A sender that receives two ACKs for the same packet knows that the receiver did
not correctly receive the packet following the packet that is being ACKed twice
Rdt2.0    the time needed to process the packet, but this varies.
A more realistic case: Packets can be corrupted (bit errors) (normally in the physical
layer when its transmitted, propagates or is buffered)
Reliable data transfer protocols who are based on retransmission where both positive
acknowledgments and negative acknowledgements are used are known as ARQ
(Automatic Repeat reQuest) protocols
Error detection:
A mechanism needed to allow the receiver to detect when bit errors have
occurred.
Receiver feedback:
Receiver sends positive ACK and negative NAK (one bit long, 1 or 0)
acknowledgments replies to provide feedback to the sender.
Retransmission:
A packet that is received in error at the receiver will be transmitted by the
sender.
The send side has two states:
3.4.2 – Pipelined Reliable Data Transfer Protocols
Leftmost state: Waiting for data to be passed down from the upper layer. When
rdt_send(data) event occurs , the sender will create a packet (sndpkt) containing the
data and a checksum. Before sending it with udt_send(sndpkt)
Rightmost state: Waiting for ACK or NAK from the receiver.
If it receives a ACK then it knows the most recently transmitted packet has been
received correctly thus the protocol waits for a new packet from the upper layer
If it receives a NAK then it knows it has to retransmit and wait for a new ACK or
NAK.
It can’t get a new packet from the upper layer while waiting for a ACK or NACK.
Thus it cant send new data before getting an ACK
This makes Rdt2.0 a stop-and-wait protocol
The receiver side has a single state:
It responds with either an ACK or NAK when the packet arrives depending on if its
corrupted or not.
This protocol has its flaws too as the ACKs or NAKs can also become corrupt.
This can be solved by retransmitting the packet if the ACK or NAK is garbled. Which
introduces duplicate packets which we solve by introducing sequence number field
in the packet.
Thus the receiver must now include the sequence number of the packet being
acknowledged by an ACK message, and the sender must check the sequence
number of the packet being acknowledged.
Rdt3.0
Let’s now suppose the channel can lose packets too. This gives us two new problems.
How to detect packet loss and what to do when packet loss occurs
There’s many way to solve packet loss problem, but we’ll put the burden of detecting
and recovering on the sender.
Suppose the sender transmits a data packet and either that packet, or the receiver’s
ACK of that packet, gets lost. In either case, no reply is forthcoming at the sender from
receiver. If the sender is willing to wait long enough so that it is certain that a packet has
been lost, it can simply retransmit it.
The waiting time is very hard to estimate. It must be at least the round-trip time and
The protocol should try to recover as fast as possible and waiting for the worst case
maximum delay makes it slow
Thus the approach adopted is to use a time that makes it likely that the packet is lost,
but not guaranteed.
This makes it possible for duplicated packets to be sent, but Rdt2.2 handles this
already-
Time-based retransmission needs a countdown timer that ant interrupt the sender after a
given time has expired. The sender need to be able to:
Start the timer each time a packet is sent
Respond to a timer interrupt
Stop the timer
Because packet sequence numbers alternate between 0 and 1, this protocol is
sometimes knowns as the alternating-bit protocol.
Rdt3.0 has a bad performance, and that’s because it’s a stop-and-wait protocol.
Let’s take an example to look at how bad it can be:
Suppose one host on the east coast and one host on the west cost and there’s a 1 Gbps
link R between them. The RTT is 30ms, and the packet size L is 1000 bytes per packet.
The time to transmit the packet into the 1 Gbps link is:
$$d_{trans} = \frac{L}{R} = \frac{8000 \frac{Bits}{packet}}{10^9 bits/sec}$$ = 8
microseconds
Lets assume the ACK is so small that we ignore their transmission time and that the
receiver can send the ACK the moment the last bit of the packets is in. The packet use
$$t=\frac{RTT}{2}+\frac{L}{R} = 15.008 msec$$ to travel one way. That means the ACK
emerges back at the sender at $$t = \frac{RTT}{2}+\frac{L}{R} = 30.008 msec$$ Which
means the sender was only busy 0.008s
If we define the utilization of the sender as the fraction of time the sender is actually
busy sending bits into the channel. Stop-and-wait has a rather dismal sender utilization:
$$U_{sender} = \frac{\frac{L}{R}}{RTT + \frac{L}{R}} = \frac{0.008}{30.008} =
0.00027$$
That means the sender sent 1000 bytes in 30.0008ms which is only 267 Kbps on a 1
Gbps link
 In a real environment the sender would either have a buffer or have a sync. The approach to solve this problem is to not reuse a sequence number before the
Mechanism that would allow the upper layer to call it when the window isn’t full. sender is “sure” the packet isn’t in the network anymore.
Receipt of an ACK Today’s maximum lifespan time is assumed to be approximately 3 minutes in the TCP
An acknowledgement for a packet with sequence number n will be taken to be a protocol of high-speed networks.
cumulative acknowledgement, indicating that all packets with a sequence number
up and including n have been correctly received at the receiver.
A timeout event
As in a stop-and-wait protocol, a timer will again be used to recover from lost data
or acknowledgment packets. If a timeout occurs, the sender resends all packets
that have been previously sent but that have not yet been acknowledged.
If an ACK is received but there are still additional transmitted but not yet
acknowledged packets, the timer is restarted. If there are no outstanding,
unacknowledged packets, the timer is stopped.
If a packet with sequence number n is received correctly and is in order, the receiver sends
an ACK for packet n and delivers the data portion of the packet to the upper layer. In all other
cases the receiver discards the packet and resends an ACK for the most recently received
in-order packet.
Discarding an out of order packet might seem wasteful, but if it were to keep it, it would
have to buffer it and then deliver it after the packets before it was received. If the packet
were to be lost then the sender would retransmit both the lost packet and the one that
was buffered. Thus eliminating the need of a buffer.
Thus the receiver must only keep track of the expectedseqnum variable. While the
sender must maintain the upper and lower bounds of its windows and the position of
nextseqnum.
The implementation of this protocol would likely be in the form of various procedures that
implement the actions to be taken in response to the various events that can occur.
In such event-based programming the various procedures are invoked either by other
procedures in the protocol stack or as a result of an interrupt.

3.4.4 – selective Repeat (SR)

GBN suffer from performance problems when the window size and bandwidth-delay product
are both large, many packets can be in the pipeline. A single packet error can thus cause
GBN to retransmit a large number of packets, many unnecessarily.
As the probability of channel errors increases, the pipeline can become filled with these
unnecessary retransmissions.
Selective-repeat protocols avoid unnecessary retransmission by having the sender
retransmit only those packets that is suspects were received in error at the receiver.
The individual as-needed retransmission requires that the receiver individually
acknowledge correctly received packets.
A window of size N will be used to limit the outstanding unacknowledged packets, but it will
now also contain some packets that we already have received ACKs for.
Packets will be acknowledge a packet even if its out of order. Thus it needs to buffer the out-
of-order packets until it receives the missing packets.
SR sender events and actions:
Data received from above:
When data is received from above it checks the next available sequence number for
the packet. If the sequence number is withing the sender’s window, the data is
packetized and sent; otherwise it is either buffered or returned to the upper layer for
later transmission
Timeout: