tall trees? You know some trees are taller than 3½ stories.

IN PLANTS SESSION 6
For water to reach the leaves of the very tallest trees a fourth force comes into play.
This force is called the Transpiration pull. As the name implies, it is associated with
transpiration. It is generated inside the leaves and transmitted down to the xylem in
the stem Transpiration is a process by which water vapour passes out of a plant and
is lost through the stomatal openings in its leaf epidermis.
• Guard cells loose water by evaporation through the stomatal pores
• Concentration of water in guard cells decrease, so by osmosis water moves
from adjoining spongy mesophyll cells
• Osmotic movement of water from mesophyll cells to guard cells results.
• This movement of water may also be generated from mesophyll cells
flanking the numerous air spaces in the spongy mesophyll region of the leaf.
• By osmosis the spongy mesophyll cells loose water into the air spaces
• Water diffuses from the inner spaces to reach the stomatal opening which
forms a continuous column of air space that links the outside environment
with the inside of the leaf.
• At the stomatal opening the water is lost to the atmosphere through
evaporation
• The loss of water from both pathways to the (environment) (transpiration)
creates a concentration gradient of water molecules which causes the water
molecules in areas of higher concentration they xylem and mesophyll to
move to areas of lower concentration the air spaces – creating a tension, or
pull on the column of water.
The interaction of the forces of adhesion, cohesion and transpiratory pull in
moving water and dissolved substances from the roots up the stem in the leaves of
tell plants constitutes what has become known as the transpiration – cohesion –
adhesion theory.
6.4 Factors that affect the Rate of Transpiration

Note that transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the stomata to the
atmosphere by evaporation.
This means that any environmental condition that will increase or reduce the
formation of water vapour and its loss by evaporation will definitely affect the rate
of transpiration.
So just consider this list and explain how each one of them will affect the rate of
transpiration. Take your effort to the next FTF for class discussion for your Course
Tutor to rule on your effort.
Here the list:

• Humidity
• Temperature
• Wind and
• Light.

SESSION 6
Does transpiration play any role in the life of the plant? In other words is
transpiration important to the general wellbeing of the plant?
Well let’s see …
6.5 Importance of Transpiration to the Plant

For quick learning, let us just outline the role transpiration plays in the life
of the plant:
• Transpiration helps plants to continually ‘draw’ water from the soil into their
stems and leaves
• Transpiration pull assists in the transport of certain substances through plants.
• The evaporate ion of water from the leaves uses latent energy from a plant
and therefore keeps it cool.
• Transpiration removes excess water from the plant which would otherwise be
injurious to the plant.
• Transpiration also ensures that the walls of the spongy mesophyll are
continuously kept moist. A condition necessary for the absorption of CO2
needed for photosynthesis.
There I hope you found the session interesting!
In this session we have talked about transpiration, showing how water

and mineral nutrients in solution get to reach the shoot of plants. The
forces responsible for moving and maintain long columns of water unbroken in the
xylem vessels were explained. In the process we defined transpiration and explained
transpiration pull and described the role of guard cells in the process of transpiration.
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration were listed and an outline of the importance
of transpiration ended the session.
Exercise 1.6
1. Use a schematic diagram to show how water and mineral nutrients in

solution move up the stems of plants from the roots.
2. Explain the forces that enable water to be drawn up in long unbroken
columns up tall trees
3. Define transpiration pull and describe how it is responsible for water
movement up very tall trees
4. List and explain the factors that affect the rate of transpiration in a plant.
5. Give an outline account of how important transpiration is to the plant.

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
UNIT 2: ELECTRONICS
Unit Outline
Session 1: Electronic Components
Session 2: Operating principle of some electronic devices
Session 3: Electronic Circuits of LEDs
Session 4: Electronic Circuits of Capacitors
Session 5: Session 3: Electronic Circuits of Inductors
Session 6: Solids
The branch of engineering which deals with current conduction

through a Vacuum or Gas or Semiconductor is known as
Electronics. Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical
components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and
associated passive interconnection technologies. Commonly, electronic devices contain
circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented
with passive elements; such a circuit is described as an electronic circuit.
Electronics is a very wide field embracing almost all walks of human endeavour.
Electronic technology is a dominant force in today’s society. It pervades all corners of
science and engineering. The great power and versatility of electronic devices, and
consequently their widespread application, make it imperative that students obtain
knowledge which will make them to be familiar with electronics.. In this unit, we shall
study electronic devices, electronic circuits and the types of solids and their uses in
electronics.
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, the student should be able to:
1. explain the fundamental concepts in electronics;
2. describe the various types of basic electric circuits;
3. explain the basic concepts of electronic devices and their functions; and

UNIT 2 ELECTRONICS


ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 1
SESSION 1: ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

You are welcome to session 1 of unit two. In this session, we shall
learn the basic description of electronic components. This session is
only meant to introduce you into the various electronic components while detailed
description of the components would be dealt with is the subsequent sessions.
Objectives
At the end of this session, the candidate should be able to:
1. describe electronic components and state their uses
2. list some of the electronic components employed in electronic devices
3. state the applications of electronic components in different areas of life.
Now read on…
1.1 Electronic Component

Welcome to the exciting world of Electronics. Let’s learn about some of the basic
electronic components. Electricity is a flow of sub-atomic (very, very, very, small)
particles, called electrons. The electrons move from atom to atom when an electrical
charge is applied across the material. Electronics will be easier to understand if you
think of the flow of electricity through circuits as water flowing through pipes (this
will be referred to as the water pipe analogy).
An electronic component can be defined as any physical entity in an electronic
system used to affect the electrons or their associated fields in a manner consistent
with the intended function of the electronic system. Components are generally
intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a printed circuit
board (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an
amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator).
Some of the basic definitions
• Passive Components: Capable of operating without an external power source.
Typical passive components are resistors, capacitors, inductors.
• Active components: Requiring a source of power to operate. Includes
transistors (all types), integrated circuits (all types), TRIACs, SCRs, LEDs, etc.
Basic components like capacitors, resistors, inductors, diodes, light emitting diode
(led) and transistors can be divided into 2 categories: (i) Passive components like
resistors and capacitors and (ii) Active components like diodes and transistors. The
difference between the above two categories is that active components can generate
energy whereas passive components cannot generate energy. In other words active
components can increase power of a signal whereas passive components often cause
the power to be lost.

UNIT 2 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
SESSION 1
Some components like resistors have their values marked on them whereas others
like transistors do not have any value marking but have a type number on them. One
has to refer to datasheets as shown in figure 1.1 to get to know the value of the
unmarked component. Besides component values, they are also characterized by
their ratings for e.g. maximum current value that a component can stand without
being burnt out.
Resistors: Resistors are electrical components which are made of resistive materials
which oppose the flow of current. That is, the component having the property of
resistance is called resistor. Resistors can be of two types: fixed value resistors or
variable resistors. The formula for resistance is given by:
ρl
R= (1.1)
A
where ρ is resistivity, l is length and A is area of cross-section. Different value
resistors can be manufactured by changing the length and area of cross-section or the
material itself which changes the resistivity.
Figure 1.1: Resistor colour coding (http://www.resistorguide.com/resistor-color-

code/)

SESSION 1
Figure 1.3: A normal diode with D0-35 and its symbol (b) A zener diode with
transparent casting and its symbol
Light Emitting Diode (LED): LEDs are pn junction devices which emit light
radiation when biased in the forward direction. The semiconductor material used for
these junctions is a compound semiconductor like AlGaAs whose band gap
corresponds to a particular. When the pn junction is forward biased, the electrons are
excited to conduction band and when they fall to the valence band, they give out
energy in the form of radiation corresponding to the band gap of the material.
Conventional LEDs are made from the materials like AlGaAs, GaAlP, GaAsP, GaP
and GaN which emit Red, green, orange, yellow and blue colours respectively. A
very important precaution while using an LED is the amount of current being passed
through it. For most LEDs the maximum allowable current is 20 mA beyond which
the led can burn out. Hence in most of the circuits a resistor is used to limit the
current. The LED is presented in figure 1.4 with its circuit symbol.
Figure 1.4: A light emitting diode (LED)
Transistors: Transistors are semiconductor devices used for applications like

amplification of voltages, current and are also used in oscillator circuits and
switches. It’s a two junction and 3 terminal device made of three layers of n and p
type materials. The three regions are emitter, base and collector (see figure 1.5).
They are of 2 types which are the PNP and NPN transistors.

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 1
Figure 1.5: Transistor (http://vakits.com/bc307-pnp-transistor)
Integrated Circuit (IC): Today all electrical, electronic and computer parts have
IC’s in them. Integrated circuit is a name given to a package which can hold more
than 10 and up to millions of electronic components. They are used for different
purposes such as
• The function of a full microprocessor circuit (eg 8085)
• A memory chip,
• A voltage regulator (LM 7805) or
• Can contain just 10 AND gates (eg LS7400).
They come in a black bench like casing with a notch on one side and with electrical
legs for connections, which are called pins as shown in figure 1.6. The size is usually
around 1 cm2 x 1 cm2. Its name is always written on top which contains a few letters
with numerals, according to its type, make and company. Datasheets can be referred
to, to know the details of pin configurations and make etc. The pins are usually read
starting from left of notch and going anticlockwise as shown in picture for 555 timer
IC.
Figure 1.6: An integrated circuit

SESSION 1
1.2 Applications of Electronic Components

Electronic components have wide range of applications, this include:
• Consumer Electronics: Include products like Audio Systems, Video Systems,
Television (TV), Computer, Laptop, Digital Camera, DVD Players, Home and
Kitchen Appliances, GPS, Mobiles Phones etc.
• Communication: Electronic communication systems connect people around the
world. Using telephones, Internet and computers, people in different countries
communicate almost instantly. Radios transmit sounds and televisions transmit
sounds and pictures great distances. Cellular telephones enable a person to call
another person. Within seconds, fax machines send and receive copies of
documents over telephone lines/Satellite.
• Information processing: Scientists, artists, students, government and business
workers, and hobbyists at home all rely on computers, Internet to handle huge
amounts of information quickly and accurately. Computers solve difficult
mathematical problems, maintain vast amounts of data, create complex
simulations, and perform a multitude of other tasks that help people in their
everyday lives.
• Medicine and research. Include product like X-ray machines, Electrocardiogram
(ECG) use radiation to take images of bones and internal organs. Radiation
therapy, or radiotherapy, uses X-rays and other forms of radiation to fight cancer.
Many hearing -impaired people depend on hearing aids to electrically amplify
sound waves.
• Computers: and other electronic instruments provide scientists and other
researchers with powerful tools to better understand their area of study.
Computers, for example, help scientists design new drug molecules, track
weather systems, and test theories about how galaxies and stars develop.
Electron microscopes use electrons rather than visible light to magnify specimens
1 million times or more.
• Automation: Electronic components enable many common home appliances, such
as refrigerators, washing machines, and toasters, to function smoothly and
efficiently. People can electronically program coffeemakers, lawn sprinklers, and
many other products to turn on and off automatically. Microwave ovens heat food
quickly by penetrating it with short radio waves produced by a vacuum tube.
• Instrumentation: Measuring Instruments like CRO, Multimeter, ph-meter, strain
gauge, VTVM, Frequency Counter are used in different Laboratory/organisations.
Many automobiles have electronic controls in their engines and fuel systems.
Electronic devices also control air bags, which inflate to protect a driver and
passengers in a collision.

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 1
Exercise 2.1
1. State the functions of the following components used in electronic
circuits
a) Capacitors
b) Resistors
c) Inductors
d) Diodes
e) Transistors
f) Integrated circuits
2. Distinguish between passive and active components. Briefly explain electronic
components.
3. State five (5) applications of electronic components.

SESSION 1


ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 2
SESSION 2: OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF SOME ELECTRONIC

DEVICES
Now that you have learnt about electronic components, let us discuss the
operating principle of some of the electronic devices in our household.
Objectives
By the end of this session the candidate should be able to explain the operating
principle of:
1. radio set
2. television set
3. mobile phone
4. computer
Now read…
2.1 Radio Set

It is an instrument which receives the radio signals from the broadcasting stations and
produce sound. The simplest radio receiver is the crystal receiver. It was made by
Henrich Hertz in the year 1970 and works up to 50 kilometres. Tuned radio frequency
receiver was made in the year 1909. Major Armstrong designed a different type of radio
receivers in the year 1917. This receiver is known as Super-heterodyne (shortly
superhet) receiver. Its sensitivity and selectivity are high. All the modern radio receiver
work under the principle of Super-heterodyne.
2.1.1 Operating Principle

The following principles are observed in all type of radio receivers.
Reception: An aerial is necessary for the reception of radio waves. It connects the radio
waves with the receiver.
Selection: It is the ability to select a desired radio station from various radio station.
This work is performed by an inductor-capacitor (LC) resonant network.
Detection: In this process radio frequency signals are converted into audio frequency
signals. It is performed by a crystal diode.
Reproduction: The conversion of audio signal into sound is called reproduction. It is
performed by a speaker.
2.1.2 Types of Radio Receivers

Generally the Radio receivers are classified into tuned radio frequency (TRF) and
Superhet Radio receiver.

UNIT 2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF SOME ELECTRONIC
SESSION 2 DEVICES
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Radio Receiver

TRF radio receiver is shown in figure 2.1. It is a straight radio receiver and has the
following stages.
i. RF Amplifier: It is a tuned radio frequency amplifier. It amplifies the radio
frequency signal which is selected by antenna.
ii. Detector: It is used between the radio-frequency (RF) and intermediate frequency
(IF) amplifiers. It works as amplitude modulated detector. It converts RF signals
into audio frequency (AF) signals. Crystal of signal diodes are used in it.
iii. Audio Amplifier: It amplifies the strength of audio signals. It contains pre-
amplifier, driver and output amplifiers. The pre and driver amplifiers are voltage
amplifiers. The output amplifier is power amplifier. The speaker converts audio
signal into sound.
iv. Power supply: It supplies the required voltage to all stage of the receiver. Battery
eliminator is used as power supply
Figure 2.1: TRF radio receiver
Advantages of TRF Radio Receiver

a. It is a simple receiver.
b. Simple circuits are used
c. Alignment is not needed
Disadvantages of TRF Radio Receiver
a. Sensitivity and Selectivity are low.
b. It has poor signal fidelity
c. It has low stability

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 2
Superhet Radio Receiver

This receiver works under the principle of heterodying. Modern radio receivers are
mostly of superheterodyne types. It has a converter stage which changes the incoming
signals into intermediate frequency (IF) signals as shown in figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Superhet Radio Receiver
The process of beating (mixing) two different signals to produce new signal is called as
Heterodying. If two different signals are mixed through a transistor, four types of
signals are obtained in the output of the transistor which are first signal (F0), second
signal (Fs), addition of the two (F0+Fs) and difference between the two (F0 - Fs). Apart
from these, an unwanted signal called harmonics is produced due to the mixing of the
two signals. Out of them, the difference between the two is taken as Intermediate
Frequency (IF) and the remaining signals are filtered. This is known as the principle of
superheterodying. The receivers which follow this principle is named as superhet
receivers. This principle is used in AM, FM, Communication, Radar and Television
receivers.
Advantages of Superhet Radio Receiver
a. It has good sensitivity and selectivity
b. It has good fidelity
c. It has good stability
Advantages of Superhet Radio Receiver
a. It needs Alignment and tracking
b. Complicated circuits are used

SESSION 2 DEVICES
2.2 Television (TV) system

Television means “To see from a Distance”. Television was initially developed through
vacuum tubes then by semiconductor devices like transistors and ICs. In this fast
developing world the Television is playing important role in Communication.
Television comprises capturing pictures, recording and transmission and reception or
reproduction. Images seen on television is the production of a camera. The object image
captured by the camera lens is separated into three (3) primary colours of red (R), green
(G) and blue (B). The results is emitted by the TV transmitter in the form of
chrominance signal, luminance signal and synchronised.
Apart from pictures, television transmitters also carry voice signals which are
transmitted alongside with the picture signal. Images are transmitted with the system of
amplitude modulation while sound is transmitted with a system of frequency
modulation. Both systems are used to avoid noise and interference.
2.2.1 TV Channels and Standard Transmitter

The group assigned to the transmission frequency signal is called channel. Each has a 6
MHz channel in one field frequencies (ands) and are allocated to commercial television
broadcasters namely:
• The field of low frequency VHF channels 2 to 6 (54 – 88 MHz)
• The field of high frequency VHF channels 7 to 13 (174 – 216 MHz) and
• UHF channels 14 to 83 (470 – 890 MHz)
2.2.2 Working Principle of TV Receiver

Model and TV series block types varies depending on the brand of TV used. The block
diagram of colour television is presented in figure 1.3 below.
Figure 1.3: Block diagram of colour television. (Chandrasekar, M., Mehejaben, S. S.,
Amirdalingam, C. & Umamaheswari, G. (2011), pp.79)

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 2
Broadly speaking, the block consists of:

• Antenna: This captures radio frequency (RF) signals from television
transmitters. It receives all the signals including noise, and feed to TV receivers
Antennas are classified based on its construction: Yagi antenna, the period of
logarithmic antenna and antenna loops. They can also be classified based on the
received wave frequency bands which are VHF low channel, high VHF channel
an UHF channel.
• Tuning Circuit (tuner): The circuit consists of booster high frequency (HF
amplifier), mixer and local oscillator. Tuning circuit functions to receive the
incoming TV signal and convert it to intermediate frequency (IF) signal.
• The Amplifier Circuit: This series serves as a signal booster up to 1000 times.
The resulting output signal from tuner is a weak signal and very dependent on
the distance transmitter, receiver and landscape position. It filters noise and
amplifies the two IF signals.
• Detector Video Series: This functions as a composite video signal detection
that comes out of the picture IF amplifier. It also serves to muffle the sound
signal which will result in poos image quality.
• Video Amplifier Circuit: This series serves as a reinforcement signal from the
detector original video so that it can run a picture tube or cathode ray tube
(CRT)
• The Series of Automatic Gain Control (AGC): AGC circuits serves to
stabilize its own input television signal’s changing so that the output becomes
constant. Red circle on it indicates the components that resides in some of AGC
and some tuner IC.
• Stabilizer Circuit TV Waves Receiver: Stabilizer circuit TV waves receiver
such as AGC and automatic fine tuning (ATF) function set the picture carrier
frequency of the IF amplifier automatically.
• Synchronization Deflection Circuit: This series consists of four (4) blocks
namely: synchronization circuit, a series of vertical deflection, horizontal
deflection circuit and high voltage generator circuit.
• Voice Circuit: The voice we hear is the work of this series. The sound IF carrier
signal is detected by the frequency modulator (FM). Previously, this signal was
separated from the carrier image.
• Power Supply Series: This functions to convert alternating current (AC) to
direct current (DC) which is then distributed throughout the circuit.
• Amplifier Krominan: This amplifier strengthens the signal frequency of 4.43
MHZ for Krominan and are modulated in the signal V (Red and Yellow signal)
and signal U (Blue and Yellow signal) 2 MHz bandwidth amplifier.
• Colour Synchronization: In a series of synchronising colour, the colour
synchronizing burst signal is removed from the composite colour video signal.

SESSION 2 DEVICES
• Automatic Colour Control (ACC): If the explosion signal rises, the ACC
issues a steering voltage to minimize the strengthening in the colour.
• Colour Killer: The circuit is useful to suppress the colour amplifier when there
is no incoming Krominan signal. This happens at the reception of black and
white.
• Phase Switching Circuit 180 (splitting colour): From Krominan amplifier, the
signal is fed to the colour splitter. The phase switch circuit then separates the
colour by splitting the modulated signal with the signal V from the modulated
signal with the signal U which results in in splitting the colour of PAL switch
and some resistors. At the end of each linne during withdrawal, PAL line then
rotates 180 V signal. In this, U signal does not experience signal phase rotaion.
• Colour Demodulation: Using a colour modulator, the colour difference in
signal demodulaton of signal U and V due to the transmitter, are modulated with
a carrier system
2.3 Cell Phones

Cell phones also known as mobile phones or wireless phones are hand-held phones with
built-in antennas. Unlike home phones, cell phones as shown in Figure 1.4, can be
carried from place to place with a minimum of protest. This makes them a good choice
for people who want to be in touch other people even when they are away from the
house.
Figure 1.4: Structure of cell phone. (Prusty, R. K., Rout, A. & Muduli, S. k. (2008), pp.
140)

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 2
2.3.1 Principles of Cell Phones

Cell phones are actually two-way radios, much like the walkie-talkies of the past, but
much more advanced. When you talk into your cell phone receiver, it registers your
voice and converts the sound into radio waves. These waves travel through the air until
they reach a receiver, which is usually found at a base station. This station will send
your call through a telephone network until it contacts the person you wish to speak
with. Similarly when someone places a call to your cell phone, the signal travels
through the telephone network until it reaches a station near you. The station sends the
radio waves out into the neighbouring areas. These radio waves are then picked up by
your cell phone and converted into sound of a human voice.
Cell phones are a vast improvement over the telecommunications technology of the
past, and are daily becoming a fixture of modern life.
2.4 Computer
A computer can be defined as an electronic data processing device, capable of accepting
data, applying a prescribed set of instructions to the data, and displaying in some
manner or form.
Computer is an electronic device used to do arithmetic calculations faster. For a
common man computer is simply a calculator, which works automatic and quite fast.
For a person who knows much about it, computer is a machine capable of solving
problems and manipulating data. It accepts data, processes the data by doing some
mathematical and logical operations and gives us the desired output.
Therefore, we may define computer as a device that transforms data. Data can be
anything like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age, sex,
weight, height, etc. of all the students in your class or income, savings, investments,
etc., of a country. Computer can be defined in terms of its functions. It can
• Accept data
• Store data,
• Process data as desired, and
• Retrieve the stored data as and when required and
• Print the result in desired format.
2.4.1 Characteristics of a Computer

Let us identify the major characteristics of computer. These can be discussed under the
headings of speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility and memory.
 Speed: As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for
calculations that we take hours to complete. Suppose you are asked to calculate the
average monthly income of one thousand persons in your neighbourhood. For this
you have to add income from all sources for all persons on a day to day basis and
find out the average for each one of them. How long will it take for you to do this?
One day, two days or one week? Do you know your small computer can finish this
work in few seconds? The weather forecasting that you see every day on TV is the

SESSION 2 DEVICES
results of compilation and analysis of huge amount of data on temperature,

humidity, pressure, etc. of various places on computers. It takes few minutes for the
computer to process this huge amount of data and give the result. You will be
surprised to know that computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions
and even more per second. Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms
of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or nano-second (10-9 part of a second). From
this you can imagine how fast your computer performs work.
 Accuracy: Suppose someone calculates faster but commits a lot of errors in
computing. Such result is useless. There is another aspect. Suppose you want to
divide 15 by 7. You may work out up to 2 decimal places and say the dividend is
2.14. I may calculate up to 4 decimal places and say that the result is 2.1428.
Someone else may go up to 9 decimal places and say the result is 2.142857143.
Hence, in addition to speed, the computer should have accuracy or correctness in
computing. The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation
is performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the basis
of design of computer. The errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.
 Diligence: A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It
can work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be
performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due
to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.
 Versatility: It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work.
You may use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it
for inventory management or to prepare electric bills.
 Power of Remembering: Computer has the power of storing any amount of
information or data. Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you
require it, for any numbers of years. It depends entirely upon you how much data
you want to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these data.
 No IQ: Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction
from the user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It
is you to decide what you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot
take its own decision as you can.
 No Feeling: It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience.
Thus it does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish
between users.
 Storage: The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of
data. You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which
can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers.

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 2
Exercise 2.2
1. Computer is_______ that stores, retrieves and process data
A. Electronic device
B. Electrical device
C. Mechanical device
D. Instrument
2. Computers has the power of _______ any amount of information or data.
A. Controlling
B. stopping
C. Calling
D. Storing
3. Computer can performs _______ of Instruction and even more per second
A. Thousands
B. Millions
C. Hundreds
D. Five Thousands
4. List five (5) components of a television and state their functions
5. State and explain the two types of radio receivers
6. State and briefly explain five (5) characteristics of a computer

SESSION 2 DEVICES


ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 3
SESSION 3: ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS OF LEDS

In session one, we learnt about electronic components. In this session,
we are going to study how to combine some of the electronic
components to form a circuit.
Objectives
By the end of this session, the student should be able to:
1. Construction of a simple electronic circuit using batteries, a switch, light-emitting
diode (LED) and insulated wires.
2. Construct simple electronic circuits of LEDs in series and parallel connections.
3. Do simple calculations on electronic circuits of LEDs
Now read on…
3.1 Electronic Circuit

An electronic circuit is a complete course of conductors through which current can
travel. Circuits provide a path for current to flow. To be a circuit, this path must start
and end at the same point. In other words, a circuit must form a loop. An electronic
circuit and an electrical circuit has the same definition, but electronic circuits tend to be
low voltage circuits.
For example, a simple circuit may include two components: a battery and a lamp as
shown in figure 3.1. The circuit allows current to flow from the battery to the lamp,
through the lamp, then back to the battery. Thus, the circuit forms a complete loop.
Figure 3.1: An electronic circuit.

UNIT 2 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS OF LEDS
SESSION 3
Electronic circuits can be more complex and all circuits consists of the following three
basic elements:
• Voltage source: A voltage source causes current to flow like a battery, for instance.
• Load: The load consumes power; it represents the actual work done by the circuit.
Without the load, there’s not much point in having a circuit.
The load can be as simple as a single light bulb. In complex circuits, the load is a
combination of components, such as resistors, capacitors, transistors, and so on.
• Conductive path: The conductive path provides a route through which current
flows. This route begins at the voltage source, travels through the load, and then
returns to the voltage source. This path must form a loop from the negative side of
the voltage source to the positive side of the voltage source.
NB: When a circuit is complete and forms a loop that allows current to flow, the
circuit is called a closed circuit. If any part of the circuit is disconnected or
disrupted so that a loop is not formed, current cannot flow. In that case, the circuit is
called an open circuit.
3.2 Electronic Circuit with Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED is operated in forward bias. The variation of light power is linear with the applied
forward voltage. This linearity is useful in modulating signal that is being sent through a
fibre. The power output of an LED is in milliwatts while the current through the device
is in milliamperes. LEDs have much larger voltage drop than a rectifying diode. Typical
voltage drop across an LED is between 1.5 to 2 volts. The current through the LED is a
few tens of milli-amperes. It is necessary to connect appropriate resistance to account
for this drop.
Worked example
In the circuit the forward biased LED has a voltage drop of 1.5 volts. If the battery
voltage is 6 V, calculate the resistance to be connected to the circuit, if the current
through the LED is 15 mA. How much power is dissipated in the resistor?
Solution
If r is the internal resistance of the LED the current through the resistors is
V
= I = 0.015
(R + r)
which gives
6
R + r= = 400Ω
0.015
As the drop across LED is 1.6 V, the internal resistance r is
15
r
= = 100Ω
0.015

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 3
The external resistance to be connected is

R = 400 − 100 = 300Ω
The power rating of the resistor should at least be
P = I 2 R =300 × 2.25 ×10−4 = 77.5 mW
The requirements of a lighting application often dictate what type of circuit can be used.
The circuit can be series or parallel.
3.2.1. Simple LED Circuit

The first circuit in the simple LED circuits is a single LED Circuit. We will try to turn
ON a single 5mm white LED using a 12V power supply. The circuit diagram for this
circuit is shown figure 3.2 (a). The components needed are
• 12V Power Supply
• 5mm White LED
• 330Ω 1/2W Resistor
• Connecting Wires
• Breadboard
Figure 3.2: Electronic circuit with a single LED (https://www.electronics-

tutorials.ws/diode/diode_8.html)
Calculations for the LED-Resistor Series

The value of the series resistor can be calculated using the following formula
(V − VLED )
Rseries = s (3.1)
I LED

SESSION 3
Here, Vs is the source or supply voltage, VLED is the voltage drop across the LED and
I LED is the desired current through the LED.
In our simple LED circuit consisting of a single LED, we have used a 5mm white LED
and a power supply of 12V. As per the datasheet of the 5mm white LED, the forward
voltage of the LED is 3.6V and the forward current of the LED is 30mA.
=
Therefore, Vs 12= V , VLED 3.6 V and I LED = 30 mA . Substituting these values in
equation (3.1), we can calculate the value of series resistance as
Rseries
=
(12 − 3.6=) 280 Ω
0.03
Since there is no 280 Ω resistor, we will use the next big resistor i.e. 330 Ω. Hence,
= 330 Ω .
Rseries
Now that we have calculated the resistance of the series resistor, the next step is to
calculate the power rating of this resistor.
Power Rating of the Resistor

Power rating of a resistor specifies the value of power that a resistor can safely
dissipate. The power rating of a resistor can be calculated using the following formula.
Pres = I resVres (3.2)
Here, Vres is the voltage drop across the resistor and I res is the current through the
resistor.
We know that supply voltage is 12 V and Voltage drop across LED is 3.6 V. So, the
Voltage drop across the series resistor is
Vres =12 − 3.6 =8.4 V
The current through the resistor is same as the current through the LED as they are
series. So, the current through the series resistor is
I res = 30 mA
Substituting these values in equation (3.2), we get the power dissipated by the resistor.
P =8.4 × 0.03 =0.252 Watt
To be on the safe side, we always have to pick the next possible value and hence we
have chosen a ½ Watt (0.5 Watt) Resistor. Once the right resistor is selected, we can
connect the resistor in series and give the 12V Supply to the LED.
3.2.2. LEDs in Series

The next circuit in the simple LED circuits project is connecting LEDs in series. In this
circuit, we will connect three 5 mm White LEDs is series with the same 12 V Supply.
Figure 3.3 shows the circuit diagram and pictorial form of the LEDs in series. Once all
the components are selected, we can connect them on a breadboard (see figure 3.3 (b))

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 3
and power on the circuit using a 12V Supply. All the three LEDs in Series will light up
with maximum intensity.
To wire a series circuit like the one shown, the positive output from the driver connects
to the positive of the first LED and from that LED a connection is made from the
negative to the positive of the second LED and so on, until the last LED in the circuit.
Finally, the last LED connection goes from the negative of the LED to the negative
output of the constant current driver, creating a continuous loop or daisy chain
Figure 3.3: Electronic circuit of LEDs in series (https://www.electronics-

Since the LEDs are connected in series, the current through all of them will be the same
i.e. 30 mA (for 5mm White LED). As the three LEDs are connected in series, all the
LEDs will have a voltage drop of 3.6 V i.e. each LED will have a voltage drop of 3.6 V
across it.
As a result, the voltage drop across the resistor will fall down to
12 − 3 ( 3.6 ) =
1.2 V
From this, we can calculate the resistance as
1.2
R
= = 40 Ω
0.03
Therefore, we have to choose 47 Ω resistor which is the next available one.

The power rating of the resistor is equal to 1.2 × 0.03 = 0.036 . This is a very low power
rating and the minimum available one is of ¼ Watts.
Here are few points to remember when dealing with series connection of LEDs
1. Same current flows through each LED
2. The total voltage of the circuit is the sum of the voltages across each LED
3. If one LED fails, the entire circuit won’t work
4. Series circuits are easier to wire and troubleshoot
5. Varying voltages across each LED is okay

SESSION 3
3.2.3. LEDs in Parallel

Components required
• 12V Power Supply
• 3 x 5mm White LEDs
• 100Ω Resistor (1 Watt)
• Connecting Wires
• Breadboard
The final circuit in the simple LED circuits is LEDs in parallel. In this circuit, we will
try to connect three 5mm White LEDs in parallel and light them up using a 12V Supply.
The Circuit diagram for LEDs in parallel connection is shown in figure 3.4 (a and b).
In a parallel circuit all the positive connections are tied together and back to the positive
output of the LED driver and all the negative connections are tied together and back to
the negative output of the driver.
Figure 3.4: Electronic circuit for parallel connection of LEDs (https://www.electronics-

For LEDs connected in parallel, the voltage drop across all the LEDs will be 3.6V.
This means that the voltage drop across the Resistor is
VR = 12 V − 3.6 = 8.4 V
Now, since the LEDs are connected in parallel, the current required for all the LEDs is
equal to three times that of the individual current through the LED (which is 30mA).
Therefore, the total current in the circuit is
3 × 30 mA =
ITotal = 90 mA

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 3
This current will also flow through the resistor. Hence, the value of the resistor can be
calculated as
8.4
=R = 93.33 Ω
0.09
The nearest higher resistance value is 100Ω.
The Power dissipated by the resistor is given by
P =8.4 V × 0.09 A =0.756 Watt
As the next higher wattage is 1W, we have used a 1Watt Resistor.
The following are few points to note when dealing with parallel connection of LEDs
1. The voltage across each LED is the same
2. The total current is the sum of currents through each LED
3. The total output current is shared through each parallel string
4. Exact voltages are required in each parallel string to help avoid current hogging
Exercise 2.3
1. With the aid of electronic circuit diagram, distinguish between LEDs in
series and in parallel
2. State three applications of LED

SESSION 3


ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 4
SESSION 4: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT OF CAPACITORS

In this session, we are going to study the behaviour of capacitors in
an electronic circuit. In particular we shall investigate the series and
parallel connection of capacitors
Objectives
By the end of this session, the candidate should be able to:
1. Construct an electronic circuit or capacitors in series and in parallel
2. Solve simple problems of capacitors in series and in parallel
Now read on…
4.1 Capacitors
A capacitor is another primary type of physical component used in electronic
circuits. Capacitors are electronic devices that store electrons. The name derives
from their capacity to store charge, rather like a small battery. It has two leads and is
used to store and release electric charge.
Capacitors consist of two conducting surfaces separated by an insulator as shown in
figure 4.1; a wire lead is connected to each surface. You can imagine a capacitor as
two large metal plates separated by air, although in reality they usually consist of
thin metal foils or films separated by plastic film or another solid insulator, and
rolled up in a compact package. Two electrodes inside the capacitor, separated by a
small distance, hold positive charges on one electrode and negative charges on the
other. An electrical field or voltage is developed across the electrodes.
Figure 4.1: Capacitor. (Robbins & Miller, (2013), pp. 376)

UNIT 2 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT OF CAPACITORS
SESSION 3
Unlike resistors, which require only one parameter to describe their alternating
current (AC) circuit properties, a capacitor requires three:
• Magnitude C (measured in farads)
• Frequency f (measured in Hertz or radians)
• Phase ω (degrees or radians)
The potential difference, or voltage, between the plates is proportional to the
difference in the amount of the charge on the plates. This is expressed as
Q
= Q CV = or C (4.1)
V
where Q is charge, V is voltage and C is capacitance.
Worked example
Suppose that when we apply 50 V to a capacitor we find that eventually 8 ×1014
electrons are deposited on the negative plate. What is the capacitance of this
capacitor?
Solution
Using equation (4.1) an by substitution with V = 50 V and Q = 8 ×1014 C , we have
50
=C = 625 pF
8 ×1014
The capacitance of a capacitor is the amount of charge it can store per unit of
voltage. The unit for measuring capacitance is the farad (F), named for Faraday, and
is defined as the capacity to store one coulomb of charge with an applied potential of
one volt. One coulomb (C) is the amount of charge transferred by a current of one
ampere in one second.
In practice, it would take a huge capacitor to store one coulomb of charge at one volt.
The capacitance of a simple parallel-plate capacitor is equal to the permittivity of
free space, ε, times the area of the plates divided by the distance between them,
ε A
C= 0 (4.2)
d
where C is the capacitance, A is the area of the plates, d is the separation between the
plates, and ε0 (epsilon naught) is the permittivity of free space which is equal to 8.58
× 10−12F/m.
Capacitors used in electronic circuits are typically measured in microfarads (μF),

nanofarads (nF) and picofarads (pF), which are millionths, billionths and trillionths
of a farad, respectively. However, larger capacities can be achieved using thin film
deposition to produce dielectric layers that are only a few atoms thick.
Capacitors are often found in active electronic circuits that use oscillating electric
signals such as those in radios and audio equipment. They can charge and discharge
nearly instantaneously, which allows them to be used to produce or filter certain
ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 4
frequencies in circuits. An oscillating signal can charge one plate of the capacitor
while the other plate discharges, and then when the current is reversed, it will charge
the other plate while the first plate discharges. In general, higher frequencies can
pass through the capacitor, while lower frequencies are blocked. The size of the
capacitor determines the cut-off frequency for which signals are blocked and which
are allowed to pass.
4.2 Characteristics of a Capacitor

• Capacitance is directly proportional to the physical size of the plates as
determined by the plate area
• Capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates.
• The measure of the dielectric material’s ability to establish.
• The measure of the dielectric material’s ability to establish an electric field is
called the dielectric constant.
• Capacitance is directly proportional to the dielectric constant
• The measure of how much voltage a capacitor can handle across its plates is
called dielectric strength or breakdown voltage. All capacitors specify a safe
voltage at which to operate the capacitor.
• Most capacitors have a very thin dielectric and a very large plate area (often
stacked or rolled up).
4.3 Combination of Capacitors

Like resistors, capacitors can be joined together in two basic ways: parallel and
series. Capacitors in combination can be used to filter selected frequencies within a
specified range.
4.3.1 Capacitors in Series

Capacitors in series are combined in the same manner as resistor sin parallel. When
capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than the smallest
capacitance value. This is because the effective plate separation increases.
Figure 4.2: Capacitors in series

