Oscillations: Normal Modes and Frequencies

UNIT-13: Oscillations
Simple harmonic oscillations, eigenvalue equation and principal axis transformation, frequen-
cies of free vibration and normal coordinates, free vibrations of linear tri-atomic molecule, forced
vibrations
13.0 Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to
• Describe simple harmonic motion and deduce the mathematical equation representing it.
• Describe small oscillations and construct the eigenvalue equation of small oscillations.
• Explain the frequencies of free vibrations.
• Obtain the normal frequencies and normal modes of a linear triatomic molecule.
13.1 Introduction
Oscillations are one of the fundamental motion types found in nature. Subatomic particles such
as protons, neutrons, pions and even quarks execute oscillations. The oscillations are the basis
of atomic and molecular spectra including IR, UV, NMR and many other spectroscopic investi-
gations. The working of coupled electrical circuits are based on oscillations. Hence it is highly
important to understand the oscillations in their fundamental description.
13.2 Simple harmonic oscillations
Simple harmonic motion is the simplest of all oscillatory motions. If a particle is executing
oscillatory motion about a mean position xo , if the instantaneous displacement of the particle
at any point of time is x and instantaneous acceleration of the particle is a, then the oscillatory
motion is said to be simple harmonic motion if
• The magnitude of acceleration at any point of time is always directly proportional to the
displacement at that instant and
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
• The acceleration is always directed towards the mean position.
Mathematically, the motion is said to be simple harmonic if
aα−x
The negative sign indicates that the acceleration is always directed towards mean position.
The simple harmonic motion can also be defined in terms of restoring force that is responsible to
maintain the particle at mean position that tries to bring it back to mean position whenever it is
displaced from it as an oscillatory motion is said to be simple harmonic in nature if the restoring
force that is always directed towards mean position is directly proportional to the instantaneous
displacement of the particle.
Fα−x
A simple example of simple harmonic motion can be taken as the motion of a particle at-
tached to a spring as shown in Figure.
Figure 13.25: Simple harmonic oscillator.
Let a mass m attached to a spring of spring constant k is displaced from its mean posi-
tion. Whatever may be the direction of displacement, either an extension or compression is
produced in the spring upon displacement that results in the development of a restoring force
in the spring. We know form Hooke’s law, the restoring force developed in the spring is propor-
tional to the displacement of the mass.
~F α − ~x
We introduce the spring constant as the constant of proportionality in the above equation,
~F = −k~x
207
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
d2 x
This is the well known Hooke’s law. We also know that F = ma = m , that gives,
dt2
d2 x d2 x k
m 2
= −kx =⇒ 2
=− x
dt dt m
r
k k
Let, = ω 2 , where ω = is the angular frequency of the simple harmonic oscillations.
m m
Then above equation reduces to
d2 x d2 x d2

2 2 2
= −ω x =⇒ + ω x = 0 =⇒ +ω x=0
dt2 dt2 dt2
The above equation is a second order homogeneous differential equation that represents the
simple harmonic motion. One can confidently say any motion that satisfies above differential
equation is known as simple harmonic motion. To find the solutions to above differential equa-
tion we have to determine the roots of auxiliary equation (that is λ2 + ω 2 = 0) that turns out to
be ±iω. The general solution to the above differential equation can be written as
x (t) = A eiωt + Be−iωt
Initial conditions determine the value of the constants of integration A and B in above equa-
tion. Let us assume the particle was at extreme position with an amplitude of xo when t = 0
and was momentarily at rest, that means the velocity was zero at its extreme position.
Then applying the initial conditions to the general solution, we get,
x = A eiωt + Be−iωt =⇒ xo = Ae0 + Be0 =⇒ xo = A + B
dx
= A eiωt (iω ) + Be−iωt (−iω ) =⇒ 0 = Ae0 (iω ) − Be0 (iω ) =⇒ 0 = A − B
dt
xo xo
Solving the above two equations gives us, A = and B = . Using these values of
2 2
constants in the general solution we can rewrite the expression for instantaneous displacement
of the particle as
xo iωt xo −iωt eiωt + e−iωt

x= e + e = xo = xo cos ωt
2 2 2
208
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Note that we got the instantaneous displacement expression as
x (t) = xo cos ωt
If the initial conditions had been chosen as particle being at mean position when t = 0 and
velocity being maximum, then we would have got
x (t) = xo sin ωt
as the solution. Note that these are harmonic functions. Because the instantaneous displace-
ment of a particle executing this kind of motion is represented by simplest harmonic function
(single sine or cosine or even combination of them, but single frequency), the motion is called
simple harmonic motion. A sample representation of instantaneous displacement of a particle
executing simple harmonic oscillation is provided in Figure 13.26. Hence, one can also define
simple harmonic motion as one in which the instantaneous displacement is either sine or cosine
function of time.
Figure 13.26: Simple harmonic oscillator.
13.3 Small oscillations
The description of oscillations as simple harmonic oscillations is highly idealized. In nature

