HISTORICAL ESSAYS: SOURCES AND INFLUENCES ‘The variety of Philippine music and musical prac- tices represents a cultural pluralism molded by histo- zy, environment, and outside cultural influences. Although Philippine music is generally categorized as Western and non-Western, it may be specifically de- fined according to social context, history, geography, performance styles, repertoire, and instruments. Music may be classified as Cordillera highland, central west highland, Mindanao highland, Aeta, Islamic, ru- ral Christian, and urbanized. Ethnic Music While little record exists, if at all, of specific sources and origins of ethnic, pre-Christian Philippine music, sufficient evidence points to the close kinship with the music of Asia-Pacific. Given the history of trade and migrations, influences from China, India, and the Middle East shaped Southeast Asian, includ- ing Philippine, music. Philippine gong-chimes indicate not only South- east Asian influence, but also hint at Chinese roots. ‘The Cordillera flat gongs called gangsa, gangha, kalsa or pinsak aie also found all over China, particularly in the southwestern provinces where they are known as ‘COMMON CULTURE. The ‘close resemblance of ‘ho Tool lute called ragsleng, top, with the Bomeo kachap’ bottom, polis fo the Kinship of Southeast Aston musle cultures. (Cultural Center ‘of the Philppines Library Cllection) 70 tuluo, giobianluo, and shizilou. The bossed gongs are called mang. The bianmang, a set of 17 hanging gongs of graduated sizes similar to the Manobo hanging Kaulintang, is found in southern China, together with ‘the manging or 14 small bossed gongs laid in three parallel rows in the same manner as the single-row kulintang of Muslim communities. Other Philippine instruments with Chinese counterparts include the nose flute (bixiao), jew’s harp (jinshu kouhuang), Isneg bamboo or the parallel-string tube zither (zhar- ong), the polychordal zither (dingmaibo), Kalinga ton- gatong or stamping tubes (zhuadaotong), Tagakaolo fedel or log drum (biandan), Kalinga balingbing or ‘bamboo buzzer (daodao), and the Kalinga patang-ug, or quill-shaped tubes (qieke). Philippine instruments similar to other Southeast Asian instruments include the two-string boat-shaped lute of Palawan and Min- danao called kudyapi, kuglong, which looks like the Borneo and Thai kachapi chakay, and the bamboo xylophone gabbang, gambang, which looks like the Javanese gambang kayu and Thai ranad. The bossed. ‘gongs of Mindanao, Sulu, and Palawan called kulin- tang, babandir, agung, gandingan, belong to the fami- ly of bossed gongs of Borneo, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam.‘SOURCES AND INFLUENCES Although Indian influence was indirect, it had a significant impact on local religious beliefs, language, and literature, including the system of writing and, to some extent, music. Evidence of the latter is cursory, but hint at extensive musical influence. Terminological derivations include kudyapi from kacchapi (lute), ‘gangsa from the Sanskrit kansya (gong or plate of bell metal), huni from dhvani (tune, echo). Other hints are the miniature bells on costumes of the Mindanao high- land peoples (Francisco 1962: 50-6); details of the Ramayana in some Mindanao epics; the soloistic, im- provisational, organically developed melodic struc- tures of the instrumental music of the highland and Islamic communities of Mindanao. Elements of Middle Eastern music are especially evi- dent in Muslim modes of vocal rendition, which are characterized by highly omamented melodic configura- tions, high vocal register, and the manner of realizing the basic melodic structures that allude to the Persian dast- gah or Arabic maqam traditions; instrumental accom- ppaniment to songs is also semi-improvised. Among the ‘Tausug, the biyula is played in the Middle Easter way: the tal of the instrument propped against the chest, and the scroll pointed downward. Other aspects of pre-Christian music include the use of the pentatonic and hexatonic modes, vocal tech~ niques of sliding tones, glottal stops, and high vocal register, integration of music and dance, community LUENTEN CHANT. ‘the syncrale fusion of Eastom ‘ond Westem ‘sloments oro ‘evident In ho lenten ual ppobasa. Cebu, 191 (Renato S. Resrole, Cultural Conter of ho Palippines Cultura! Promotions Department) participation, unmetered time, and nonfixed tuning of instruments. All these are related to Asia-Pacific music. Rural Hispanized/Christian Music Folk music among rural Christian Filipinos shows varying degrees of syncretic blending of both European and Southeast Asian elements. In general, the entire repertoire consists of three musical genres: imported Western forms adopted into local practice, e.g., music in the Christian liturgy, sung narratives (Santos 1975); in- digenous practices modified to accomodate Western cultural elements, as seen in rituals and folk songs; and hybrids that emerged from East-West contact as evi- denced in folk songs and instrumental music. Elements from the West consist of themes and ideas derived from Western Christian literature (prayers, biblical stories, religious legends, tales of princes and princesses), Western theater, and the use of Western instruments and structural elements, such as melodies and chords. Asiatic elements include the following: the functional role of music in social and religious occasions, such as rituals and celebrations, musical structures based on modal melodies (tagu- laylay, awit, daklot, etc.), rhythmic flexibility, and combination of drone and melody; the styles of per- formance (improvisatory, indigenous vocal techniques, a{ISTORICAL ESSAYS POP BAND. Instrumental ‘onsombles, known (8 cumbonicheros, ‘ore local versions ‘of American bands ‘which became popular otter WHI, Guinobaton, ‘Albay, 163. (froncieca Reyer ‘Aquino Collection) integration of music and dance with the audience playing an active role); and the oral transmission of musical practices. Specific forms showing syncretic fusion of Eastern and Western elements include the following: the reli- gious dramas and.events, like the sinakulo, salubong, santakrusar, pangangaluluaoa, and panunuluyan; metrical romances called the awit and korido; musical-dance forms like the pandanggo and balitaw; folk theater forms such as the komedya or moro-moro and linambay; the rituals of the pabasa, sanghiyang, subli; various song genres such as the composo, huluna (lullaby); folk in- strumental ensembles such as the rondalla, musikong bumbong, banda boca (voiced imitation of band instru- ments), pangkat kawayan, and a host of other smaller ensembles with improvised groupings of instruments. Urban American Music Philippine music in urban communities is directly inherited from the Anglo-American or Wester, speci- fically Anglo-American music tradition. There are two distinct types: popular and art or serious music. Popular Music. Philippine popular music may be traced to folk music, which accompanied dances for public entertainment, such as town fiestas and secular celebrations. The dances were mostly European in ori- gin, e.g. minuet, fandango, polka, mazurka, and habanera. On the other hand, the folk songs of ordi- nary people about everyday life include ballads, work- songs, lullabies, drinking songs, and humorous songs. 72 ‘The American regime brought new institutions of social entertainment and mass culture: the dance halls called cabaret (pronounced kabaret), the bodabil or variety show, radio, and cinema. It also marked the advent of the dance bands and dance orchestras, which served as the standard media of popular music. Their repertoire consisted of prevailing American popular music: jazz and its dance varieties like the foxtrot, one-step, swing; Latin American-influenced dances such as the tango, rhumba, cha-cha, samba; the boogie-woogie and the rock ‘n’ roll of the 1940s and the 1950s; and the love songs mostly culled from musicales and the radio. Filipinos were quick to fuse the new dance rhythms with folk material, such as “Bahay Kubo” (Nipa Hut) and “Sarung Banggi “(One Night), substituting Filipino lyrics for the English, or compos- ing new songs in the same pattern. ‘After WWIL, an instrumental ensemble called cumbanchero proliferated as an offshoot of the popu- larity of the band leader Xavier Cugat, dubbed the Rhumba King. The ensemble consisted of imported and improvised instruments: harmonica, maraccas, bongos, conga drum, guitar, guiro, jaw bone, and a ‘one-string bass with a remodeled WWI military vehi- cle gas containers serving as the resonator. ‘The influence of American popular music culture ‘was so strong in the 1960s that radio and TV programs such as the top-rated Student Canteen launched searches for Filipino counterparts of American music idols such as Perry Como, Elvis Presley, Johnny Mathis, and Neil Sedaka. in reaction, the search for a Filipino identity in popular music came to a head in the same decade as localSOURCES AND INFLUENCES composers and song writers began to produce orig- inal works in the vernacular which expressed local themes and ideas. The ongoing