SESSION 3
When two capacitors are connected in series as shown in figure 4.2, and a potential
difference Vab=V applied across the capacitors, charge Q will be charged on both
capacitors. This is because the plates in between just exchange charges.
Also the potential across a and b must be the sum of ac and cb.
Let’s call these potentials as V , V1 and V2
⇒ V = V1 + V2 (4.3)
By using equation (4.1) for C1 and C2, we have
Q Q
= V1 = and V2 (4.4)
C1 C2
In the same manner, using equation 4.1) for Ceq , we have
Q
V= (4.5)
Ceq
Potential differences must satisfy equation (4.3), thus
Q Q Q 1 1 1
= + ⇒ = + (4.6)
Ceq C1 C2 Ceq C1 C2
Reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance equals to sum of reciprocals of the
individual capacitance. The capacitance of a series connection is lower than any
capacitor because for a given voltage across the entire group, there will be less
charge on each plate. The total capacitance in a series circuit is
1 1 1 1
= + + + ... (4.7)
Ceq C1 C2 C3
Worked example
Two capacitors, 6.0 μF and 3.0 μF are connected in series in an electronic circuit
with 18.0 V power supply. Calculate the
a) equivalent capacitance, t
b) the charge and
c) the potential difference for each capacitor.
Solution
a) The equivalent capacitance can be calculated using equation (4.7),
1 1 1
= + .
Ceq C1 C2
The parameters given are C2 = 3.0 µ F and V = 18.0 V
Substitution of these values into equation (4.7) gives
1 1 1 1
= + =
Ceq 6 3 2
2.0 µ F
⇒ Ceq =

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 4
b) The charge on each capacitor in the circuit will be the same. Hence, using
equation (4.5) we can calculate the charge as
⇒ Q =CeqV =2 ×18 ×10−6 =36.0 ×10−6 C
c) We can calculate the potential difference on each capacitor using equation (4.4)
Q Q
= V1 = and V2
C1 C2
For capacitor C1, we have
Q 36 ×10−6
V
=1 = = 6.0 V
C1 6 ×10−6
Q 36 ×10−6
V
=2 = = 12.0 V
C2 3 ×10−6
4.3.2 Capacitors in Parallel

It should be obvious from the physical construction of capacitors that connecting two
together in parallel results in a bigger capacitance value. A parallel connection
results in bigger capacitor plate area, which means they can hold more charge for the
same voltage.
We say that the capacitors are connected in parallel. Note that the positive plates of
the capacitors are connected to each other and the negative plates are connected to
each other. Since the positive plates are also connected to the positive terminal of the
battery, and the negative plates are connected to the negative terminal of the battery,
the voltage across each capacitor is the same as the battery voltage. In other words,
capacitors in parallel have the same voltage across them. However, the total charge
will be divided proportionally among them:
When two capacitors are connected in parallel as shown in figure 4.3 and a potential
difference Vab = V applied across the capacitors, same potential difference exist along
each capacitors that will cause charging Q1 and Q2 on each capacitors.
Figure 4.3: Capacitors in parallel

SESSION 3
The net or total charge for figure 4.3 is

Q
= Q1 + Q2 (4.8)
By using equation (4.1) for C1 and C2, we have
= Q1 C= 1V and Q2 C2V (4.9)
In a similar way, using equation 4.1) for Ceq , we have
Q = CeqV (4.10)
Total charge must satisfy equation (4.8), that is
CeqV =C1V + C2V ⇒ Ceq =C1 + C2 (4.11)
Thus, the equivalent capacitance equals to sum of the individual capacitance
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... (4.12)
Worked example
Two capacitors, 6.0 μF and 3.0 μF are connected in parallel in an electronic circuit
with 18.0 V power supply. Calculate the
a) Equivalent capacitance,
b) The potential difference
c) The charge for each capacitor
Solution
a) Using equation (4.12), Ceq= C1 + C2 , we calculate the equivalent capacitance as
Ceq = 6.0 + 3.0 = 9.0 µ F
b) Since the capacitors are in parallel, the potential difference across each
capacitance will be the same. Hence,
V= V=1 V=
2 18.0 V
c) We calculate the charge on each capacitor using equation (4.9),
= Q1 C= 1V and Q2 C2V
Q1 = C1V = 6.0 ×10−6 ×18 = 1.08 ×10−4 C
Q2 = C2V = 3.0 ×10−6 ×18 = 5.4 ×10−5 C

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 4
Exercise 2.4
1. Calculate the total capacitance of each of the following arrangements of
capacitors:
(a) Two capacitors of 100 μF connected in series
(b) Two capacitors of 100 μF connected in parallel
(c) Two capacitors, one of 100 μF and the other of 200 μF connected in series
(d) Two capacitors, one of 100 μF and the other of 200 μF connected in parallel
(e) Two capacitors, one of 100 μF and the other of 4700 μF connected in parallel
with the combination connected in series with another capacitor of
capacitance 4700 μF
2. State five (5) characteristics of a capacitor
3. Consider the diagram below.
a) Find the equivalent capacitance of the capacitors above.

b) Determine the total charge in the circuit.
c) Determine the charge on one plate of C1.
Solution
a) We can simply add the 6 µF and the 2 µF capacitors, since they are in parallel,
6 µ F 2+ µF = 8 µF
But since the two 8 µF capacitors are in series, we must add their inverses to find
their equivalent capacitance:
1 1 1 2
= + =
C88 8µF 8µF 8µF
C88 = 4 µF
Now the two 4 µF capacitors are in parallel with each other, and can be added:
Ceq = 4 µ F + 4 µ F = 8 µ F
Qeq C=
(b) = eqV (8µ F )( 24=
V) 192 µ C
(c) C1 is in parallel with the battery and thus has 24 V across it.
Q=eq C=1V ( 4µ F )( 24=
V ) 96 µ C

SESSION 3
4. Consider parallel plate capacitor (air filled) with a surface area of 225 cm2 and a
charge of 1.5 C (q) on each of its plates and a plate separation distance of
1.0x10-4 m.
a. What is the capacitance of the capacitor?
A
Ans. C = εo = 2.0 × 10 -9 F = 2 nF
d
b. What is the potential difference across the capacitor?
Q
Ans. V = = 750 V
C
5. Two capacitors, C1=10F and C2=50F, are connected together in parallel. The
potential difference across the capacitors is 100V.
a) What is the equivalent capacitance of the parallel capacitors.
Ans. Ceq = C1 + C2 = 60 µ F
b) How much charge is stored in each capacitor separately and combined?
Ans. Qeq = CeqV = 6.0 × 10 -3 C
Q1 = C1V = 1.0 × 10 -3 C
Q2 = C2V = 5.0 × 10 -3 C
6. Two capacitors, C1=10 μF and C2=50 μF, are connected together in series. The
potential difference from the end of C1 to the opposite end of C2 is 100V.
a) What is the equivalent capacitance of the series capacitors?
1 1
Ans. Ceq = = = 8.333 µ F
1 + 1 1 +1
C1 C2 10 50
b) How much charge is stored in each capacitor separately and combined?
Ans. Qeq = Q1 = Q2 = CeqV = 8.3×10 -4 C

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 5
SESSION 5: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT OF INDUCTORS
You are welcome to session 5 of unit 2. In this session, we shall study the
electronic circuit of inductors in series and in parallel.
Objectives
1. Derive expressions for total inductance in series and in parallel.
2. Identify series and parallel parts in the combination of connection of inductors.
3. Calculate the effective inductance in series and parallel given individual inductors.
Now read on…
5.1 Inductors
Inductors are the third and final type of basic circuit component. An inductor is a coil of
wire with many windings as shown in figure 5.1(a), often wound around a core made of
a magnetic material, like iron. In other words when a length of wire is formed onto a
coil, it becomes a basic inductor. When the current flows through the coil, an
electromagnetic field is formed. The electromagnetic field changes if the direction of
flow of current changes. This change in the electromagnetic field induces a voltage (v)
across the coil and is given by the equation shown below
di ( t )
v (t ) = L (5.1)
dt
Where I is the current flowing through the inductor in ampere.
Figure 5.1: An inductor. (Flyod, (2004))

The voltage across the inductor will be zero if the current flowing through it remains
constant. This means that when direct, steady current flows through the inductor, it
behaves as a short-circuited coil in a steady state condition. If there is any small change
in direction or strength of the current, the inductance will appear.

UNIT 2 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT OF INDUCTORS
SESSION 5
If we put the value of dt as zero (dt=0) in equation (5.1) it is seen that for a minute
change in current within zero time, gives an infinite voltage across the inductor which is
not a feasible condition and thus in an inductor the current cannot be changed abruptly.
Thus after switching the DC voltage, the inductors act as an open circuited coil.
When current flows through a coil (or any wire) it produces a magnetic field in the
space outside the wire (see Figure 5.2(a)), and the coil acts just like any natural,
permanent magnet, attracting iron and other magnets. If you move a wire through a
magnetic field, a current will be generated in the wire and will flow through the
associated circuit as shown in figure 5.2 (b). This phenomenon is known as
electromagnetic induction.
It takes energy to move the wire through the field, and that mechanical energy is
transformed to electrical energy. This is how an electrical generator works. If the
current through a coil is stopped, the magnetic field must also disappear, but it cannot
do so immediately. The field represents stored energy and that energy must go
somewhere. The field contracts toward the coil, and the effect of the field moving
through the wire of the coil is the same as moving a wire through a stationary field: a
current is generated in the coil. This induced current acts to keep the current flowing in
the coil; the induced current opposes any change, an increase or a decrease, in the
current through the inductor. Inductors are used in circuits to smooth the flow of current
and prevent any rapid changes.
Figure 5.2: Electromagnetic induction. (Flyod, (2004))
Inductance is a measure of a coil’s ability to establish an induced voltage as a result of a

change in its current, and that induced voltage is in a direction to oppose that change in
current. In other words, the inductance is the property of the coil in which the emf is

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 5
induced in the coil because of the variation of flux. The inductance is added in the
circuit through the inductor.
Inductance is measured in Henrys (H), defined as the inductance when one ampere per
second through the coil, induces one volt across the coil. In many practical applications,
mH (10-3 H) or μH (10-6H) are the more common units.
5.2 Types of Inductors

The inductors are classified depending upon various factors like the size, core material
used, type of windings, etc. The core plays an important role in the selection of the
inductor.
Based on the core material the various types of inductor are as follows
• Ferromagnetic or iron core inductor
• Air core inductor
• Toroidal core inductor
• Laminated core inductor
• Powered core inductor
5.3 Physical Characteristics of an Inductor

Consider figure 5.3, and equation 5.2. The physical characteristics of an inductor are
stated as follows:
Figure 5.3: Parts of an inductor. (Flyod, (2004))
N2A
L=µ (5.2)
l
• Inductance is directly proportional to the permeability of the core material (μ)
• Inductance is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area, (A), of the core
• Inductance is directly proportional to the square of the number of turns (N2) of wire
• Inductance is inversely proportional to the length (l) of the core material

SESSION 5
Worked example
Determine the inductance of the coil presented in figure given below.
µ 0.25 ×10−3 Hm −1 .
Given that=
Solution
N2A
To determine the inductance, we are going to use equation (5.2), L = µ .
l
Next we first calculate the cross-sectional area of the inductor given as
π ( 0.25 ×10−3 )
2
π r2 =
A= 1.96 ×10−5 m 2
=
We then substitute the area and other parameters given into equation (5.2) which results
N 2 A ( 0.25 ×10 ) ( 350 ) (1.96 ×10 )
−3 2 −5
=L µ= = 40 mH
l 0.015
5.4 Inductors in Series

In the series inductor circuit, the number of inductors is connected in series in the
electronic circuit, and the same amount of current will flow in each of the inductors
connected. For example, if L1, L2, L3…… inductors are connected in series and current I
flow through the circuit as shown in the figure 5.4, below
Figure 5.4: Inductors in series
The current across inductor L1, L2, L3 will be I1, I2, I3 respectively. The value of current
across each inductor will be same. That is
IL
=1 IL
=2 IL
=3 I MN (5.3)
The total or equivalent inductance will be given by the equation
Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 + ... (5.4)

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 5
5.5 Inductors in Parallel

If the number of inductors is connected parallel with each other than the circuit is
known as a parallel inductor circuit. In this type of circuit, the circuit is divided into
each branch of the circuit as shown in figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5: Inductors in parallel
Current I1 is flowing in the inductor L1, and similarly, current I2 in L2 and I3 in

L3 inductor and Ieq is the total amount of current flowing in the circuit. The equivalent
inductance is given by the equation shown below
1 1 1 1
= + + + ... (5.5)
Leq L1 L2 L3
Worked example
Find the equivalent inductance of the circuit shown in the figure below.
Solution
The 10 H, 12 H, and 20 H inductors are in series; thus, using equation (5.4) we can
determine their equivalent inductance as
Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 = 10 + 12 + 20 = 42 H
This 42 H inductor is in parallel with the 7 H. Using equation (5.5) we can then
determine their equivalent inductance as

SESSION 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = +
Leq L1 L2 L3 42 7
42 × 7
⇒ Leq= = 6H
42 + 7
Finally, this 6 H inductor is in series with the 4 H and 8 H inductors. Hence, the
equivalent inductance of the circuit using equation (5.4) is given as
Leq = 4 + 6 + 8 = 18 H
5.6 Applications of Inductor

Some of the uses of the Inductor are as follows
• Used in electronic equipment such as in radios
• In communication apparatus
• Electronic testing instruments
• As an energy storage device
• In sensors, transformers, motors and various filters.
The main application of the inductors is to store energy in the form of the magnetic
field.
5.7 Difference between Capacitor an Inductor

• Capacitor stores energy in the form of electric field, whereas Inductor stores energy
in the form of magnetic field.
• There is no flow of current through the capacitor plates but in an Inductor current
passes through the coil.
• Capacitors act as an insulator for DC circuit, whereas Inductor acts as a conductor
for DC circuit.
• In a DC circuit when capacitor is added in series with a resistor, the current initially
becomes high but later it falls to zero. In case of an Inductor when it is added in
series with a resistor, the value of current is small at the starting but gradually it
increases with time.
• Capacitance is measured in Farad whereas Inductance is measured in Henry.
• The Capacitor acts as a short circuit in the alternating current. Inductor is equivalent
to a short circuit to the direct current.
• The Capacitor acts as an open circuit to the steady state condition in DC circuits,
whereas Inductor behaves as a short circuit to the steady state condition in DC.
• Capacitor resists the change in voltage whereas Inductor resists the change in
current.

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 5
Exercise 2.5
1. Calculate the equivalent inductance for the inductive ladder network in the
figure below.
Ans: 25 mH
2. State five (5) differences between capacitor and an inductor
3. State four (4) applications of an inductor
4. Briefly explain inductance and state its SI unit.
5. Inductors in parallel can be combined just like resistors in parallel. True/False
6. Find the equivalent inductance for each circuit in the figure below
Ans: (a) 7 mH (b) 3 mH (c) 2 mH

SESSION 5


ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 6
SESSION 6: SOLIDS
You are welcome to session 6 of unit two. In this session, we shall

study the types of solids, in particular we shall discuss conductors,
insulators and semiconductors.
Objectives
By the end of this session the student should be able to:
1. State and explain the types of solids
2. Explain the types of semiconductors
3. Solve simple problems in relation to the types of solids
Now read on…
6.1 Types of Solids

The electrical properties of a given material depend on the electronic populations of
the different allowed bands (see figure 6.1). Electrical conduction is the result of
electron motion within each band. There are three bands; conduction band, valence
band and forbidden band. The range of energies (i.e. band) possessed by conduction
band electrons is known as conduction band. The range of energies (i.e. band)
possessed by valence electrons is known as valence band. The separation between
conduction band and valence band on the energy level diagram is known as
forbidden energy gap.
Figure 6.1: Energy band
When an electric field is applied to the material, electrons start to move in the
direction opposed to the direction of the electric field. An empty energy band (in
which there is no free electron) does not of course participate in the formation of an
electric current. It is also the case for a fully occupied band. Indeed, an electron can

UNIT 2 SOLIDS
SESSION 6
move provided that, whenever it leaves its site, it can find some free space elsewhere
(another available site within its energy band, called a “hole”), where it can go.
Based on these energy bands, solids are classified as conductors, insulators and
semiconductors.
6.2 Conductors
Conductors (e.g. Copper and Aluminium) are generally substances which have the
property to pass different types of energy. In other words, conductors are those
substances which easily allow the passage of electric current through them. It is
because there are a large number of free electrons available in a conductor. In terms
of energy band as in Fig 6.2 (a), the valence and conduction bands overlap each
other due to this overlapping; a slight potential difference across a conductor
causes the free electrons to constitute electric current.
Figure 6.2: Types of solids based on energy bands
6.3 Insulators
Insulators (e.g. wood, glass, plastics, rubber etc.) are those substances which do not
allow the passage of electric current through them. In terms of energy band, the
valence band is full while the conduction band is empty as shown in Fig 6.2 (c).
Further, the energy gap between valence and conduction bands is very large (15 eV).
Therefore, a very high electric field is required to push the valence electrons to the
conduction band. For this reason, the electrical conductivity of such materials is
extremely small. At room temperature, the valence electrons of the insulators do not
have enough energy to cross over to the conduction band. However, when the
temperature is raised, some of the valence electrons may acquire enough energy to
cross over to the conduction band. Hence, the resistance of an insulator decreases
with the increase in temperature i.e. an insulator has negative temperature coefficient
of resistance.

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 6
6.4 Semiconductor
Semiconductors (e.g. germanium, silicon etc.) are those substances whose electrical
conductivity lies in between conductors and insulators. In terms of energy band, the
valence band is almost filled and conduction band is almost empty in Fig. 6.2 (b).
Further, the energy gap between valence and conduction bands is very small. The
semiconductor has:
• Filled valence band
• Empty conduction band
• Small energy gap or forbidden gap (1 eV) between valence and conduction
bands.
• Semiconductor virtually behaves as an insulator at low temperatures.
However, even at room temperature, some electrons cross over to the
conduction band, imparting little conductivity (i.e. conductor).
6.5 Classification of Semiconductors based on Purity

Based on the purity semiconductor materials are classified as intrinsic and extrinsic.
6.5.1 Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an intrinsic semiconductor.
In this case the holes in the valence band are vacancies created by electrons that have
been thermally excited to the conduction band and hole-electron pairs are created.
When electric field is applied across an intrinsic semiconductor, the current
conduction takes place by two processes, namely; by free electrons and holes as
shown in Fig 6.4. The free electrons are produced due to the breaking up of some
covalent bonds by thermal energy. At the same time, holes are created in the
covalent bonds. Under the influence of electric field, conduction through the
semiconductor is by both free electrons and holes. Therefore, the total current inside
the semiconductor is the sum of currents due to free electrons and holes. This creates
new holes near the positive terminal which again drift towards the negative terminal.
Figure 6.4: Diagram showing the electronic bonds in an intrinsic semiconductor (Si)
(Prusty, R. K., Rout, A. & Muduli, S. k. (2008), pp. 7)

UNIT 2 SOLIDS
SESSION 6
6.5.2 Extrinsic Semiconductor

An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor doped by addition of small
amount impurity which is able to change its electrical properties (conduction),
making it suitable for electronic applications (diodes, transistors, etc.) or
optoelectronic applications (light emitters and detectors). This is achieved by adding
a small amount of suitable impurity (having 3 or 5valence electron) to a
semiconductor (having 4 valence electron). It is then called impurity or extrinsic
semiconductor.
6.6 Semiconductor Doping

To make such semiconductor materials suitable for use in transistors and diodes, the
resistivity of the material is modified in a controlled way by first making very pure
crystals of the semiconductor material. These crystals contain only atoms of one type
(for example silicon) arranged in a regular lattice formation. This very pure material
is then ‘doped’ by adding tiny amounts of impurity atoms (about 1 impurity atom in
every 10 million). The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is known as
doping. The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of free
electrons or holes in the semiconductor crystal.
The idea is that pure semiconductors conduct poorly, because the electrons in their
lattice structure are mostly bound very tightly to their atoms, leaving only a few
electrons free to move, from atom to atom, through the material, so forming a very
weak electric current. By adding impurities with different atomic structures either
more or in other cases less, free electrons are added. This controls the ability of the
semiconductor to pass current, by effectively changing the resistivity of the
material.
If a pentavalent impurity (having 5 valence electrons) is added to the semiconductor,

a large number of free electrons are produced in the semiconductor. If a trivalent
impurity (having 3 valence electrons) is added to the semiconductor, large number of
holes are produced in the semiconductor crystal.
Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are classified
into:
i. n-type semiconductor
ii. p-type semiconductor
6.6.1 N-Type Semiconductor

An N-type semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor (e.g. silicon Si) in which a
donor impurity (e.g. arsenic As in Si, or Si in GaAs) has been intentionally
introduced. That is when a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor, it is known as n-type semiconductor (see Figure 6.5).

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 6
Figure 6.5: Schematic representation of electronic bonds in a Silicon crystal doped

with Arsenic As (n doping) (Prusty, R. K., Rout, A. & Muduli, S. k. (2008), pp. 7).
The addition of pentavalent impurity provides a large number of free electrons in the
semiconductor crystal. Typical examples of pentavalent impurities are arsenic,
antimony, Bismuth and Phosphorous etc. Such impurities which produce n-type
semiconductor are known as donor impurities because they have to give an extra
electron to the conduction band in order to make all the bonds with neighbouring
atoms (As is pentavalent while Si is tetravalent).
From figure 6.5, we see that a n-type semiconductor has a higher electron density n
and a lower hole density p than the same intrinsic semiconductor. Holes are said to
be the minority carriers whereas electrons are the majority carriers.
6.6.1 P-Type Semiconductors

When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is
called p-type Semiconductor. In other words a p-type semiconductor is an intrinsic
semiconductor (like Si) in which an impurity acting as an acceptor (like e.g. boron B
in Si) has been intentionally added. The addition of trivalent impurity provides a
large number of holes in the semiconductor. Typical examples of trivalent impurities
are gallium, indium, boron etc. Such impurities which produce p-type semiconductor
are known as acceptor impurities since once they are inserted in the crystalline
lattice, they lack one or several electrons to realize a full bonding with the rest of the
crystal as shown in figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6: Schematic representation of a Si crystal doped with boron (B). (Prusty, R.
K., Rout, A. & Muduli, S. k. (2008), pp. 7)
UNIT 2 SOLIDS
SESSION 6
From figure 6.6, we see that a p-type semiconductor has a lower electron density n
and a higher hole density p than the same intrinsic semiconductor. Electrons are said
to be the minority carriers whereas holes are the majority carriers.
6.7 P-N Junction

A p-n junction is the basic building block of many semiconductor devices like
diodes, transistor, etc. A clear understanding of the junction behaviour is important
to analyse the working of other semiconductor devices. In the earlier session we saw
how to make an n-type semiconductor material by doping a silicon atom with small
amounts of Antimony and also how to make a p-type semiconductor material by
doping another silicon atom with Boron.
Consider a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer. By adding precisely a
small quantity of pentavelent impurity, part of the p-Si wafer can be converted into
n-Si. There are several processes by which a semiconductor can be formed. The
wafer now contains p-region and n-region and a metallurgical junction between p-,
and n- region.
Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction: diffusion and
drift. We know that in an n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons
(number of electrons per unit volume) is more compared to the concentration of
holes. Similarly, in a p-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes is more than
the concentration of electrons. During the formation of p-n junction, and due to the
concentration gradient across p-, and n- sides, holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p
→n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n →p). This motion of charge
carries gives rise to diffusion current across the junction.
When an electron diffuses from n →p, it leaves behind an ionised donor on n-side.
This ionised donor (positive charge) is immobile as it is bonded to the surrounding
atoms. As the electrons continue to diffuse from n →p, a layer of positive charge (or
positive space-charge region) on n-side of the junction is developed.
Similarly, when a hole diffuses from p →n due to the concentration gradient, it
leaves behind an ionised acceptor (negative charge) which is immobile. As the holes
continue to diffuse, a layer of negative charge (or negative space-charge region) on
the p-side of the junction is developed. This space-charge region on either side of the
junction together is known as depletion region as the electrons and holes taking part
in the initial movement across the junction depleted the region of its free charges
(Fig. 6.7). The thickness of depletion region is of the order of one-tenth of a
micrometre. Due to the positive space-charge region on n-side of the junction and
negative space charge region on p-side of the junction, an electric field directed from
positive charge towards negative charge develops. Due to this field, an electron on p-
side of the junction moves to n-side and a hole on n-side of the junction moves to p-
side. The motion of charge carriers due to the electric field is called drift. Thus a drift
current, which is opposite in direction to the diffusion current (6.7) starts.

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 6
Figure 6.7: p-n junction formation process
Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion process
continues, the space-charge regions on either side of the junction extend, thus
increasing the electric field strength and hence drift current. This process continues
until the diffusion current equals the drift current. Thus a p-n junction is formed. In a
p-n junction under equilibrium there is no net current.
The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electron by the p-region
causes a difference of potential across the junction of the two regions. The polarity of
this potential is such as to oppose further flow of carriers so that a condition of
equilibrium exists. Figure 6.8 shows the p-n junction at equilibrium and the potential
across the junction. The n-material has lost electrons, and p material has acquired
electrons. The n material is thus positive relative to the p material. Since this
potential tends to prevent the movement of electron from the n region into the p
region, it is often called a barrier potential.
Figure 6.8: Diode under equilibrium (V = 0),
6.8 P-N Junction Diode

A p-n junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an n-type
semiconductor creating a potential barrier voltage across the diode junction. If we
were to make electrical connections at the ends of both the n-type and the p-type

UNIT 2 SOLIDS
SESSION 6
materials and then connect them to a battery source as shown in figure 6.9, an
additional energy source now exists to overcome the potential barrier.
The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being
able to cross the depletion region from one side to the other. The behaviour of the p-
n junction with regards to the potential barrier’s width produces an asymmetrical
conducting two terminal device, better known as the P-N Junction Diode.
Figure 6.9: P-N junction diode in a circuit. (Prusty, R. K., Rout, A. & Muduli, S. k.
(2008), pp. 16)
A p-n junction diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which
has the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike
a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the
diode has an exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we cannot
described its operation by simply using an equation such as Ohm’s law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the p-
n junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to
cross the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the p-n junction is
decreased.
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled
away from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This
has the effect of increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself
allowing or blocking current flow through the diode.
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse
voltage and narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is
due to the differences in the electrical properties on the two sides of the p-n junction
resulting in physical changes taking place.

ELECTRONICS UNIT 2
SESSION 6
Exercise 2.6
1. In an n-type silicon, which of the following statement is true:
a) Electrons are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants.
b) Electrons are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
c) Holes are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
d) Holes are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants.
2. Which of the statements given in (1) is true for p-type semiconductors.
3. State, in terms of energy bands, the differences between a conductor, an
insulator, and a semiconductor.
4. Distinguish between the following:
a) Trivalent and pentavalent impurities
b) Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
c) P-type and N-type semiconductors
5. Briefly explain doping of semiconductors
6. Explain the formation of a p-n junction

UNIT 2 SOLIDS
SESSION 6


HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS & APPLIANCES
UNIT 3
UNITE 3: HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS & APPLIANCES
Unit Outline
Session 1: Household Chemicals
Session 2: Hazardous Effects of Some Household Chemicals
Session 3: Handling of Household Hazardous Chemicals
Session 4: Household Appliance
Session 5: Household Appliance
Session 6: Alloy
What would people do without a refrigerator to store eggs and milk?

And also freezer to complete sweets frozen? Imagine determining as
a means to cook the things you eat with no stove or microwave
oven, imaging, cooking with no water, salt, sugar and waking up in the morning with
no brushing of teeth with tooth past. It's a pretty impossible. Sure, during the past
before, this stuff were invented, people had other means of cooling the type of food you
bought for them and cooking it as well. They didn't even be aware of what that
microwave plus a dishwasher was. Many individuals gotten so comfortable with the
simplicity of the appliances them to use everyday that most couldn't imagine living
without them. This unit would discuss household chemicals and appliances.
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit students will be able to:
1. list some household chemicals and state their uses;
2. state chemical composition of products; discuss the hazards these products may
cause;
4. list household appliances made of aluminum, copper, iron, tin, silver and zinc and
discuss methods of cleaning these household appliances;
5. discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using cooking or canning utensils made
of aluminum; (Consideration of toxicity and corrosion).

UNIT 3 HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS & APPLIANCES


HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS & APPLIANCES UNIT 3
SESSION 1
SESSION 1: HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS
In this session, we shall consider the importance of some common

household chemicals. The harmful effects of some of these chemicals
and how to manage these chemicals in our homes will be discussed.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to list some household chemicals
and state their uses; state chemical composition of products and understand water as
the most common chemical in the home, and as a solvent used in many household
chemicals.
Now read on…
1.0 Overview
Toothpaste is an example of chemical substance that can be found in our daily life.
What are chemical substance? Can you live without chemical substance? Find the
answer right away!
In this topic, we will learn about chemical substances that can be found or usually used
in our daily life. Generally, chemical substances are classified into two types, chemical
substance in food and non-food materials. In this session, we just discuss about
chemical substance in non-food materials.
1.1 Chemical Substances

What are chemical substances?
Do you still remember what is chemistry? Chemistry is a science which studies matter
and its changes. Based on this concept, we might conclude that those matter consist of
all chemical substance, include elements, compounds, and mixtures. Chemicals
influence our daily activities. Some common examples of chemical substances in
household are water, salt, sugar, and vinegar. Chemical substance can then be defined
as “any material with a definite chemical composition”.
1.2 Classification of Chemical Substances

Based on its origin, chemical substances can be classified as natural and artificial
chemicals.
1.2.1. Natural Chemicals

Natural chemicals come from natural resources such as kerosene, coal, plant, animal,
sea, and air. Gasoline, kerosene, and diesel fuel are natural chemicals that come from
petroleum. Some examples of chemical substances that come from plants are sugar
which made of sugar cane and caffeine which made of coffee, whereas table salt made

UNIT 3
HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS
SESSION 1
of seawater. The air can also produce some chemicals that are in the form of gas, such
as nitrogen, oxygen, and noble gas like argon and neon.
1.2.2 Artificial Chemicals (Synthetic)

Artificial chemicals are made of many kinds of chemical substance. The making of
artificial chemicals in small scale is usually carried out in the laboratory, whereas for
large scale it is usually carried out in industry. Some examples of artificial chemicals
are sodium hydroxide, acetic acid (vinegar), nitric acid, sulphuric acid, and ammonia.
1.2.3 Chemical Properties

Chemical substances has many properties, such as flammable, explosive, corrosive
(able to erode or damage other substances), and toxic or harzadous. Some examples of
flammable chemicals are gasoline and alcohol, whereas some examples of explosive
chemicals are liquid propane gas and the mixtures of hydrogen and air. For corrosive
chemicals, the examples are sulphuric acid and nitric acid, whereas the examples of
toxic chemicals are chlorine and mercury.
Be careful when using chemicals! Careless use of chemical substances can be

dangerous. It’s very important to study chemical properties and how to use them. So,
you can safely use chemical substances. We have to be very careful in dealing with
toxic chemicals. The level of toxic in chemical substances are diverse. The toxic
substance can be absorbed through the skin and inhaled, or unintentionally swollen by
mouth. Toxic chemicals not only caused direct bad effects, but also gave long term
(chronic) bad effects.
1.2.4 Information about Chemical Substances

How can we know about the properties and the way to use a chemical substance?
Chemical substance which has dangerous properties, usually is labelled specially.
Information on the label warns the user to be careful when using it. Some examples of
warnings and suggestions in the label of a product:
No. Warning Suggestions

1. Watch out, flammable product! Keep away from fire or hot materials.
2. Watch out, easy to explode! Do not expose to heat and keep away
from fire.
3. Watch out, corrosive material! If contact with skin or clothes occurs, wash
Avoid direct contact. with plenty of clean water.
4. Watch out, toxic substance! Do not eat!

SESSION 1
The warning like keep out of children reach? also frequently can be found at the product
package which bespeak to be dangerous, for example, on mosquito repellent or floor
cleaner. Try to observe, what kind of warning stated in the product that you usually use?
Beside warning label, on the package or container of a chemical or product usually
listed information about direction and dosage. This means to hinder failure by the user
so it can reduce accident risk.
Another information which is usually found in the label of a product is the composition
or ingredients. The list of ingredients are very important for all consumers. By using
such information, consumers will be able to differentiate one product with another, so
that they can choose the right product for themselves. By reading the composition list
on the label of a product, consumers can also find out about the quality of such product.
1.2.5 Packages of Chemical Substances

The package or container of a product must be correspond to the properties of the
chemical substance and its safety. That’s why we are able to identify the properties of a
chemical substance from its container or package. Here are some chemical properties
that can be identified from their containers or packages:
• The form and the safety of substances. Solid and safe substances are usually
packed in the containers or packages made of paper, whereas liquid substances
are usually placed in the bottles or cans.
• The resistance of substances to the effects of air and direct sun’ s heat. The
substances which have this property are placed in light proof cans or bottles.
• The resistance of substances to evaporate. Substances which are easy to
evaporate usually placed in the bottles with narrow mouth and dense cap.
Activity 1
To evaluate your understanding, please answer the questions below:
1. Write down any information that you get from the label of a product!
2. What are the advantages that can you get if you understand the warnings and
suggestions which mentioned in such label?
3. What will happen if you don’t follow the warnings in the label of a product?
1.3 Chemical Substances and Its Usages

There are many benefits that we can acquire from chemical substances.
Chemical substance makes our life easier and develops our quality of life. Now, we are
going to learn about some chemical substance in our household.
1.3.1 Cleaner Products

Examples of cleaner products that are usually used in many houses are soaps,
detergents, toothpaste, and shampoos. What are soaps, detergents, toothpaste, and
shampoos?

UNIT 3
HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS
SESSION 1
Soap
Soap seems like the simplest thing in the world. Just splash it on your face and it gets
rid of the dirt, right? In fact, it's quite a cunning chemical and it works in a really
interesting way. Let's take a closer look!
Soap is base salt that is made of many fatty acids. Recently, soaps are made using
modern process. We can make soap by reacting sodium hydroxide base or potassium
hydroxide with a fatty acid, either animal fat or plant fat. The process of making soap is
called saponification. Soap not only consist of sodium hydroxide or potassium
hiydroxide, but also other substances such as dyes and fragrances. That’s why we often
find soaps in many beautiful colors and with fruit and flower fragrances. Beside that,
some soap also contain cream, vitamins, and moisturizer (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1 Image of some soaps
Detergents
Detergents are cleaner that contain an active substance called surfactan or surface active
material. Surfactan is able to reduce the tension of water surface so that it can be mixed
with oil or fat. That’ s why we use to soak the dirty clothes with detergent because it
can wash many kind of dirt, either in solid or liquid form. Other major substances in
detergent are as follows:
 The filler (sodium sulfate) that can be used to increase or enlarge detergent’s
volume.
 The supporting material such as sodium hydroxide and phosphate compound.
These materials can be used to increase the cleaning power of detergent.
 Additional material for example CMC (carboxy methyl cellulose) that can be
used as nti-redoposition? which means to maintain the cleanliness of clothes.
 Fragrance (perfume) that makes the clothes not only clean but also fragrant
after being washed by detergent.
Enzyme is usually added to modern detergents. It functions to increase the cleaning

power of detergent. It also can break some biological stains such as sweat, blood, and
egg stains.

SESSION 1
How do detergent work?

Detergent can be dissolved in water because they contain some materials that
correspond to water (hydrofil). Detergents also contain some materials that don’t match
with water (hydrofob). If hydrofil and hydrofob work together, they will be able to wash
away dirts. The molecule tip of hydrofob absorbs or stick to the molecule of the oily
dirts. At the same time, the part of hydrofil which surrounds the particle of oily dirts
form a ball structure that is called micelle. The dirt molecules which have been
surrounded still waft about the water and since they’ve been blocked, they can’t stick to
the cloth fibre. If we wash the clothes with clean water, the dirt molecules will dissapear
and the clothes will be clean again.
Shampoo
The detergent content in a shampoo is able to decrease the tension of water surface,
with the intention that it can move throughout the hair. Besides that, the detergent in
shampoo can break the fat so that we can easily wash our hair. There are many other
materials that you can find in a shampoo. Those materials are written down in the label
of the shampoo. Some examples of them are fruit extracts, vitamins, eggs, honey, herbs,
calamondins, and celeries. Try to find other materials that are usually added on
shampoo! Shampoo break and draw out all stains, dirts, dandruffs, salts, and oil from
hair. These can’t be done by water only.
1.4 Cleansing Action of Soap and Detergent

The cleansing ability of soap and detergent are related to their structure. Each soap and
detergent molecules have two component parts, that is long hydrocarbon chain and the
ionic end (Figure 1.2).
Hydrocarbon Chain
Ionic end
Figure 1.2 Structure of Soap
Soaps (once dissociated in water) consists of: a hydrophobic (water-repelling), non-

polar alkyl (hydrocarbon) tail that can interact with dispersion forces with oils. A polar,
negatively charged, hydrophilic (water-loving) carboxylate head that can form ion-
dipole and dipole-dipole interactions with water, as well as hydrogen bonds.
Both soap and detergent molecules consist of long hydrocarbon chains with one end
being polar (that is, with an apparant charge) that causes the end of the molecule to be

UNIT 3
HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS
SESSION 1
attracted to water molecules (which are also polar). It’s that polar end on the soap
molecule that makes it soluble in water. The hydrocarbon chain isn’t soluble in water,
and so when soap dissolves in water it forms microscopically tiny “balls” called
“micelles” (Figure 1.3).
When a greasy stain is added to a soap-water mixture, the long hydrocarbon chain tails
of the soap start to dissolve in the stain. The charged heads remain at the surface of the
grease, interacting with the water molecules (Figure 1.3). These interactions are due to
the fact that ‘like dissolves like’.
Figure 1.3 Micelles of soap and detergent
Toothpaste
Toothpaste is used to clean out tooth from the remains of food that are still there and
plague (tartar). It is made of refined calcium carbonate which are mixed with glycerine.
Other materials added to toothpaste are sweetener, dye, breath refreshner, also germ and
microbe resistor. Toothpaste also contain an active substance called sodium fluoride
which is able to strengthen tooth enamel, restrain the formation of tartar, and guard
against cavity.
Whitener
Whitener is materials that is used to make things whiter. Whitener commonly used by
humans are whitener for clothes, skin, and tooth. There are two types of clothes
whitener, solid and liquid whitener (Figure 1.4). The active substance of a whitener is
chlorine, which are classified as sodium hypochlorite (in liquid form) and calcium
hypochlorite (in solid form).
Clothes whitener is only recommended for white clothes to make it more sparkle. The
usage of whitener for colored clothes will fade its color. Over usage of whitener also
will damage clothes because of active ingredient (chlorine) can damage clothes fiber.

