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Trends of
Environmental
Forensics in Pakistan
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Trends of
Environmental
Forensics in Pakistan
Edited by
Notices
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds or experiments described
herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent
verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made. To the fullest extent of the
law, no responsibility is assumed by Elsevier, authors, editors or contributors for any injury
and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or
otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-12-819436-2
v
vi Contents
Index...................................................................................................125
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Contributors
Khuram Shahzad Ahmad, PhD
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Humaira Arif, MPhil
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Irum Asif, MPhil
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Marria Ghalib, MPhil
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Palwasha Gul, MPhil
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Rija Hafeez, MPhil
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Hareem, MPhil
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Shazia Iftikhar, PhD
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Shaan Bibi Jaffri, PhD Scholar
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Sara Majid, PhD Scholar
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Zoobia Nadeem, MPhil
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Zainab Naeem, MPhil
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
xi
xii Contributors
xiii
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CHAPTER
Environmental toxicology:
fundamental and forensic
Rija Hafeez, MPhil, Zoobia Nadeem, MPhil, Shazia Iftikhar, PhD
1
Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Chapter outline
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 3
1.1.1 Types of toxic substances.................................................................... 3
1.1.2 Classification of exposure .................................................................... 5
1.1.2.1 Inhalation ............................................................................... 6
1.1.2.2 Skin absorption ....................................................................... 6
1.1.2.3 Ingestion ................................................................................ 6
1.1.2.4 Injection................................................................................. 7
1.1.3 Dose-response relationship.................................................................. 7
1.1.4 Disposition of toxic substances ............................................................ 8
1.1.5 Hazard and risk assessment ................................................................ 9
1.2 Analytical toxicology in environmental forensics.................................................. 10
1.2.1 Sample collection and handling......................................................... 11
1.2.2 Sample preparation and analysis ....................................................... 12
1.3 Case studies ...................................................................................................... 18
1.3.1 Rapid population decline in oriental white-backed vulture (Gyps
bengalensis) colonies due to diclofenac poisoning ............................... 18
1.3.2 Presence of aflatoxins in food items of Pakistan .................................. 18
1.3.3 Imposex in marine gastropods as an indicator of organotin compounds in
coastal waters of Pakistan ................................................................. 18
References ............................................................................................................... 20
Further reading ......................................................................................................... 21
Abstract
Toxicology plays an immense role in the field of environmental forensics, espe-
cially for the identification and assessment of hazardous chemicals such as drugs
and heavy metals. However, to apply this study for environmental forensic in-
vestigations, the investigator must be equipped with prior knowledge regarding
chemical toxicology. Therefore, this chapter aims to equip the reader with the
fundamental knowledge for carrying out toxicological investigations by briefly
describing some basic concepts of toxicology such as classification of toxicants,
Trends of Environmental Forensics in Pakistan. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819436-2.00001-7 1
Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 CHAPTER 1 Environmental toxicology: fundamental and forensic
Graphical Abstract
1.1 Introduction 3
1.1 Introduction
Toxicology includes the study of the harmful connections between chemicals
and biological systems. All living things are being exposed to massive vari-
ety of chemicals. These chemicals range from inorganic chemicals, metals to
large multifarious organic molecules; however, they are all theoretically
toxic. The study of pathological, biochemical, and physiological effects of
harmful substances is the interesting brief of the toxicologist. Toxicology
is a multidisciplinary subject which incorporates many areas as shown in
Fig. 1.1. This makes it a captivating and stimulating area of research.
Today’s challenge of toxicology is to transmit basic biochemical, patho-
logical, chemical, and physiological knowledge along with experimental
observation to advance an understanding of certain substances that cause
the disturbance in a biological system which may lead to toxic effects.
Awareness to the delinquent of human and animal exposure to toxic chem-
icals, in our present environment, has grown in recent years. Rachel Carson
with her book Silent Spring was one of the first to bring this issue to the atten-
tion of the public. This was a description of the devastating effects of pesti-
cides on the environment of the North America, stipulating flora and fauna.
Therefore, toxicology has another dimension: the social, ethical, and legal as-
pects of exposure of populations to chemicals of unknown or uncertain hazard.
Hazard and risk assessments (RAs) and value judgments become important.
The toxicologist is often asked to make such assessments and judgments.
So, toxicology has a very important role to play in modern society, and conse-
quently it is now growing rapidly as a new subject (Timbrell, 2008).
Toxicology
drugs have been designed to be highly potent in disturbing the biological sys-
tems, and consequently many are extremely toxic. Drug toxicity may result
because of either an overdose or a rare and unusual adverse effect because of
weak immune system. There are many drugs which are also beneficial for the
health. Man-made chemicals are very complex, either they can be good or
bad, depending upon their composition or a particular dose required for its
usage. Drugs vary immensely in chemical structure and possess a wide vari-
ety of biological activities. Sometimes these drugs are considered as the
foreign substances of known biological activity that a person ingests deliber-
ately. Alcohol and cigarettes are both used intentionally most of the times
because of their biological activity and both possess toxic properties (Frank
and Ottoboni, 2011).