most of the oscillations are not simple harmonic. Almost every oscillatory motion consists of
an extent of unharmonious factors. Hence, in order to understand the oscillations it is always
better to consider small oscillations. Oscillations with small amplitudes.
The theory of small oscillations finds widespread physical applications in acoustics, molec-
ular spectra, vibrations of mechanisms, and coupled electrical circuits. If the deviations of the
209
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
system from stable equilibrium conditions are small enough, the motion can generally be de-
scribed as that of a system of coupled linear harmonic oscillators. An equilibrium position is
classified as stable if a small disturbance of the system from equilibrium results only in small
bounded motion about the rest position. The equilibrium is unstable if an infinitesimal distur-
bance eventually produces unbounded motion. If V is a minimum at equilibrium, any deviation
from this position will produce an increase in V . By the conservation of energy, the velocities
must then decrease and eventually come to zero, indicating bound motion. If V decreases as
the result of some departure from equilibrium, the kinetic energy and the velocities increase
indefinitely, corresponding to unstable motion.
13.4 Eigenvalue equation
Consider a conservative system having n degrees of freedom, described by a set of n general-

ized coordinates q1 , q2 , q3 ...qn . The system has a stable equilibrium to the minimum of potential
energy Vo . Let us assume that the generalized coordinates are measured with respect to this
stable equilibrium position. Expanding the potential V (q1 , q2 , ..., qn ) of the system about the
equilibrium point in a Taylor series we can write
∂V 1 ∂2 V
V (q1 , q2 , ..., qn ) = Vo + ∑
2∑ ∑ ∂qi ∂q j o qi q j + ...
qi +
i
∂qi o i j
The first term is the potential energy at the equilibrium position which is a constant and
may be taken as zero. The second term vanishes, since at the equilibrium position the potential
energy is minimum and hence (∂V/∂qi )o = 0. Neglecting the higher terms we can write,
1 ∂2 V 1
V (q1 , q2 , ..., qn ) = ∑ ∑ qi q j = ∑ ∑ Vij qi q j
2 i j ∂qi ∂q j o 2 i j
∂2 V
Where, Vij =
∂qi ∂q j o
It is obvious that Vij ’s are symmetric, since the second derivatives are evaluated at the equi-
librium position and the order of differentiation is immaterial. The diagonal elements represent
the force constant of the restoring force acting on the particle. Since V is measured from its
minimum value and this minimum value is taken as zero. Hence V > 0.
If the transformation equations defining the generalized coordinates do not depend explic-
itly on time, the kinetic energy is a quadratic function of the generalized velocities. That is
210
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1
2∑ ∑ mij q̇i q̇ j
T=
i j
Where the mi j are in general functions of generalized coordinates and contain the masses.
Expanding mi j into a Taylor series about the equilibrium values of qi ’s and neglecting the terms
beyond the constant values of mij at equilibrium position
mij (mij )o
Designating the constant values (mij )o by the constant Gij ’s
1
2∑ ∑ Gij q̇i q̇ j
T=
i j
Again it is obvious that the constants Gi j must be symmetric, since the individual terms are
unaffected by an interchange of indices.
Then the Lagrangian of the system will be
1 1
L = T−V = ∑ ∑
2 i j
Gij q̇i q̇ j − ∑ ∑ Vij qi q j
2 i j
If we find the partial derivatives of the Lagrangian with respect to the generalized coordi-
nates and velocities we get,
∂L 1 ∂L 1
= ∑ Vij q j and = ∑ Gij q̇ j
∂qi 2 j ∂q̇i 2 j
Using these in the Lagrangian equations of motion we get
d 1 1
dt 2 ∑ ij j − ∑ Vij q j = 0
G q̇
j
2 j
=⇒
∑ Gij q̈ j − ∑ Vij q j = 0
j j
The above equation is a system of n second order homogeneous differential equations with
constant coefficients. Each equation involves all the n coordinates. We can consider an oscilla-
tory function as the solution to the above equation as
211
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
q j = Ca j e−iωt
On substituting the solution back to the differential equation we get the auxiliary equation
as,
∑(Vij − ω2 Gij )a j = 0
j
The above equation can be expanded as
(V11 − ω 2 G11 ) a1 + (V12 − ω 2 G12 ) a2 + ... + (V1n − ω 2 G1n ) an = 0
(V21 − ω 2 G21 ) a1 + (V22 − ω 2 G22 ) a2 + ... + (V2n − ω 2 G2n ) an = 0
.........................
(Vn1 − ω 2 Gn1 ) a1 + (Vn2 − ω 2 Gn2 ) a2 + ... + (Vnn − ω 2 Gnn ) an = 0
This set of n linear homogeneous equations for ai ’s will have a solution only if the determi-
nant of the coefficients vanishes. Hence, we have

V11 − ω 2 G11 V12 − ω 2 G12 . . . . . V1n − ω 2 G1n

V21 − ω 2 G21 V22 − ω 2 G22 2
. . . . . V2n − ω G2n

=0
..... ..... ..... .....