SESSION 1
Clothes which are made of polyesther will become yellowish if we soak them into
whitener. In the container of a whitener, we always find a warning which tell us not to
mix whitener with soap or detergent. We can’t do that because if we mix them, they will
produce a toxic gas which is called chlorine gas (Cl2). It will be very dangerous for us if
we inhale that toxic gas continuously or in large amount.
Figure 1.4 . Bayclin an example of clothes whitener
Beside clothes whitener, we are also familiar with tooth and skin whitener. One of
chemical used in tooth whiteners are hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and carbamide
peroxide. 10% of hydrogen peroxide is the same as 2% peroxide. The chemical
substance that are usually found in skin whiteners are hydroquinon, kojic acid, and
azelaic acid. Those three substances obstruct the formation of melanine skin pigment.
Fragrance
Fragrance is an aromatic chemical compound that has certain odor. Aromatic chemical
compound usually volatile, so it can be smelled by our nose. That is why fragrance
always kept in bottle with narrow neck. Fragrance can be made of synthetic or natural
substances. Most of natural fragrance derived from some parts of plants such as flower,
fruits, root, bark, or wood. For example, the geraniol from roses, jasmone from
jasmines, citrus from oranges, and sassafras oil from sassafras woods. Those ingredient
is taken by extraction or steam distillation. Synthetic fragrance is made by mixing
chemical substance with esterification reaction. Esterification is a chemical reaction
between alcohol and carboxylic acid that produce ester compound with pleasant odor.
Ester compound usually has similar odor with some flowers and fruits. For example,
methyl butyric which has fresh apple characteristic odor and amyl acetic which has
banana odor. Nowadays, synthetic fragrance is preferred because it is easier to be made
and more economical.

UNIT 3
HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS
SESSION 1
Insecticide
Active ingredients of an insect repellents in houses are permethrin and tetramethrin.
Those are synthetic chemicals which work by attacking nervous system of insect.
Permethrin is known to have low toxicity to mammals and is poorly absorb by skin. The
others active ingredient of insect repellent are transflutrin, DEET (N, N-dietil-
mtoluamide), and icaridin. Transflutrin is an insect repellent which is usually used in
indoor environment. DEET is an active ingredient of insect repellent which is intended
to be applied to skin. Icaridin also known as picaridin is active ingredient an insect
repellent which is almost colorless and odorless. It is effective to kill some insects.
Many insecticides are not only made of synthetic active materials, but also natural
materials such as:
a. Pyrethrin is derived from chrysant flower (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium).
b. p-menthane -3,8-diol or also called PMD is derived from Eucalyptus citriodora leaf
oil is an active ingredient which give menthol odor and cool effect.
c. Nepetalactone is isolated from catnip plant (Nepeta cataria) which is effective to kill
cockroach and mosquito.
d. Citronellal oil is derived from lemon grass plant. Some examples of active ingredient
of insecticide being used in agriculture are as follow:
i. Organochloride compound such as DDT, chlordane, aldrin, and lindane.
ii. Organophosphor compound such as acephate, chloetoxyfos, dichlorof os, and
fenamifos.
iii. Carbamate compound such as aldicarb and carbofuran.
iv. Phyretoid compound such as permethrin.
v. Neonicotinoid compound such as acetamipid and clotianidin.
There are also natural active ingredient of insecticide being used in agriculture which
are derived from plants, such as:
 Caffeine is derived from tea and coffee plant.
 Rotenone is derived from climbing leguminous plant, derris.
 Nicotine is derived from tobacco plant.
 Tetranottriterpenoid is derived from neem plant (Azadirachta indica).
Paint
Paints are thick colored solution which can be used for coloring the surface of an object.
Based on their usages, we already know many types of paint such as wall paint, wood
paint, car paint, iron paint, and special paint for painting (Figue 5). Based on its solvent,
paints are classified into water paint and oil paint. Water paint or water color is also
known as acrylic paint.

SESSION 1
Figure 1.5 Photograph of paints
Paints are made of many kinds of chemical substance. Commonly, paints are made of
three components, i.e. dyes, binding substance, and solvent. Other than those three main
substances, additive substances are usually added to paints. Additive substances have
certain functions, such as fungicide as anti-fungus, dryer substance as the dryer of
paints, coagulant substance to make the paint thicker, fragrance, and other substances
that can protect paints from raindrops, sunlight, and water changes.
Fertilizer
Just like humans and animals, plants also need food for their growth and enlargement.
Plants get its food from soil, that’ s why the fertility of the soil is very important for the
growth of the plants. Fertilizers contain such substances that needed by plants. We add
some fertilizers if the substances in the soil are not sufficient for the plants. Based on its
origin, fertilizers are classified into natural and artificial fertilizer. Some examples of
natural fertilizers are compost and manure. Artificial fertilizers are chemically made in
factories and an example of them is urea-based fertilizer. There are three components
which are needed for the growth of plants, i.e. nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sodium
(Na). Some types of fertilizers which are useful for plants such as nitrogen fertilizer,
phosphorus fertilizer, and sodium fertilizer.
Exercise 3.1
Q1. Name two hazardous products often found in homes and explain their uses.
Q2. Name one hazardous household product that can be recycled.
Q3. State and explain the composition of paint.

UNIT 3
HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS
SESSION 1


SESSION 2
SESSION 2: HAZARDOUS EFFECTS OF SOME HOUSEHOLD

CHEMICALS
In this session, we shall consider the harmful effects of some of
household chemicals and the safety tips of these chemicals in our homes
will be discussed.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to understand the harmful effects
of some household chemicals.
Now read on…
2.0 Overview
Common household items such as cleaners, detergent, auto supplies and paint may
contain dangerous chemicals. Here are tips for storing and handling these substances
safely.
What potentially dangerous chemicals can be found in the typical home?

Potentially dangerous chemicals can be found in every room in your home. If not
properly stored or used, these products could cause minor to serious and even life-
threatening health problems for you or your children. What are these every day
household chemicals?
Let’s take a tour of the rooms of your home and discover what some of these chemicals
are and what health harms they may cause. Keep in mind that most household cleaning
products and pesticides are reasonably safe when used as directed, and that the level of
toxicity of a product is dependent on the dose of the product used (never use more than
the amount listed on the label) and the length of exposure to the product.
2.1 In the Garage

Antifreeze. Ethylene glycol, the main hazardous ingredient of antifreeze, is extremely
poisonous. Though inhalation of the fumes can causes dizziness, swallowing antifreeze
will cause severe damage to the heart, kidneys and brain. Antifreeze can be fatal if
swallowed.
• Safety tips: If you need to clean up antifreeze – the bright green or yellow
liquid you find in your garage or driveway – make sure you wear gloves because
ethylene glycol is absorbed through the skin. Also, keep your pets away from
spilled antifreeze. Pets are attracted to antifreeze because of its sweet smell, but
licking or drinking the fluid can kill your pet. A much safer alternative to

UNIT 3 HAZARDOUS EFFECTS OF SOME HOUSEHOLD
SESSION 2 CHEMICALS
ethylene glycol is propylene glycol. Before purchasing antifreeze, look at the

label to identify products containing the less toxic chemical, propylene glycol.
Motor oil. Used oil or waste motor oil may be contaminated with magnesium, copper,
zinc and other heavy metals deposited from your vehicle’s engine. Oil contains
chemicals that can cause nerve and kidney damage and that are suspected of causing
cancer.
Latex paint. Unless ingested in large quantities, water-soluble latex paints are not
highly toxic. However, some latex paints emit formaldehyde when drying. High levels
of formaldehyde can give you a headache and irritate your eyes, nose and throat.
Oil-based paint. Oil-based paint contains organic solvents that can be irritating to eyes
and skin, and can cause cracking of skin. Inhaling paint fumes can result in headaches,
nausea, dizziness and fatigue. Most of these symptoms go away once you go out into
fresh air. However, frequent exposure to these chemicals in the presence of poor air
circulation can cause kidney, liver and blood problems.
• Safety tips: When painting, keep windows and doors fully open. Place a box fan
in a window to direct air and fumes outdoors. Keep the fan on while painting
and for 48 hours thereafter. Keep small children away from the room being
painted and away from open paint cans.
Batteries. Most wet-cell batteries in use in today’s cars, SUVs and trucks are sealed so
you cannot be exposed to the batteries’ contents, which include sulfuric acid and lead.
However, when activated, the electrolyte solution in the battery produces explosive
gases that can be easily ignited.
Batteries that contain sulfuric acid must be labeled. Sulfuric acid fumes are strongly
irritating and contact can cause burning and charring of the skin, or blindness if you get
it in your eyes. Lead is poisonous in all forms and accumulates in our bodies and in the
environment.
• Safety tips: Never break the seal of wet-cell batteries. If the seal is accidentally
broken, keep children and pets away from the area until the battery's acid is
cleaned up. Wash your hands after any contact with wet-cell batteries.
Windshield washer fluid. Common chemicals in windshield washer fluid are
methanol, ethylene glycol, and isopropanol. Collectively, these products can irritate the
lining of your nose, mouth and throat and can cause damage to the nervous system,
liver, kidneys, heart and brain. Ingestion can result in drowsiness, unconsciousness and
death.
2.2 In the Laundry Room/Utility Room

Laundry detergents. These products contain enzymes (as noted by the names
"cationic," "anionic" or "non-ionic" on the label) to loosen stains and ground-in dirt.
Cationic detergents are the most toxic when taken internally. Ingestion can result in
nausea, vomiting, shock, convulsions and coma. "Non-ionic" detergents are less toxic
but can irritate skin and eyes or make you more sensitive to other chemicals. Asthma

SESSION 2
can develop if a person is exposed to large quantities of detergent. Detergents are also
responsible for many household poisonings from accidental swallowing.
All-purpose cleaners. There are numerous "all-purpose" cleaning products on the
market. These products usually contain detergents, grease-cutting agents, solvents
and/or disinfectants. The specific chemicals in these ingredients include ammonia,
ethylene glycol monobutyl acetate, sodium hypochlorite and/or trisodium phosphate.
Depending on the ingredients used, all-purpose cleaners can irritate the skin, eyes, nose
and throat. They can be highly poisonous to both humans and animals if swallowed.
 Safety tips: When working with an all-purpose cleaner, always wear rubber
gloves to protect your skin. Also, be sure that there is good air circulation in the
room. Open several windows or keep a fan running. Most importantly, NEVER
mix two cleaners of different kinds together, especially products containing
ammonia and chlorine (bleach). This mixture can result in the production of a
gas called chloramine, which can cause serious breathing problems and be
potentially fatal if inhaled in great quantities.
Bleach. Household bleach contains the chemical sodium hypochlorite in different
concentrations ranging from 0.7 percent to 5.25 percent. These percentages are the
amount of the chemical in the liquid; the rest of the liquid is mostly water. Chlorine
bleach liquid and vapors can irritate the skin, eyes, nose and throat. Dermatitis may
result from direct skin contact. Ingestion can cause esophageal injury, stomach irritation
and prolonged nausea and vomiting.
Never mix chlorine bleach with any other household cleaning products and
especially not with ammonia. Doing so can result in different types of poisonous gases
being released, which can cause very serious breathing problems.
Pet flea and tick treatments. Many of the pet flea and tick treatment products contain
pesticides that consist of the chemicals imidacloprid, fipronil, pyrethrins, permethrin
and methoprene. These chemicals can cause headache, dizziness, twitching and nausea.
Safety tips: When using these products on your dog or cat, be sure not to pet
them for at least 24 hours. If you forget and do pet them, wash your hands and
skin immediately with a lot of soap and water.
2.2.1 Insecticides. Insecticides contain some of the same pesticides found in pet flea
and tick treatments. In addition to permethrin, other pesticide chemicals commonly
found in insecticides are diazinon, propoxur and chlorpyrifos. These chemicals can
cause headache, dizziness, twitching and nausea.
 Safety tips: When using an insecticide in the home, make sure it doesn't get on
food or substances that come in contact with food, like dish towels, dishes,
silverware or counter tops.

SESSION 2 CHEMICALS
2.3 In the Kitchen

Dishwashing detergents. The main ingredient in automatic and hand dishwashing
detergents is phosphate. Automatic dishwashing detergents are known to produce skin
irritations or burns and may be poisonous if swallowed. Hand dishwashing detergents
are milder than automatic dishwashing detergents. If swallowed, they may cause
irritation to the mouth and throat, nausea, but they are not fatal if swallowed.
Oven cleaners. The basic ingredient in oven cleaners is lye (consisting of either sodium
hydroxide or potassium hydroxide). Lye is extremely corrosive and can burn your skin
and eyes. It can cause severe tissue damage and may be fatal if swallowed.
 Safety tips: When working with oven cleaners, always wear an apron, gloves, and
safety goggles. Do not breathe the fumes. Make sure the work area is well
ventilated. The best tip: Non-toxic oven cleaners without lye are available. Look at
the label and select a product that does not contain lye.
Antibacterial cleaner. Antibacterial cleaners usually contain water, a fragrance, a

surfactant (to break up dirt), and a pesticide. The pesticides commonly used in
antibacterial cleaners are quaternary ammonium or phenolic chemicals. Antibacterial
cleaners can irritate your eyes and burn your skin and throat.
 Safety tips: To help protect your skin when using these cleaners, wear latex
dishwashing gloves. If you get some on the cleaner on your skin or in your eyes,
wash it off immediately.
Window and glass cleaner. The basic ingredients of window/glass cleaners are
ammonia and isopropanol. These products may be irritating to the eyes, skin, nose, and
throat. If swallowed, they may cause drowsiness, unconsciousness or death.
 Safety tips: Always wear gloves to use these products and use in a well-
ventilated area.
Bait traps for ants, cockroaches, crickets and other insects. The insecticides
commonly found in insect baits include abarmectin, propoxur, trichlorfon, sulfluramid,
chlorpyrifos, and boric acid. Since most insect baits are enclosed in containers, it’s
unlikely that you’ll come in contact with the pesticides within them. If you do, wash
your hands with plenty of soap and water.
2.4 In the Bathroom

Toilet bowl cleaners. Toilet cleaners contain the chemicals sodium hypochlorite or
hydrochloric acid, or bleach. Most disinfectant cleaners are very irritating to your eyes
and skin and will burn your throat.
Never mix a toilet bowl cleaner with any other household or cleaning products. Doing
so can result in poisonous gases being released and can cause very serious breathing
problems.

SESSION 2
Safety tips: Always be sure when cleaning your bathrooms that the room has plenty of
ventilation. Leave the door open and use the exhaust fan, if you have one. Wear latex
dishwashing gloves to help protect your skin from splashes when using toilet cleaners.
If you splash some on your skin, wash it off immediately.
Mold and mildew removers. Chlorine and alkyl ammonium chlorides are the common
fungicide chemicals found in mold and mildew removers. Cleaners with mold and
mildew removers may cause breathing problems and if swallowed, can burn your throat.
• Safety tips: Wear latex dishwashing gloves to help protect your skin when using
these products. If you get some on your skin, wash it off immediately.
Drain cleaners. Lye and sulfuric acid are the main ingredients used to unclog drains.
Lye can cause burns to skin and eyes, and if swallowed, can damage the esophagus and
stomach. Sulfuric acid can irritate the skin and eyes and can damage the kidneys, liver,
and digestive tract. These chemicals produce dangerous fumes, can cause skin burns,
and can cause blindness if they come in contact with your eyes. Drain cleaners can be
fatal if swallowed.
• Safety tips: Always use protective gloves and wear goggles when using these
products. Also, make sure there is good air circulation in the room when these
cleaners are used.
2.5 In the Living Room

Rug, carpet, upholstery cleaners. These cleaning products can contain
perchloroethylene (used in dry cleaning), naphthalene and ammonium hydroxide. The
fumes given off by these products can cause cancer and liver damage and have been
known to cause dizziness, sleepiness, nausea, loss of appetite, and disorientation.
• Safety tips: Use these products in well-ventilated areas and try not to breathe
the fumes.
Furniture polish. Furniture cleaners for wood may contain petroleum distillates and oil
of cedar. Furniture polish typically contains one or more of the following substances:
ammonia, naphtha, nitrobenzene, petroleum distillates and phenol. These chemicals
may irritate your skin, eyes, throat, lungs, and windpipe. If swallowed, furniture polish
can cause nausea and vomiting; medical help should be sought.
Air fresheners. Air fresheners contain formaldehyde, petroleum distillates, p-
dichlorobenzene and aerosol propellants. These chemicals are thought to cause cancer
and brain damage. They also are strong irritants to eyes, skin, and throat. These
ingredients are usually highly flammable. Additionally, solid fresheners usually cause
death if eaten by people or pets.
• Safety tips: Do not spray air fresheners around an open flame. Use them only in a
well-ventilated areas. Baking soda, which is not toxic, can be used as an alternative to
air freshener.

SESSION 2 CHEMICALS
Household foggers. Like insecticide and pet flea and tick products, household foggers
or "bug bombs" contain many of the same pesticide chemicals, such as pyrethrins,
permethrin, and methoprene. Exposure to these chemicals could cause burning in your
eyes or your skin or can result in breathing problems. The contents of foggers can be
flammable.
• Safety tips: Proper use of foggers requires that all windows and doors to the
specific room or entire house be closed. Therefore, all people and pets need to get
out of the house – even if the specific room being "bug bombed" is closed off. The
gas emitted from these foggers will seep under doors and through air vents. Toys,
food, plates, cups, silverware and cookware should not be left out anywhere. After
the fogger is finished, clean all table and counter tops before using them. The house
or room also should be aired out. Turn on your air conditioner or open the windows.
Use fans to help air out the house.
2.6 In the Bedroom

Mothballs. The pesticides in mothballs are chemicals known as naphthalene and p-
dichlorobenzene. Breathing the fumes from mothballs may cause headaches and
dizziness and may irritate the skin, eyes, and throat. Extended exposure to the vapors
may result in cataract formation and liver damage.
2.7 In the Backyard, Pool and Garden Shed

Swimming pool chloride tablets. Disinfectants containing chlorine for use in
swimming pools are the chemicals calcium and sodium hypochlorite. These chemicals
are the same but in a higher concentration than those found in other household
disinfectant cleaners because they will be diluted in a very large amount of water.
Coming in contact with these chemicals before they are diluted cause breathing
problems and a burning sensation to eyes and skin. If swallowed, the chemicals can
burn the throat and could be fatal.
Algicides for the pool. The chemicals in algicides for swimming pools commonly
include alkyl ammonium chlorides. These chemicals can cause breathing problems. If
swallowed, they can burn the throat.
Insect repellents. The pesticides commonly found in repellents are pyrethrins and a
chemical more commonly known as DEET. The chemicals in repellents may cause a
burning sensation to eyes, skin and throat. The chemicals also may cause anxiety,
behavioral changes, mental confusion and a loss of coordination.
• Safety tips: If the label says that you can apply the repellent to skin or clothes,
apply it only to your clothes. It will work just as well. Keep repellents away from
the eyes and mouth and away from any cuts on the skin. Don’t spray the
repellent on your face. When you come indoors, take a bath to wash off the
chemicals and launder your clothes.

SESSION 2
Weed killers. The common pesticides in weed killers are diquat, 2,4-D, and glyphosate.
Some weed killers can irritate the eyes and skin. Some of these chemicals can be very
harmful if swallowed or inhaled or if large amounts get on skin and are not immediately
washed off.
Baits for rodent control. The pesticide commonly found in baits is known as warfarin.
This chemical causes internal bleeding if ingested in large amounts.
2.8 Watch out for these Chemicals in your Home

You may already know that some common household products contain potentially
dangerous chemicals. These products include, among others:
• cleaning agents such as bleaches, dishwasher powders, oven cleaners, drain
cleaners and turpentine.
• pest control products.
• weed killers.
• gardening products.
• swimming pool chemicals.
• liquid petroleum gas (LPG).
Many medications such as analgesics (pain relievers), diabetes medicines, iron tablets,
sedatives, heart and blood pressure tablets can be dangerous if taken incorrectly. While
an adult may know not to swallow these products (or to swallow medicines only in the
prescribed dose), a child might think they are safe to touch or eat or drink. You and
your family can live safely with these chemicals around your home if you store them
safely (away from children) and use them correctly.
Exercise 3.2
Q1.Why are consumers often uncertain about the ingredients contained in the products
they buy and use?
Q2. When is a product hazardous?
Q3. Why are aerosol sprays potentially harmful to your health?
Q4. What health and safety things do you need to think about with chlorine bleach?

SESSION 2 CHEMICALS


SESSION 3
SESSION 3: HANDLING OF HOUSEHOLD HAZARDOUS

CHEMICALS
Hello welcome to third session of unit 3. In this session we shall
consider how to manage hazardous household chemicals in our homes.
Objective
By the end of this session, you should be able to understand how to manage
harzardous household chemicals effectively.
Now read on…
3.1 Storing Chemicals Safely at Home

Store and use all chemicals according to the instructions on the packaging. Remember,
chemicals may be toxic or flammable, and they may create a poisonous gas or liquid
when mixed.
NB: Remember to always keep chemicals in their original containers, never in

cups or soft drink bottles.
3.2 Safety Tips for Storing Chemicals in Your Home

• Before you buy a product, read the label. Before you use a product, read the label
and then follow the instructions for use.
• Try to find the least dangerous product that will do the job, especially if there are
children in the house.
• Keep chemicals in a locked cabinet out of the reach of children (including children
who are good climbers!). If you can, keep liquid chemicals away from (or below)
dry chemicals.
• When you use a chemical product, follow the instructions. Make sure you have the
recommended protective equipment (such as gloves, safety goggles and a face
mask), and work in a well-ventilated area.
• If you are using chemical cleaners, wash the cleaning rags before you use them
again or before throwing them out.
• Keep chemicals in their original packaging, so you can easily identify them. Do not
keep chemicals in:
o containers that the product may react with or cause to degrade
o unlabeled containers
o containers that originally stored a different product (particularly a food or
drink product)
o containers that cannot be sealed.
• If you have to repackage a product, make sure it is clearly labeled.

UNIT 3 HANDLING OF HOUSEHOLD HAZARDOUS
SESSION 3 CHEMICALS
• Do not use chemicals for anything other than their intended job. When you are
finished with a chemical do not pour it down the drain, toilet or gutter.
• Follow any special storage instructions (for example, keeping flammable liquids
away from heat, keeping medicines in a cool place, and keeping acids away
from alkaline products).
• Check regularly that storage containers are not damaged or leaking, especially if
you are storing chemicals for a long time.
• You are legally required to store pesticides in their original containers, and those
containers must meet the labelling requirements for poison.
3.3 Disposing of Household Chemicals Safely

Some household chemicals must not be thrown into your regular rubbish. The
following chemicals need special disposal:
• ionisation type smoke alarms – these are slightly radioactive. You can throw out
these alarms in your household rubbish, unless you have a large quantity (more
than 10). In that case, call your local fire station for advice
• rechargeable batteries – return rechargeable batteries to your supplier, or to a
battery recycling facility, such as that provided by your council
• single-use batteries – recycle single-use batteries too. ALDI supermarkets have
battery recycling bins
• lead acid batteries – take lead acid batteries to your council’s waste station
• fire extinguishers – return fire extinguishers to your local fire station
• distress flares – check with the manufacturer for advice on how to dispose of
distress flares
• medications – return old, expired or unwanted medications to your local
pharmacist for proper disposal.
Your local council’s household chemical collection is also a chance to dispose of

chemicals, used motor oil, paint, solvent, LPG canisters and rechargeable batteries. You
can take these products to council waste stations too. Remember, don’t throw chemicals
in the toilet or down the drain. And, if you have empty chemical containers, wrap them
before you throw them out. If you are unsure what to do with any household chemicals,
call your council’s environmental health officer.
3.3 What to do in a Chemical Emergency

If you think you have been poisoned by chemicals, or that someone else has, look for
the following symptoms:
• vomiting
• stomach pains or diarrhoea
• confusion or inability to think
• headaches or blurred vision

SESSION 3
• breathing difficulties
• drowsiness and fainting
• fitting
• stinging eyes, skin or throat
• burns or redness (particularly around the mouth, if the poison was
swallowed).
Poisoning can look like other conditions – such as a seizure, drunkenness or drug use, a
stroke or an insulin reaction – so look for clues that may indicate poisoning. You may
find empty pill bottles or packages, or burn marks or stains on furniture or the floor. Or
you may detect a chemical smell. If you are worried about a child, check whether they
could have drunk poison from a container, applied medicated patches or swallowed a
button battery.
Even if you can’t find proof of poisoning, call 111 for an ambulance immediately if
the person:
• has collapsed
• is losing consciousness
• is in severe pain
• is vomiting profusely
• is fitting
• is struggling to breathe
• is suffering an anaphylactic reaction.
If the person is stable and breathing normally, call the The call line is open 24 hours a
day, 7 days a week.
For your call, have the following information ready:
• the person's symptoms
• the person’s age and weight
• any medications that the person is using
• the poison that you think is involved, and what you know about that poison (try
to have the container with you)
• how much poison was swallowed, and how long ago.
3.4 Poisoning – What to do while Waiting for Help

If someone has swallowed poison, DO NOT try to make them vomit. Clean out the
person’s mouth with your fingers if the poison is a solid. If the poison is a liquid, clean
out a child’s mouth with a wash cloth, or an adult’s mouth with water – but get them to
spit it out, not swallow. If the poison is a household cleaner or other chemical, follow
the label instructions for dealing with accidental poisoning.
If someone has poison on their skin, put on gloves and then remove their clothing.
Rinse the person’s skin in a shower or with a hose, for 15 minutes.
If someone has poison in their eye, gently flush the eye with cool or lukewarm water
for 10–15 minutes or until help arrives.

UNIT 3 HANDLING OF HOUSEHOLD HAZARDOUS
SESSION 3 CHEMICALS
If someone has inhaled poison, move the person into fresh air. Whatever the form of
poisoning, the person may start to vomit. In this case, try to keep them upright. If they
have to lie down, turn their head to the side so they don’t choke. The person may also
begin to lose consciousness, or stop breathing. In this case, begin to seek help.
Other safety precautions around chemicals include:
• If you think a chemical is at risk of exploding or causing fire, move away from it
immediately. Don’t waste time saving any property – just find a safe place and call
111 (fire service) from there.
• If a chemical has toxic fumes, stay upwind from it, in a ventilated space.
• If someone has been poisoned and you have called 111, follow the 111 emergency
operator’s first aid instructions. The first aid advice on the container label may be
out of date or inappropriate.
• If someone has been poisoned, do not get them to eat or drink anything unless told
to by a medical professional.
Exercise 3.3
Q1. You helped change the motor oil in the family car. What should you do with the
used motor oil?
Q2. The child you are baby-sitting swallows a toxic substance. What should you do?
Q3. It is your turn to clean the stubborn stain in the bathtub. Why should you never add
ammonia to strengthen the power of the chlorine-based scouring powder you are
using?
Q4. Explain why chemicals are kept in their original packaging even after use.

SESSION 4
SESSION 4: HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES

Welcome to session four (4). In this session, we shall discuss household
appliances and the three main classes.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
i. list the three main classes of household appliances.
ii. discuss safety of some of these household appliances.
Now read on…
4.0 Overview
A home appliance is an electrical/mechanical machine which accomplish some
household functions, such as cooking or cleaning. There are two main types according
to materials make up such as metals and non-metals which will be discussed in details
in session 5. In this session, three main classification of home appliances will be
discussed. The three main classified home appliances are:
 Major appliances
 Small appliances
 Consumer electronics
4.1 Major Appliances

A major appliance, or domestic appliance, is a large machine in home appliance used
for routine housekeeping tasks such as cooking, washing laundry, or food preservation.
Major appliances differ from small appliances because they are bigger and not portable.
They are often considered fixtures and part of real estate and as such they are often
supplied to tenants as part of otherwise unfurnished rental properties. Major appliances
may have special electrical connections, connections to gas supplies, or special
plumbing and ventilation arrangements that may be permanently connected to the
appliance. This limits where they can be placed in a home. Many major appliances are
made of enamel-coated sheet steel which, in the middle 20th century, was usually white.
Many major appliances are made of enamel-coated sheet steel which, in the middle 20th
century, was usually white.
Major appliances may be roughly divided as follows:
• Refrigeration equipment
o Freezer
o Refrigerator
o Water cooler
• Stoves
o Cooker, also known as range, stove, oven, cooking plate, or cooktop
o Microwave oven

UNIT 3 HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES
SESSION 4
• Washing equipment
o Washing machine
o Clothes dryer
o Drying cabinet
o Dishwasher
• Miscellaneous
o Air conditioner
o Water heater
4.2 Small Appliance

A small appliance or small domestic appliance is a portable or semi-portable machines,
generally used on table-tops, counter-tops, or other platforms, to accomplish a
household task. Examples include microwave ovens, toasters, humidifiers, and coffee
makers. They contrast with major appliances, such as the refrigerator and washing
machine, which cannot be easily moved and are generally placed on the floor. Small
appliances also contrast with consumer electronics which are for leisure and
entertainment rather than purely practical tasks.
Some small appliances perform the same or similar function as their larger counterparts.
For example, a toaster oven is a small appliance that performs a similar function as an
oven. Small appliances often have a home version and a commercial version, for
example waffle irons, food processors, and blenders. The commercial, or industrial,
version is designed to be used nearly continuously in a restaurant or other similar
setting. Commercial appliances are typically connected to a more powerful electrical
outlet, are larger and stronger, have more user-serviceable parts, and cost significantly
more.
Many small appliances are powered by electricity. The appliance may use a
permanently attached cord which is plugged into a wall outlet or a detachable cord. The
appliance may have a cord storage feature. A few hand-held appliances use batteries,
which may be disposable or rechargeable. Some appliances consist of an electrical
motor upon which is mounted various attachments so as to constitute several individual
appliances, such as a blender, a food processor, or a juicer. Many stand mixers, while
functioning primarily as a mixer, have attachments which can perform additional
functions.
A few gasoline and gas-powered appliances exist for use in situations where electricity
is not expected to be available, but these are typically larger and not as portable as most
small appliances. Items that perform the same function as small appliances but are hand
powered are generally referred to as tools or gadgets, for example a hand cranked egg
beater, a grater, a mandoline, or a hand-powered meat grinder.

SESSION 4
4.2.1 Safety
Small appliances which are defective or improperly used or maintained may cause
house fires and other property damage, or may harbor bacteria if not properly cleaned. It
is important that users read the instructions carefully and that appliances that use a
grounded cord be attached to a grounded outlet. Because of the risk of fire, some
appliances have a short detachable cord that is connected to the appliance magnetically.
If the appliance is moved further than the cord length from the wall, the cord will detach
from the appliance.
4.3 Consumer Electronics

Consumer electronics or home electronics are electronic or digital equipment intended
for everyday use, typically in private homes. Consumer electronics include devices used
for entertainment (flatscreen TVs, DVD players, DVD movies, iPods, video games,
remote control cars, etc.), communications (telephones, cell phones, e-mail-capable
laptops, etc.), and home-office activities (e.g., desktop computers, printers, paper
shredders, etc.). Increasingly these products have become based on digital technologies,
and have largely merged with the computer industry in what is increasingly referred to
as the consumerization of information technology such as those invented by Apple Inc.
and MIT Media Lab. One overriding characteristic of consumer electronic products is
the trend of ever-falling prices. This is driven by gains in manufacturing efficiency and
automation, lower labor costs as manufacturing has moved to lower-wage countries,
and improvements in semiconductor design. While consumer electronics continues in
its trend of convergence, combining elements of many products, consumers face
different decisions when purchasing. There is an ever increasing need to keep product
information updated and comparable, for the consumer to make an informed choice.
Style, price, specification, and performance are all relevant. There is a gradual shift
towards e-commerce web-storefronts.
4.4 Methods of cleaning household appliances

The kitchen is still the king in your home and with proper maintenance and cleaning;
you can significantly increase the shelf life of your kitchen appliances. Here are some
tips to help keep your kitchen running smoothly.
• Refrigerator: The refrigerator remains one of the essential appliances in your
kitchen. However, the environment inside the fridge facilitates the natural growth of
mold, but regular cleaning can prevent it from spreading. For the exterior, carefully
examine the condenser for dust and use a broom to get rid of any debris. You should
also check and maintain the seals of the refrigerator. Remove all the expired food
from your fridge. You can also remove the shelves and drawers and thoroughly scrub
its interior with a mixture of warm water and soap. Make sure that you dry any wet
spots before you put your food back into the fridge.

SESSION 4
• Coffee maker: Coffee makers are usually prone to mold and germs since they are
used daily. Make sure that you pour out all the leftovers and rinse your coffee pot
after making your morning cup. Leaving the pot with the leftovers will attract
bacteria.
• Microwave: A simple spill in your microwave can result in rapid stain buildup. To
get rid of the stains, heat up a cup of water and let it sit inside the microwave until
steam starts to appear on the microwave’s glass window. Use a sponge to wipe the
interior and dry it well before you close it.
4.5 Why is it Important to Clean your Kitchen Appliances?

Here are some of the reasons why you should maintain a high level of cleanliness in
your kitchen:
• Improved health for your family: Unclean kitchen appliances are prone to germs,
fungi, and bugs. These particles act as carriers of various types of fungal diseases,
which can affect your home and family. Cleaning your appliances will ensure that
you and your loved ones eat clean and uncontaminated food reducing chances of
infections or sickness. Keep in mind that microorganisms tend to thrive in warm
areas, so you need to clean your appliances regularly to avoid such cases.
• Reduced utility bills: Technically, dirty appliances will consume a lot of electricity
to produce the desired results, which lead to high-energy costs. For instance, a dirty
oven will have to use more energy to focus its heat on the food inside. However,
regular cleaning of your kitchen appliances will make your devices run correctly,
hence saving you a lot of money on your energy bills.
• Increases the lifespan of your appliances: Typically, well-maintained and clean
kitchen appliances tend to last longer compared to their dirty counterparts. You can
also identify smaller issues that need attention while cleaning, eliminating the need
for costly repairs in future.
Activity 4
Look round you house and list five examples of major and small
appliances. distinguish between major and small appliances.

SESSION 4
Exercise 3.4
Q1. List three reasons why it is important to clean your kitchen appliances?
Q2. List the three main types of household appliances and differentiate between them.
Q3. Regularly cleaning your household appliances always save you money. True or
False. Explain your answer.

SESSION 4


SESSION 5
SESSION 5: METALS AND NON-METALS HOUSEHOLD

APPLIANCE
Welcome to session five (5). In this session, we shall discuss household
appliances made of metals and non-metals.
Objectives
i. List household appliances made of aluminium, copper, iron, tin, silver and
zinc
ii. List appliances made of metals and non-metals. Discuss the importance of these two
appliances.
Now read on…
5.0 Overview
Various types of substances are found in our household. Some of them are soft, others
are hard. Some are pure and some impure and may be found in different states. Among
them are pure substances known as elements grouped into metals and non-metals and
metalloids (alloys). In this section our main trust is to introduce you to various forms of
household appliance made of metal and non-metals. Discuss the importance of these
two appliances.
5.1 Metal Household Appliance

We encounter metals on a daily basis but many of these can be found in our homes.
Metals are the elements which can form positive ions by losing electrons. For example,
Na is a metal because it can form positive ion (Na+) ion by losing an electron from its
outermost shell. In the same way Iron, aluminium, copper, gold, silver, magnesium,
potassium and calcium are also metals because all of these elements can form positive
ions by losing electrons. Below we take a look at the top metals you can find around
your household – some of them are more surprising than you think!
5.1.1 Copper
During the latter half of the twentieth century, copper pipes were commonly used for
domestic water systems – that is, the plumbing in your house. It is still used today
mainly for the supply of hot and cold water, but its high cost is a factor that has seen
other materials such as plastic begin to be used in its place. The benefit of copper is its
high level of resistance to corrosion and the fact that it is very ductile which makes it
easier to bend and shape around obstacles in the path of the tubing. Wires are made
from copper, aluminium, iron and magnesium. This property of drawing the metal in to
thin wires is called ductility. Most metals are ductile.