Filipinization of popular music counts among its exponents Bobby Gonzales, Hotdog, folk singers Florante, Freddie Aguilar, and Heber Bartolome, novelty singer Yoyoy Villame, rock artists Mike Hanopol and Joey Smith, rapper Francis Magalona, and others. However, the musical idioms, whether ballad, folk, rock, or rap, remained faithful to their American models—Elvis Presley, Joan Baez, Peter, Paul and Mary, Fats Domino, Frank Zappa, Vanilla Ice, and Hammer, among others. In the 1980s, pop music artists, such as Joey Ayala at ang Bagong Lumad, Edru Abraham's Kontra Gapi, Heber Bartolome's Banyuhay, Asin, and Pen Pen began to use materials from Philippine non-Westem cultures. Philippine pop ballads have their roots in the early American Gnema and musical stage shows. Early Phil ippine cinema drew principally on the sarswela, e. Walang Sugat (Not Wounded) and Dalagang Bukid (Country Maiden), as well as from bodabil. Sarswela arias cast in simple harmonic and melodic modes, early popular dance rhythms, and an emerging kundiman-style of writing were the ingredients of the Filipino love songs, most of which were born at the movies. The most popular love songs were Miguel Velarde’s “Dahil Sa Iyo” (Because of You), a tango composed for the film Bituing Marikit (Beautiful Star) and Constancio de Guzman’s “‘Halina’t Magsaya’” (Come and Celebrate), a balitaw for the movie Lam- bingan (Tender Affection), The love ballads of later ‘composers such as Ernani Cuenco, Restie Umali, and George Canseco trace their aesthetic origins to this musical lineage. On the other hand, “middle-of-the- road” English and Filipino love songs by Willy Cruz, Jose Mari Chan, and Alice Doria Gamilla echo those of Cole Porter, Jerome Kern, and other early broadway composers. Contemporary American ballads, modern jazz, the rock-theater music of the the 1960s and 1970s, such as those from Hair and Jesus Christ Superstar are the basic sources of Ryan Cayabyab’s works including his experiments with indigenous music and the every- day jargon of the young masses. Classical and Art Music. The classical and art music tradition in the Philippines was developed in the 16th century by early missionaries and later by foreign music teachers. Visiting Spanish zarzuela and Italian opera companies kept Filipinos abreast of the musical scene in Europe and later in the US. In the meantime, local musicians performed Western art ‘music not only in urban areas, but also in provinces MOVIE THEME Filipino movies usually drow ‘oir themes ‘ond ili rom ‘popular songs, ‘ot inthe 1947 movie Sung Bangg staring Rogelio de la Rosa ond Mile ‘dal Sot. (Lv Flim archives) 73HISTORICAL ESSAYS where brass bands entertain the folk. In the 20th cen- tury, Filipino musicians and composers further honed their skills by studying in Europe and the US. ‘At the beginning of the Spanish colonial regime, the clergy taught Filipinos to sing the “plainsong and to the accompaniment of the organ; to play the flute, to dance, and to sing; and to play the harp, guitar and other instruments, In this, they show great adapta- bility, especially about Manila, where there are many fine choirs of chanters and musicians composed of natives, who are skilful and have good voices” (Morga in Blair and Robertson XVI:152-153). ‘Churches all over the Philippines developed musi- ans, choral directors, and composers whose works were patterned after the masses and motets of the late Renaissance period. By the 19th century, church music compositions were further infiuenced by the classical operatic style with florid solo parts and dramatic choral ‘sections. One of the most celebrated church music com- pposers and performers of the 19th century was Marcelo ‘Adonay of Pakil, Laguna, whose unsurpassed. skills ‘earned him the title “Palestrina of the Philippines.” Dur- ing this period, secular music composed by Simplicio Solis, Julio Nakpil, Julian Felipe, and Jose Matella con- sisted of hymns, waltzes, gavottes, and patriotic songs based on native airs or folk songs (Banas 1975:41). ‘The 19th-century Spanish zarzuela was introduced into the country with staging of F. Barbieri’ Jugar con {fuego (Playing with Fire) in 1879 or 1880. Soon the form ‘was adapted all over the country. Local writers and dramatists wrote sarswela in Tagalog, Pampango, llo- ‘ano, Pangasinan, Bicol, Cebuano, longo, and Waray. ‘The music generally followed the simple song form of, the Spanish zarzuela, light and dance oriented, using the waltz, and paso doble; they also used native airs, such as the dal-lot, kundiman, and