Different types of components in natural food are toxic to different indi-
viduals. Food additives are generally of low biological activity. Many
different additives are now added to food to change the flavor of the food.
These additives also change color, prevent spoilage, and sometimes change
the nature of the food (Altug, 2002). These food additives can result into
adverse reactions as mentioned below in Table 1.1.
Industrial chemicals do affect the environment in one way or another
and are a great source of environmental pollution. They are dangerous
within the workplace where they are utilized, formulated, and manufac-
tured. In the comprehensive manner, industrial exposure includes exposure
to the solvents used in photocopiers and typists’ correction fluid. Though in
general exposure is controlled by law, realistic levels may still prove to be
hazardous in the long term and acute exposure due to accidents will always
occur. The occurrence of diseases such as cancer often makes it difficult to
regulate the cause until sufficient workforce have presented with the dis-
ease for the connotation with the toxic compound to be made
(Timbrell, 2008).
The main sources of pollution in the environment are industrial pro-
cesses that deliberately release pollutants such as pesticides, particulate
matter, greenhouse gases. The most evident pollutant in the atmosphere
is smoke from factories and power stations. Many plants and animals pro-
duce toxic substances for self-justifying and aggressive purposes. Natural
toxins of animal, plant, and bacterial origin involve an extensive variety
of chemical types and are a significant cause of human poisonings. House-
hold poisons include substances such as drugs, pesticides, and solvents.
These types of compounds are usually acute instead of chronic, when
exposed. Many of the household items used for cleaning are irritants, and
some are corrosive.
1.1 Introduction 5
1.1.2.1 Inhalation
For most chemicals, which are in the form of vapors, mists, gases, or partic-
ulates, inhalation is the major route of entrance. Once inhaled, chemicals are
either exhaled or deposited in the respiratory tract. If deposited, damage can
occur through direct contact with tissue or the chemical may prolix into the
blood through the lung-blood lining. Upon contact with the tissue in the up-
per respiratory tract or lungs, chemicals can cause health effects ranging
from simple irritation to severe tissue destruction. Substances absorbed
into the blood are circulated and distributed to organs that have an empathy
for that particular chemical. Nanoparticles are being established as carriers
for several medicinal compounds. These particles range from 1 to 100 nm
(nm), and many of them cannot be absorbed because of their small size. Still,
nanoparticles can accumulate in the bronchi to form larger particles that can
then be absorbed. Acute health effects can then occur in the organs, which
are sensitive to the toxicants (Frank and Ottoboni, 2011).
1.1.2.3 Ingestion
The primary way that chemicals enter our bodies is by ingestion. Chemicals
that unintentionally get into the mouth and are swallowed do not generally
harm the gastrointestinal tract itself unless they are nauseating or corrosive.
Chemicals that are insoluble in the fluids of the gastrointestinal tract (stom-
ach, small and large intestines) are mostly excreted, whereas others that are
soluble are absorbed through the lining of the gastrointestinal tract and then
transported by the blood to internal organs where they can cause damage.
Nitroglycerine, for example, can be absorbed through the mucous mem-
branes of the mouth, hence its medicinal administration by placement under
1.1 Introduction 7
the tongue to relieve the pains of angina. Some chemicals, such as ethyl
alcohol, are absorbed from the stomach, as well as the small intestines.
That is why the effects of alcoholic beverages are felt so rapidly and why
food in the stomach can help delay those effects (Frank and Ottoboni, 2011).
1.1.2.4 Injection
Substances may enter the body, if the skin is breached or wounded by
contaminated objects. Effects can then occur as the matter is circulated in
the blood and settled in the target organs.
In actual practice, exposure to a chemical may or may not involve just one
route. Dermal exposure can also become ingestion exposure when hands are
not washed after handling or working with chemicals and before eating or
smoking. Inhalation exposure can also become ingestion exposure when
some of the chemical deposited on the walls of the nasopharynx is swallowed
along with the secretions from that cavity, or when it is coughed up from the
lungs and swallowed. Thus, a specified route of exposure is primarily, rather
than solely, by that route (Frank and Ottoboni, 2011).
Chemical
Route of exposure
(Inhalation, dermal contact, ingestion)
Absorption Excretion
Blood
Free Bound Enterohepatic
circulation
Distribution
Tissues
Biotransformation
Hazard Dose-response
identification assessment
Exposure Risk
assessment characterization
Niet verre van de Workumer-Hel is nog een poel, die den wel wat
bijzonderen naam draagt van D e L i a c h t e - M a r , de Lichtemeer.
Of deze naam ook in eenig verband (of tegenstelling?) staat met
dien zwarten helnaam, kan ik niet beslissen, maar acht ik wel
waarschijnlijk.