METALS AND NON-METALS HOUSEHOLD
UNIT 3
SESSION 5 APPLIANCE
Electric wires in our homes are made of aluminium and copper. They are good
conductor of electricity. Electricity flows most easily through gold, silver, copper and
aluminium. Gold and silver are used for fine electrical contacts in computers. Copper
wires are used in electrical appliances while aluminium is cheaper is generally used for
making electrical cables (Figure 1).
Figure 5.1 Example of household appliance electrical cable made from copper
5.1.2 Nickel
This is a slightly more obscure one, but nickel can be found in almost every household
as it is commonly used in toasters – let’s face it, if you don’t have one of these what are
you doing? The heating elements in a toaster are made of a nickel-chromium alloy
better known as nichrome wire in either ribbon or coils. An alloy is used as it gives
better resistance to the flow of electric current. Certain kitchen utensils and cutlery can
also contain nickel, as well as plugs and chains.
5.1.3 Aluminium
Aluminium is well known for being used in foil – a common staple of most kitchens! It
can also be found in wiring throughout the house as well as indoor and outdoor
furniture, door knobs and window frames. Another popular use is insulated aluminium
cladding which is as efficient as stone or bricks and more versatile meaning carpenters
and builders often prefer it. Thin aluminium foils are widely used for safe wrapping of
medicines, chocolates and food material. Cooking utensils (Figure 5.2) and water

SESSION 5
boilers are also made of iron, copper and aluminium, because they are good conductors
of heat.
Figure 5.2. Cooking utensils
5.1.4 Gold and Silver

The metals have a shiny appearance, they show a metallic luster. Due to their shiny
appearance they can be used in jewellery and decorations. Particularly, gold and silver
are widely used for jewellery (Figure 5.3). In the old days, mirrors were made of shiny
metals like silver. Silver is a very good reflector. It reflects about 90% of the light
falling on it. All modern mirrors contain a thin coating of metals. Metals on being
hammered can be beaten into thinner sheets. This property is called Malleability. Most
metals are malleable. Gold and Silver metals are the most malleable metals. They can
be hammered into very fine sheets.
Figure 5.3: Examples of household appliances (coinsand rings) made from gold, silver
etc.
5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of using cooking or canning

utensils made of aluminum
One factor that we keep in mind when looking for kitchen pots is the quality they
possess. They should be able to withstand the effects that can happen with frequent
exposure to heat, liquids and acidic food. Cookwares available in the market are made
up of various materials but one that stands out among them is aluminium.

UNIT 3
SESSION 5 APPLIANCE
Aluminium contains a lot of advantageous features that made the kitchen tools made
from it preferred by many. It is fire resistant and good conductor of heat. Spending a
long length of time over fire is not an issue for aluminium. Pots will also heat faster so
food preparation will finish sooner. They are certainly safe to use in the kitchen as this
material does not react with acidic food. One does not have to worry that it would affect
the flavor of your cooked dishes.
Being cost effective is another great feature of aluminium cookwares. They are
corrosion resistant and can last for a lifetime. Purchasing pots and pans made from this
material is way cheaper compared to those produced from another popular material for
creating pots called stainless steel. Similar to aluminium, stainless steel is fire resistant,
rust free and does not react to food’s acidic content. It means both are the best materials
that can be used in producing pots and pans. Both will last for a long period of time as
well. The advantage of aluminium over stainless steel is the thermal conduction feature
of the former. Aluminium pans heat up faster which entails food preparation will be
finished faster and lesser amount of energy will be used.
There are a few disadvantages in using aluminum cookware, Firstly, aluminum is a very
soft metal and it is really not that durable compared to cookware that is made of
stainless steel.
Secondly, studies have found that people who use aluminum cookware tend to have
higher risk of acquiring Alzheimer’s disease. Another disadvantage is that aluminum
cookware can easily stain, especially if its cooked with acidic foods, especially those
containing vinegar. Thus, it tends to form a grey tone over time. But this discoloration
would not affect its usability in any way. This flaw will only alarm those people who
are concerned with the aesthetics of his cookware.
Finally, aluminum cookware can warp if its placed under the cold water while its still
hot from the gas range. If you are concerned about the appearance of your kitchen
equipment, then it is advised that you invest in a better kind of cookware like those
made out of stainless steel or ceramic.
5.3 Non-metal household appliances

Non-metals are the elements which can form negative ions by gaining electrons. For
example, oxygen is a non-metal because it can form negative ion (O2-) by gaining two
electrons. In the same way Hydrogen, Carbon, Sulphur, Silicon and Phosphorus are also
non-metals because all these elements can form negative ions by gaining electrons. In
the households, there are many non-metal elements which can be found in our kitchen,
bathrooms, bedrooms, living rooms and homes. Though, only a few are non-metals. A
few of such non-metals, would be silicon. We also use types of plastics, oxygen and
neon. Even though there are not a lot of non-metals in our household, a lot of such are
found as compounds. A mixture of two elements.

SESSION 5
5.4 Non-metals in our HOMES

There are many different elements in our homes which are made up of non-metals. A
few of them are also non-metals. The following presentation will talk about a few of the
non-metals existing in our homes. We use pencils which contain graphite to do our
homework. We would also find different elements inside the air we breathe. Air
contains: oxygen, nytrogen, a bit of argon and CO2 (carbon dioxide). Other elements we
would find at home would be: magnesium, carbon and Barium. All three are found in
fireworks. But there are of course a lot more.
Even though we might not believe it, there are non-metals and metals in our living
room. A few metals would be in cables, a few non-metalsd such as silicon in or on our
TV's and computers. Another non-metal would be neon to lighten up the room or to
decorate it.
Even though we might not think that elements surround us in our garden, there are a
few elements, from which non-metals, are very important to water or decorate our
garden. When barbecuing, we use all kinds of inflammable solutions to heat our fire.
We also use coal to let our fire burn. Another non-metal in our garden, would be
oxygen. We also use chlorine solution to clean our pool.
5.5 Elements in our Garden

Even though most of the objects in our bedrooms are compounds, there are a few
objects which are only created with the pure element. A few of such would be oxygen
(of course), chlorine for cleaning our bathrooms (is only used as a compound, at room
temperature, it is a gas), neon for decorations and fluorine for the tooth paste.
A common non-metal used in our bathrooms is iodine. Iodine is a brown solution which
is used to clean wounds. Iodine contains chemicals which kill bacteria. Bacteria in open
wounds are the most common in cuts or scratches. Another elements would be chlorine.
Of course, chlorine is a gas at room temperature and HIGHLY poisonous. We only use
chlorine as a solution, mixed with other solutions to clean bacteria off our toilets or
taps.
5.6 Uses for Metals and Non-metals

Metals' uses are directly linked to their qualities. For example:
• Shiny metals such as copper, silver, and gold are often used for decorative arts,
jewellery, and coins.
• Strong metals such as iron and metal alloys such as stainless steel are used to
build structures, ships, and vehicles such as cars, trains, and trucks.
• Some metals have specific qualities that dictate their use. For example, copper is
a good choice for wiring because it is particularly good for conducting
electricity. Tungsten is used for the filaments of light bulbs because it glows
white hot without melting.
• Aluminium cans

UNIT 3
SESSION 5 APPLIANCE
Nonmetals are both plentiful and useful. Some of the most commonly used include:
• Oxygen, a gas, is absolutely essential to human life. Not only do we breathe it
and use it for medical purposes, but we also use it as an important element in
combustion.
• Sulphur is valued for its medical properties and is also an important ingredient
in many chemical solutions. Sulfuric acid is an important tool for industry: It is
used in batteries and in manufacturing.
• Chlorine, a non-metal, is a powerful disinfectant. It is used to purify drinking
water and swimming pools.
Activity 5
You can see various things around you. Study, observe and compare them
with the properties metals and non- metal. Now, classify them in terms of
metals and non- metals and list out their name in the table.
Exercise 3.5
Q1. List five important uses of metals.

Q2. State whether the following statements are True/False.
a. The property of metals by virtue of which they can be drawn into wires is called
ductility.
b. Metals are good conductors of electricity but poor conductor of heat.
c. Articles made up of metals produce ringing sound when struck hard.
d. Oxides of non-metals and metals are acidic in nature.
e. A less reactive metal displaces a more reactive metal from its salt solution in water.

HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS & APPLIANCES
UNIT 3
SESSION 6
SESSION 6: ALLOYS
Welcome to last session of unit 6. We will discuss the benefits of using

alloys to make household items. List a combination of metals forming
alloys and examples of alloys commonly found in the home and workplace - steel, brass
and soft solder.
Objectives
i. List a combination of metals forming alloys and examples of alloys commonly found in the
home and workplace
ii. Discuss the benefits of using alloys to make household items.
Now read on…
6.0 Overview
An alloy is defined as a metal made by combining two or more metallic elements. It is
made from the combination of two or more metals or metals and non- metals. We use
alloys in our daily life activities. More than 90% of metals used are in the form of
alloys. About the preparation of alloys, two or more than two metals are mixed in their
molten state and then cooled to obtain the solid product as alloys.
6.1 Some Useful Alloys

The common alloys that are used in our daily life activities are given below:
 Stainless steel: Mixture of iron, chromium and carbon
 Bronze: Mixture of copper and tin
 Brass: Mixture of copper and zinc
 Steel: Mixture of iron and carbon
The properties of alloys are different from the properties of its components. The
physical and chemical properties of an alloy can be modified by heat treatment and
mechanical working. The main purpose of making alloys is given below,
 To improve the strength and hardness of metals.
 To lower the melting point.
 To prevent the metals from rusting and corrosion.
 To improve the appearance of the metal and get different colours.

UNIT 3 ALLOYS
SESSION 6
6.2 Stainless Steel

Stainless steel is a very popular material for household items, its use spanning
everything from boilers to televisions sets. It is a very popular material for microwaves,
usually making up the doors and inside panel. This will then be covered in acrylic
enamel usually, in a light colour to give better visibility. In recent years it has become
quite popular for kitchen appliances to be made in stainless steel, as opposed to plain
white. These include fridges, freezers, dishwashers, ovens, hobs and even accessories
such as kettles and toasters.
6.3 Brass
It is an alloy composed of copper and zinc. It is also known as copper alloy as copper is
the main component. Usually, the brass is yellow in colour. It is a malleable and good
conductor of heat. Rusting does not occur in brass. It is used for making cooking
utensils, ornaments, bearings, musical instrument, gears, knobs, locks, coins, statue, etc.
It is also used in decoration as it has gold- like appearance.
6.4 Bronze
An alloy or mixture of copper and tin is known as bronze. It is faint yellow in colour. It
has a low melting point and does not get rust. It is mainly used for making household
utensils as utensils made of bronze looks attractive. It is also used for making pitchers,
statues, gears, bells, valves, weapons, medals, musical instrument, etc.
Activity 6
There are various things in your home made of alloys such as bearings,
locks, bells, plates etc. Make a list of these things and write about the type
of alloys they are made of. Also, write their uses.
Exercise 3.6
There are various things in your home made of alloys such as bearings, locks, bells,
plates etc. Make a list of these things and write about the type of alloys they are made
of. Also, write their uses.

ASPECTS OF ECOLOGY
UNIT 4
UNIT 4: ASPECTS OF ECOLOGY
Unit Outline
Session 1: The Ecosystem
Session 2: Inter-Relationships in Communities or Habitats
Session 3: Ecological Pyramids
Session 4: Population
Session 5: Adaptation
Session 6: Conservation
A broad understanding of ecological concepts is required of all

students who study Integrated Science. This course provides a
background in the fundamental principles of ecological science by giving students an
overview of the field of ecology.
In this unit, students will study how ecosystems function. Students will also study of
the interaction of living organisms with biotic and abiotic aspects of their
environment.
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to
1. develop an understanding of the science of ecology
2. gain a broad knowledge in the variety of ways that organisms
interact with both the physical and the biological environments
3. gain an awareness of environmental pollution and degradation and how to
ameliorate the menace
.

UNIT 4
ASPECTS OF ECOLOGY


ASPECTS OF ECOLOGY UNIT 4
SESSION 1
SESSION 1: THE ECOSYSTEM

The study of ecology provides us with information to better
understand the world around us. This information also can help us
improve our environment, manage our natural resources, and protect human health.
In this session you will learn what the study of ecology is about. Students will be
introduced to some terminologies associated with the study of ecology. Students will
also learn that individual organisms live together in an ecosystem and depend on one
another. One of these interactions describes the different ways organisms obtain their
food and energy. No organism exists in isolation. All organisms play a part in the
web of life. For instance, decomposers play a critical role that often goes unnoticed
when observing the workings of an ecosystem. They break down carcasses, body
parts and waste products, returning to the ecosystem the nutrients and minerals
stored in them. This interaction is critical for our health and health of the entire
planet.
You are welcome to the session.
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
1. define some terminologies associated with the study of ecology
2. explain food chain and food web
Now read on …
1.1 Ecology Defined

It is the study of interactions of organisms with one another and with their physical
environment.
1.2 Terminologies
1. Community: This refers to the organisms of different species which exist
together within a limited area.
2. Ecosystem: It is a community and the related non-living environment
integrating together as a whole.
3. Environment: It is the sum total of all the external factors which influence the
life of an organism.
4. Habitat: This refers to environment of an organism or the place where an
organism lives.
5. Niche: This is defined as the role played by a particular species in its
environment. It is the way in which organism utilizes its environment in
terms of space utilization, food consumption, appropriate conditions for
mating, temperature range, requirements for moisture and other factors.
6. Population: The number of individuals of the same species which interbreed
and inhabit given area in a given time is termed Population.
UNIT 4 THE ECOSYSTEM
SESSION 1
7. Succession: It is the progressive development of a community in terms of

increased total biomass and species richness.
1.3 Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community and the related non-living environment integrating
together as a whole.
1.3.1 Biotic components of an ecosystem

An ecosystem is made up of:
1. Non-living or abiotic components such as stones, air, water and all may be
dissolved in it.
2. Living or biotic components are the autotrophs and heterotrophs in an
ecosystem.
Autotrophs are plants, algae, and some bacteria that are able to capture light energy
and manufacture their own food. Autotrophs are also called primary producers.
Heterotrophs, also called consumers, are unable to capture light energy and
manufacture their own food and so support themselves by obtaining organic
molecules that have been synthesized by autotrophs. They include animals, fundi,
bacteria, and other non-green plants.
Once energy enters an ecosystem, usually as the result of photosynthesis, it is slowly
released as metabolic process proceed. The autotrophs that first acquire this energy
provide all of the energy heterotrophs use.
1.3.2 Trophic levels in an ecosystem

Ecosystems are structures by who eats whom giving rise to different levels of
consumers. The primary consumers, or herbivores, feed directly on the green plants.
Secondary consumers, carnivores, and the parasites of animals feed in turn on the
herbivores. Depending on the number of levels of consumers, there can be tertiary,
quaternary consumers and so on.
Decomposers break down the organic matter accumulated in the bodies of other
organisms. Detritivores which include decomposers, large scavengers such as crabs,
vultures live on the refuse of an ecosystem.
These categories of consumers have resulted in what is called trophic levels. The
word trophic is from the Greek word trophos, which means “feeder”.
Organisms from each trophic level feeding on another make a series of called food
chain (figure 1). The trophic level of an organism is the position it holds in a food
chain.
A food chain depicts the path by which energy passes from one living thing to
another. However, as energy passes through ecosystem, a great deal of it is lost at
each step. (Arrows show the flow of energy from one organism to another).

SESSION 1
Figure 1: Trophic levels within a food chain

(Source: https://libguides.tts.edu.sg)
1.3.3 Food web

A series of organisms that feed on each other is often represented in a diagram called
food web. A food web is made up of interconnected food chains and the relationship
appears as a series of branching lines rather than a straight line (figure 2).
Figure 2: A Food Web in a Grassland Ecosystem

(Source: https://images.tutorvista.com/content/ecosystem/food-web)
Now assess your understanding of this session by answering the following self-
assessment questions.

UNIT 4 THE ECOSYSTEM
SESSION 1
Exercise 4.1
1. Define each of the following terms as used in the study of ecology:

i) Ecosystem
ii) Environment
iii) Habitat
iv) Community
v) Population
2. Explain each of the following terms:
i) Food chain
ii) Food web

ASPECTS OF ECOLOGY
UNIT 4
SESSION 2
SESSION 2: INTER-RELATIONSHIPS IN COMMUNITIES OR

HABITATS
In this session, you will learn about the relationship between two or
more organisms in communities or habitats. If the population benefits
from the interaction its growth tends to increase and if it is harmed, its growth will
decrease. You will also learn that some interactions between species are mutually
helpful, some have mixed effects and others are harmful.
Enjoy the session.
Objective
By the end of the session, you should be able to explain the various types of
inter-relationships in communities or habitat.
Now read on …
2.1 Parasitism
This is the relationship between two organisms generally of different species in
which one is the parasite who clearly obtains benefits from the association with the
other (host). The host suffers injurious effects due to the association. Examples are
ticks and dogs, ringworm and human skull, tapeworm and pigs.
2.2 Saprophytism
It is the mode of life exhibited by some fungi and bacteria in which their body
requirements are derived from the products of the dead remains of other organisms
as found in some mushrooms and dead trees.
2.3 Predation
This is a condition in which an organism (predator) captures and devours another
living organism (the prey) using it for food. The predator is the food hunter and the
prey the victim. Examples are herbivores and grass, spiders and houseflies.
2.4 Cooperation
Cooperation is the relationship in which both species benefit, however, they are
independent of one another. Each is able to survive separately but cooperative
interaction increases their growth rate. Examples are man and woman through
marriage, and crab and coelenterate. The coelenterate lives on top of the crab body
and serves as a camouflage to afford protection for the crab. When the crab eats, the
captured bits of its food is made available to the coelenterate. In the absence of this
association, both the crab and the coelenterate can survive.

UNIT 4 INTER-RELATIONSHIPS IN COMMUNITIES OR
SESSION 2 HABITATS
2.5 Commensalism
In this type of relationship, two or more species live together and only one member
benefits while the other or others do not but neither of them is harmed. The
relationship involves food, shelter, transport and dwelling place. There can be a
continuous contact commensalism, for instance, ferns living on the bark of trees or
non-continuous contact commensalism such as birds on tree tops. The birds can
breed on or in tree and leave afterwards without causing harm to the trees.
2.6 Amensalism
This is the opposite of commensalism. In this type of association, one species limit
the growth and survival of another while the other is not affected. For example, when
the growth of tall trees inhibit the growth of short ones underneath by blocking
sunlight. The taller trees are relatively unaffected by the fate of the undergrowth.
Another example of amensalism is the release of chemical toxins by plants that can
inhibit the growth of other plant species.
2.7 Mutualism
This is an association between two living organisms of different species in which
both the host and the symbiont derive mutual benefits. It involves the provision of
food, shelter and dwelling place. There are two main types of mutualistic
relationships namely, obligate mutualism and facultative mutualism.
In obligate mutualism, one organism cannot survive without the other. Both
organisms rely on one another. An example of obligate mutualism is the relationship
between ants and the Acacia plant. The plant provides food and shelter for the ant. In
return, the ants defend the plant from organisms that eat the plant. Another example
is the mycorrhizal fungi that live on plant roots. The plant roots take advantage of the
increased water uptake from the fungi, and the fungi get nutrients from the plant.
In facultative mutualism, each organism can survive independently, but it benefits
both to remain together. An example is found in flowering plants and insects. The
insects suck nectar from flowers and in so doing, the flowers get pollinated by the
insects. Another example of facultative mutualism is the bacteria that live in the
digestive tract of humans. The bacteria take nutrients from the food and in turn, they
help digestion of the food.
2.8 Competition
Competition is the struggle of two organisms to utilize the same resource when there
is not enough of the resource to satisfy both. The competition is termed intraspecific
when it occurs between individuals of a single species. Interspecific competition, on
the other hand, refers to the interactions between individuals of different species
when both require the same scarce resource.

ASPECTS OF ECOLOGY
UNIT 4
SESSION 2
Exercise 4.2
1. Explain each of the following type of inter-relationships in communities
or habitat:
i) Saprophytism
ii) Predation
iii) Commensalism
2. Distinguish between the following pairs of inter-relationships:

i) Cooperation and Mutualism
ii) Parasitism and Competition

UNIT 4 INTER-RELATIONSHIPS IN COMMUNITIES OR
SESSION 2 HABITATS


SESSION 3
SESSION 3: ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

Welcome once again. In this session you will learn about Ecological
Pyramids which are graphical representations of the trophic structure
of ecosystem. Among the knowledge you will gain is that in an Ecological Pyramid,
the first or producer level forms the base and successive levels the tiers which make
up the apex.
Objectives
1. describe the three types of Ecological Pyramids.
2. explain why the pyramid of energy is always upright.
3. mention the limitations of Ecological Pyramids.
Now read on …
3.1 Types of Ecological Pyramids

Ecological pyramids may be of three general types:
1. The pyramid of numbers

Pyramid of numbers is the graphical representation of the number of individuals at
each trophic level.
However, it is very difficult to count all the organisms, in a pyramid of numbers and
so the pyramid of number does not completely define the trophic structure for an
ecosystem (See figure 3).
Figure 3: Upright Pyramid of Numbers (A) in a Grassland (B) in a Pond

(Source: http://images.tutorvista.com)

UNIT 4 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
SESSION 3
This type of pyramid can be seen in the grassland ecosystem. In a grassland

ecosystem, the grasses occupy the lowest trophic level because of their abundance.
The next higher trophic level is primary consumer, herbivores, like a grasshopper.
The individual number of grasshoppers is less than that of grass.
The next level is a primary carnivore like rats. The number of rats is less than
grasshoppers, because, they feed on grasshoppers.
This level is followed by secondary carnivore like snakes. Snakes feed on rats.
The next higher trophic level is the top carnivore like Hawk. In each higher trophic
level, the number of individual decreases.
A plant fixes about 1% of the sun’s energy that falls on its green parts. The
successive members of a food chain, in turn, process into their own their own bodies
about 10% of the energy available in the organisms on which they feed. For this
reason, there are generally more individuals at the lower trophic levels of any
ecosystem that at the higher levels.
2. The pyramid of biomass

Pyramid of biomass is the graphical representation of the relationship between the
amount of biomass at different levels. Pyramid of biomass is therefore based on the
total dry weight or measure of the total mass of living organisms.
Usually, the biomass of the primary producers present in a given ecosystem is
greater than the biomass of the primary consumers, with successive tropic levels
having a lower and lower biomass.
For example, for most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass has a large base
of primary producers with a smaller trophic level perched on top.
The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the maximum. The biomass of next
trophic level, that is, primary consumers is less than the producers. The biomass of
next higher trophic level, that is, secondary consumers is less than the primary
consumers. The top, high trophic level has very less amount of biomass (See figure
4).
Figure 4: Upright Pyramid of Biomass in a Terrestrial Ecosystem

SESSION 3
3. The pyramid of energy

The pyramid of energy shows the rate of energy flow at successive trophic level in
an ecosystem.
Similar to the pyramid of biomass, rate of energy flow of the primary producers in a
given ecosystem is greater than that of the primary consumers, with successive tropic
levels having a less and less rate of energy flow (See figure 5).
Suppose an ecosystem receives 100,000 kilocalories (kcal) of light energy in a given
day. Most of the energy is not absorbed; some is reflected to space. Of the energy
absorbed, only a small portion is utilized by green plants, out of which the plant uses
up some for respiration and of the 100,000 kcal; therefore only 10,000 kcal are
stored as energy-rich materials.
Now, an animal such as a grasshopper eats the plant containing 10,000 kcal of food
energy. The grasshopper uses some of it for its metabolism and stores only 1,000
kcal as food energy. A frog that eats the grasshopper gets an even smaller amount of
energy. The situation continues until the hawk receives 1 kcal of energy. Thus,
usable energy decreases from sunlight to producer to herbivore to carnivore.
Therefore, the pyramid of energy will always be upright.
Figure 5: Pyramid of Energy

(Source: https://www.pinterest.com)
3.2 Inverted Pyramids

The pyramid of numbers and pyramid of biomass may be inverted, that is, the base
may be smaller than the upper tiers of producer organisms average smaller that
consumers in individual size.
Some aquatic ecosystems have inverted biomass pyramid. For example, in a
planktonic ecosystem usually dominated by small organisms floating in water, the
turnover of photosynthetic phytoplankton at the lowest level is very rapid, with
zooplankton consuming phytoplankton so quickly that the phytoplankton which are
the producers at the base of the food chain can never develop a large population (See
figure 6). Because the phytoplankton reproduces very rapidly, the community can
UNIT 4 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
SESSION 3
support a population of heterotrophs that is large in biomass and more in number

than the phytoplankton.
Figure 6: Inverted Pyramid in an Aquatic Ecosystem

(https://www.quora.com)
3.3 Limitations of Ecological Pyramids

1. It does not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
2. It assumes a simple food chain, something that seldom exists in nature; it does not
accommodate a food web.
3. Saprophytes (plant, fungus, or microorganism that lives on decaying matter) are
not given any place in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in
the ecosystem.
Exercise 4.3
1. Describe the three types of Ecological Pyramids.
2. Why is the pyramid of energy always upright?
3. Mention the limitations of Ecological Pyramids.

UNIT 4
ASPECTS OF ECOLOGY SESSION 4
SESSION 4: POPULATION
All populations have characteristic features such as density, degree of
dispersion, birth rate, mortality rate, growth rate among others that
determine if they grow and how fast. This session looks at such properties of
population together with how population, and population growth are calculated.
Objectives
1. explain the characteristics of population.
2. list at least five factors that do not enable full biotic potential to be achieved.
Now read on …
4.1 Population Defined

The number of individuals of the same species which interbreed and inhabit given
area in a given time is termed Population.
4.2 Characteristics of Population

1. Density: This is the population per unit space or the number of individual
species per unit space.
2. Birth rate/Natality: It is the rate at which new individuals are added to the
population. Natality refers to the inherent ability of a population to increase.
For every population, there are the maximum or absolute and realized or
ecological natalities.
Maximum or absolute natality refers to the theoretical maximum production
of new individuals under ideal conditions. The rate is a constant for a given
population. Realized or ecological natality is the population increase under an
actual or specific environmental condition. It is not a constant for a given
population but may vary with the size and composition of population,
occurrence of diseases and accidents, as well as environmental factors.
3. Death rate/Mortality: This is the rate at which individuals are lost through
death. It also refers to the inherent ability of a population to decrease through
death.
Realized or ecological mortality which is the loss of individuals under a
given environmental condition is not a constant but varies with population
and environmental conditions. Theoretically also, there is a minimum
mortality for every population which represents the loss under ideal
conditions. This means that under best conditions, part of the population
would die of old age. Minimum mortality is a constant for a population.
4. Dispersion: This refers to the distribution patterns of individuals within a
population.

UNIT 4 POPULATION
SESSION 4
Individuals in a population may be randomly (no aggregation), uniformly or

irregularly (clumped/aggregate) dispersed.
5. Growth rate: It is the number of individuals added to the population in a
given time period. The net of birth rate, death rate and dispersion determine
growth rate of a population.
6. Biotic potential: It is the ability of an organisms to reproduce themselves at
optimum conditions.
However, the full biotic potential is never realized because of:

a) natural hazards such as drought, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
b) attack by predators
c) diseases and pests
d) wars and accidents
e) inadequate food
f) inadequate breeding grounds
g) inadequate aeration or poor ventilation
h) mineral deficiencies
i) accumulation of metabolic wastes such as sweat and urine
j) the number of offspring per breeding period
k) survival up to and through reproductive age
l) the number of years the organism lasts during the reproductive period
m) the age at which reproduction begins
4.3 Environmental Resistance

This refers to environmental (both biotic and abiotic) factors that prevent an
organism from reaching its biotic potential.
Usually, moderate increase in population does not affect the environment very much
bur further increase may be harmful because of:
a) inadequate food,
b) inadequate breeding grounds,
c) inadequate aeration or poor ventilation,
d) competition among organisms,
e) drought,
f) accumulation of metabolic wastes,
g) mineral deficiency, etc.
4.4 Population Growth

Population growth refers to the increase in the number of individuals in a population.
It is generally represented by the formula: N1 = N0+A-M
where N1 = Final population
N0 = Initial population
A = Birth rate
M = Mortality

UNIT 4
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑁𝑁1)

Note that Biotic potential = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑁𝑁0)
However, population growth rate is the difference between the birth rate and the
death rate per individual per unit of time, in the absence of immigration or
emigration.
Now, consider the following:

In 2013, Joseph bought 2 ewes (female sheep) from a friend to rear. At the end of
one year period the animals had given birth to 6 offspring with 2 cases of mortality.
Calculate the: a) final population
b) Biotic Potential
c) final population at the end of second year.
Solution:
a) Final population (N1) = N0+A-M
= 2+6-2
=6

b) Biotic potential (BP) = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑁𝑁0)
6
=2
=3
c) Note that N1 is now = 6 and N2 is unknown

But BP = 3
and remember BP = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑁𝑁1)
𝑁𝑁2
Therefore, final population at the end of second year (N2) is 3 = 6
So N2 = 3x6
N2 = 18
4.5 Measurement of Population

Counting all the organisms in a population may be too expensive in terms of time
and money, or it may simply not be possible. For these reasons, scientists often
estimate a population's size by taking one or more samples from the population and
using these samples to make inferences about the population as a whole. A variety of
methods can be used to sample populations to determine their size and density. In
this section, we will look at two of the most popular: the quadrat and mark-
recapture methods.

UNIT 4 POPULATION
SESSION 4
QUADRAT METHOD
For immobile organisms, such as plants, or for very small and slow-moving
organisms, plots called quadrats may be used to determine population size and
density. Each quadrat marks off an area of the same size typically, a square area,
within the habitat.
A quadrat can be made by staking out an area with sticks and string or by using a
wood, plastic, or metal square placed on the ground.
After setting up quadrats, the number of individuals within the boundaries of each
one is counted. Multiple quadrat samples are performed throughout the habitat at
several random locations which ensures that the numbers recorded are representative
for the habitat. In the end, the data can be used to estimate the population size and
population density within the entire habitat.
MARKED-RECAPTURE METHOD
For organisms that move around, such as mammals, birds, or fish, a technique called
the mark-recapture method, also called capture recapture method, is often used to
determine population size. This method involves capturing a sample of animals and
marking them in some way, for instance, using tags, bands, paint, or other body
markings. Then, the marked animals are released back into the environment and
allowed to mix with the rest of the population.
Later, a new sample is collected. This new sample will include some individuals that
are marked-recaptures and some individuals that are unmarked. Using the ratio of
marked to unmarked individuals, scientists can estimate how many individuals are in
the total population.
Example using the mark-recapture method:
Suppose that we want to find the size of antelope population and 80 antelopes were
captured, marked and released them back into the forest. After allowing the marked
antelopes to thoroughly mix with the rest of the population for a year, another
capture of 100 antelopes was made. Out of these, 20 are already marked.
If 20 out of 100 antelopes are marked, it suggests that marked antelopes which we
know are 80 in number make up 20% of the population. Using this information, we
can formulate the following relationship:
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ (𝑀𝑀) 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ (𝑥𝑥)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑁𝑁)
= 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ (𝑛𝑛)
𝑀𝑀 𝑥𝑥
𝑁𝑁
= 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
Rearranging the equation, 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑥𝑥
And finally, we fix in the values from the antelope example:
(100 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ)(80 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ)
𝑁𝑁 =
(20 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ)

UNIT 4
𝑁𝑁 = 400 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
This approach is not always perfect. Some animals from the first catch may learn to
avoid capture in the second round, inflating population estimates. Alternatively, the
same animals may preferentially be retrapped, especially if a food reward is offered
resulting in an underestimate of population size. Also, some species may be harmed
by the marking technique, reducing their survival. The approach also assumes that
animals do not die, get born, leave, or enter the population during the period of the
study.
Alternative approaches to determine population size include electronic tracking of
animals tagged with radio transmitters and use of data from commercial fishing and
trapping operations.
Exercise 4.4
1. Explain the following characteristics of population:
i) Birth rate
ii) Death rate
iii) Dispersion
iv) Growth rate
2. List at least five factors that do not enable full biotic potential to be achieved.

UNIT 4 POPULATION
SESSION 4


SESSION 5
SESSION 5: ADAPTATION
Have you ever thought of the fact that you cannot find every organism
everywhere? The reason is that every organism has a unique
environment where its basic needs for survival (food, water, shelter from the weather
and place to breed its offspring) are met. You might have learnt also that the
geographical feature and environmental conditions on earth differ from one place to
another.
In this session, you will learn about some of the special characteristics possessed by
organisms that enable them to survive successfully in a particular environment.
Objectives
1. explain the term adaptation as used in ecological studies.
2. mention examples of specific adaptive features that enable organisms adapt to
feeding, respiration, cold, heat and protection.
Now read on …
5.1 Adaptation Defined

Adaptation is the result from evolutionary changes over a long period of time that
increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction by an organism in a particular
environment. Organisms in different environments have peculiar structural,
physiological or behavioral characteristics which allow them fit into their respective
environments. In other words, adaptation is the special characteristics that enable
organisms to be successful in a particular environment.
5.2 Adaptive Features

Some of the adaptive features are found in maintenance of ecological balance,
adaptation to feeding, respiration, cold, heat and protection.
Specific examples in each case are:
1. Maintenance of Ecological Balance

This describes the ability of animal to stay where it is without falling or encountering
any problem with regards to stability. Structures and behaviour help to keep the
animal within the habitat. For instance:
a) In order to be buoyant, planktonic algae and protozoa contain oil droplets.
Compared to water, the oil droplets have low density and so allow the
organisms to float.
b) The streamlined shape of fish reduces the effect of current. Aquatic plants have
strong flexible stems that can be shaped according to the water current.

UNIT 4 ADAPTATION
SESSION 5
2. Adaptation to Feeding
a) Fresh water animals may be adapted to feeding as filterers, carnivores,
scavengers or herbivores. The filterers have spines around the mouth parts with
which they create water current in order for the food particles in the still water
to be brought to the mouth.
b) The larvae of Simulium fly have large brushes with which they catch small
particles of food. Carnivores have biting or piercing mouth parts.
c) Grasscutters have sharp incisors with which they cut herbage.
d) Ducks sieve for food
e) Chameleon has a long tongue to trap its food.
3. Adaptation to Respiration
a) To utilize atmospheric oxygen. Some aquatic animals possess siphons which
break the surface of the water for oxygen to be drawn into the trachea.
b) Fishes have gills for respiration.
c) Mangroves which are found in brackish muddy waters have specialized cells
called Pneumatophores which are used in respiration.
d) Eggs of lizards have leathery coverings to allow soil oxygen to diffuse to the
developing parts.
4. Adaptation to Cold
a) Animals found in the north and south poles such as polar bears, have thick
covering of hair or fur which prevent excess loss of heat.
b) Hedgehogs hibernate during the cold season so as to conserve heat.
c) In humans, there is fat deposit beneath the skin which serves as insulator and
prevent loss of heat from the body.
d) There is formation of goose pimples on the skin of humans in response to cold.
5. Adaptation to Heat
a) During warm season, snails cover their apertures with white membrane to
prevent heat entry.
b) Dogs stick out their tongues which help them to perspire more and send out
heat much heat from their bodies.
c) In humans, there is dilation or widening of the vessels (vasodilation) so that
much blood flow beneath the skin for heat to be conducted out through
sweating.
d) Plants adapt to warm climatic conditions by having thick cuticles, shiny and
waxy surfaces. these enable the plants to reduce moisture loss as a result of the
heat.

SESSION 5
6. Adaptation to Protection
a) To protect itself, chameleon changes its colour to be the same as that of the
environment in which it is found.
b) The porcupine shoots out its spines when in danger or attacked.
c) Toad secretes poisonous juice when caught.
d) Stink-bugs produces a very stinky gas to drive away enemies.
e) The tortoise lives in its shell which very much resembles its environment.
f) The leaves of sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica, coil or fold when they are
touched.
g) Plants such as Sugar cane and the elephant grass have small hairy structures
which are piercing.
h) Plants like Orange, Bougainvillea and Cactus have sharp destructive thorns
which ward off predators.
Exercise 4.5
1. Explain the term adaptation as used in ecological studies.
2. Mention two specific adaptive features that enable organisms adapt to:
i) Respiration
ii) Cold
iii) Heat
iv) Protection

UNIT 4 ADAPTATION
SESSION 5


SESSION 6
SESSION 6: CONSERVATION
Hello!
As a result of the accelerating deterioration of natural systems and the
extinction of some species, it is relevant to find ways to protect,
conserve and restore species, habitats, landscapes, and ecosystems as quickly, as
efficiently, and as economically as possible.
In session 6 of this unit you will gain understanding of the importance and the need
for conservation.
Objectives
1. offer reasons for the need of conservation
2. enumerate five functions of the forest
3. suggest three ways through which loss of wildlife can be prevented
4. state four ways of preventing soil loss
Now read on …
6.1 Conservation Defined

Conservation is the protection, care, management and maintenance of ecosystems,
habitats, wildlife species and populations, within or outside of their natural
environments, in order to safeguard the natural conditions for their long-term
permanence.
6.2 The Need for Conservation

For permanent functioning of the ecosystem, there is the need for proper and careful
maintenance of each of its components. Improper utilization and actions of
deleterious effects, if allowed to prevail unchecked, will render the ecosystem a
permanent damage. There is therefore the need for intelligent use of natural
resources so that they are not wasted.
Natural resources are anything found in nature that are used by human beings to
support themselves. Examples include water, minerals, soil, animals, etc.
There are two types of natural resources, namely non-renewable natural resources
such as gold, iron crude oil and coal, and renewable natural resources such as forests
and wildlife.
6.3 Forest Conservation

Forest conservation is the preservation and protection of forests for the benefit and
sustainability of present and future generations. It involves the upkeep of the natural
resources within a forest that are beneficial to both humans and the environment.