balitaw, asserting a Filipino identity and expressing subtle nationalistic sentiments, especially in the politically inspired plays. ‘The advent of the opera in the mid-19th century also significantly influenced local music. The florid aria “Ang Maya” (The Sparrow) by Jose A. Estella for Fili- pinas para los Filipinos (Philippines for the Filipino’) ‘OPERA INFLUENCE. European operas Ike Lucia de Lammemoor, below, performed at the Cento Escolar Univeriy In 1964, have Invluenced the wing of ioeal Filpino operas. The fist Filpino ‘opera Is Ladisiao Bonus’ Sanciugang Panagun, eppesie, 02. (Centro tscolar Universly Archives, Manuel 166)SOURCES AND INFLUENCES in 1905 required the vocal technique of an opera sing- fez. The first Filipino opera, Sandugong Panaguinip (Dreamed Alliance) by Ladislao Bonus, produced in 1002, is replete with difficult, soaring vocal passages. “The kundiman shows evidence of having evolved from the modal character of such traditional melodie structures as the awit and kumintang, and later re- fined with the use of chromatic harmony. The kundi- ‘man has a binary structure of minor and major tonali- ties and a highiy poetic text focusing on subtle and metaphorical expressions of love. The dramatic quality of the kundiman, evident in the works of Nicanor ‘Abelardo and Francisco Santiago, can also be attri- uted to the influence of the romantic operas being performed by visiting French and Italian companies. ‘The establishment of formal music academies and conservatories at the turn of the 20th century brought in fresh repertoires of instrumental music, notably the piano literature of the romantic composers Frederick Chopin and Franz Liszt. Bravura became the primary ingredient in the works of such leading composers as Francisco Buencamino and Francisco Santiago. Their nocturnes, waltzes, and concertos were based on Fili: pino folk melodies. “The early music of Abelardo shows great mastery of the harmonic-chromatic language of the romantic period, challenging the performer beyond the level of technical proficiency. In later years, Abelardo wrote in the expressionist style of post-Wagnerian composers such as Richard Strauss and Arnold Schoenberg, using ambiguous tonal language and disjunct melodic struc- tures. The works of the younger contemporaries of Abelardo and Santiago were influenced by the roman- tic style, with traces of the impressionist and neoclassic ‘movements. They used Philippine folk music materials in their tone painting, and descriptive and prog- rammatic writing. They preferred tone poems and overtures since they were shorter than symphonies, had greater mass appeal, and could be scored for the more accessible brass band. “Antonio Molina’s works can be traced to the Euro- pean zarauela and opera, the religious music of the Romantic period, impressionist and some post: expressionist music. The works of Hilarion Rubio, who {was also an opera and band conductor, display drama~ tic contrast and programmatic tone painting, as influ- enced by the program overtures of Beethoven and ‘Mendelssohn. His later works for chamber ensemble, such as Ang Manok at ang Bayawak (The Rooster and the Iguana) and The Strutting Peacock, are also de- scriptive, and uses the harmonic idiom of the French neotlassicists. Antonino Buenaventura’ works, as ex- emplified by the well-known By The Hillside, combine the transparent, coloristic texture of the impressionist ‘school and the orchestral sonority of the late romantic period. ‘Among the next generation of composers, Lucio San Pedro was greatly influenced by the instrumental ‘works of Tchaikovsky and Wagner, which focus on the organic and variational development of thematic ideas. ‘On the other hand, the dramatic and programmati¢ character of Felipe Padilla de Leon's compositions echo the operas of Puccini. De Leon's later works use some 20th-century techniques in descriptive fashion, as in ‘Sayaw ng Igorot (Igorot Dance) for piano and Tatlong Tunog Larawan (Three Sound Portraits) for orchestra. ‘Alfredo Buenaventura’s descriptive eclectic style “ranging from romantic to neoclassic—stemmed from his association of specific idioms to specific emotions and other extramusical ideas. Jerry Dadap shared this ‘concept of music creation, adopting a wider variety of writing styles: from the traditional kundiman vocal style of Abelardo and Santiago, to the neoclassic struc- tures, and even avant-garde devices. Eliseo M. Pajaro and Lucrecia Kasilag belong to the neoclassic school; both trained in the United States in the tradition of Paul Hindemith