Intusschen, wij moeten nog verder terug uit het licht tot de duisternis,
uit het Christelijke klooster naar de heidensche hel.
Het komt mij niet onwaarschijnlijk voor, dat de namen der twee
dorpen, die het naaste bij deze Trynwouder-hel liggen, in verband
staan met dat oud stuk heidendom. Oudkerk als de [283]oudste, de
eerste, langen tijd de eenige Christenkerk in deze Wouden, reeds
vroegtijdig of terstond na de invoering des Christendoms in dat oord,
juist dáár gesticht als tegenwicht tegen het heidendom, dat daar, bij
dat helle-oord, bijzonderlijk in bloei stond.
Eene derde hel was er, of is er, in Ferwerderadeel, alweêr in het lage
land, onder Hallum, in de zoogenoemde Hallumer-Mieden. Daar
heet nog een stuk land, zekerlijk vroeger een poeltje, d e H e l ; en
een ander in de nabijheid, door een dijkje half omgeven, en hierdoor
nog zooveel te meer het voorkomen van een droog gelegd poeltje
vertoonende, draagt nog den vollen ouden naam van d e
H e l s d o a r , de Helsdeur.
Dezen volledigen naam treffen wij ook elders aan. Zoo was daar nog
in de vorige eeuw een poel of kolk nabij het dorp Birdaard in
Dantumadeel, die den naam van d e H e l d o a r droeg, op de kaart
van Schotanus als Healdoor misschreven. In de 16de eeuw lag bij
deze hellekolk eene sate die in eene oorkonde van den jare 1581
vermeld staat als „de sate genoemt de Helldoer te Berdaert” 2, en in
eene andere van 1580 als Heldoor. Sedert is die kolk dicht gemaakt
en tot land geworden, en die oude naam is daardoor bij bet volk in
vergetelheid gekomen. Maar in den naam K o l k h u z e n , heden ten
dage eigen aan twee saten aldaar, blijft de herinnering aan deze
hellekolk, aan deze helsdeur bewaard. 3
De naam Helsdeur komt ook nog voor in het naburige gewest West-
Friesland, bewesten Flie. Hij is aldaar eigen aan eenen [284]fellen
stroom, in het groote West-Friesche zeegat tusschen het eiland
Texel en den hedendaagschen vasten wal van Noord-Holland, ook
door de Friesche zeelieden steeds d e H e l s d o a r genoemd.
(Halbertsma, Lexicon frisicum, bladz. 407). En ook in den naam
van D e ( n ) H e l d e r (Heldoar, Hella-dora), eene zeer oude buurt
aldaar aan den vasten wal, die thans wel eene stad mag heeten, is
een toegang tot de onderwereld nog te herkennen.
Is daar niemand, die zulk een paaltje daar weêr herstelt? Eene
zichtbare, tastbare prediking zoude ’t den volke weêr zijn, over het
derde gebod des Heeren:
„Gy en sult den name des Heeren uwes Godts niet ydelick
[285]gebruycken; want de Heere en sal niet onschuldigh houden, die
synen name ydelick gebruyckt.”
Deze oude woordvorm vinden wij dan ook nog heden terug in
sommige plaatsnamen van Zuid-westelijk Friesland, volkomen in de
zelfde beteekenis als in de hellenamen uit het overige deel des
lands, hier voren reeds vermeld.
Opmerkelijk is het, dat wij dus, zoo noordelijk en oostelijk als Grouw
gelegen is, die oude uitspraak van hel als hol nog aantreffen, eene
uitspraak die daar ter plaatse en in den omtrek thans geheel niet
meer voorkomt noch bekend is. Immers in de zeventiende eeuw
moge zij zich tot Bolsward en Sneek hebben uitgestrekt, benoorden
en beoosten die steden werd zij toen ter tijde, en zeker eeuwen
vroeger reeds niet meer gehoord.
Bezuiden Sneek komt nog heden een bijzondere hellenaam voor,
eene aardige weêrga van de H e l d o a r r e n bij Birdaard en bij
Hallum. Dat is de H o l p o a r t e , de Hellepoort, zooals eene sate
heet, die al weêr in een waterrijk oord, even benoorden het dorp
Jutrijp gelegen is. Daarnevens is nog een poel, heden ten dage de
H o l p o a r t e p o e l geheeten. Deze poel is ongetwijfeld, in de
meening der heidensche Friezen, de eigenlijke Hellepoort geweest;
maar de naam is van het water, van den poel overgegaan op de
sate, op het huis dat later daar nevens is gesticht geworden, juist
zoo als ook bij de Workumer-Hel en elders heeft plaats gegrepen.
Ik vond ook nog een oude hellenaam, die thans niet meer bekend is,
naar het schijnt; te weten: de S k r a e r d e r - H o l of Schraarder-Hel,
in eene oorkonde van den jare 1543 S c r a e r d e r a h o l genoemd,
in Wonseradeel, tusschen Pingjum, Surich en Wons.