UNIT 4
SESSION 6 CONSERVATION
6.3.1 Importance of Forests

1. They help reduce air pollution when trees absorb carbon dioxide from the air
for photosynthesis.
2. Oxygen, the by-product of photosynthesis, is used by animals for respiration.
3. Provision of timber
4. Help in water conservation
5. Forests affect the climate rainfall
6. Provision of habitat for wildlife
7. They act as windbrakes
8. They provide raw material for making of paper
9. Source of food for human beings and animals
10. Serve as recreational grounds
11. Source of herbs and related medicines
12. They are used for research and educational purposes
6.3.2 How Forests are destroyed

1. Indiscriminate harvesting of trees by human beings
2. Cultivation of land for farming purposes
3. Defoliation by animals
4. Destructive action of stem borers and wood borers
5. Bush or forest fires
6. Lightening
7. The action of wind and rainstorms
6.3.3 Ways of Saving Forests from Destruction

1. Creation of forest reserves
2. Reforestation
3. Selective harvesting of trees
4. Prevention of bush or forest fires
5. Discouraging hunting activities in the forests
6. Mass education on the importance of forests
6.4 Wildlife Conservation

Wildlife generally refers to organisms in their natural environment, whereas wildlife
conservation is the practice of protecting wild plants and animal species and their
habitats.
6.4.1 Loss of Wildlife

Causes of loss of wildlife include:
1. Creation of new settlement
2. Pollution of waterbodies
3. Illegal hunting
4. Bush fires
SESSION 6
6.4.2 Combating Loss of Wildlife

1. Pollution of waterbodies by the use of insecticides and related chemicals
should be banned.
2. The use of explosives for fishing should be discouraged.
3. There should be standard net size to catch only large fishes.
4. There should be closed season for fishing and hunting and offenders must be
prosecuted.
5. Creation of game reserves to conserve animals should be encouraged.
6. Burning of bush for game should be abolished and offenders prosecuted.
6.5 Soil Conservation

Soil conservation involves the use of the soil in such a way that the soil particles are
to washed away by wind or water and that the soil is not depleted is not depleted of
its nutrients.
6.5.1 Ways through which the Soil is Depleted of Nutrients

1. Leaching
2. Erosion
3. Poor farming practices
6.5.2 Checking Soil Loss

1. Practicing crop rotation
2. Practicing farming practices that allow the land to lie farrow such as
shifting cultivation and land rotation, for some time.
3. Addition of manure and mulch
4. Growing leguminous crops
5. Growing cover crops
6. Contour ploughing
7. Terracing
8. Strip cropping
Exercise 4.6
1. Why is there the need for conservation?
2. State five functions of the forest.
3. Suggest three ways through which loss of wildlife can be prevented.
4. Mention four ways of checking soil loss.

UNIT 4
SESSION 6 CONSERVATION


THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIT 5
UNIT 5: THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Unit Outline
Session 1: Components of the Solar System
Session 2: The Planets
Session 3: The Galaxies and the Big Bang Theory
Session 4: Satellites
Session 5: Natural Hazards and Natural Disasters
Session 6: Motion of the Earth and Eclipses
The science which deals with the study of heavenly bodies in

respect of their motions, positions and compositions is known as
astronomy. The Sun around which the planets revolve is a star. It
is one of the hundred billion stars that comprise our galaxy called the Milky Way. A
vast collection of stars held together by mutual gravitation is called a galaxy. The
billions of such galaxies form the universe. Hence, the Solar system, stars and
galaxies are the constituents of the universe.
In this unit, students will be introduced to the solar system and its components. Our
solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun, the planets Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. It includes: the satellites of
the planets; numerous comets, asteroids, and meteoroids; and the interplanetary
medium. The Sun is the richest source of electromagnetic energy (mostly in the form
of heat and light) in the solar system. The Sun's nearest known stellar neighbour is a
red dwarf star called Proxima Centauri, at a distance of 4.3 light years away. The
whole solar system, together with the local stars visible on a clear night, orbits the
centre of our home galaxy, a spiral disk of 200 billion stars we call the Milky Way.
The Milky Way has two small galaxies orbiting it nearby, which are visible from the
southern hemisphere. They are called the Large Magellanic Cloud and the Small
Magellanic Cloud. The nearest large galaxy is the Andromeda Galaxy. It is a spiral
galaxy like the Milky Way but is 4 times as massive and is 2 million light years
away. Our galaxy, one of billions of galaxies known, is traveling through
intergalactic space.
Unit Objectives
By the end of this Unit, the student should be able to:
1. demonstrate an understanding that there are objects other than our
Sun and the planets in our solar system;
2. identify and describe characteristics of an asteroid;
3. identify and describe characteristics of a meteoroid; and,
4. identify and describe characteristics of a comet

UNIT 5
THE SOLAR SYSTEM


THE SOLAR SYSTEM UNIT 5
SESSION 1
SESSION 1: COMPONENTS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

In this unit, you will learn about the components of the solar
system the sun and its planetary system
Objectives
1. describe the solar system and state its characteristics
2. determine how the distance between planets are measured
3. explain the effects of the planetary systems on each other and the planet earth.
Now read on…
1.1 The Solar System

The part of the universe in which the Sun occupies the central position of the system
holding together all the heavenly bodies is called Solar system. The gravitational
attraction of the Sun primarily governs the motion of the planets and other heavenly
bodies around it. In addition to planets, the solar system also consists of moons,
comets, asteroids, minor planets, and dust and gas. Everything in the solar
system orbits or revolves around the Sun. The Sun contains around 99% of all the
material in the solar system. The larger an object is, the more gravity it has. Because
the Sun is so large, its powerful gravity attracts all the other objects in the
Solar System towards it. At the same time, these objects, which are moving very
rapidly, try to fly away from the sun, outward into the emptiness of outer space.
The result of the planets trying to fly away, at the same time that the sun is trying to
pull them inward is that they become trapped half-way in between. Balanced
between flying towards the sun, and escaping into space, they spend eternity orbiting
around their parent star. Our solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun,
the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and
Pluto. It includes: the satellites of the planets; numerous comets, asteroids, and
meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium. The Sun is the richest source of
electromagnetic energy (mostly in the form of heat and light) in the solar system.
The sun's nearest known stellar neighbour is a red dwarf star called Proxima
Centauri, at a distance of 4.3 light years (a light year is the distance light travels in a
year, at the rate of 300,000 km per second away.
The whole solar system, together with the local stars visible on a clear night, orbits
the center of our home galaxy, a spiral disk of 200 billion stars we call the Milky
Way. The Milky Way has two small galaxies orbiting it nearby, which are visible
from the southern hemisphere. They are called the Large Magellanic Cloud and the
Small Magellanic Cloud. The nearest large galaxy is the Andromeda Galaxy. It is a
spiral galaxy like the Milky Way but is 4 times as massive and is 2 million light

UNIT 5 COMPONENTS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
SESSION 1
years away. Our galaxy, one of billions of galaxies known, is traveling through
intergalactic space.
The planets, most of the satellites of the planets and the asteroids revolve around the
Sun in the same direction, in nearly circular orbits. When looking down from above
the sun's North Pole, the planets orbit in a counter-clockwise direction. The planets
orbit the sun in or near the same plane, called the ecliptic. Pluto is a special case in
that its orbit is the most highly inclined (18 degrees) and the most highly elliptical of
all the planets. Because of this, for part of its orbit, Pluto is closer to the sun than is
Neptune. The axis of rotation for most of the planets is nearly perpendicular to the
ecliptic. The exceptions are Uranus and Pluto, which are tipped on their sides.
1.2 Distances within the Solar System

The most common unit of measurement for distances within the solar system is the
astronomical unit (AU). One AU equals the mean distance from the sun to Earth,
about 150,000,000 km. The jet propulsion laboratory (JPL) refined the precise value
of the AU in the 1960s using radar echoes from Venus, since spacecraft navigation
depended on its accuracy. Another way to indicate distances within the solar system
is terms of light time, which is the distance light travels in a unit of time at the rate of
300,000 km per second. Distances within the solar system, while vast compared to
our travels on Earth's surface, are comparatively small-scale in astronomical terms.
For reference, Proxima Centauri, the nearest star at 4 light years away, is about
250,000 AU distant from the sun. Table 1.2 shows example of conversion of light
time to distances in astronomy.
Table 1.2: Examples of Time conversion to distances

Light Time Approximate Distance Example
1 second 299,792 km ~0.75 Earth-Moon distance
1 minute 18,000,000 km 0.125 AU
8.3 minutes 150,000,000 km Earth-Sun distance (1 AU)
1 hour 1,000,000,000 km ~1.5 x Sun-Jupiter Distance
4 years (Included for reference) Distance to nearest star
1.3 The Sun

The sun is best characterized as a typical star. The sun dominates the gravitational
field of the solar system; it contains 99.85% of the solar system's mass. The planets,
which condensed out of the same disk of material that formed the sun, contain only
0.135% of the mass of the solar system. Satellites of the planets, comets, asteroids,

SESSION 1
meteoroids, and the interplanetary medium constitute the remaining fraction. Even
though the planets make up a small portion of the solar system's mass, they retain the
vast majority of the solar system's angular momentum. This storehouse of
momentum can be utilized by interplanetary spacecraft on so-called "gravity-assist"
trajectories.
Table 1.3: Component of the solar system

Component Percentage (%)
Sun 99.85
Planets 0.135
Comets 0.01
Satellites 0.00005
Minor planets 0.0000002
Meteoroids 0.0000001
Interplanetary Medium 0.0000001
The gravity of the sun creates extreme pressures and temperatures within itself,
sustaining a thermonuclear reaction fusing hydrogen nuclei and producing helium
nuclei. This reaction yields tremendous amounts of energy, causing the material of
the sun to be plasma and gas. These thermonuclear reactions began about 5x109
years ago in the sun, and will probably continue for another 5x109 years. The sun has
no distinct surface. The apparent surface of the sun is optical only and has no
discrete physical boundary.
The sun rotates once on its axis within a period of approximately 28 days at its
equator. Because the sun is a gaseous body, rotation speed varies with latitude, being
slower at higher latitudes.
The sun has strong magnetic fields that are associated with sunspots. The solar
magnetic field is not uniform and is very dynamic. Solar magnetic field variations
and dynamics are targets of major interest in the exploration of the solar system.
1.4 Interplanetary Space

Nearly all the solar system by volume appears to be an empty void. Far from being
nothingness, this vacuum of "space" comprises the interplanetary medium. It
includes various forms of energy and at least two material components:
interplanetary dust and interplanetary gas. Interplanetary dust consists of
microscopic solid particles. Interplanetary gas is a tenuous flow of gas and charged
particles, mostly protons and electrons -- plasma -- which stream from the Sun,
called the solar wind.

SESSION 1
Figure 1.1: Diagram illustrating interplanetary space

(http://solarviews.com/eng/solarsys.htm)
The solar wind can be measured by spacecraft, and it has a large effect on comet
tails. It also has a measurable effect on the motion of spacecraft. The speed of the
solar wind is about 400 kilometres (250 miles) per second in the vicinity of Earth's
orbit. The point at which the solar wind meets the interstellar medium, which is the
"solar" wind from other stars, is called the heliopause. It is a boundary theorized to
be roughly circular or teardrop-shaped, marking the edge of the Sun's influence
perhaps 100 AU from the Sun. The space within the boundary of the heliopause,
containing the Sun and solar system, is referred to as the heliosphere.
The solar magnetic field extends outward into interplanetary space; it can be
measured on earth and by spacecraft. The solar magnetic field is the dominating
magnetic field throughout the interplanetary regions of the solar system, except in
the immediate environment of planets which have their own magnetic fields
Exercise 5.1
1. The whole solar system, together with the local stars visible on a clear night,
orbits the centre of our home is known as……………..
2. The planets, most of the satellites of the planets, and asteroids revolve around the
sun in the same direction and nearly in the same………………...
3. One AU equals the mean distance from the ………………..to
the…………………….
4. The sun is best characterized as a ………………………………….
5. The sun's nearest known stellar neighbour is a ……………..star called ………
6. The gravity of the sun creates extreme pressures and temperatures within itself,
sustaining a ……………..reaction.
7. The Astronomical Unit is abbreviated as…………….

SESSION 1
8. Even though the planets make up a small portion of the solar system's mass, they
retain the vast majority of the solar system's………………….
9. Briefly describe the solar system.
10. Explain light year and state its unit.

SESSION 1


SESSION 2
SESSION 2: THE PLANETS

This session presents an in-depth discussion of planets. In particular
we shall study the types of planets and their characteristics.
Objectives
1. list all the planets of the solar system
2. distinguish between the types of planets
3. explain how the planetary system are organized and how they move around.
Now read on…
2.1 The Planets

Officially, our solar system contains eight planets. Most of us can probably name
them, and are somewhat familiar with them. You may be thinking, “Wait. I thought
there were nine planets.” That was true until 2006 when the International
Astronomical Union (IAU), the governing body of astronomy, revised the definition
of “planet,” which left Pluto out of the traditional planet category.
The IAU’s definition of planet is "a celestial body that
(a) is in orbit around the Sun,
(b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it
assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and
(c) has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit."
Later in this session, we shall look at some interesting facts about each planet, as
well as Pluto. We shall start with Mercury and go in order of each planet’s distance
from the Sun.
2.2 Types of Planets

The planets have been grouped into two, namely Terrestrial and Jovian planets.
2.2.1. Terrestrial Planets

The terrestrial planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, and are called terrestrial
because they have a compact, rocky surface like Earth's terra firma. The terrestrial
planets are the four innermost planets in the solar system.
Light minutes are often used to express distances within the region of the terrestrial
planets, useful because they indicate the time required for radio communication with
spacecraft at their distances.
Of the terrestrial planets, Venus, Earth, and Mars have significant atmospheres. The
gases present in a planetary atmosphere are related to a planet's size, mass,
temperature, how the planet was formed, and whether life is present. The
temperature of gases may cause their molecules or atoms to achieve velocities that
escape the planet's gravitational field.
UNIT 5 THE PLANETS
SESSION 2
Earth is the most massive of the terrestrial planets. The ratios of mass for the
terrestrial planets with respect to Earth (100%) is presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Mass of terrestrial planets in relation to the mass of the earth.
Solar System Object Mass (in relation to Earth)
Mercury 1/18 of the mass of the Earth
Venus 1/1.22 (80%) of the mass of the Earth
Earth 1
Mars 1/9 of the mass of the Earth
Figure 2.1 illustrates the mean distances of the terrestrial planets from the sun
Figure 2.1: Mean distances of terrestrial Planets from the Sun

(http://www.if.ufrgs.br/ast/solar/solarsys.htm)
Now let us study each of the terrestrial planet in detail.

 Mercury
Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun, yet it is the most difficult to see because of
the Sun’s glare on it. (Don’t look for Mercury while the Sun is in the sky. It could
damage your eyes.) Mercury is slightly larger than the Earth’s moon and is the
smallest of the eight planets.
Mercury is only 36 million miles (0.39 AU) from the Sun and revolves around the
Sun every 88 days. It has a very elliptical orbit, and it moves about 30 miles (48 km)
every second. Mercury rotates very slowly, taking 59 Earth days to rotate on its axis.

SESSION 2
Mercury, which has no moons, has a rocky as shown in Fig. 2.2, crusty surface with
many craters resembling the craters of the Earth’s moon. Many of these craters were
formed when rocks crashed into the planet. Mercury also has many lava flows and
quake faults on its surface. These craters, flows, and faults have shaped the surface
of the planet. Except for small amounts of helium and hydrogen, Mercury has no
atmosphere. Scientists believe that Mercury has an iron core that extends through
most of the planet. Mercury has significant temperature differences. Its daytime
temperature reaches 800° F (427° C), while its night-time temperatures reach -300° F
(184° C).
Figure 2.2: Surface of Mercury
 Venus
It is the closest planet to Earth in both distance and size and is often referred to as
Earth’s sister. Venus is 67 million miles (0.7 AU) from the Sun. It takes 225 days to
revolve around the Sun. It is a very hot planet with temperatures in excess of 850° F
(454° C). In fact, Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system. Even with the heat,
Venus is covered with clouds. These clouds are made of water vapour and sulfuric
acid, and they rotate at a different rate than the planet. These clouds rotate every four
days; much faster than the 243 Earth days it takes for Venus to rotate on its axis. By
the way, Venus is the only known planet to rotate in a clockwise manner.

UNIT 5 THE PLANETS
SESSION 2
Figure 2.2: Venus
The atmosphere is 96% carbon dioxide and 4% nitrogen. There are also small
amounts of water, oxygen, and sulfur. Scientists believe volcanic activity is
responsible for the sulphur found in the atmosphere. Because of this thick layer of
carbon dioxide and the clouds, the heat cannot escape. Therefore, there is very little
temperature change on Venus. The surface of Venus (see Fig. 2.2) is a relatively
smooth, hot desert. It does have some highlands and craters, too. Venus is the easiest
planet to see at night and is the brightest of all. You can even see it in the daytime if
you know where to look. Since it is the brightest planet that can be seen from Earth,
Venus is referred to as the Evening Star. Venus has no moons.
 Earth
Earth as shown in Fig. 2.3 is the only planet that sustains life. Therefore, it is a
unique planet. Earth is approximately 1 AU (93 million miles) from the Sun, and it
takes the planet about 365 days to make one revolution around the Sun, which is one
Earth year. Remember that the average distance from the Earth to the Sun is a
straight line from the Earth to the Sun. The average distance that the Earth travels in
its orbit around the Sun (circumference of Earth’s orbit) is about 584 million miles
(939,856,896 km). If the Earth has to travel about 584 million miles to make a
complete orbit around the Sun, and it takes about 365 days to do this, can you figure
out about how fast the Earth is traveling around the Sun (not taking into account
other factors such as Earth’s wobble, one’s location on Earth, etc.)? You are correct
if you calculated about 66,700 mph or 19 milesper second.

SESSION 2
Figure 2.3: Earth
Besides speeding around the Sun, the Earth also moves by rotating on its axis. One
day on Earth is the time it takes for the Earth to spin once on its axis, which is 24
hours. Because the Earth spins on its axis once every 24 hours, we experience day
and night. If Earth’s circumference at the equator is about 24,901 miles (40,074 km),
and it takes 24 hours for a point on Earth’s equator to make one complete rotation,
about how fast is the Earth spinning on its axis? You are correct if you calculated a
little over 1,000 miles per hour (or a little over a quarter of a mile per second).
Earth has four seasons because of the tilt of the Earth on its axis. Earth is tilted about
23.5° on its axis. Because of this, different parts of the Earth receive different
amounts of direct sunlight at different times of the year. For example, when the
northern hemisphere experiences summer, the northern hemisphere is tilted more
towards the Sun, and the rays of the Sun hit the northern hemisphere at a more direct
angle. It, therefore, is not the distance between the Earth and the Sun that creates the
seasons, but rather the tilt of the Earth on its axis.
Our atmosphere contains 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with small amounts of
argon, carbon-dioxide, neon, helium, ozone, and hydrogen. This atmosphere
provides the oxygen that we breathe and keeps the temperature of water as liquid, so
that life is possible. Our atmosphere also acts like a protective blanket. It contains
clouds, and these clouds, along with the chemical composition of the atmosphere,
help absorb some of the Sun’s radiation.

UNIT 5 THE PLANETS
SESSION 2
A common question people have about Earth is, “Why is the sky blue?” NASA has
an explanation that is fairly easy to understand. “The light from the Sun looks white,
but it is really made up of all the colours of the rainbow. When white light shines
through a prism, the light is separated into all its colours. Like energy passing
through the ocean, light energy travels in waves, too. Some light travels in short,
choppy waves. Other light travels in long, lazy waves. Blue light waves are shorter
than red light waves. Sunlight reaches Earth’s atmosphere and is scattered in all
directions by all the gases and particles in the air. Blue light is scattered in all
directions by the tiny molecules of air in Earth’s atmosphere. Blue is scattered more
than other colours because it travels as shorter, smaller waves. This is why we see a
blue sky most of the time.”
The surface of our planet is covered with over 70% water, with the Pacific Ocean
accounting for over 50% all by itself. Orbiting Earth is its one Moon, as discussed in
the previous chapter. The Moon’s gravity pulls on Earth and Earth’s gravity pulls on
the Moon. This mutual attraction is strong enough to pull the water in the Earth’s
oceans slightly towards the Moon, creating tides.
While 70% of Earth is covered in water, the remaining 30% is covered with various
land features. The Earth has anywhere from smooth pastures, to plateaus and small
hills, to tremendous mountains. We have lush forests and barren deserts. Our planet
sustains not only human life, but plant life and animal life, too. From a variety of life
forms to landscapes to climates, Earth is an interesting planet to study.
 Mars
Of all of the planets, Mars probably fascinates us the most. Over the years, it has
been the most publicized in books and movies, and just about everyone knows it as
the Red Planet. This is due to its red colour which can be seen even with the naked
eye (see Fig. 2.4). This colour is due to the rock and dust covering the surface of
Mars. It has been analysed and found to have a high iron content, so it has a rusty
look. Because of the decreased gravitational pull of Mars, the blowing dust on Mars
rises easily, which also contributes to the atmosphere’s reddish pink appearance.

SESSION 2
Figure 2.4: Mars
Mars is about half as big as Earth and has about 1/9 the mass of the Earth. Because
its gravitational pull is about 1/3 that of Earth’s, objects weigh only about 1/3 of
what they weigh on Earth. For example, if something weighed 66 pounds on Earth, it
would weigh about 22 pounds on Mars. Mars has farther to travel around the Sun
than Earth, but it takes about the same time as Earth to rotate once on its axis. The
length of a Martian day is about the same as an Earth day at 24 hours 37 minutes. A
Martian year is about 687 Earth days, which is about twice as long as an Earth year.
How old are you on Mars? Divide your age by two for a close estimate. Although
the atmosphere of Mars is much less dense than Earth’s, Mars has an atmosphere that
supports a weather system.
The atmosphere, which consists of 95% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen and traces of
oxygen, carbon monoxide, and water, includes clouds and winds. Blowing dust
storms occur periodically over the surface. Daytime surface temperatures near the
equator on Mars can reach about 70° F (21° C), while night time temperatures can
dip to -130° F (-90° C). The average planet temperature is about - 80° F (-62° C).
Although a cold planet overall, Mars does have four seasons due to the tilt of its axis,
which is about 25°.
The surface of Mars is covered with deserts, high mountains, deep craters, valleys,
and huge volcanoes. One of Mars’s volcanoes, Olympus Mons, is the highest known
mountain in our solar system. It is about 370 miles (595 km) across and 17 miles (27
km) high. (That is much taller than Mt. Everest which is about 5.5 miles high.)
Another geological feature on Mars is its polar ice caps. The polar ice caps are made
of frozen carbon dioxide, or dry ice, and water ice. The water ice is located below
frozen carbon dioxide. The ice caps wax (get bigger) and wane (shrink) with the
seasons, waxing in winter and waning in the summer.
UNIT 5 THE PLANETS
SESSION 2
Orbiting Mars are its two small moons, Phobos and Deimos. Named after Greek
mythological figures, their names translate to fear and panic. Scientists believe that
these potato-shaped moons are actually asteroids that got captured by the
gravitational pull of Mars. Phobos, slightly larger than Deimos, orbits closer to its
planet than any other moon in our solar system, orbiting about 3,700 miles (5,955
km) from the planet. It is believed that in millions of years, Phobos might crash into
Mars or break apart before it reaches Mars, resulting in smaller pieces of rocks
orbiting Mars.
Mars’s average distance from the Sun is approximately 141.6 million miles, which is
about 1.5 AU. If you could drive to Mars when Earth and Mars are closest together,
it would take about 66.5 years traveling at 60 mph. Depending on their positions in
their orbits, the closest distance between Earth and Mars is about 35 million miles
(56,327,040 km), but they can reach a maximum distance of about 250 million miles
(402,336,000 km). The distance between the two planets is critical to planning
missions to Mars.
2.2.2 Jovian Planets

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are known as the Jovian (Jupiter-like) planets,
because they are all gigantic compared with Earth, and they have a gaseous nature
like Jupiter's. The Jovian planets are also referred to as the "gas giants," although
some or all of them may have small solid cores. Let us now look at the Jovian planet
in details.
 Jupiter
Jupiter (see Fig. 2.5) is the first in the line of the outer, gaseous planets in our solar
system. It is about 483.6 million miles from the Sun, which is about 5.2 AU.
(Remember, 1 AU equals 93 million miles). At its closest distance to Earth, Jupiter is
about 500 million miles (804,672,000 km) away. So, if you drove about 60 mph, it
would take you hundreds of years, actually close to 1,000 years, to reach Jupiter.
Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system. Its diameter is about 88,700 miles
(142,749 km). About 11 Earths could fit across the diameter of Jupiter. Jupiter is so
big that if it were empty, every planet in our solar system could fit inside it. If you
were only putting Earths inside it, it could hold about 1,320 Earths. Even though
Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system, it still isn’t as big as the Sun.
As far as mass, Jupiter’s mass is so massive that it would take about 318 Earths to
equal the mass of Jupiter. Although it has a huge mass, it has a low density because it
is composed primarily of hydrogen, the lightest element. Jupiter’s large size, huge
mass, and low density create a gravitational pull on Jupiter that is about 2.5 times
that of Earth’s. So, an object weighing 100 pounds on Earth would weigh about 250
pounds on Jupiter.

SESSION 2
Figure 2.5: Jupiter
A couple of other facts about Jupiter involve its revolution around the Sun, its
rotation on its axis, and its temperatures. Jupiter revolves in almost 12 Earth years.
Even though Jupiter is huge, it rotates on its axis very quickly, about every ten hours.
This causes a flattening effect at the poles and a bulging effect at the equator. This
fast rotation also enhances the weather patterns on Jupiter. It creates high winds and
giant storms on Jupiter, where the temperature ranges from over 60,000° F (33,316°
C) at its centre, to -220° F (-140° C) at the upper cloud layers.
Jupiter is a gas giant. Hydrogen is the most prominent gas (about 90%), followed by
helium, methane, and ammonia. The outer core of Jupiter is composed of liquid
hydrogen and helium, and these mix with the gaseous atmosphere to form belts of
clouds. These belts are very colourful, but change rapidly due to the high winds
associated with the quick rotation of the planet. These belts make Jupiter look like a
striped ball with a giant red spot in the lower half. The Giant Red Spot is a
distinguishing feature of Jupiter. This spot is a giant storm that is 30,000 miles
(48,280 km) long and 10,000 miles (16,093 km) wide.
A great deal of atmospheric activity on Jupiter is similar to that of Earth. However,

Jupiter’s storms seem to be powered by the planet itself rather than by the Sun, as
they are on Earth. Jupiter’s highly-compressed hydrogen at its centre causes the
planet to emit almost 70 percent more heat than it absorbs from the Sun.
 Saturn
About 887 million miles (or 9.5 AU) from the Sun, Saturn as shown in Fig. 2.6, is
the sixth planet in our solar system and second in the line of outer, gaseous planets.
Its diameter is about 74, 898 miles (120,537 km) across, meaning that about 9.5
Earths could fit across it. As the second largest planet in our solar system, Saturn
could hold about 764 Earths inside it. Saturn, however, is the only planet in our solar
UNIT 5 THE PLANETS
SESSION 2
system that is less dense than water. This means Saturn could actually float in a body
of water, if the body of water was large enough to hold Saturn. Objects weigh close
to what they weigh here on Earth as the gravitational pull on Saturn is about 1.08
times that on Earth. So, if an object weighed 100 pounds on Earth, it would weigh
108 pounds on Saturn.
Figure 2.6: Saturn
Like Jupiter, Saturn rotates at a very fast 10 hours. However, it takes over 29 years to
revolve around the Sun. Also like Jupiter, the combination of fast rotation and
gaseous and liquid atmosphere creates very strong winds, clouds, and storms. The
winds of Saturn have been known to reach 1,100 miles per hour (1770 km). When
we think of Saturn, we think of its rings. The rings are easily the most recognizable
features of Saturn. Through a telescope, the rings are spectacular. They are made of
ice chunks, dust, and rocks ranging from tiny particles to large boulders, or the size
of grains of sugar to houses. The main rings are made up of hundreds of narrow
ringlets. The entire ring system is about one mile thick and extends about 250,000
miles (402,336 km) from the planet. There are seven distinct rings, each designated
by a letter ranging from A to G, around Saturn. The first five were discovered by
Galileo in 1610, and the final two lettered rings were discovered by the Pioneer
spacecraft. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and NASA also report that “there
are also several other faint unnamed rings made up of very fine icy particles.”
The planet itself has an icy rock core surrounded by metallic hydrogen with an outer
layer of hydrogen and helium. The hydrogen and helium are mainly liquid and turn
to gas as they get to the outer surface. Being 9.5 AU from the Sun, the temperatures
of Saturn do not vary as much as many of the other planets. During the day it gets up
to 130° F (54° C) and at night, down to -330° F (-201° C).

SESSION 2
 Uranus
Uranus is about 1.7 billion miles (19.18 AU) from the Sun, about twice as far as
Saturn. Uranus (see Fig. 2.7) is the first planet to be located with the help of a
telescope, and it was discovered by an astronomer in 1781.
Figure 2.7: Uranus
Uranus is the third largest planet in our solar system, and, like Jupiter and Saturn, it
is a gas giant. Uranus has a rocky core surrounded by water, ammonia, and methane,
in both ice and liquid form.
The outer layer consists of hydrogen and helium gases. There is also methane in the
upper atmosphere, and this gives Uranus a bluish greenish colour. It takes Uranus 84
years to revolve around the Sun, and it rotates in about 18 hours. The average
temperature is about -350° F (-212° C) on Uranus. Its environment is super cold
because hardly any solar radiation reaches Uranus. One unique thing about Uranus is
that it spins on its side. Scientists think that possibly some large body may have
bumped into it, resulting in its current position. Because Uranus is tilted 60° on its
axis, daylight lasts 42 years followed by 42 years of night. This means that even
though the planet is rotating on its axis every 18 hours, it continues to face the
sunlight for 42 years because of the 60° tilt.
Like Saturn and Jupiter, Uranus has rings around it. It actually has 11 very narrow
and black rings. They are made of dust and chunks of rock. They are very dark and
hard to see. Additionally, Uranus has 27 known moons. These moons are made of
rocks and ice, and many of the moons.
 Neptune
Neptune is the outermost of the gas planets and is the fourth largest planet in our
solar system. It was discovered in 1846 when scientists determined that something
was affecting the orbit of Uranus. Neptune is about 3 billion miles (30 AU) from the
Sun, and it takes 165 Earth years to complete an orbit. So, one year on Neptune
equals a little over 60,000 Earth days, or 165 Earth years. A Neptune day lasts about

UNIT 5 THE PLANETS
SESSION 2
19 hours. During the day, daylight on Neptune is about 900 times less bright than on
Earth because Neptune is so far away from the Sun, making high noon on Neptune
seem like a dim twilight. Neptune and Uranus are so similar they are sometimes
called twins. Although a bit smaller than
Uranus, both Neptune and Uranus could each hold about 60 Earths inside them.
Neptune’s gravitational pull and average temperature are also very similar to that of
Uranus. Neptune has a rocky core surrounded by water, ammonia, and methane. The
atmosphere consists of hydrogen, helium, and methane. Methane absorbs red light,
not blue; therefore, Uranus and Neptune appear to have a bluet tint, with Neptune’s
colour being a bit more of a vivid, brighter blue.
Figure 2.8: Neptune
Neptune is a windy planet, the windiest in our solar system. It has recorded winds of
1,500 miles per hour. It has 13 known moons, the largest of which is Triton. Triton is
approximately three-fourths the size of Earth’s moon and circles Neptune in 5.875
days. The strange thing about Titan’s movement is that it rotates backwards
compared to the other moons of Neptune.
2.3 Inferior and Superior Planets

Mercury and Venus are referred to as inferior planets because their orbits are closer
to the sun than is Earth's orbit. Likewise, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and
Pluto are known as superior planets because their orbits are farther from the sun than
is Earth's. Viewed from Earth, Venus and Mercury go through phases of illumination
like Earth's moon does. To visualize phases, in a dark room hold a tennis ball up in
front of a light bulb, blocking out the bulb from your view (the tennis ball is now in
inferior conjunction with the bulb, and occulting it).

SESSION 2
The unlighted side of the ball that you see is in the new phase, like a new moon.
Move the ball slightly off to one side. Watch a bright crescent appear on the ball.
Since the ball can be located between you and the bulb, it can be called an inferior
ball. You can see that if the ball were directly across on the other side of the light
bulb from you (at superior conjunction), one whole side would be fully illuminated:
the full phase. Now swivel around 180 degrees, placing your back to the light. Hold
the ball out in front of you (it is now a superior ball). Notice its full or near-full
phase. Since the superior planets never come between Earth and the sun, they always
show a nearly full phase when viewed from Earth. Viewed from superior planets,
Earth goes through phases. Superior planets can be seen as crescents only from the
vantage point of a spacecraft that is beyond them
Exercise 5.2
1. The terrestrial planets are called terrestrial because they have a
compact, …………..surface like Earth's.
2. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are known as the Jovian planets because
they are all gigantic and have a ………………. nature like Jupiter's.
3. Jupiter emits electromagnetic energy from a vast number of charged atomic
particles spiralling through the ………………………………. associated with the
planet.
4. Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are known as …………….planets.
5. Distinguish between inferior and superior planets

UNIT 5 THE PLANETS
SESSION 2


SESSION 3
SESSION 3: THE GALAXIES AND THE BIG BANG THEORY
Now that you know the planets in our solar system, let us continue to
study the Milky Way galaxy. We shall also learnt about the big bang
theory.
Objectives
1. Explain galaxy and state the types of galaxy in our solar system
2. Describe the Milky Way galaxy
3. Explain the Big Bang theory
Now read on…
3.1 The Galaxy

When we define our planet, we consider things such as gravity, the core, the
atmosphere, and the surface that is composed of water and land masses. The planet is
composed of different types of ecosystems which, depending on their location on our
planet and their position in relationship to the sun, range from hot and steamy to bitterly
cold and blustery. Just like there are dense populations of people, there are dense
populations of stars, and just as our earth is composed of a myriad of materials that are
unique to earth, each galaxy is composed of a mix of gas, dust and stars that are unique
to that galaxy and held together with gravitational forces.
In simple terms, Galaxies are clusters of billions of stars, nebulae, planets and other
objects held together by gravity. They can range in size from 1,000 light years across to
a million light years across.
3.2 Types of Galaxies

Although there are many types of galaxies, just as there are different countries, each
individual galaxy, like each country, is unique. There are many galaxies that exist in our
universe, each one a spectacular collection of star systems and gas. These galaxies have
been grouped into four namely; elliptical, spiral, spiral barred and irregular. Although
there are different types, we also learned that each galaxy contains the same elements,
but these are arranged differently for each type. Just as every human is created with the
same proteins that are configured uniquely, so are the galaxies uniquely configured with
gasses, dust, stars and other elements.
3.2.1. Spiral Galaxies

A typical spiral galaxy contains about one hundred billion stars and is approximately
one hundred thousand light years across. Spiral galaxies are characterized by a large
central bulge and spiral arms. They are characterized as well as classified by the

UNIT 5 THE GALAXIES AND THE BIG BANG THEORY
SESSION 3
thickness of the central bulge. The centre of the galaxy is like a nucleus, containing a
sphere shaped bulge that houses old stars and is devoid of dust and gas. The circular
shape of the galaxy composes the disk. The spiral arms are made up of millions of
relatively young stars in a constant orbit around the centre of the galaxy. The arms of
the spiral galaxy originate in the disk and are where new stars will form in a galaxy. The
sun in our galaxy is located in one arm and its stars are created in this portion of the
galaxy, which contains the most gas in the galaxy. This area is rich in blue stars. Spiral
galaxies are the most common galaxy of the known universe, comprising about 77% of
all known galaxies. Our Milky Way galaxy is an example of such a spiral galaxy.
The Milky Way Galaxy

On a dark, clear night, you will see a milky band of light stretching across the sky, as in
Figure 3.1 below. This band is the disk of a galaxy, the Milky Way Galaxy, which is
our galaxy. The Milky Way is made of millions of stars along with a lot of gas and dust.
Like other galaxies, the stars, dust and gas in the Milky Way are gravitationally bound
together.
Figure 3.1: The Milky Way Galaxy
What then are the shape and size of the Milky Way galaxy?
Although it is difficult to know what the shape of the Milky Way Galaxy is because we
are inside of it, astronomers have identified it as a typical spiral galaxy containing about
100 billion to 400 billion stars. Like other spiral galaxies, our galaxy has a disk, a
central bulge, and spiral arms. The disk is about 100,000 light years across and 3,000
SESSION 3
light-years thick. Most of the Galaxy’s gas, dust, young stars, and open clusters are in
the disk.
What evidence do astronomers find that lets them know that the Milky Way is a spiral
galaxy?
1. The shape of the galaxy as we see it in Fig. 3.1.
2. The velocities of stars and gas in the galaxy show a rotational motion.
3. The gases, colour, and dust are typical of spiral galaxies.
The central bulge is about 12,000 to 16,000 light-years wide and 6,000 to 10,000 light-
years thick. The central bulge contains mostly older stars and globular clusters. Some
recent evidence suggests the bulge might not be spherical, but is instead shaped like a
bar. The bar might be as long as 27,000 light-years long. The disk and bulge are
surrounded by a faint, spherical halo, which also contains old stars and globular
clusters. Astronomers have discovered that there is a gigantic black hole at the centre of
the galaxy.
3.2.2. Barred Spiral Galaxy

Barred spiral galaxies share the same features and functions as regular spiral galaxies,
but they also have a bar of bright stars that lie along the centre of the bulge, and extend
into the disk. The bright bulge has very little activity here and contains mostly older, red
stars. The bar and arms have lots of activity including star formation. While the
classification for barred spirals is the same as it is for regular spiral galaxies, the bar
must be considered as well.
3.2.3. Elliptical Galaxies

Elliptical galaxies can be recognized by their elongated spherical shape and their lack of
nucleus or bulge at the centre. Although there is no nucleus, the galaxy is still brighter
in the centre and becomes less bright toward the outer edges of the galaxy. Stars, gases
and other materials are spread throughout the elliptical galaxy. An elliptical galaxy can
be nearly round or long and cigar shaped.
It is believed that a great deal of the mass in an elliptical galaxy is due to the presence
of a central black hole. These galaxies have very little activity and contain mostly old
stars of low mass, because there aren’t the gasses and dust needed to form new stars.
The spiral arms in both a spiral galaxy and a barred spiral galaxy are formed by density
waves that move threw the forming galaxy. This process is similar to spinning a
lopsided beach ball into the air. The unbalanced ball wobbles as it spins. If the ball was
viscus the denser area would begin to pull away forming a spiral arm.