of the Eastman 75/ wstoRICAL ESSAYS School of Music. Pajaro’s Western abstract works— symphony, sonata, concerto, oratorio, song cycle, and fugue—contain bitonally harmonized Filipino themes. While utilizing traditional melodies and chords, Kasi- lag departs from the traditional Western neoclassic language by combining not only different tonalities from the same well-tempered chromatic scale, but by fusing scales, modes, and instrumental timbres from both Western and non-Western music. She has also written works using avant-garde elements such as improvisation, electronics, and physical movement. Later neoclassic composers were Rosendo Santos and Angel Pena Jose Maceda’s works are directly inspired by his contact with music making among indigenous Philip- pine and other Asian music traditions, and his study of their structural elements (drone and melody) and so- cial and philosophical significance. The communi oriented rituals engendered his ideas of musical per- formance involving large groups of people, rather than standard ensembles or solo playing. His compositional technique consists of forming mass structures and clouds of sounds, as well as fusing and diffusing diffe- rent classes of timbres. The technique was directly influenced by the French musique concrete movement and its principal pioneers and exponents, Edgar Varese, Pierre Schaeffer, Olivier Messiaen, and Iannis Xenakis. ‘Avant-garde literature of the 1950s and 1960s was introduced through the concerts organized by Maceda, as well as international conferences and meetings, starting with the UNESCO-sponsored Musics of Asia in 1966. Avant-garde music had an impact on a youn- ger generation of Filipino composers, especially Ramon Santos, Bayani Mendoza de Leon, and Francisco Feliciano. After studying abroad, they de- veloped their individual styles which bore influences of the different New Music idioms prevailing in Europe and the US. The early music of Santos used the serial technique and later the open-ended forms in- spired by the aleatoric music of John Cage. De Leon ‘was also influenced by Cage, although his works draw their significance from extramusical ideas (usually in- spired by metaphysical concepts) rather than composi- tional techniques. Thus, De Leon freely used various idioms, even those based on conventional harmony or neoclassic language, in his later works. On the other hand, Feliciano’s mature works, developed while he 76 studied with the European masters Isang Yun and Krystof Penderecki, reflected the structural clarity and organic principles of the German tradition. In spite of the new techniques of writing they acquired from abroad, Santos, De Leon, and Feliciano drew their basic musical ideas from Philippine traditional music and culture, Some elements are structural, as may be seen in Santos’ Abot-Tanaw (As Far As The Eyes Can See), De Leon's Okir, Feliciano’s Siya-Kuno (Him/Her, So They Say); others are literary as in Santos’ Awit ni Pulau (Song of Pulau) and Tin-ig, De Leon’s Sugatang Perlas (Wounded Pearl), Feliciano’s La Loba Negra (The Black She-wolf), and others are philosophical as in Santos’ Likas-An (Naturing), de Leon’s Baliay Bata (Womb), The music of the following generation of composers—Josefino Toledo, Conrado del Rosario, ‘Arlene Chongson, Verne de la Pefta, Ruben Federizon, and Jonas Baes—were also influenced by moder Western idioms. Toledo's sensitivity to color and tex- ture shows the strong influence of French and electro- nic music. Although different in temperament, the music of De la Pefta and Federizon are based on tradi- tional Philippine rhythms, modes, and timbres. Del Rosario's style, on the other hand, may be identified with the German New Music idiom, with more sensi- tivity to color and texture, The later works of ‘American-trained Chongson combine neoclassic forms with non-Western musical structures. Baes was influ- enced by Maceda’s large-scale works as well as by traditional music; he uses simple melodic materials and sounds in building different sound textures. Epilogue The plethora of sources and influences, and the relation of Philippine musics to other musics are only cone aspect of Philippine music. Through the centuries, Filipino artists have reshaped outside influences to fulfill their aesthetic needs, making the music truly their own. © R.P. Santos References: Banas 1975; Fernandez 1981; Francisco 1962; Javellana 1950; Kartomi 1983; Mirano 1984-1986, 1989; Morga in Blair and Robertson XV; Musical Instruments of China n.d; Pareja 1990; Santos 1975; Villaruz 1990.