SESSION 3
3.2.4. Irregular Galaxies

Irregular galaxies are composed of gasses, dust, stars, nebulous formations, neutron
stars, black holes and other elements common to all galaxies. Irregular galaxies are
named so because they have no definite shape, but like all galaxies, they are in constant
motion, moving outward and away from the center of our universe. Irregular galaxies
are divided into two classifications: Im and IO.
Im galaxies occur most often among irregular galaxies and may show a trace of the
spiral galaxy arms. IO galaxies are completely random and can be called chaotic in
nature.
3.3 The Expanding Universe

Edwin Hubble combined his measurements of the distances to galaxies with other
astronomers’ measurements of redshift. From this data, he noticed a relationship, which
is now called Hubble’s Law: The farther away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away
from us. What could this mean about the universe? It means that the universe is
expanding. This relationship is quantified in Hubble ’s constant, H, and describes how
much space is expanding by each second: 67.80 ± 0.77 (km/s)/Mpc.
Figure 3.2 shows a simplified diagram of the expansion of the universe. One way to
picture this is to imagine a balloon covered with tiny dots to represent the galaxies.
When you inflate the balloon, the dots slowly move away from each other because the
rubber stretches in the space between them. If you were standing on one of the dots, you
would see the other dots moving away from you. Also the dots farther away from you
on the balloon would move away faster than dots nearby.
Figure 3.2: Expansion of the universe

SESSION 3
An inflating balloon is only a rough analogy to the expanding universe for several
reasons. One important reason is the surface of a balloon has only two dimensions,
while space has three dimensions. But space itself is stretching out between galaxies
like the rubber stretches when a balloon is inflated. This stretching of space, which
increases the distance between galaxies, is what causes the expansion of the universe.
One other difference between the universe and a balloon involves the actual size of the
galaxies. On a balloon, the dots will become larger in size as you inflate it. In the
universe, the galaxies stay the same size, just the space between the galaxies increases.
3.4 The Big Bang Theory

The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted cosmological explanation of how the
universe formed. The theory says that the universe started out as a tiny point of
concentrated energy about 13.5 billion years ago. The energy expanded and the universe
has been expanding from this point ever since. At the instant of its origin, the Universe
was a very high energy environment and was immensely hot. Einstein’s famous
equation
E = mc2 (3.1)
tells us that energy (E) and matter (m) are interchangeable, with the conversion factor
being the speed of light (c) squared.
In the early Universe (see Fig. 3.3), a fraction of a second after it began, sub-atomic
particles of matter and antimatter were therefore created spontaneously out of pure
energy. In the earliest moments, all flavours of exotic particles were created in
abundance, with almost equal amounts of matter and antimatter. If the Universe had
contained exactly equal amounts of matter and antimatter, then as the Universe cooled
rapidly the particles and anti-particles would all have annihilated each other in the first
fraction of a second after the Big Bang, leaving nothing except photons to exist
throughout the Universe ever after.
Figure 3.3: Diagram illustrating Big Bang theory

(https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/science/physics)

SESSION 3
The fact that we do see matter around us today indicates that there was a slight excess
of matter over antimatter, by about one part in a billion, in those earliest moments. So,
for every billion matter and anti-matter particles that annihilated each other, just one
particle of matter was left over. That tiny imbalance is what would subsequently allow
the formation of all the galaxies, stars and planets that we observe throughout space.
A few millionths of a second after the Big Bang, familiar protons and neutrons began to
form in the Universe from the particles left over after the initial flurry of annihilations.
Once formed, these continuously converted from one to the other, but since neutrons are
slightly more massive than protons, the conversion of neutrons into protons happened
more often than protons converted into neutrons. As a result, the positively charged
protons began to outnumber their neutral counterparts, the neutrons.
Then, by the time the Universe was about 100 seconds old, they stopped interacting
further, freezing out with a ratio of about 7 protons for every 1 neutron in the Universe.
The Universe as a whole remained electrically neutral, since every positively charged
proton was balanced by the existence of a negatively charged electron.
Over the next few minutes, protons and neutrons combined to form the first atomic
nuclei. About three-quarters (by mass) remained as single protons (hydrogen nuclei) but
most of the remaining one-quarter ended up as nuclei of helium-4 (comprising 2 protons
and 2 neutrons), with tiny fractions of other light-weight isotopes such as deuterium,
helium-3 and lithium-7.
Nothing much then happened until the Universe reached an age of around three hundred
thousand years old. At this time, the Universe was cool enough for electrons to combine
with nuclei to form the first atoms in the Universe. This 'epoch of recombination' as it is
known, marks the furthest back in time that we can hope to see in the Universe. The
light that we see today throughout space as the Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation, is the light from this epoch that’s been redshifted by the expansion of the
Universe ever since.
Exercise 5.3
1. Write short description of the Big Bang theory.
2. How old is the universe, according to the Big Bang theory?
3. Describe at least two pieces of evidence that supports the Big Bang theory.
4. Distinguish between the four types of galaxies
5. Under which of galaxies does Milky Way galaxy belong to?
6. Describe the Milky Way galaxy.

SESSION 4
SESSION 4: SATELLITES
In this session we shall study satellites and discuss the types of satellites.
Objectives
1. Describe satellites
2. State the types of satellites and give examples
3. State the uses of satellite in everyday life.
4. Distinguish between natural and artificial satellites
Now read on…
4.1 Satellite
A satellite is an object that revolves around the larger object in a path called orbit. In
other words, any smaller object that revolves around the larger object is called satellite.
The smaller objects revolve around the larger object in the same path, because the
gravitational force exerted by the larger object holds the smaller object. For example,
the moon is revolving around the earth as shown in Figure 4.1 due to the gravitational
force of attraction between the earth and moon. Hence, moon is called as the satellite of
earth. Similarly, earth is revolving around the sun due to the gravitational force of
attraction between the earth and sun. Hence, earth is called as the satellite of sun.
Figure 4.1: Satellite (moon) orbiting the earth

Satellites can be either natural or artificial (man-made).

UNIT 5 SATELLITES
SESSION 4
4.2 Natural Satellite

A natural satellite is any celestial body in space that orbits around a larger body. Moons
are called natural satellites because they orbit planets. Any large object that orbits
around a planet is called a moon (small ‘m’). The Earth has one moon called the Moon
(capital ‘M’). The Moon takes 27.3 days to orbit the Earth once, moving at an orbital
speed of 1 km/s. All except two of the planets (Venus and Mercury) in our Solar
System have natural satellites called moons.
Planets, asteroids and comets orbit around stars such as our Sun and so can also be
thought of as natural satellites. Our Solar System has eight official planets as well as
millions of minor planets, asteroids, comets and other objects orbiting around the Sun.
All of these can be thought of as natural satellites. All of these natural satellites are held
in orbit by the attraction of gravity between the satellite and the object it is orbiting.
4.3 Artificial Satellites

You must have heard that there are a number of artificial satellites which are orbiting
the Earth. You might wonder how artificial satellites are different from natural
satellites. Artificial satellites are man-made. They are launched from the Earth. They
revolve around the Earth much closer than earth’s natural satellite, the moon.
Thus, an artificial satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human
endeavour. In other words artificial satellites are man-made objects that man has sent up
into space using rockets. They are called artificial satellites to distinguish them from
natural satellites like the Moon. Examples of artificial satellites are
Look up on a clear night and you may sometimes see a star-like point of light drifting
across the sky. This is probably an artificial satellite.
Artificial Earth satellites are usually launched into one of two types of orbit (see Fig.4.2
(a and b)):
(a) Equatorial orbit where the satellite orbits the Earth above the equator
(b) Polar orbit – this means that the satellite’s orbit passes over the north and south pole
Equatorial orbit
Polar orbit
Figure 4.2: Types of Orbit for satellite launching

(https://marine.rutgers.edu/cool/education/class/paul/orbits2.html)

SESSION 4
4.4 Applications of Satellite

Satellites that orbit the Earth have a number of uses:
a) Agricultural purposes: Satellites can be really useful for studying the health of
crops. Images produced by the cameras on the satellite are analysed by scientists on
the ground and give information about the condition of the crop and the possible
size of the crop that year
b) Military: Military uses such a observing an enemy’s troop movements or
photographing hostile weapons systems
c) Global positioning satellites (GPS): These satellites are used to help you find
where you are on Earth. The system was completed in the 1990s and there are now
about thirty of these satellites orbiting the Earth in six separate orbits some 20 000
km above the ground.
Figure 4.3: GPS
The GPS receiver needs to be able to ‘see’ six of these satellites at once to get a
good final signal and so give you a really accurate location. GPS receivers are used
in many types of transport (you will probably have seen one in a car), telescopes and
by the military, and they can pinpoint your position on the planet within about 20m!
They do this by a method similar to triangulation but a bit more complex. The GPS
system is built up of satellites each with a mass of 1665 kg (about the same as a
medium sized family car) moving at 11200 km/hr (3000 m/s) and making two orbits
of the Earth each day.
d) Observing and forecasting weather: Weather satellites can be in a polar orbit or
one above the equator. They are used to observe the weather and you can see
pictures transmitted by these satellites by using your computer.

UNIT 5 SATELLITES
SESSION 4
Figure 4.5: Weather forecasting (Image copyright 2008 EUMETSAT)
The satellites in polar orbit are about 850 km above the Earth’s surface and make
two orbits a day. At this distance they can see far more detail than the much more
distant equatorial orbit satellites.
e) Space telescopes for astronomy: space telescopes such as the Hubble Space
telescope are mounted in Earth orbiting satellites. n space they are well above the
Earth’s atmosphere and the pictures taken through them are much better than down
on the Earth’s surface where they are affected by the pollution of the atmosphere.
The Hubble space telescope was taken into orbit by the space shuttle and has been
repaired by astronauts from the shuttle.
f) Telecommunications (using geostationary satellites): Communication satellites
are used to relay radio, TV and telephone signals around the world. We rely on them
if we are phoning a friend in Australia or watching the 2008 Olympics from Beijing.
The satellites used for telecommunications are called ‘geostationary satellites’
because they ‘hang’ at a fixed point in the sky relative to the satellite dish on the
ground. Their name comes from geo (meaning Earth) and stationary (meaning still).
There are many geostationary satellites and they are all in an orbit 35 880 km (five
and a half Earth radii) above the equator. At this distance each satellite takes
exactly one day to orbit the Earth – this means that they stay above the same place
as the Earth rotates beneath them.
Figure 4.5: Satellite for telecommunication

SESSION 4
4.5 Difference Between Natural An Artificial Satellite

Natural Satellite Artificial satellite
1. A natural satellite is created by An artificial satellite is a machine or device,
the nature. Hence, it is called as created by the human being. Hence, it is called
the natural satellite. as man-made or artificial satellite. There are
currently thousands of artificial satellites are
revolving around the earth in a path called orbit.
2. A natural satellite is created by The artificial satellites get electrical energy from
the nature. Hence, it is called as the sun by using solar cells. Solar cell converts
the natural satellite. the solar energy into electrical energy and
provides this electrical energy to the satellite.
3. A natural satellite is created by The average life expectancy of an artificial
the nature. Hence, it is called as satellite is around 5-15 years. When the
the natural satellite. satellites reaches end of their life or mission, the
satellite will be de-orbited or moved it to a
graveyard orbit or simply leaving the artificial
satellite in its current orbit. The graveyard orbit
is an orbit lies above the synchronous orbit. The
satellite operators will take this step to reduce
the collisions with the other operational
satellites.
4. A natural satellite is created by Artificial satellites are used for transmitting the
the nature. Hence, it is called as information from one place to another place.
the natural satellite.
5. A natural satellite is created by Artificial satellites come in many sizes and
the nature. Hence, it is called as shapes. The largest artificial satellite made by
the natural satellite. the human being is International Space Station.
6. Natural satellite or moon Artificial satellites are used for various
provides light to the earth. purposes. One of the major applications of
Hence, people can see any object satellites is large distance communication.
on the earth at night times.
7. Our solar system has 173 known Artificial satellites have many other applications
natural satellites include navigation, environmental monitoring,
weather forecasting, scientific research.
8. Natural satellites are very huge Artificial satellites are not visible from the earth.
compared to the artificial
satellites.
9. Natural satellite or moon is Artificial satellites are very small compared to
visible at night times from the the natural satellites.
earth.

UNIT 5 SATELLITES
SESSION 4
Exercise 5.4
1. Define the following terms and give four (4) examples

a) Natural satellite and
b) Artificial satellite. .
2. Satellite which relay computer data along with television and radio broadcasts is
called
A. military satellite
B. weather satellite
C. communication satellite
D. remote sensing satellite
3. How many natural satellites does Earth have?
4. State and explain five (5) applications of satellites
5. In a tabular form, distinguish between natural and artificial satellites
6. Any man-made object sent in space to orbit around certain body is called
A. geostationary orbit
B. low earth orbit
C. artificial satellite
D. natural satellite
7. Which planets do not have moons?

SESSION 5
SESSION 5: NATURAL HAZARD AND NATURAL DISASTERS

The devastating occurrence of natural disasters happen every year,
affecting millions of individuals all over the world. Unfortunately, these
events cannot be prevented as they are natural processes of the Earth, being
uncontrollable and often unpredictable. In this session, we shall study natural hazards
and the various types of natural disasters including flood, tornado, hurricane, volcanic
eruption, earthquake, heatwave, or landslide.
Objectives
1. explain natural hazard and natural disaster
2. describe how natural disasters affect human life
3. identify different natural disasters and define them.
Now read on…
5.1 Natural Hazard and Natural Disaster

A natural disaster is the effect of a natural hazard (e.g., flood, tornado, hurricane,
volcanic eruption, earthquake, heatwave, or landslide). A natural hazard is a threat of a
naturally occurring event will have a negative effect on humans. This negative effect is
what we call a natural disaster. In other words when the hazardous threat actually
happens and harms humans, we call the event a natural disaster. We can also explain
natural disasters as being caused by the natural forces of the earth and results in great
damage and possibly loss of life. Therefore, a natural disaster occurs when three things
happen at the same time
• An extreme natural event occurs...
• at a place where many people live...
• and people are surprised by the event, because its effects are sudden or big.
Extreme natural events may cause disasters but some events that seem "natural" are
caused by people. Too much or too little rain may cause floods or drought. But floods
and drought can also happen because we don't take proper care of the earth. If too many
people take too much water, or cut trees faster than nature can replace them, the soil
becomes poor and hard, and won't absorb water properly. If we destroy parts of nature
like coral reefs, forests or fragile mountain plants, we take away natural barriers that
protect us from tsunamis, drought, landslides or other events.

UNIT 5 NATURAL HAZARD AND NATURAL DISASTERS
SESSION 5
5.2 Classification of Natural Hazards

Natural Hazards and the natural disasters that result can be divided into several different
categories:
1. Geologic Hazards - These include:
• Earthquakes
• Volcanic Eruptions
• Tsunami
• Landslides
• Floods
• Subsidence
• Impacts with space objects
2. Atmospheric Hazards - These are also natural hazards but processes operating in the
atmosphere are mainly responsible. They include:
• Tropical Cyclones
• Tornadoes
• Droughts
• Severe Thunderstorms
• Lightening
3. Other Natural Hazards - These are hazards that may occur naturally, but don't fall in
to either of the categories above. They will not be considered to any great extent in
this course, but include:
• Insect infestations
• Disease epidemics
• Wildfires
Let us now study in detail some of the natural disasters listed above.
5.2.1 Earthquake
We'll begin with earthquakes. An earthquake occurs when the earth releases pent-up
energy and causes the ground to shake. That is, earthquakes occur when energy stored
in elastically strained rocks is suddenly released. This release of energy causes intense
ground shaking in the area near the source of the earthquake and sends waves of elastic
energy, called seismic waves, throughout the Earth. Earth's ground is made up of
several very large pieces of land called tectonic plates. Most earthquakes occur when
these plates rub against each other in some way. These same plates also create
mountains when they push against each other. As the mountains are formed,
earthquakes may be felt. Earthquakes can be generated by bomb blasts, volcanic
eruptions, and sudden slippage along faults. Earthquakes are definitely a geologic
hazard for those living in earthquake prone areas, but the seismic waves generated by
earthquakes are in valuable for studying the interior of the Earth. Figure 5.1 shows the
effect of earthquake.

SESSION 5
Figure 5.1: Effect of Earthquake (https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-04258-2)
5.2.2 Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Cyclones

Hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones, as shown in Figure 5.2, refer to the same weather
phenomenon, where a really large storm swirls in circles. You'll see the cloud of the
storm turning in a spiral, touch down on the ground, and then reach toward the sky.
When a storm reaches a wind speed of over 74 miles per hour, it gets classified as a
hurricane, typhoon, or cyclone depending on where the storm is located. The storm is
called a hurricane if it happens in the Atlantic and northern Pacific. If the storm occurs
in the north-western part of the Pacific, then it is called a typhoon. In the southwestern
Pacific and the Indian Ocean, the same type of storm is called a cyclone.

SESSION 5
Figure 5.2: Hurricane, Cyclone and Typhoon

(www.youtube.com/watch?v=2F1RrGwp_go)
5.2.3 Tsunamis
A tsunami (see figure 5.3) consists of huge waves caused by either an underwater
earthquake or volcanic eruption. In Japanese, the word means 'harbour wave.' These
waves can get as high as 100 feet and aren't the gentle waves that you surf on. No, these
are destructive waves that can knock down buildings, trees, and anything else in their
path.
Figure 5.3: Tsunami (https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-06/is-darwin-at-risk-of-

being-hit-by-a-tsunami/10430138)

SESSION 5
5.3.3 Floods
A flood is an overflow of water that covers the earth. This overflow can damage
buildings and cars in its path. From a geological perspective, floods are a natural
consequence of stream flow in a continually changing environment. Floods have been
occurring throughout Earth history, and are expected so long as the water cycle
continues to run. Streams receive most of their water input from precipitation, and the
amount of precipitation falling in any given drainage basin varies from day to day, year
to year, and century to century. In a severe flood, the water can seep into houses and
completely cover them, ruining everything. The main factors that cause flooding are
heavy rainfall, sudden or heavy snow melt, and dam failure.
Weather patterns determine the amount and location of rain and snowfall. Unfortunately
the amount and time over which precipitation occurs is not constant for any given area.
Overall, the water cycle is a balanced system. Water flowing into one part of the cycle
(like streams) is balanced by water flowing back to the ocean. But sometimes the
amount flowing in to one area is greater than the capacity of the system to hold it within
natural confines. The result is a flood. Combinations of factors along with exceptional
precipitation can also lead to flooding. For example, heavy snow melts, water saturated
ground, unusually high tides, and drainage modifications when combined with heavy
rain can lead to flooding.
Areas along coastlines become subject to flooding as a result of tsunamis, hurricanes

(cyclonic storms), and unusually high tides. In addition, long term processes like
subsidence and rising sea level as a result of global warming can lead to the
encroachment of the sea on to the land.
Dams occur as both natural and human constructed features. Natural dams are created
by volcanic events (lava flows and pyroclastic flows), landslides, or blockage by ice.
Human constructed dams are built for water storage, generation of electrical power, and
flood control. All types of dams may fail with the sudden release of water into the
downstream drainage. An example of flooding due to dam as shown in Fig. 5.4, is the
spillage of excess water from the Bagre Dam in the northern region of Ghana.

SESSION 5
Figure 5. : Flooding in the northern region of Ghana as a result of Bagre dam spillage
(www.myjoyonline.com/news/2018/September-3rd/villagers-flee-farmers-furious-
farms-flattened-over-another-bagre-dam-spillage.php)
5.3.4 Landslides
Landslides occur when the ground gets so wet that whatever dirt is on the ground turns
into a liquid mass and flows, like a flood, rapidly down a steep slope. When people or
animals get caught up in the mudslide, it becomes very difficult to get out, as the mud
drags them down. If not rescued, they may die. Figure 5.5 below shows the effect of
landslide that occurred in Sierra Leone.
Figure 5.5: Landslide in Sierra Leone (https://www.theweek.co.uk/87792/hundreds-

killed-by-sierra-leone-mudslide-and-flooding)

SESSION 5
5.3.5 Volcanoes
Volcanoes eruptions (see Fig. 5.6) are caused by magma (a mixture of liquid rock,
crystals, and dissolved gas) expelled onto the Earth's surface. In general, magmas that
are generated deep within the Earth begin to rise because they are less dense than the
surrounding solid rocks. As they rise they may encounter a depth or pressure where the
dissolved gas no longer can be held in solution in the magma, and the gas begins to
form a separate phase (i.e. it makes bubbles just like in a bottle of carbonated beverage
when the pressure is reduced). When a gas bubble forms, it will also continue to grow in
size as pressure is reduced and more of the gas comes out of solution. In other words,
the gas bubbles begin to expand.
If the liquid part of the magma has a low viscosity, then the gas can expand relatively
easily. When the magma reaches the Earth's surface, the gas bubble will simply burst,
the gas will easily expand to atmospheric pressure, and a non-explosive eruption will
occur, usually as a lava flow (Lava is the name we give to a magma when it on the
surface of the Earth).
If the liquid part of the magma has a high viscosity, then the gas will not be able to
expand very easily, and thus, pressure will build up inside of the gas bubble (s). When
this magma reaches the surface, the gas bubbles will have a high pressure inside, which
will cause them to burst explosively on reaching atmospheric pressure. This will cause
an explosive volcanic eruption.
Figure 5.5: Volcanic eruption (www.express.co.uk/news/world/1062308/ring-of-fire-

eruption-2019-prediction-volcano-erupt-hawaii-bali-indonesia-kilauea-etna)

SESSION 5
5.3.6 Heat Waves

The World Meteorological Organization defines a heat wave as a length of five or more
consecutive days of heat exceeding the average maximum temperature of the area by
5°C. In simpler terms, a heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather,
which may be accompanied by high humidity. Heat waves usually occur in the
summertime in warm climates, an area of high pressure with little or no rain or clouds.
Temperatures considered normal by people living in a warmer climate can be termed a
heat wave in a cooler area of the world if the temperatures experienced are outside the
normal climate pattern for the area.
The extreme temperatures and resultant atmospheric conditions adversely affect people
living in the regions where this high temperature occurs as they cause physiological
stress, sometimes resulting in death.
Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becomingly
increasingly frequent globally due to climate change. The impact of climate change in
terms of increased instances of heat waves which are more intense in nature with each
passing year have a devastating impact on human health thereby increasing the number
of heat wave casualties.
Health Impacts of Heat Waves

The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat
exhaustion and/or heat stroke. The signs and symptoms are as follows:
1. Heat Cramps: Ederna (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) generally accompanied
by fever.
2. Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting,
muscle cramps and sweating.
3. Heat Stoke: Body temperatures of 40 oC or more along with delirium, seizures
or coma. This is a potential fatal condition
5.4 Effects of Hazards

Hazardous process of all types can have primary, secondary, and tertiary effects.
 Primary Effects occur as a result of the process itself. For example water damage
during a flood or collapse of buildings during an earthquake, landslide, or hurricane.
 Secondary Effects occur only because a primary effect has caused them. For
example, fires ignited as a result of earthquakes, disruption of electrical power and
water service as a result of an earthquake, flood, or hurricane, or flooding caused by
a landslide into a lake or river.
 Tertiary Effects are long-term effects that are set off as a result of a primary event.
These include things like loss of habitat caused by a flood, permanent changes in the
position of river channel caused by flood, crop failure caused by a volcanic eruption
etc.

SESSION 5
Exercise 5.5
1. Which of the following is not a natural disaster?
A. Tsunami
B. Earthquake
C. Terrorism
D. Hurricane
2. The following are all geological disaster except….
A. Sea surge
B. Earthquake
C. Volcano
D. Tsunami
3. A geophysicist who studies earthquakes and the mechanical characteristics of the
Earth is called ___________.
A. Seismologist
B. Geologist
C. Geographer
D. Archaeologist
4. What causes Tsunami?
A. Sudden vertical movement of the Earth
B. Convergence of destructive plates in the ocean floor
C. Explosive volcanic eruptions in the seas/oceans.
D. All of the above
5. The point where movement occurred which triggered the earthquake is
the…………..
A. dip
B. epicentre
C. focus
D. strike
6. In a short note, distinguish between natural hazard and natural disaster.
7. How are natural hazard and natural disaster related?
8. Briefly explain each of the following naturals disaster and state their impact on
human life:
a) Heat wave
b) Landslide
c) Flooding
d) Earthquake
e) Volcano
9. State the types of natural hazards and give three examples of each.
10. Mention five (5) effects of natural hazard

SESSION 5


THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIT 5
SESSION 6
SESSION 6: MOTION OF THE EARTH AND ECLIPSES

You are welcome to session 6 of unit five. This session introduces
students to the changing seasons we experience on Earth. Eclipses and
causes of eclipses are also discussed in this session
Objectives
1. Distinguish between rotation and revolution of the earth
2. Explain seasonal changes on earth.
3. List and explain briefly the different phases of the moon
4. Explain the causes eclipses
5. Explain the relationship between eclipses and the phases of the Moon.
6. Distinguish between solar and lunar eclipses.
Now read on…
6.1 Motion the Earth and Seasonal Changes

Earth moves through space in several important ways. One type of motion is called
rotation. A rotation is a spin around a centre. For example, imagine a spinning top.
Earth also spins around a central line called an axis at a rate of 1,000 miles (1,609
kilometres) per hour. Earth’s axis is an imaginary vertical line that runs through the
planet from the North Pole to the South Pole as shown in Figure 6.1. If you held a globe
by putting one finger at the North Pole and another finger at the South Pole, the
invisible line that connects your fingers represents the axis. Also the earth orbits the sun
in 365 days, or 1 year and this is known as revolution. The rotational axis of the Earth
is tilted with respect to the normal to the plane of the ecliptic, presently at an angle of
about 23.5°. That is, it doesn't stand up straight but leans over a bit. Because of the
oblate shape of the Earth and the tilt, the Sun exerts a gravitational pull that differs in
force at the two poles. Because the earth is tilted and revolves around the sun, different
parts of the planet receive different amounts of sunlight at different times and therefore
we have seasons of spring, summer, autumn, and winter on Earth. The seasons are a
pattern of weather changes that happen each year. For example, if it is summer in the
Northern Hemisphere of Earth, it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere.
Why, then, does it feel like Earth is standing still?

In comparison to humans and other things on Earth, the planet is incredibly huge.
Because of this difference in size, you cannot feel the speed of Earth’s rotation. We
know the planet is rotating, though, because we see the effects of it every day. Earth
makes one complete rotation on its axis every 23 hours and 59 minutes, which is
rounded up to 24 hours. As Earth rotates on its axis, the different locations on Earth
change position in relation to the Sun. A city on Earth that faces toward the Sun at noon

UNIT 5 MOTION OF THE EARTH AND ECLIPSES
SESSION 6
will rotate to face away from the Sun 12 hours later. The positions of Earth and the Sun
over the course of a 24-hour rotation cause sunrise, sunset, day, and night.
At all times, half of Earth faces toward the Sun and half faces away from the Sun. The
half that faces toward the Sun is illuminated by the Sun’s glow. It is daytime on that
half of the planet. At the same time, the half of Earth that faces away from the Sun is in
darkness. It is night time on that half of the planet (see Fig. 6.1). As Earth rotates, the
Sun-facing half steadily moves from sunlight into darkness. From our position on Earth,
this appears as sunset. Meanwhile, the dark-facing half of Earth steadily moves into the
sunlight. We see this process as sunrise.
Figure 6.1: Rotation of the earth about its axis

(https://www.dkfindout.com/uk/space/solar-system/day-and-night/)
6.2 Phases of the Moon

The moon is a cold, rocky body of about 2,160 miles (3,476 km) in diameter. It
has no light of its own but shines by sunlight reflection from its surface. The moon
orbits earth about once every 29½ days. As it rotates the earth, the changing position of
the moon with respect to the sun causes the moon which is the earth’s natural
satellite to cycle through a series of phases namely,
New Moon →New Crescent → 1st Quarter → Waxing Gibbous →Waning
Gibbous → Last Quarter → Old Crescent → New Moon.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIT 5
SESSION 6
The phase known as new moon cannot actually be seen because the side of the moon
then points away from earth as shown in figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2: Phases of the moon (www.sciencelearn.org.nz/images/684-moon-phases)

Sunlight is shown coming from the right. The earth is in the centre of the diagram (Fig.
20). The moon is shown in various stages during its revolution around the earth. The
moon phase name is shown along the image. The larger moon images show what one
see at that point in the cycle.
6.2.1 Understanding the Phases of the Moon

Understanding the moon cycle in the order of New moon, and full moon, first
quarter and third quarter while you now fix the phase between. From Fig 20, the
appearances of the moon in the cycle can be explained.
• New Moon: This occurs when the moon is positioned between the earth and sun.
The three are in approximate alignment showing that the entire moon is at the back
side, which cannot be seen. It means the moon is between the sun and the earth.
• Full Moon: At the full moon, the earth, moon and the sun are in
approximate alignment just as at the new moon but the moon is on the opposite side
of the earth, so that the sunlit part of the moon is facing the earth. The earth is now
between the sun and the moon. The entire illuminated portion of the moon is facing
the earth while the shadowed part is hidden.

SESSION 6
• The First Quarter and Third Quarter: Moon at these two portions are halved
often referred to as “half-moon”. This happens when the moon is at a 900 angle with
respect to the earth and sun. The half of the moon illuminated is seen while the 900
shadowed is unseen. In the First Quarter, you see the right half while in the Third
Quarter you see the left half of the moon.
• Waxing Crescent: After the new moon, the sunlit portion still increasing but it is
now more than half, it is then “Waxing Gibbous”. While after the full moon
(maximum illumination), the light continually decrease. So the waning “gibbous
phase” occurs next. Following the third quarter, is the waning crescent which wanes
until light is completely gone – a new moon.
6.3 Eclipse
An eclipse takes place when Earth or the moon passes through a shadow of another
heavenly body. There are two types of eclipses on Earth: an eclipse of the moon (Lunar
Eclipse) and an eclipse of the sun (Solar Eclipse).
6.3.1 Lunar Eclipse

A lunar eclipse is an eclipse of the Moon rather than the sun (see Fig. 6.3). It happens
when the moon passes through earth’s shadow. This happen only when the moon is in
the full moon phase.
Figure 6.3: Lunar Eclipse
6.4 Types of Lunar Eclipse

 Total Lunar Eclipse: this occurs when the earth’s umbra (the central, dark part of
its shadow) obscures all of the moon’s surface.
 Partial Lunar Eclipse: This can be observed when only part of the moon’s surface
is obscured by the earth’s umbra.
 Penumbral Lunar Eclipse: This happens when the moon travels through the faint
penumbral portion of the earth’s shadow.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIT 5
SESSION 6
6.4.1 Solar Eclipse

An eclipse of the sun (solar eclipse) can only occur during the new moon phase when
the moon passes between the earth and sun. When the moon’s shadow falls upon earth’s
surface, it is seen that some portion of the sun disk covered or “eclipsed” by the moon.
Since the new moon occurs 29½ days, one will expect this to occur frequently, but this
is not the case because the moon’s orbit around the earth is tilted 5 degrees to earth’s
orbit around the sun. As a result, the moon’s shadow usually misses earth as it passes
above or below the earth at new moon. At least twice in a year, the geometry lines up
just right so that some parts of the moon’s shadow falls on earth’s surface (see Fig. 6.4)
and an eclipse of the sun is seen from that region.
Figure 6.4: Solar Eclipse
The moon’s shadow has two parts which are;

1. Penumbra:
i. The moon’s faint outer shadow
ii. Partial solar eclipses are visible from within the penumbral shadow
2. Umbra:
i. The moon’s dark inner shadow.
ii. Total solar eclipses are visible from within the umbral shadow
When the moon’s penumbral shadow strike earth, a partial eclipse of the sun is seen
from that region. Partial eclipses are dangerous to look at because the un-eclipsed part
of the sun is still very bright.
Types of Solar Eclipse

If the moon is at one of its ‘nodes’ at new moon, a solar eclipse can occur. There are
different kinds of solar eclipses:
 Total Solar Eclipse: If the sun and moon are aligned and the moon’s angular
diameter is greater than that of the sun, then we have a total solar eclipse. That is the
moon completely covers the sun as seen from the earth.
 Annular Solar Eclipse: This occurs when the sun and moon are aligned but the
moon is too far away from the earth to completely cover the sun disk. In other
words, moon appears smaller than the sun as it passes centrally across the solar disk
and a bright ring, or annulus, of sunlight remains visible during the eclipse.

SESSION 6
 Partial Solar Eclipse: It occurs when the moon is quite at one of its nodes. The
moon only partially covers the disk of the sun.
 Hybrid solar Eclipse: Some solar eclipses are such that they are annular at the start
and end of the track, and total in the middle. The radius of the earth is just big
enough to make a total eclipse in the middle. This is rare form of solar eclipse which
changes from an annular to a total solar eclipse and vice versa along its path.
Exercise 5.6
1. What causes the angle of the sun’s rays to change during the year on Earth?
A. the tilt of Earth’s axis
B. the sun’s slow rotation
C. Earth’s distance from the sun
D. Earth’s rotation
2. What is the difference between rotation and revolution?
3. Seasons are caused by Earth’s
A. orbit and tilted axis
B. tilted axis and size
C. orbit and distance from the sun
D. orbit and distance from the moon
4. Which of these occurs during a solar eclipse?
A. The sun’s rays shining toward Earth create a shadow on the moon.
B. The moon blocks the sun’s rays from reaching Earth.
C. The sun blocks the moon’s rays from reaching Earth.
D. The moon’s rays shining toward Earth create a shadow on the sun.
5. The gradual change in the length of your shadow over the course of the day is
caused by_________.
A. the revolution of Earth around the Sun
B. the rotation of Earth on its axis
C. the revolution of the Moon around Earth
D. The rotation of the Moon on its axis
6. Which gives the correct order of the moon’s phases?
A. full->first quarter->new->third quarter
B. first quarter->new->full->third quarter
C. new->first quarter->full->third quarter
D. first quarter->third quarter->full->new
7. How much of the moon is always reflecting light from the sun?
A. Half of the moon is reflecting sunlight only during the new moon phase.
B. Half of the moon is reflecting sunlight only during the full moon phase.
C. All of the moon is reflecting sunlight at all times.
D. Half of the moon is reflecting sunlight at all times.
8. Which pattern of changes takes about a month to complete?

THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIT 5
SESSION 6
A. day and night

B. the seasons
C. the moon’s phases
D. occurrence of eclipses
9. How long does it take Earth to make one full rotation on its axis?
A. 365 days
B. 24 hours
C. 30 days
D. 12 hours
10. With the aid of a diagram, distinguish between a solar eclipse and a lunar eclipse?
11. Briefly explain the types of solar and lunar eclipses.
12. List in correct order the phases of the moon

SESSION 6


TYPES OF WASTE, EFFECTS OF WASTE
AND WASTE MANAGEMENT UNIT 6
UNIT 6: TYPES OF WASTE, EFFECTS OF WASTE AND

WASTE MANAGEMENT
Unit Outline
Session 1: Types of Waste
Session 2: Classification of Waste
Session 3: Effects of Waste on the Environment
Session 4: Effects of Waste on Health
Session 5: Waste Management Strategies
Session 6: Waste Management Strategies in Ghana
According to the World Bank, Around the world, waste generation
rates are rising. In 2016, the worlds’ cities generated 2.01 billion
tonnes of solid waste, amounting to a footprint of 0.74 kilograms
per person per day. With rapid population growth and urbanization, annual waste
generation is expected to increase by 70% from 2016 levels to 3.40 billion tonnes in
2050.
Compared to those in developed nations, residents in developing countries, especially
the urban poor, are more severely impacted by unsustainably managed waste. In low-
income countries, over 90% of waste is often disposed in unregulated dumps or openly
burned. These practices create serious health, safety, and environmental consequences.
Poorly managed waste serves as a breeding ground for disease vectors, contributes to
global climate change through methane generation, and can even promote urban
violence.
Managing waste properly is essential for building sustainable and liveable cities, but it
remains a challenge for many developing countries and cities. Effective waste
management is expensive,. Operating this essential municipal service requires
integrated systems that are efficient, sustainable, and socially supported. This session
will discuss why you should pay attention to waste management by highlighting the
different waste types, their environmental and health effects, waste management
methods and Ghana’s waste management options.
Unit Objectives
At the end students will be able to:
• define waste
• state at least four types and sources of waste
• explain why waste should be properly managed
• list three effect s of waste on humans and the environment
• explain the significance of waste hierarchy
• responsibilities of citizens and waste managers
• explain the significance of waste management legislation
• classify e-waste
• explain the role of consumers and producers of electronic devices in managing
E-wastes
TYPES OF WASTE, EFFECTS OF WASTE AND
UNIT 6 WASTE MANAGEMENT


TYPES OF WASTE, EFFECTS OF WASTE AND UNIT 6
WASTE MANAGEMENT SESSION 1
SESSION 1: TYPES OF WASTE
Hello, and welcome to unite 6, session 1. This session will introduce

you to some possible sources of waste generated in our environment. To
comply with the waste legislation, source of waste generation are very crucial for
classification and prudent management. However, various sources of waste will be
discussed.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to list some sources of waste and
discuss the sources of the various waste materials
1.0 Introduction
Waste has been a major environmental issue everywhere since the industrial revolution.
Besides the waste we create at home, school and other public places, there are also
those from hospitals, industries, farms and other sources. Humans rely so much on
material things and they all, almost, end up as waste (trash, garbage, rubbish, refuse).
Where does the waste end up? Household-generated waste as a result of domestic
activities. Similar waste generated in the service sector and in some industries, are also
considered to be domestic. Some waste are hazardous and all these waste has to be
properly managed to ensure a clean and healthy environment.
1.1 What is Waste?

Wastes are produced from different activities such as household activities, agricultural
activities industrial activities, hospitals, educational institutions, mining operations, and
so on. Waste is defined as unwanted and unusable materials and is regarded as a
substance which is of no use. Waste that we see in our surroundings is also known as
garbage. Garbage is mainly considered as a solid waste that includes wastes from our
houses (domestic waste), wastes from schools, offices, etc. (municipal wastes) and
wastes from industries and factories (industrial wastes). Waste is all materials
considered to be garbage and needs to be eliminated. We live in a world in which waste
production is continually increasing and the economic activity linked to them is
becoming increasingly important.
The waste generated needs to be classified in order to apply the correct form of
management. Generally, it could be liquid (wet) or solid (dry) waste. Both of them
could be hazardous (harmful waste) that threaten public health or the environment.
Liquid and solid waste types can also be grouped into organic, re-usable and recyclable
waste. Let us see some details below:

UNIT 6 TYPES OF WASTE
SESSION 1
Liquid waste can come in liquid form. Some solid waste can also be converted to a
liquid waste form for disposal. It includes point source and non-point source discharges
such as storm water and wastewater. Examples of liquid waste include wash water from
homes, liquids used for cleaning in industries and waste detergents.
Solid waste mainly, is any garbage, refuse or rubbish. These include newspapers, old
car tires, old broken furniture and even food waste. They may include any waste that is
non-liquid.
Organic waste produced from plants or animals sources. They include vegetable peels,
food waste, fruit and flower trimmings and even dog poop can be classified as organic
waste. They are biodegradable, this means they are easily broken down by other
organisms over time and turned into manure.
Recyclable waste is that is processed into new materials, useful products. This is done to
reduce the use of raw materials that would have been used. Waste aluminum products
or cans, Plastics, glass and Paper products can be recycled.
1.2 Sources of waste

Where does it come from?
There are different classifications, depending on their origin, composition, danger, etc.
Sources of waste can be broadly classified into four types: Industrial, Commercial,
Domestic, and Agricultural. The source of waste can be described as
domestic/municipal, industrial commercial and agricultural waste
Domestic/Municipal Solid Waste: Household-generated waste as a result of domestic
activities. Similar waste generated in the service sector and in some industries, are also
considered to be domestic. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) contains a wide variety of
materials. It can contain food waste which is classified as wet garbage, large amount of
paper, plastic, tetra packs, plastic cans, glass bottles, metal items, wood pieces,
aluminum foil and many more items. The plastic, glass paper and metals components of
municipal solid wastes can be recycled many times.
1. Industrial Waste: Waste resulting from the processes of manufacture,
processing, utilisation, consumption, cleaning or maintenance generated by
industrial activity, excluding emissions into the atmosphere.
2. Commercial Waste: Commercial wastes are produced in the schools, colleges,
shops, and offices. Example: plastic, paper, etc.
3. Agricultural Waste: Various wastes produced in the agricultural field are known
as agricultural wastes. Example: cattle waste, weed, husk, etc.
In general, wastes has been categorized as follows:

Solid wastes: The solid wastes are the useless and unwanted substances discarded by
human society. These include urban wastes, industrial wastes, agricultural wastes,
biomedical wastes and radioactive wastes. The term refuse is also used for solid waste.

TYPES OF WASTE, EFFECTS OF WASTE AND UNIT 6
Liquid wastes: Wastes generated from washing, flushing or manufacturing processes of

industries are called liquid wastes. Such a waste is called sewage. The most common
practice is to discharge it on the ground, nallahs, rivers and other water bodies, often
without any treatment.
Gaseous wastes: These wastes are released in the form of gases from automobiles,
factories, burning of fossil fuels etc. and get mixed in the atmosphere. These gases
include carbon monoxide, CO2, sulphur dioxide, SO2, nitrogen dioxide NO2, ozone O3,
methane CH4, etc.
1.3 Waste Segregation

In most developed countries you will find some form of waste segregation. Office
should have a bin for paper and cardboard, the gym has a mixed recyclables bin, even
your house should have some form of waste segregation before collection. But how
important is it to put the right waste in the right bins? In some countries, you have a
legal obligation to correctly describe waste as it leaves your site using the correct waste
transfer documentation.
Why should I segregate my waste properly?

In most developed countries you will find some form of waste segregation. Office
should have a bin for paper and cardboard, the gym has a mixed recyclables bin, even
your house should have some form of waste segregation before collection. But how
important is it to put the right waste in the right bins? In some countries, you have a
legal obligation to correctly describe waste as it leaves your site using the correct waste
transfer documentation. This blog will discuss why you should pay attention to waste
segregation.
The first reason is that in countries this is practiced, it is legally required. You are
required to segregate paper, cardboard, plastic, metal and glass at source unless it is
technically or economically unfeasible. You should have to implement the waste
hierarchy; reduce, reuse, recycle, other recovery and disposal. By law, you should
implement this hierarchy and segregation helps with recycling in particular.
Waste segregation is included in law because it is much easier to recycle. .Effective
segregation of wastes means that less waste goes to landfill which makes it cheaper and
better for people and the environment. It is also important to segregate for public
health. In particular, hazardous wastes can cause long term health problems, so it is
very important that they are disposed of correctly and safely and not mixed in with the
normal waste coming out of your home or office.

UNIT 6 TYPES OF WASTE
SESSION 1
Segregated waste is also often cheaper to dispose of because it does not require as much
manual or mechanical sorting as mixed waste. There are a number of important reasons
that we encourage waste segregation; legal obligations, cost savings and protection of
human health and the environment So when you are presented with a choice to put your
plastic bottle in a general waste bin or a plastic bin, reach over to the plastic one and
pop it in there.
Exercise 6.1
1. The term Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is generally used to describe:

(a) Wastes from industrial processes, construction and demolition debris.
(b) Wastes from Private homes, commercial establishments and institutions.
(c) Mining wastes
(d) Agricultural wastes
2.What is the largest single component of municipal solid waste (MSW?
3. Which of the following can be recycled many times?

a) Plastic
b) Wood
c) Organic materials
d) Alumnum
4. Which of the following is the most serious environmental effect posed by hazardous
wastes?
(a) Air pollution
(b) Contamination of groundwater
(c) Increased use of land for landfills.
(d) None of these
5.Waste is any material that is not needed by the

(A) owner
(B) producer
(C) processor
(D) all of the above
6-Which of the following is true?

(A) there is no real waste in nature
(B) the apparent waste from one process becomes input to another
(C) all processes of production and consumption produce waste
(D) all of the above

TYPES OF WASTE, EFFECTS OF WASTE UNIT 6
AND WASTE MANAGEMENT SESSION 2
SESSION 2: CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE

In this session, we shall consider classifying waste. To comply with the
waste legislation as explained earlier in session 1, those who generate
waste are responsible for classifying their waste into classes so as to make it easier to
manage. Various forms of waste classifications will be discussed.
Introduction
Wastes are produced from different activities such as household activities, agricultural
activities industrial activities, hospitals, educational institutions, mining operations, and
so on. Waste is defined as unwanted and unusable materials and is regarded as a
substance which is of no use. Waste that we see in our surroundings is also known as
garbage. Garbage is mainly considered as a solid waste that includes wastes from our
houses (domestic waste), wastes from schools, offices, etc. (municipal wastes) and
wastes from industries and factories (industrial wastes). Waste, according to the Spanish
Law on Waste is all materials considered to be garbage and needs to be eliminated. The
elimination is to avoid health or environmental problems but also due to the shortage
and depletion of raw materials, the recovery or recycling of waste is to be prioritised
wherever feasible.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to list some examples of waste
and discuss them
2.0 Waste and their Classification

In general, wastes has been categorized as follows:
With these three categories, waste can be commonly classified into two types:
Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable waste. These two kinds of wastes are explained
below (Figure 1):
Figure 1: classification of waste

UNIT 6 CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE
SESSION 2
2.1 Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable waste

Waste generated from gardens and parks, food and kitchen waste from homes,
restaurants, collective catering services, retail establishments and from food processing
plants. Biodegradable waste is also known as moist waste. This can be composted to
obtain manure. Biodegradable wastes decompose itself over a period of time depending
on the material.
Solid or as paste that once deposited in a landfill do not undergo significant physical-
chemical or biological transformations. These are the wastes which include old
newspaper, broken glass pieces, plastics, etc. Non-biodegradable waste is known as dry
waste or sometimes refer to as “Inert Waste”. Dry wastes can be recycled and can be
reused. Non-biodegradable wastes do not decompose by themselves and hence are
major pollutants.
2.2 Hazardous Waste

Waste material that is flammable, corrosive, reactive, or toxic—which can be in the
form of a solid, liquid, or gas—is defined as hazardous waste. Although the term
often evokes an image of items marked with skull and crossbones, many hazardous
wastes include products used every day, including paint, used oil from cars, batteries,
shoe polish, and even laundry detergent. In addition, many of the items that we rely
upon generate hazardous waste during the process of their production. And are
potentially dangerous or harmful to the environment or human health.
Some hazardous solid waste items are widely generated by all sectors of the population.
This category includes items such as batteries, certain light bulbs, mercury-containing
equipment, and in some situations pesticides. These are called Universal wastes.
Mixed wastes are hazardous solid waste items that are radioactive. This includes waste
materials associated with radionuclide (radioisotope) generation and use in veterinary
medicine.
Household hazardous waste

Household hazardous wastes are hazardous solid wastes that are generated in small
amounts by individual households across the nation. This category includes various
household cleaners, paints, solvents and other chemicals. Some of the items in this
category, such as batteries, light bulbs and pesticides, are also considered universal
waste.
2.3 Non-hazardous waste

Non-hazardous wastes are those that are not classified as hazardous as they do not
possess dangerous characteristics. They also comprise the other category of solid waste.
However, it is not safe to assume that waste classified as "non-hazardous" poses no risk.
This category is further subdivided into municipal solid waste and industrial waste.
2.4 Municipal Solid Waste

The wastes, collected from the residential houses, markets, streets and other places
mostly in the urban areas and disposed of by municipal bodies are called municipal
solid wastes. In general, the urban solid wastes are the typical garbage or trash and
refuse. Solid waste from places like your atic, backyard or study is called Trash. Trash
items include paper and card boxes and the like. Garbage: This is waste from kitchen
and bathroom. They also include waste from cooking food and from food storage
facilities.
The Municipal solid wastes are a mixture of paper, plastic, clothes, metals, glass, and
organic matter, including animal carcasses generated from households, commercial
establishments and markets. The proportions of different constituents vary from season
to season and place to place depending on the life style, food habits, standard of living
and the extent of commercial and industrial activities in the area. Municipal solid wastes
are collected locally and the amount collected depends upon the size and consumption
of the population.
2.5 Industrial Wastes

Industrial wastes are released from chemical plants, paint industries, cement factories,
power plants, metallurgical plants, mining operations, textile industries, food processing
industries petroleum industries and thermal power plants. These industries produce
different types of waste products. Industrial solid wastes can be classified into two
groups.
Non-hazardous wastes: These wastes are produced from food processing plants, cotton
mills, paper mills, sugar mills and textile industries. Hazardous wastes: Hazardous
wastes are generated by nearly every industry. Metals, chemical, drugs, lather, pulp,
electroplating, dye, rubber are some of important examples. Liquid Industrial waste that
runs into a stream from a factory can kill the aquatic fauna and also cause health
problems for humans.
2.6 Agricultural wastes

Various wastes produced in the agricultural field are known as agricultural wastes.
Produce plants- weed, husk, etc. and animals like wastes cattle waste. Excess use of
fertilizer, pesticides and other chemicals used in agriculture and the wastes formed from
these cause land and water pollution. They also contaminate the soil. Other agriculture
wastes are produced from food and tobacco processing factories, slaughter houses,
livestock, poultry etc.

SESSION 2
2.7 Commercial Wastes

With the advancement of modem cities, industries and automobiles, huge amount of
wastes are generated daily. These include markets, roads, buildings, hotels, commercial
complexes, hostels, auto workshops, printing press etc. Hospitals, nursing homes and
medical institutes also release tremendous amount of wastes which are hazardous and
are much toxic in nature. Many chemicals and disposable items are also produced from
these units. These wastes are dumped in inhabited areas which pose much danger to
human health and life and cause several types of infectious diseases. Apart from wastes,
generated from the above sources, there are certain wastes produced from mining
activities and radioactive substances that cause much damage to the society and
environment.
Waste from mining activities, radioactive substances and medical facilities are also
commercial wastes. Bio-medical wastes from hospitals, medical centers and nursing
homes, Pharmacies and testing laboratories These wastes are highly infectious which
include used bandages, infected needles, animal remains, cultures, amputated body
organs, dead human fetuses, wastes of surgery and other materials from biological
research centres.
Dual waste
Dual wastes are both hazardous solid waste and infectious or potentially infectious
items (regulated medical waste). Examples include non-empty syringes containing
hazardous waste pharmaceuticals with needles attached.
2.8 Electronic Waste

Electronic waste, also called e-waste, is the various forms of electric and electronic
equipment that have ceased to be of value to their users or no longer satisfy their
original purpose. These are electronic products have exhausted their utility value
through either redundancy, replacement, or breakage and include goods such as
refrigerators, washing machines, microwaves, televisions, radios set, computers, and
cell phones (Figure2). Given that the information and technology revolution has
exponentially increased the use of new electronic equipment, it has also produced
growing volumes of obsolete products; e-waste is one of the fastest-growing waste
streams. Globally, e-waste constitutes more than 5 percent of all municipal solid waste
and is increasing with the rise of sales of electronic products in developing countries.

Figure 2: Types and sources of e-waste
Although e-waste contains complex combinations of highly toxic substances that pose a
danger to health and the environment. Electronic scrap components, such as CPUs,
contain potentially harmful materials such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated
flame retardants. Many of the products also contain recoverable precious materials,
making it a different kind of waste compared with traditional municipal waste.
The complex composition and improper handling of e-waste adversely affect human
health. A growing body of epidemiological and clinical evidence has led to increased
concern about the potential threat of e-waste to human health, especially in developing
countries such as India and China. For instance, in terms of health hazards, open
burning of printed wiring boards increases the concentration of dioxins in the
surrounding areas. These toxins cause an increased risk of cancer if inhaled by workers
and local residents. Toxic metals and poison can also enter the bloodstream during the
manual extraction and collection of tiny quantities of precious metals, and workers are
continuously exposed to poisonous chemicals and fumes of highly concentrated acids.

SESSION 2
2.8.1 Environmental Impacts

Although electronics constitute an indispensable part of everyday life, their hazardous
effects on the environment cannot be overlooked or underestimated. The processes of
dismantling and disposing of electronic waste in developing countries led to a number
of environmental impacts as illustrated in the graphic. Liquid and atmospheric releases
end up in bodies of water, groundwater, soil, and air and therefore in land and sea
animals – both domesticated and wild, in crops eaten by both animals and human, and
in drinking water.
The emission of fumes, gases, and particulate matter into the air, the discharge of liquid
waste into water and drainage systems, and the disposal of hazardous wastes contribute
to environmental degradation. In addition to tighter regulation of e-waste recycling and
disposal, there is a need for policies that extend the responsibility of all stakeholders,
particularly the producers, beyond the point of sale and up to the end of product life.
The toxic industrial effluent is poured into underground aquifers and seriously affects
the local groundwater quality, thereby making the water unfit for
human consumption or for agricultural purposes.
Atmospheric pollution is caused by dismantling activities as dust particles loaded with
heavy metals and flame retardants enter the atmosphere. These particles either redeposit
(wet or dry deposition) near the emission source or, depending on their size, can be
transported over long distances. The dust can also enter the soil or water systems and,
with compounds found in wet and dry depositions, can leach into the ground and cause
both soil and water pollution.
2.8.2 Classification of E-waste

E-waste can be classified on the basis of its composition and components. Ferrous and
nonferrous metals, glass, plastics, pollutants, and other are the six categories of
materials reported for e-waste composition. Iron and steel constitute the major fraction
in waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) materials, with plastics being the
second largest. Nonferrous materials, including metals such as copper and aluminum,
and precious metals such as silver, gold, and platinum are third in abundance and have
significant commercial value. Toxic materials include lead and cadmium in circuit
boards, lead oxide and cadmium in cathode ray tubes, mercury in switches and flat-
screen monitors, brominated flame retardants on printed circuit boards, and plastic and
insulated cables; when these exceed the threshold quantities, they are regarded as
pollutants and can damage the environment if disposed of improperly.
One of the most widely accepted classifications is based on European Union directives
that divide e-waste into the 10 following categories:
1. Large household appliances: refrigerators, freezers, washing machines,
clothes dryers, dishwashers, electric cooking stoves and hot plates,
microwaves, electric fans, and air conditioners.

2. Small household appliances: vacuum cleaners, toasters, grinders, coffee

machines, appliances for haircutting and drying, tooth brushing, and shaving.
3. Information technology (IT) and telecommunications equipment:
mainframes, minicomputers, personal computers, laptops, notebooks,
printers, telephones, and cell phones.
4. Consumer equipment: radios, televisions, video cameras, video recorders,
stereo recorders, audio amplifiers, and musical instruments.
5. Lighting equipment: straight and compact fluorescent lamps and high-
intensity discharge lamps.
6. Electrical and electronic tools: drills, saws, sewing machines, soldering irons,
equipment for turning, milling, grinding, drilling, making holes, folding,
bending, or similar processing of wood and metal.
7. Toys, leisure equipment, and sporting goods: electric trains or racing car sets,
video games, and sports equipment with electric elements.
8. Medical devices: radiotherapy equipment, cardiology, dialysis, pulmonary
ventilators, nuclear medicines, and analyzers.
9. Monitoring and control instruments: smoke detectors, heating regulators, and
thermostats.
10. Automatic dispensers: for hot drinks, hot or cold bottles, solid products,
money, and all appliances that automatically deliver various products.
2.9 Managements of E-wastes

All levels of society are required to take measures to manage the generation of e-waste
(discarded electrical or electronic devices) and its associated hazards. The aims of the
Basel Convention are the control and reduction of transboundary movements of
hazardous and other wastes including the prevention and minimization of their
generation, the environmentally sound management of such wastes and the active
promotion of the transfer and use of technologies. Producers and consumers have
greater responsibility for e-waste management. Some measures that Producers and
consumers can take to minimize the problem of e-waste have been listed,
Responsibilities of Producers
1. Collection of e-waste generated during the manufacture of electrical and electronic
equipment and channelizing the same for recycling or disposal.
2. Collection of e-waste generated from the 'end of life' of their products in line with the
principle of 'Extended Producer Responsibility' (EPR), and to ensure that such e-wastes
are channelized to registered refurbisher or dismantler or recycler.
3. Setting up collection centers or take back system either individually or collectively

for all electrical and electronic equipment at the end of their life.

SESSION 2
4. Financing, and organizing a system to meet the costs involved in the environmentally
sound management of e-waste generated from the 'end of life' of its own products and
historical waste available on the date from which these rules come in to force. Such
financing system shall be transparent. The producer may choose to establish such
financial system either individually or by joining a collective scheme.
5. Providing contact details such as address, telephone numbers/helpline number and e-

mail of distributors and authorized collection centers to consumer(s) or bulk
consumer(s) so as to facilitate return of used electrical and electronic equipment.
Responsibilities of Consumers
1. Consumers of electrical and electronic equipment shall ensure that e-waste are
deposited with the dealer or authorized collection centers.
2. Bulk consumers of electrical and electronic equipment shall ensure that e-waste are
auctioned to or deposited with the dealer or authorized collection centers or refurbished
or registered dismantler or recyclers or avail the pick-up or take back services provided
by the producers.
3. Bulk consumers shall file annual returns in Form 3, to the concerned State Pollution
Control Board or Pollution Control Committee on or before the 30th day of June
following to the financial year to which that return relates.
4. Every producer(s), dealer(s), collection centre(s), refurbisher(s), dismantler(s),

recycler(s), auctioneer(s) consumer(s) or bulk consumer(s) shall not import used
electrical and electronic equipment in India for use.

Exercise 6.2
1. The term ‘Municipal Solid Waste’ is used to describe which kind of solid waste?
a) Hazardous
b) Toxic
c) Non hazardous
d) Non toxic
2. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) contains a wide variety of materials.

a) True
b) False
3. Only metal components of municipal solid wastes can be recycled

a) True
b) False
4. What is meant by “Municipal Solid Waste”?
5. What is Municipal Solid Waste composed of?

SESSION 2


SESSION 3
SESSION 3: EFFECTS OF WASTE ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Hello welcome to third session of unit 6. This session take us through

effect of waste on the environment. The session discusses impact of
waste accumulation on terrestrial life, marine environment, land and pollution. This
session will also look at associated negative environmental impacts due to improper
solid waste management in our cities.
Objectives
a) mention three the effects of poor disposal or handling of waste on the
environment.
b) state four health effects of improper disposal or handling of waste
c) explain three effects of improper waste disposal on wildlife.
In this session, let discuses some of the impacts of accumulation of wastes.
Now read on…
3.0 Introduction
Industrialization on a massive scale, increasing urbanization, advance technology in
agriculture and changing life pattern have resulted in the production of huge amount of
wastes. The improper waste disposal creates many ecological and social problems, for
instance, accumulation of wastes in the densely populated areas, disposal of urban
sewage and industrial wastes discharged into rivers etc. affect soil, air and water
ecosystem. Chemical, biological and explosive wastes pose immediate or long run
danger to the life of man, plants and animals. The decomposition of waste into
constituent chemicals is a common source of local environmental pollution. This
problem is especially acute in developing nations. Very few existing landfills in the
worlds poorest countries would meet environmental standards accepted in industrialized
nations, and with limited budgets there are likely to be few sites rigorously evaluated
prior to use in the future. The problem is again compounded by the issues associated
with rapid urbanization. A major environmental concern is gas release by decomposing
garbage, and liquid leachate from solid waste exposed to rain. Improper disposal or
handling of waste leads to environment and health effects.

UNIT 6
SESSION 3
EFFECTS OF WASTE ON THE ENVIRONMENT
3.1 Pollution Effect of Poor Waste Management

Dumping of wastes in a haphazard and irrational manner has serious environmental
impact. Most of the wastes contain organic compounds, a number of inorganic minerals
and other harmful matter which contaminate the environment and lead to, land
degradation, pollution of soil, air and drinking water, destruction of aquatic life and
surface water used for irrigation and industries.
Methane is a by-product of the anaerobic respiration of bacteria, and these bacteria
thrive in landfills with high amounts of moisture. Methane concentrations can reach up
to 50% of the composition of landfill gas at maximum anaerobic decomposition. A
second problem with these gasses is their contribution to the enhanced greenhouse gas
effect and climate change.
Liquid leachate management varies throughout the landfills of the developing world.
Leachate poses a threat to local surface and ground water systems. The use of dense
clay deposits at the bottom of waste pits, coupled with plastic sheeting-type liners to
prevent infiltration into the surrounding soil, is generally regarded as the optimum
strategy to contain excess liquid. In this way, waste is encouraged to evaporate rather
than infiltrate. Dumping of solid wastes has a number of adverse effects on all the
components of an ecosystem and they also affect the aesthetic sense as well.
3.2 Impact of Waste Accumulation on Terrestrial Life

Hazardous wastes may pollute soil, air, surface water and underground water. The oil
pollutants may affect man, plants and animals. These toxic substances are transferred to
different organisms through the food chain and cause a number of complications in
living organisms. Too much accumulation of wastes disturb the behavior of wild and
domestic animals and also cause health problems. Several domestic animals like cow,
buffalo, goat etc. often eat polythene and plastics bags along with food material which
ultimately reach to their alimentary canal causing many disorders and even their death.
3.3 Impact of Waste Accumulation on Fresh Water

Large amount of wastes of human society are disposed of in the rivers, lakes, ponds and
other aquatic bodies making the water polluted which is not fit for drinking and other
domestic purposes. Due to heavy accumulation of wastes into the canals, lakes and
rivers, oxygen concentration is reduced considerably thus affecting the life of fishes and
other aquatic populations. In extreme deficiency of oxygen most of the fishes die. The
toxic wastes reaching the water bodies badly disturb the aquatic life.
The sewage of cities is often drained into the rivers, which is dangerous to flora, fauna
and human life. Sewage from municipalities, sanatoria and tanneries discharged into the
rivers, canals and lakes etc. carry many species of bacteria and other microbes which
cause diseases in human and animals. Many component of waste accumulate in the
body of organisms and cause long-term effects.

SESSION 3
It is a common practice to dump plastic bags, containers, vegetables, fruit peels, cans
etc. in the open area without thinking about its consequences (Fig. 1). We need to be
fully aware that improper disposal of waste spoils the beauty of the landscape.
Figure 3: Some effects of improper disposal or handling of waste on landscape
3.4 Impact of Waste Accumulation on Marine Life

In the past, the oceans were able to assimilate the wastes of the civilization without
noticeable adverse effects. However, industrialization and other associated
developments along with sharp increase in global population have given rise to huge
amounts of wastes that are now taxing the capacity of the oceans to absorb them.
Human wastes ranging from the raw sewage of urban centres to junked appliances and
automobiles have heavily polluted the sea shores. The impacts of waste dumping on
marine life is a matter of great concern that mangrove forests are being damaged at an
alarming rate due to disposal of wastes along sea shores.

UNIT 6
SESSION 3
3.5 Negative Impacts of Improper Solid Waste Management in

Cities
Improper solid waste management systems in cities and towns are resulting in the
following negative impacts on the environment:
a) Dispersed solid waste from the illegal open dumps often blocks the drains and
sewers. Ultimately these blockages are creating flooding and unhygienic conditions
in the cities and towns.
b) During rainy seasons, produced leachate from the open dumped sites is causing
serious pollution to water bodies.
c) Proportion of food waste in open dumps and waste drains are providing an attractive
shelter for rats, damaging electrical cables and other materials in the homes.
d) Uncollected solid wastes from few locations in the city are degrading the urban
environment and discouraging efforts to keep streets and open spaces clean.
e) Discarded polythene bags in collected solid waste often generate an aesthetic
nuisance and they may also cause the death of grazing animals which eat them.
f) Different segregated solid waste materials, such as plastic bottles and medical
supplies, are not being properly cleaned or sterilized by local scavengers.
g) A high percentage of collected solid waste is being treated or disposed of in
unsatisfactory ways, causing a severe aesthetic nuisance in terms of smell and
manifestation.
h) Liquids and fumes, escaping from deposits of chemical wastes are creating fatal or
other serious effects to the community.
3.6 Environmental Issues Associated with Open Dumping

Open dumps of municipal solid waste are creating serious negative impacts on
environment in the various towns and communities. Some of the negative impacts
observed in cities due to open dumping of solid waste:
a) Dust and Filthy Dirt: Strong wind and storm are spreading dust and filth from
the open dumps of solid waste to adjacent areas.
b) Odor: Nearby areas to the open dump sites is being affected due to odor emitting
from these dumps.
c) Rats and other Vermin: Open dumps of communal solid waste are providing
attractive habitat to rats and other vermin.
d) Toxic Gases: Toxic gases are continuously exposed to the atmosphere.
e) Leachate: Percolating rain water through the open dump contaminating ground
water resources.
Open dumps of solid waste are a serious threat to human health and sanitation.

SESSION 3
Exercise 6.3
1. Discuss the environmental issues associated with open dumping.
2. What are the risks of waste accumulation?
3. How can we prevent diseases caused by waste?

UNIT 6
SESSION 3


UNIT 6
SESSION 4: EFFECTS OF WASTE ON HEALTH
Welcome to session four (4). In this session, we shall discuss

effects of waste on health.
There are potential risks to the environment and our health from
improper handling of solid wastes. Direct health risks concern mainly the workers in
this field, who need to be protected, as far as possible, from contact with wastes. There
are also specific risks in handling wastes from hospitals and clinics. Open dumping sites
of municipal solid wastes and the wastes discharged cause environment and our health
problems. For the general public, the main risks to health are indirect and arise from the
breeding of disease vectors, primarily flies and rats. Uncontrolled hazardous wastes
from industries mixing up with municipal wastes create potential risks to human health.
Traffic accidents can result from toxic spilled wastes.
Objectives
The objectives of this session you would be able to:
a) list five health effect of poor waste management
b) explain how waste cause ill health
c) list the five health hazard of waste.
d) state three measures to prevent the incident of illness.
Now read on…
4.1 Health Hazards

Hazardous waste carries environmental risks and also health risks for humans and
wildlife. Some pollutants such as mercury can accumulate in human and animal tissue,
thus compounding their effects. Hazardous waste is primarily generated by industry and
businesses. The health effects from some types of hazardous waste may be temporary or
can also be milder.
A study published in the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences found that
individuals merely living near a hazardous waste site had an increased risk of
developing respiratory diseases. An elevated risk of the development of congenital heart
disease in the offspring of pregnant women living within one mile of a hazardous waste
site.
Flies and mosquitoes breeding are directly linked with open solid waste dumps. The
flies are increasing their population so rapidly due to these waste dumps and they are
very effectual vectors that spread disease. The mosquitoes cause malaria and dengue
diseases
The open burning of collected solid waste cause air pollution issues. It may result in
negative impacts on outdoor air quality. Furthermore, it is also causing illness and
reducing visibility. Proportion of food waste in open dumps and waste drains are

UNIT 6 EFFECTS OF WASTE ON HEALTH
SESSION 4
providing an attractive shelter for rats. It was also reported that these rats are spreading
disease,
A lot of dangerous items (such as broken glass, razor blades, hypodermic needles and
other healthcare wastes, aerosol cans and potentially explosive containers and chemicals
from industries) may cause risks of injury or poisoning, particularly to scavengers and
school going children.
4.2 Health Hazards due to air Pollution

Hazardous air pollutants present in the atmosphere affect human health both directly
and indirectly. It may be a short-term or long-term effect. The following are the adverse
effects on human health:
a) Toxic gas carbon monoxide reduces the blood oxygen and formation of
haemoglobin, causing injury to heart and central nervous system.
b) Sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid both cause irritation in the respiratory tracts of
humans and high concentrations of sulphur dioxide leads to severe heart and lung
diseases like bronchitis, asthma, etc.
c) Nitrogen oxide at higher concentration affects respiratory organs, liver and kidneys.
d) Ozone can seriously affect the pulmonary functions.
e) Lead can cause injury in blood-formation organs and nervous system, especially
impairing of brain functions of new-born babies.
f) Pesticides and radiations are other toxic air pollutants which are very dangerous for
human health.
g) Metal, dusts, asbestos and hydrocarbons shorten the life span and cause
deterioration of nervous system and there is additional risk of cancer.
h) In mining operation, silica and dust cause pneumoconiosis (common disease in mine
workers).
i) Petroleum components can affect the blood forming organs, brain, teeth bones etc.
j) Mercury and cadmium are known to damage the kidneys and brain.
4.3 Health Hazards due to Soil or Land Pollution

The accumulation of toxic chemical compounds, salts, disease-causing organisms and
radioactive materials in the soil cause various health problems. The impact of waste
accumulation in soil/land has shown the following major health effects:
i. The impact of land pollution on human health is indirect. The pollutants added
in the soil enter the human body through water or air through the food chain.
ii. Several agrochemicals compounds and organ phosphorus compounds are super
toxic and cause symptoms like nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, salivation
and muscular tremors.
iii. Some rodenticides as strychnine, sodium fluoro-acetate etc. are blood
coagulants.
iv. Ethylene dichloride, ethylene dibromide and methyl dibromide accumulate in
liver, kidney, heart, spleen and cause degenerative lesions.

UNIT 6
Exercise 6.4
1. What hazards are humans exposed to when wastes are not disposed
off properly?
2. List and explain the cause of three health hazards due to inhaling bad air

UNIT 6 EFFECTS OF WASTE ON HEALTH
SESSION 4


UNIT 6
SESSION 5: WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
There are several methods of managing all the various types of waste.
Some of these methods cause additional harm to the environment, but
not doing anything is not an option. The waste has to be manages in a sustainable way
so that it does not become harmful to humans and the environment. The waste
management hierarchy indicates an order of preference for action to reduce and manage
waste. It can help prevent emissions of greenhouse gases, reduces pollutants, save
energy, conserves resources, create jobs and stimulate the development of green
technologies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical
benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to: Explain the purpose of waste
management.
i. List at least three waste management strategies:
ii. State the importance of waste characterization, separation, treatment and
recycling.
iii. List the various effective methods of waste disposal and discuss how these
methods effectively solve waste problems.
Now read on…
5.1 Meaning and Purpose of Waste Management

Around the world, waste generation rates are rising. In 2016, the worlds’ cities
generated 2.01 billion tonnes of solid waste, amounting to a footprint of 0.74 kilograms
per person per day. With rapid population growth and urbanization, annual waste
generation is expected to increase by 70% from 2016 levels to 3.40 billion tonnes in
2050. Compared to those in developed nations, residents in developing countries,
especially the urban poor, are more severely impacted by unsustainably managed waste.
In low-income countries, over 90% of waste is often disposed in unregulated dumps or
openly burned. These practices create serious health, safety, and environmental
consequences. Poorly managed waste serves as a breeding ground for disease vectors,
contributes to global climate change through methane generation, and can even promote
urban violence. Managing waste properly is essential for building sustainable and
livable cities, but it remains a challenge for many developing countries and cities.
Effective waste management is expensive, often comprising 20%–50% of municipal
budgets. Operating this essential municipal service requires integrated systems that are
efficient, sustainable, and socially supported.

UNIT 6
WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
SESSION 5
5.2 What is waste management?

Is it necessary to manage waste?
Waste management can be briefly defined as the process, in which the different kinds of
waste (solid, liquid, gaseous and electronic) are being collected, processed and recycled
in order to convert them into useful materials or to dispose them in an environmentally
friendly manner. It simply means the collection, transport, processing or disposal,
managing and monitoring of waste materials to minimize its' consequences on humans
and environment.
Humans rely so much on material things that they all almost end up as waste. Since the
industrial revolution when industries were set up to process raw materials in the useful
products, waste has been a major environmental issue everywhere, in the air, rivers, sea
and oceans and on the land. It is created in our homes, schools, hospitals, industries,
farms, markets and public places, by petrol and diesel engines and from other sources.
Everyone creates waste, although some people are very environmentally conscious and
create very little. Others are pretty horrible and have created huge environmental
problems for the people and animals living there. Where does all these wastes end up?
Hazardous waste carries environmental risks and also health risks for humans and
wildlife. They may contain some harmful microorganisms, or chemicals such as
pesticides, lead and mercury which can accumulate in human and animal tissue and
causing infections, diseases and sickness or compound their effects of illness. Common
household items such as cleaners, detergent, insecticides, auto supplies and paint may
contain dangerous chemicals. Waste also make the environment untidy and may
produce objectionable odour. Managing our waste therefore help to avoid or reduce its
harmful consequences on humans and the environment.
5.3 Why is Waste Management Important?

According to some research reports, every year, 2.01 billion tonnes of waste is
generating out of which only 28% of waste is recycled and 72% is left on the roads and
the landfill areas for several years, which is fraught with hazardous consequences.
Presently, most of the developing countries are facing almost similar situation.
Therefore, segregating various kinds of wastes from the households, efficient waste
collection systems, proper disposal, and sustainable recovery are very much needed
processes in modern-day world.
Nothing is waste until it cannot be used anymore in any way. We generally see wastes
piled up but do not think deep enough on how to use them. Today there are many
innovations available in waste management like recycling wastes into usable products,
generating methane or fuels, manufacturing new products for home/commercial usage
such as fence posts, furniture and so on. Therefore, the importance of managing waste
in a very effective way has enhanced many folds now-a-days.

UNIT 6
5.4 Common Ways of Managing Waste
Do you know how waste is treated and disposed of?
Let us see below some common ways of managing waste.
Those common ways of managing waste include the following:

i. Prevention or minimize waste generation
ii. Promote reuse of waste
iii. Collection and Source Separation (recyclables and organics)
iv. Promote recovery of waste
v. Transfer
vi. Recycling of materials
vii. Ensure the treatment and disposal of waste
Recycle
recycling, It involves the collection of used items that would otherwise be considered
waste and processing them into raw materials to them be remanufactured into usable
products or materials. The difference between recycling and reuse is that recycling
involved re-manufacturing the product, whereas re-use can be as little as a fix-up
Recover
Recover can refer to two things – the recovery of materials or the recovery of energy
from waste materials – the preferred option is usually decided by which is best for the
environment and human health. The recovery of materials involves recycling,
composting and other such activities. The recovery of energy, such as incineration or
using biomass boilers, is a way of getting the most out of otherwise useless waste.
Disposal
Processes to dispose of waste be it landfilling, incineration, pyrolisis, gasification and
other finalist solutions, should be justified on the basis of life-cycle thinking. The
absolute last resort, after all the other options have been exhausted is to dispose of the
waste. This involves dumping or incinerating the waste, without extracting any energy.
Most of the time, disposal occurs in an incineration plant, or at a landfill, where waste is
dumped and left to decompose, or not, over time.
Incineration method
This simply means burning waste. This method is common in countries with limited
landfill space. Incineration chambers can be small for domestic use, but there are large
ones for municipal use as well. It is great for treating waste with contamination (like
those from hospitals) and hazardous waste from factories, but the method produces too
much carbon dioxide (see our air pollution lesson). Modern incineration processes are
more efficient and release less dioxin than home fireplaces and backyard barbecues.
This method is very common in Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. This method
is effective, but expensive.

UNIT 6
SESSION 5
Sanitary Landfills
Generally, this term means a large piece of land away from living places where all the
waste from a town is deposited. But there is more to landfills. Proper landfill
management involves sorting out all the waste (waste separation), and sending only the
waste that cannot be recycled and composted to the site.
The three key characteristics of a municipal sanitary landfill that distinguish it from an
open dump are: Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected and prepared landfill site,
the waste material is spread out and compacted with appropriate heavy machinery, the
waste is covered each day with a layer of compacted soil. Although land filling is an
economic alternative for solid waste disposal, it becomes increasingly difficult to find
suitable landfilling sites within economic hauling distance. There will be a danger of
some environmental damage in the form of leakage of leachate
In many towns, sorting is not done, and all the waste (paper, food, diapers, glass) is
mixed up and deposited. That is a problem because, glass, and plastics take thousands
of years to rot or decompose. Additionally, the landfills soon become full, smelly and
unsafe for the environment. Proper waste management is not cheap, but it is something
we all have to get involved and discuss it. The effect of not getting involved can be
catastrophic to our health and environment. Proper landfills, are also lined at the
bottom to minimize the leakage of soil pollutants and other toxins from getting into the
water table. This method is effective, but expensive and difficult.
5.5 The Waste Management Hierarchy

The waste management hierarchy is a concept (an idea) regarding the waste
management, and it acts as a base for developing various waste management strategies.
The sole purpose of introducing this concept is to generate maximum amount of
beneficial products from the available waste.
The “waste hierarchy” ranks waste management options according to what is best for
the environment. It provides guide on how you should aim to manage your waste,
labelling the most favourable option all the way down to the least favoured option for
waste management. It gives top priority to avoidance or preventing of waste in the first
place. When waste is created, it gives priority to preparing it for re-use, then recycling,
then recovery, and last of all disposal (e.g. landfill). It is constructed with sustainability
at the forefront of its layout, with the most favourable being the greenest option and the
least favourite being the most harmful to the environment.
It is a guideline for a zero waste economy. This doesn’t mean that no waste exists, but
that resources are fully valued, financially and environmentally, and are reduced, reused
and recycled as much as possible and thrown away only as a last resort.
It is usually presented diagrammatically in the form of a pyramid as shown (Fig. 4 - 6).
This may be presented as four, five or six step process of waste management. Figure 4,
5 and 6 depicts a four, five and six step of waste management process respectively.

UNIT 6
Figure 4: Four step waste hierarchy option
Figure 5: Five step waste hierarchy option (www.defra.gov.uk )

UNIT 6
SESSION 5
The six step waste hierarchy includes the Lansink’s Ladder. Ad Lansink is
international recognized for the original waste hierarchy (Lansink’s Ladder) and
is often called Father of waste hierarchy.
(a) (b)
Figure 6: Six step waste hierarchy option
The waste management hierarchy suggests that waste prevention (reduction) is the most
sustainable and highly pushed form of waste management, as it minimizes the
generation of waste from the offset. Waste reduction is also done by replacing pollutant
products with biodegradable alternatives. For example replacing disposable plastic bags
with reusable canvas bags. It often result in the least environmental and economic life
cycle cost.
The re-use of waste is the next on the list, and refers to the continued use of items of
which they were initially intended. Often this involves minimal processing- checking,
cleaning, repairing and refurbishing entire product or part. Recycling takes the nest
priority, and refers to the collection of used, reused or unused items, otherwise
considered waste and turning them back into raw materials, ready to be used for another
product. Many businesses already undertake this option through either a personal or
legal choice.
The recovery of waste is split into two categories. Materials and energy. The better of
the two options (for the environment and cost) is considered before either materials and
energy is extracted from the waste. By incinerating waste materials energy (vehicle fuel,
heat, electricity, combined heat and power) can be generated. Composting organic
waste or bio-mass waste in order to generate energy is also a form of energy recovery.
Disposal of waste is the least favoured option, and should be thought of as a last resort
in sorting of waste. Disposal in landfill should be considered once all other options have

UNIT 6
been considered and dismissed. A landfill is a site for disposal of waste material by
burying it in the ground. This is the last method of waste disposal least favoured. Waste
is may be decomposed by pyrolysis (chemically decomposing organic materials by
heat) or incinerated to dispose waste in order to prevent it from being dumped on
landfills.
5.6 Benefits of Waste Management

Saving Natural Resources: It is a matter of serious concern for us when we see that
many natural resources such as trees, gas, and water are diminishing very rapidly. We
all know that paper, cupboards, paper cups, and many other products are made from
trees. However, trees are cut down on a large scale every year and new trees are not
replacing them at the rate they are cut. Therefore, we should think to recycle paper
products so that there is no need of cutting new trees. It is also quite possible to reuse
plastic and metal items. Some countries have established certain sites where people can
bring and sell old newspapers, metal items, or glass. These products are recycled and
used again.
Producing energy: Recycling is a great way to produce energy. By recycling
something, we save energy because more energy is usually needed to produce a new
item. For example, it is possible to get energy from recycling the waste. In some house
garbage has been used to create electricity. It is reported that electricity is generating
from the waste by a special system in their house. First, the dry and wet wastes are
separated, after which the electricity is generated. Electricity in such a large house is
being produced by recycling the wastes.
Reduce pollution: Recycling is a one of the most powerful tools to save nature and
humanity. Making more people aware is a contribution in a better future. The more
people start to manage their waste, the better planet we will have to live in. Apart from
leaving a lot of waste, humanity pollutes the environment by producing various
products. Factories considerably pollute the atmosphere with smoke by manufacturing
processes. Recycling reduces pollution and helps save energy. Sounds like a win-win
solution.
Recycling Rubbish: Rubbish is a big problem for aquatic life too. A lot of rubbish is
thrown away into the sea and ocean. There are large areas of waste called “waste
islands,” which are made of rubbish that has been accumulated in one place. Recycling
rubbish is important for nature and humanity. Recycling begins with rubbish
management. It means that paper items can be collected into a paper bin for paper
waste, glass into a glass bin and so on.

UNIT 6
SESSION 5
5.7 Waste Managed Regulations

Laws on waste management are generally designed to minimize or eliminate the
uncontrolled dispersal of waste materials into the environment in a manner that may
cause ecological or biological harm, and include laws designed to reduce the generation
of waste and promote or mandate waste recycling. These regulations aim at ensuring an
efficient waste management in each and every phase from their formation to their
disposal.
In most developed countries, the waste regulatory laws regulate the waste management;
plans and programs for waste management; rights and obligations of the legal entities
and individuals related to waste management; the manner of and conditions for waste
collection, transportation, treatment, processing, storage and disposal; waste import,
export and transit; monitoring; information system and financing.
Regulatory efforts include identifying and categorizing waste types and mandating
transport, treatment, storage, and disposal practices. The classification of waste as
hazardous or not can become quite complicated, for example determining whether a
material is "hazardous waste" under the U.S laws. In developed countries, disposal
standards govern the permissibility, method, and location of disposal of a particular
waste. Such standards may be designed to protect human health and comfort, and
environmental values. In some instances waste disposal may be restricted conditionally
by requiring that a waste be treated in a specific fashion before it may be disposed of at
a particular location.
In the United States, non-hazardous municipal solid waste may be sent to a landfill,
while used motor oil is deemed hazardous and cannot be dumped in landfills, but rather
is subject to more stringent handling, storage, treatment, and disposal requirements.
Laws and regulatory considerations for solid waste management projects may include
questions of land ownership, public health, standards and accountability, environmental
and social benefits, and other issues. Some examples of solid waste legislation and
policies from different countries are listed: Australia – Waste policy; European Union -
Policies, Laws, Regulations (in English); South Africa - Waste Act 2008 and USA –
Waste Legislation.
Ethiopia - As a result of the PPIAF study (PDF), , Ethiopian passed the Solid Waste
Management law in 2007, which allows private operators to obtain a permit to engage
in the collection, transportation, and use or disposal of waste.
Some regulations place restrictions on landfill locations. Landfills cannot be located:
near airports--danger to aircraft from scavenging birds, in a wetland, in a floodplain--
water contamination, and on an earthquake fault.

UNIT 6
Hazardous and Electronic Waste Control and Management Act (Act 917)
The management of hazardous waste has been on the international environmental
agenda from the early 1980s ,when it was first included as one of the three priority areas
in the United Nations Environment Programme’s (UNEP), Montevideo programme of
Environmental law in 1981.
The Parliament of Ghana has passed an Act to streamline the activities in the waste
collection and management industry to ensure a sound waste management and recycling
systems to save the country’s forests and future generation. In August 2016, the
President of Ghana had signed the Hazardous and Electronic Waste Control and
Management Act (Act 917) followed by the Hazardous, Electronic and other Wastes
(Classification), Control and Management Regulations (LI 2250). Together, the two
legal frameworks set the sustainable management of e-waste in Ghana.
The Act provides for the control, management and disposal of hazardous waste,
electrical and electronic waste in the country. Hazardous waste generally refers to waste
with properties that makes it potentially dangerous or harmful to human health or the
environment and they include liquids, solids or gases which cannot be treated or
disposed of by common means. The Act will also ensure that harmful elements
associated with hazardous and other waste products are captured and processed safely to
preserve critical ecological components such as the soil, groundwater, flora and fauna
The Electronic and other Wastes (Classification), Control and Management Regulations
(LI 2250) provides guidelines specifically address the following five target groups:
Collectors, Collection Centers, Transporters, Treatment Facilities, and Final Disposal
The government of Ghana has decentralized the waste management system in the
country. With this development, local government authorities and private sector actors
are now playing key roles in waste management. Even though the government of Ghana
has decentralized the waste management system, no proper and adequate facilities have
been put in place by the local assemblies to manage waste. Also environmental
awareness is not sufficient enough to ensure change in behavior. Stricter law
enforcement is needed to deter people from dumping indiscriminately.
Exercise 6.5
1. Why is burning waste not an acceptable practice of solid waste
management?
a) Because it is very costly
b) Because it requires modern technologies
c) Because it cause several environmental issues
d) Because it requires lot of space

UNIT 6
SESSION 5
2. What plan should we make to the disposal of solid waste?

a) Integrated waste management plan
b) Recycling of waste management plan
c) Reducing of waste management plan
d) Use of waste management plan
3. How many main components are there in integrated waste management?
a) One
b) Two
c) Three
d) Four
4. Which of the integrated waste management is reduced on an individual level?
a) Source reduction
b) Recycling
c) Disposal
d) Burning
5. Which of the following can be recycled many times?
a) Plastic
b) Wood
c) Organic materials
d) Aluminum
6. How many key characteristics of a municipal sanitary landfill are there?
a) One
b) Two
c) Three
d) Four
7. What is called for the process of burning municipal solid waste in a properly
designed furnace under suitable temperature and operating conditions?
a) Landfill
b) Recycling
c) Vermicomposting
d) Incineration
8. Landfills, though the least expensive method of waste disposal, are fraught with
numerous environmental problems.
a. True
b. False
9. What plan should we make to the disposal of solid waste?
a) Integrated waste management plan
b) Recycling of waste management plan
c) Reducing of waste management plan
d) Use of waste management plan

UNIT 6
SESSION 6: WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN GHANA

Throwing daily waste and garbage in the landfills, and open
dumping sites are the most popularly used methods of waste disposal in
most developing countries. Disposal of waste into landfills focuses attention on burying
the waste in the land. Landfills are commonly found in developing countries.
Combustion as type of disposal method in which municipal solid wastes are burned at
high temperatures, is usually done in the open dump site in developing countries. The
collection, transport, processing or disposal, managing and monitoring of waste
materials is to minimize its adverse effects on human health and the environment. The
management of waste is one of Ghana’s major problems. Amongst the factors that has
contributed to Ghana’s waste management problems are poverty and ignorance among
citizens, wrong perception about solid waste, non-regulation of waste management
companies, poor planning, lack of enforcement rapid urbanization and unplanned
settlements.
Objectives
The objectives of this session by the end of lesson students would be able to:
i. List at least three waste management methods in Ghana
ii. Explain the causes of poor waste management in Ghana
iii. Explain the importance of legislation in waste management
iv. State some effect of weak enforcement of legislation
Now read on…
6.1 What are the Waste Management Challenges?

The management of both liquid and solid waste has over the years been a burden for
city authorities in Ghana (including villages). In populated cities like Accra and
Kumasi, where over large quantities of solid waste is generated daily. The waste
management authorities are not able to manage the waste properly. The capacity of
authorities has been greatly overwhelmed by the ever-increasing amounts of waste at
urban centres. The collection and disposal of this huge amount of solid waste is a bane
to the waste managers due to weak institutional capacities, inadequate resources and
facilities: -trucks, treatment and recycling plants, and properly engineered disposal sites.
Consequently, heaps of solid waste common sights in our cities mostly near market
centres, lorry stations, low income areas and other public places. This huge piles of
waste in most towns and villages pose serious risks to human life and the environment.
6.2.1 What are the causes of poor waste management?

The filth found in cities of most developing countries, is dependent on the widespread
Ignorance and poverty among the populace. Mostly communities in the developing
world are not clean, while the developed world generally has squeaky clean

UNIT 6 WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN GHANA
SESSION 6
environments. The heaps of waste piled up along the streets or accumulated in gutters is
indicative of a cultural practice and poor waste handling and management. The reckless
littering attitude among the populace is inimical to the current environmental
sanitation situation across the country. Due to blatant disregard for the environment,
people litter the environment indiscriminately. It is evident that our environments has a
lot of filthy. It is therefore by addressing this fundamental problem that we can escape
from the filth that have engulfed us The problem is as a result of the fact that most
citizens are not aware of the linkage between poor sanitation and human health. Even
where the citizens are adequately informed about the health effects of insanitary
conditions, they are sometimes unable to do otherwise due to the prevailing waste
management practices.
Even though solid waste management goes way beyond just collecting the solid waste
generated to a landfill site, the wrong perception about solid waste management has also
compounded the problem. While other developed countries like Singapore, Philippines,
Sweden and others are making money out of solid waste, Ghanaians regard all forms of
solid waste in landfill site as the best option. Therefore, most waste management
companies, which are supposed to benefit from converting useful resources in our solid
waste stream into valuable products have just become waste collection companies. They
only collect all the solid waste generated to the landfill site or any other site they
consider appropriate as most towns do not have properly engineered disposal sites.
Waste pile up in our communities when places of disposal are not available or waste
transport trucks break down.
In most locations, communal containers usually overflow with heaps of waste before
they are collected for disposal. Even in areas where there is door-to-door services where
residents pay some monies on monthly basis for waste collection; and areas where
waste disposal companies are paid by the central government for collecting and
transporting waste to the final disposal site, the communal containers usually overflow
with heaps of waste. Generally, non-payment of monies owed waste management
contractors by MMDAs for the waste collection and disposal, and waste management
contractors operating without proper regulations and supervision, have been
contributing factors to poor waste management and insanitation situation in our towns
and cities.
Poor planning by “institutions mandated to do so”, and lack of enforcement of

sanitation bye-laws and building regulations by metropolitan, municipal, and district
assemblies. The worsened waste management situation is as a result of the lack of laws
and regulations and enforcement in this regard. We do not have even a single city where
the entire waste of the city is being managed in a scientific way. As a result, leachate
from these waste pollute surface water bodies rendering them less useful.

UNIT 6
6.3 The way forward- Solutions for Waste Management

solid waste management deals with the control of generation, storage, collection,
transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that
conforms to the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation,
aesthetics and other environmental considerations and that is also reactive to public
attitudes. Thus, with the right mindset on solid waste, incomes can be generated from
recovery of useful items while concurrently protecting the environment
Adequate consideration should be given to monitor the processes. There is a need to

educate the public and plan in a proper way for waste management programs and
implement into current waste management system. Some awareness programs also must
be conducted to enhance the knowledge about managing the waste in an eco-friendly
way. If these things are accomplished properly, we will be able to save money at
individual as well as society level Eradicating extreme poverty (and ignorance) is the
topmost priority among the Millennium Development Goals developed by the United
Nations. Thus, citizens need to be well informed on the perils of poor sanitation and the
impacts it has on all aspects of the economy. Various communities from all walks of life
whether urban or rural should be educated about the harmful impact of waste on
infrastructure and public health through multimedia and how waste collection services
can be improved to the local level.
Stringent enforcement of laws, and the provision of adequate material and financial and
human resources need to be addressed by the government to enhance the waste
management practices, and ensure that Ghana moves toward a future with less waste in
the streets and improved sanitation in our environment.
6.4 Efforts to Improve Poor Sanitation in Ghana

There are numerous types of waste, for example, household waste, packaging waste and
electronic waste. In some instances, different types of waste require different disposal
methods. Waste disposal can have negative impacts on people and the environment in it
is not managed well. For this reason, regulations are required for the correct disposal of
waste.
In September, 2010, a revised Environmental Sanitation Policy of Ghana was produced.
The overall goal of this new policy is to develop a clear and nationally accepted vision
of environmental sanitation as an essential social service and a major determinant for
improving health and quality of life in Ghana. The policy is a necessary tool required to
help shape all efforts in dealing with the overwhelming challenges of poor sanitation in
Ghana.
The Environmental Sanitation Policy published first in 1999 was revised to update its
scope to meet current development objectives and address aspirations of sector actors.
The Environmental Sanitation Policy (Revised, 2009) is the outcome of reviews to
address limitations of the old policy published in 1999. A result of nation-wide

UNIT 6 WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN GHANA
SESSION 6
consultation among sector stakeholders, this new policy redirects our efforts five years
to the to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) target year of 2015.
Emphasis is placed on the need to ensure systematic collection of data on wastes from
all sectors of the economy to support relevant research and development to meet the
challenges of managing wastes associated with our growing economy and rapidly
changing lifestyles
The management of hazardous waste has been on the international environmental

agenda from the early 1980s, when it was first included as one of the three priority areas
in the United Nations Environment Programme’s (UNEP). The Parliament of Ghana has
passed an Act to streamline the activities in the waste collection and management
industry to ensure a sound waste management and recycling systems to save the
country’s forests and future generation. Under the law a person who contravenes
sections of the Act commits an offence and is liable on summary conviction to a fine or
to a term of imprisonment of not less than one year and not more than ten years or both
Exercise 6.6
1. Land filling is an economic alternative for solid waste disposal but it is not
implemented easily in Ghana.
a) True
b) False
2. The simplest and most common method used in most cities in under developed
economies is to collect and dump the waste in a ___ .
(A) landfill
(B) river
(C) open damping
(D) any of the above
4 Discuss three of the waste management problems in Ghana

ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Unit 3
Exercise 3.1
Q1. Examples of typical household chemicals include many household cleaners, most
automotive products and many hobby products.
Q2. Motor oil, latex paint etc.
Q3. Paint compose of dyes, are added to give the paint its unique colors; binding
substance- these are materials that keep the paint together and make it more firm in it
properties; additives - additive substances are usually added to paints. Additive
substances have certain functions, such as fungicide as anti fungus, dryer substance as
the dryer of paints, coagulant substance to make the paint thicker, fragrance, and other
substances that can protect paints from raindrops, sunlight, and water changes; and
solvent - the liquid used to dissolve paint.
Exercise 3.1
Q1. This because vague terms are used; label requirements are not specific; chemical
terms are unfamiliar.
Q2. When its use, storage or disposal poses a threat to human health or the environment.
Q3. Since you could breathe the particles when they are dispersed; the can could
explode if it is near a source of heat or a spark
Q4. Liquid bleach in a bottle is a 5.25% sodium hypochlorite solution. This means that
5.25% of the liquid is the chemical sodium hypochlorite and the rest is mostly
water. The number 5.25% tells you the strength of the concentration of the
chemical. Look at the labels of other household cleaning products that contain
bleach. Some contain sodium hypochlorite or chlorine bleach in concentrations of
0.7%, 1.8%, or 2.4%.
Exercise 3.3
Q1. Recycle it by taking it to your nearest collection point for used oil, such as an
automotive center.
Q2. Call the Poison Center or emergency section
Q3. Ammonia plus chlorine produces a poisonous gas.
Q4. So you can easily identify them and store them in appropriate manner and also in
order to dispose them appropriately.
Exercise 3.4
Q1. To increase the lifespan of the appliance, avoid contamination leading
infection, to gain healthy life.
Q2. They are major, small appliances and consumer electronics.
Major appliances differ from small appliances because they are bigger and not portable.
A small appliance or small domestic appliance is a portable or semi-portable machines,
generally used on table-tops, counter-tops, or other platforms, to accomplish a

household task. Consumer electronics or home electronics are electronic or digital

equipment intended for everyday use, typically in private homes.
Q3. True, For example, ttechnically, dirty appliances will consume a lot of electricity
to produce the desired results, which lead to high-energy costs. However, continuous
cleaning will reduce energy consumption thereby reducing cost of energy. Continuous
cleaning will product your appliance thereby increasing appliance life span.
Exercise 3.5
Q1. The five important uses of metals are as follows:
(i) Lead is used in X-ray machines.
(ii) Iron is used in construction.
(iii) Mercury is used in thermometers.
(iv) Gold and silver are used in making jewellery.
(v) Aluminium foil is used for packing food
Q2.
a. True
b. False. metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
c. True because metals are sonorous.
d. False. oxides of non-metals are acidic in nature and oxides of metals are basic in
nature.
e. False, a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its salt solution in
water.
Exercise 3.6
Examples of common houshold equipment of alloys are:
a. Fridges, freezers, dishwashers, ovens, hobs and even accessories such as kettles and
toasters are examples of materials made from stainless steel.
b. Statues, gears, bells, valves, weapons, medals, and musical instrument are
examples of bronze. Bronze are mostly use for making household utensils, statutes
for decolation etc.
c. Cooking utensils, ornaments, bearings, musical instrument, gears, knobs, locks,
coins, statue, etc. are materials made from brass. Most of them are use in
decoration as it has gold- like appearance.

UNIT 4
Exercise 4.1
1. Refer to text
2. i)
• Food chain depicts the linear path by which energy passes from one living thing to
another.
• Food chain is a linear sequence that shows how organisms from each trophic level
feed on one another.
• Food chain a single pathway that shows how energy flows from producers through
consumers to decomposers.
ii)
• Food web is a diagram that shows the organisms that feed on other organisms in a
particular ecosystem.
• Food web is a diagram that indicates an interlocking and interdependent food chains.
• Food web a graphical representation of the many food chains linked together to show
the feeding relations of organisms in an ecosystem.
Exercise 4.2
i) Saprophytism is the mode of living whereby certain some fungi and bacteria live
on dead or decaying organic matter.
ii) Predation is the consuming of one organism by another.
Or
Predation is a condition in which an organism (predator) captures and devours
another living organism (the prey) using it for food.
iii) Commensalism is relationship in which one individual lives close to or on
another and benefits while the other, that is the host, is unaffected.
or
Commensalism is a type of relationship in which two or more species live
together and only one member benefits while the other or others do not but
neither of them is harmed.
2. Refer to text
Exercise 4.3
1. Pyramid of numbers is the graphical representation of the number of individuals
at each trophic level.
Pyramid of biomass is the graphical representation of the relationship between

the amount of biomass at different levels.

Pyramid of energy shows the rate of energy flow at successive trophic level in an
ecosystem.
2. The organism at each trophic level uses some of the energy for metabolic
activities so usable energy decreases at successive higher trophic levels.
3. Refer to text.
Exercise 4.4
1. i) Birth rate is the rate at which new individuals are added to the population
ii) Death rate is the rate at which individuals are lost through death.
It also refers to the inherent ability of a population to decrease through death.
iii) Dispersion refers to the distribution patterns of individuals within a population.
iv) Growth rate is the number of individuals added to the population in a given time
period.
2. Any five of the following factors:

a) natural hazards such as drought, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
b) attack by predators
c) diseases and pests
d) wars and accidents
e) inadequate food
f) inadequate breeding grounds
g) inadequate aeration or poor ventilation
h) mineral deficiencies
i) accumulation of metabolic wastes such as sweat and urine
j) the number of offspring per breeding period
k) survival up to and through reproductive age
l) the number of years the organism lasts during the reproductive period
m) the age at which reproduction begins
Exercise 4.5
1. Adaptation is the special characteristics that enable organisms to be successful
in a particular environment.
Or
A peculiarity of structure, physiology, or behavior that promotes the likelihood
of an organism’s survival and reproduction in a particular environment.
2. Refer to text

Exercise 4.6
1. Refer to text.
2. Refer to text.
3. Any three of the following:

• Banning the use of insecticides and related chemicals to pollute waterbodies.
• Discouraging the use of explosives for fishing.
• There should be standard net size to catch only large fishes.
• There should be closed season for fishing and hunting and offenders must be
prosecuted.
• Encouraging creation of game reserves to conserve animals.
• Burning of bush for game should be abolished and offenders prosecuted.
4. Any four of the following:

• Practicing crop rotation
• Practicing farming practices that allow the land to lie farrow such as shifting
cultivation
and land rotation, for some time.
• Addition of manure and mulch
• Growing leguminous crops
• Growing cover crops
• Contour ploughing
• Terracing
• Strip cropping
Unit 5
Exercise 5.1
1. Ans: galaxy
2. Ans: plane
3. Sun, Earth
4. Typical star
5. Red dwarf, Proxima Centauri
6. Thermonuclear
7. AU
8. Angular momentum
9. Refer to notes
10. Refer to notes

Exercise 5.2
1. Rocky
2. Gaseous
3. Magnetic field
4. Superior
5. Refer to notes
Exercise 5.3
1. Refer to notes
2. Refer to notes
3. Refer to notes
4. Refer to notes
5. Refer to notes
Exercise 5.4
1. Refer to notes
2. Communication satellite
3. Refer to notes
4. Refer to notes
5. Refer to notes
6. artificial satellite
7. Refer to notes
Exercise 5.5
1. Terrorism
2. Sea surge
3. Seismologist
4. All of the above
5. Focus
6. Refer to notes
7. Refer to notes
8. Refer to notes
9. Refer to notes
10. Refer to notes
Exercise 5.6
1. The tilt of Earth’s axis
2. Refer to notes
3. orbit and tilted axis
4. The moon blocks the sun’s rays from reaching Earth.
5. the rotation of Earth on its axis
6. new->first quarter->full->third quarter

7. Half of the moon is reflecting sunlight only during the full moon phase.
8. the moon’s phases
9. 24 hours
10. Refer to notes
11. Refer to notes
12. Refer to notes
Unit 6
Exercise 6.1
1.b . 2. Paper and paper products, 3. d, 4. b, 5. d, 6. c
Exercise 6.2
1. B,
2. A
3. B
4. Explanation: The term ‘municipal Solid Waste’ is generally used to describe most of
the non-hazardous solid waste from a city, town or village that requires routine
collection and transport to a processing or disposal site.
5. Explanation: MSW contains a wide variety of materials. It can contain food waste
which is classified as wet garbage and paper, plastic, tetra packs, plastic cans, glass
bottles, metal items, wood pieces, aluminum foil and many more items.
Exercise 6.3
Q1, 2 and 3 . Refer to notes
Exercise 6.4
Q1 and 2 Refer to notes
Exercise 6.5
1. C, Explanation: Burning waste is not an acceptable practice, because if we look into
environmental or health prospective burning waste creates lots of pollution and it is
harmful to both environment and as well as organisms.
2. A, Explanation: The disposal of solid waste should be part of an integrated waste

management plan. This integrated solid waste management is the method of collection,
processing, resource recovery and final disposal of solid waste.
3. D, Explanation: An integrated waste management strategy includes three main

components they are source reduction, recycling energy recovery and disposal. All
these three types plays an important role in the solid waste management.

4. A, Explanation: Source reduction is one of the fundamental ways to reduce waste. On

an individual level, we can reduce the use of unnecessary items while shopping, avoid
buying disposable items and avoid using plastic carry bags.
5. D, Explanation: Recycling is reusing some components of the waste that has some
economic value. Aluminum can be recycled many times. Mining of new aluminum is
expensive hence recycling of aluminum plays a significant role in aluminum industry
6 C, 7 D, 8 A,
9. A. Explanation: The disposal of solid waste should be part of an integrated waste

management plan. This integrated solid waste management is the method of collection,
processing, resource recovery and final disposal of solid waste
Exercise 6.6
1a, 2c

GLOSSARY
Chloroplast: a double membrane organelle in plant cells for photosynthesis

Chlorophyll: light capturing pigment located in chloroplasts
Leaf Mosaic: leaf arrangement to ensure maximum capture of sunlight by all leaves
on a plant.
Dieback: The gradual dying of plant shoots, starting at the tips, as a result of various
diseases or climatic conditions.
Chlorotic: The yellowing or whitening of normally green plant tissue because of a
decreased amount of chlorophyll, often as a result of disease or nutrient...
Necrotic: death of plant tissue due to disease, frost, etc
Chlorosis: In botany, chlorosis is a condition in which leaves produce insufficient
chlorophyll. As chlorophyll is responsible for the green color of leaves,
chlorotic leaves are pale, yellow, or yellow-white.
Stunting: to stop, slow down, or hinder the growth or development of;
Rosette: any of several diseases of plants, characterized by the crowding of the
foliage into circular clusters owing to a shortening of the internodes of
stems or branches, caused by fungi, viruses, or nutritional deficiencies.
Apoplast: the space outside the plasma membrane within which material can diffuse
freely.
Plasmodesmata: are microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls of plant cells
and some algal cells, enabling transport and communication
between them.
Simplast.: the inner side of the plasma membrane in which water and low-molecular-
weight solutes can freely diffuse.
Active Transport.: the movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of
their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration—in the direction
against the concentration gradient using cellular energy to achieve this movement
Concentration gradient: the gradual change in the concentration of solutes present
in a solution between two regions. In biology, a gradient results from an unequal
distribution of ions across the cell membrane
Mutualistic: a relationship between two species of organisms in which both benefit
from the association
Guttation: Guttation is the exudation of drops of xylem sap on the tips or edges of
leaves of some vascular plants, such as grasses. Guttation is not to be
confused with dew, which condenses from the atmosphere onto the plant
surface.
Transpiration: The evaporation of water vapour from the stomata of plant leaves.
Transpiration pull: The primary mechanism of water movement in plants initiated
by the process of transpiration.

GLOSSOARY

REFERENCES
A Sanitation Country Profile of Ghana (p5, 2004) states that, “The Environmental
Health and Sanitation Unit of the Policy Division of the MLGRD has
2,240 strong staff stationed in all the 110 MMDAs , ensuring safe, clean and
healthy human settlements throughout the country.
A Sanitation Country Profile of Ghana (p5, 2004) states that, “The Environmental
Health and Sanitation Unit of the Policy Division of the MLGRD has 2,240
strong staff stationed in all the 110 MMDAs , ensuring safe, clean and
healthy human settlements throughout the country.
Alexander Ch., Sadiku M. Fundamentals of electric circuits. Fifth edition. McGraw-
Hill. 2013. Chapter 13.
Burton &. Guttman, (1999) Biology: Deficiency Symptoms of Some Major Plant
Mineral Nutrients, p.846 WCB McGraw-Hill Companies, New York
Chandrasekar, M., Mehejaben, S. S., Amirdalingam, C. & Umamaheswari, G. (2011).
Electronic Equipments theory, (1st ed.). Tamilnadu Textbook Corporation,
College Road, Chennai.
Clegg, C.J. (2007) Transport in Angiosperms, Biology for the IB Diploma, Hodder
Education,an Hachette UK Company, pp 305-319
Darrell D. Ebbing, Steven D. Gammon, General Chemistry, 9th edition, Houghton
Mifflin Company, Boston, New York, U.S.A. 2009.
ENVIS Centre:Chhattisgarh Environment Conservation Board, Ministry of
Environment, Forests & Climate Change, Govt of India
http://chtenvis.nic.in/e-waste.html
Flyod, T. L. (2004). Electronic fundamentals and Electric Circuit Fundamentals.
Pearson Education Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Frazzoli, C. &. (2010). Diagnostic health risk assessment of electronic waste on the
general population in developing countries' scenarios. Environmental Impact
Assessment Review, 388–399
Gilbert Ankrah (11 July 2016 Parliament passed Law to control hazardous & e-waste
ISD
Gilbert Ankrah11 (2016, 11July) Parliament passes law to Control Hazardous & E-
Waste ISD
Guidance on applying the waste hierarchy - (June 2011) Department for Environment,
Food & Rural Affairs GOV.UK 5
Hayt W., Buck J. Engineering electromagnetics. Sixth edition. McGraw-Hill. 2001.
Chapters 5 and 9.
Hits: 10923
http://www.dictionary.com/browse
http://www.dictionary.com/browse/stunting
http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/media-center/news/2915-parliament-passes-law-
to-control-hazardous-e-waste
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_nutrition#cite_note-HunerHopkins2009-5
https://prezi.com/ixfhpx9zfijs/non-metals-in-our-homes/
https://www.bbc.com/education
https://www.khanacademy.org
(http://www.dictionary.com/browse/rosette)
(https://personal.uwaterloo.ca/jerry/orchids/nutri.html)
REFERENCES
Kyere, Richard. KMichael Addaney and Jonas Ayaribilla Akudugu (July 24th 2019).
Decentralization and Solid Waste Management in Urbanizing Ghana: Moving
beyond the Status Quo, Municipal Solid Waste Management, Hosam El-Din
Mostafa Saleh, Intech Open, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.81894. Available
from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/municipal-solid-waste-
management/decentralization-and-solid-waste-management-in-urbanizing-
ghana-moving-beyond-the-status-qu
Melissa Petruzzello and Gitanjali Nain Gill (May 26, 2016) Electronic waste
Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (April 2010) Environmental
Sanitation Policy (Revised 2009)
Norman P. A. Huner; William Hopkins. "3 & 4". Introduction to Plant Physiology 4th
Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-470-24766-2.
Odum, E. P. (1971) Fundamentals of Ecology (3rd ed.) Philadelphia: E. P. Saunders
Company
P. Kuebel, Non-metals in our HOMES, 2013.
Prusty R. K., Rout, A. & Muuli, S. K. (2008). Basic Electronic Engineering.
Raven, P.H. & Johnson, G.B. (1999) Biology (5th ed.). Boston:WCB/McGraw-Hill
Robbins, A. H. & Miller, W. C. (2013). Circuit Analysis: Theory and Practice, (5th
Ed.). ISBN-13: 978-1-1332-8100-9.Clifton Park, New York, USA.
Sthiannopkao S, Wong MH. (2012) Handling e-waste in developed and developing
countries: Initiatives, practices, and consequences. Sci Total Environ.
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), enacted in 1976, is the
principal federal law in the United States governing the disposal of solid waste
and hazardous waste.
U.S. EPA, Used Oil Management Program Laws & Regulations
U.S. EPA, Land Disposal Restrictions for Hazardous Wastes: A Snapshot of the
Program]] http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/tsd/ldr/f99043.pdf
WEEE CRT and Monitor Recycling". Executiveblueprints.com. 2 August 2009.
Archived from the original on 22 December 2012. Retrieved 8 November
2012.
Wie-Addo et al. (2003), Science for Basic School Teachers II, CCEUCC, University
Press, Cape Coast
www.biology-online.org/dictionary
"E-Waste Management and Recycling Programme by Lava mobiles".
www.lavamobiles.com. Retrieved 29 January 2018
"Ghana e-Waste Country Assessment" (PDF). SBC e-Waste Africa Project. Archived
from the original (PDF) on 15 August 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2011.

Integrated Science VI

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Integrated Science VI

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

CODE PUBLICATIONS, 2019

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

CoDE PUBLICATIONS, 2021

Cover page illustrated by William Jacobs

It has become a tradition in academic circles to acknowledge the assistance one

Finally, I am greatly indebted to the entire staff of CoDEUCC, especially Mrs.

Prof. Isaac Galyuon

We wish you a happy and successful study.

Dr. D.K. Asante

CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations i

UNIT 1: NUTRITION, TRANSPORT AND TRANSPIRATION IN

CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations iii

6.3 The Forces involved in the Transport of Water and Mineral

iv CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations

UNITE 3: HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS & APPLIANCES … … 95

CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations v

Session 6: Alloys … … … … … … … … 131

UNIT 4: ASPECTS OF ECOLOGY … … … … 133

vi CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations

UNIT 5: THE SOLAR SYSTEM … … … … 161

Session 5: Natural Hazard and Natural Disasters … … … 195

UNIT 6: TYPES OF WASTE, EFFECTS OF WASTE AND WASTE

CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations vii

2.5 Industrial Wastes … … … … … 221

Answer to Self-Assessment Questions … … … … … 256

viii CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations

NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT

TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)

SELF- ASSESSMENT TEST

CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations

FOR FURTHER DETAILS YOU MAY CONTACT

COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION OF THE

All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced,

UNIT 1: NUTRITION, TRANSPORT AND TRANSPIRATION IN

Getting energy out of food! The mode of acquiring the resources

CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations 1

This is a blank sheet for short notes on:

2 CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations

SESSION 1: NUTRITION - PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Figure 1: Photosynthesis. Courtesy (http://physicscatalyst.com/class-7/nutrition-in-

Come along then …

CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations 3

1.1 What is photosynthesis?

1.2 Raw Materials and Products of Photosynthesis

The products are:

1.3 Outline of Photosynthesis

4 CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations

Photosynthesis takes place in the following three steps: (courtesy: physicscatalyst.com)

1.4 The Site and Pigment involved in Photosynthesis

Figure 2: Leaf in cross-section showing the location of chloroplasts in leaf cells.

CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations 5

photosynthesis you can find in Secondary School Science 1, Unit 6 by Wie-Addo et al

1.5 Conditions Necessary for Photosynthesis

1.6 The Importance of Photosynthesis in Nature

6 CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations

• Photosynthesis is an example of autotrophic nutrition

CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations 7

This is a blank sheet for short notes on:

8 CoDEUCC/Bachelor of Educational Psychology/Foundations

SESSION 2: NUTRITION – MINERAL REQUIREMENT