Vn1 − ω 2 Gn1 Vn2 − ω 2 Gn2 2
. . . . . Vnn − ω Gnn

This equation is of nth degree in ω 2 , and the roots give the frequencies of small oscillations.
These frequencies are often called the frequencies of free vibration or the resonant frequencies of
the system. A complete solution of the equations of motion therefore involves a superposition
of oscillations with all the allowed frequencies. The above equation is called the characteristic
or the secular equation of the system .
13.5 Frequencies of free vibrations
As discussed in the previous section, the expression for the coordinate q j consists of n terms and
each term corresponds to one frequency as
212
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
qj = ∑ Ck a jk e−iωk t
k
It is possible to effect a linear transformation to new generalized coordinates Q1 , Q2 , Q3 , ...,

Qn so that one coordinate contains only one frequency. Let the transformation be of the form
qj = ∑ a jr Qr
r
Next we shall express the potential energy V and the kinetic energy T in terms of the new
coordinates, the Q’s. In terms of the column vectors q and Q, the above equation can be written
as
q = AQ
Where A is a matrix, called the matrix of eigenvectors, formed by the eigenvecotrs, formed
by the eigenvectors of aij can also be written as the matrix equation
Va = ω 2 Ga
The matrix of the eigenvectors A diagonalizes both G and V to a unit matrix and V to a
matrix whose diagonal elements are the eigenvalues of ω 2 .
eGA=1
A and Ã V A = ω 2
The potential energy V, can be represented in matrix form as
1
V= qeVq where, qe = Q̃ A
e
2
Substituting the expression for q and qe, we get
1ee 1e 2 1
V= Q AVAQ = Qω Q = ∑ ωk2 Q2k
2 2 2 k
Similarly we can transform the velocities in the same way as we did for coordinates, then the
kinetic energy will be
213
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1 ė e 1 ė 1
T= Q AGA Q̇ = A Q̇ = ∑ Q̇2k
2 2 2 k
The Lagrangian of the system will be
1
2∑
L = T−V = ( Q̇k − ωk2 Q2k )
k
The Lagrange equations of motion becomes
Q̈l + ωk2 Qk = 0 with k = 1, 2, 3, ...n
The solutions of above equations of motion can be taken as
Qk = Ck e−iωk t with k = 1, 2, 3, ...n
Thus each of the new coordinate is a periodic function involving only one of the resonant
frequencies. These coordinates Q1 , Q2 , ..., Qn are called normal coordinates and the frequencies
ω1 , ω2 , ... , ωn are the corresponding normal frequencies. Each normal coordinate corresponds
to a vibration with only one frequency. These component vibrations are called normal modes of
vibrations. In each mode, all the particles vibrate with the same frequency and with the same
phase. Particle may be exactly out of phyase if the a’s have opposite sign.
13.6 Linear triatomic molecule
Consider a linear triatomic molecule such as carbon dioxide in which all the atoms are along the
same straight line. The complicated interatomic potential can be approximated by two springs
of force constant k joining the three atoms as shown in the figure 13.27. Let m be the masses of
the atoms at the either ends (Thy are chosen to be equal and identical to have a realistic triatomic
molecule). Let M be the mass of the middle atom. The displacement coordinates marking the
position of the three atoms are also shown in the figure.
Normal frequencies
The potential energy of the system can be taken as
1 1
V= k ( x2 − x1 )2 + k ( x3 − x2 )2
2 2
214
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
x1 x2 x3
Figure 13.27: Linear triatomic molecule.
1 2
V= k [ x + 2x22 + x32 − 2x1 x2 − 2x3 x2 ]
2 1
We know,
∂2 V
Vij =
∂qi ∂q j o
=⇒
∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
V11 = =k V22 = = 2k V33 = =k
∂x22 o ∂x12 o ∂x32 o
∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
V12 = = −k V13 = =0 V23 = = −k
∂x1 ∂x2 o ∂x1 ∂x3 o ∂x2 ∂x3 o
The kinetic energy of the system will be
1 2 1 1
T= m ẋ1 + M ẋ22 + m ẋ32
2 2 2
=⇒
G11 = G33 = m G22 = M and G12 = G23 = G13 = 0
Then the secular determinant will be

V11 − ω 2 G11 V12 − ω 2 G12 V13 − ω 2 G13

2 2 2
V21 − ω G21 V22 − ω G22 V23 − ω G23 = 0

2 2 2
V31 − ω G31 V32 − ω G32 V33 − ω G33

k − ω 2 m −k 0

−k
2
2k − ω M −k = 0

0 −k 2
k − ω m

Expanding the above determinant we get,
ω 2 (k − ω 2 m)(ω 2 mM − 2km − kM) = 0
215
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
On solving the above equation we get the normal frequencies as
r r
k k 2k
ω1 = 0 ω2 = ω3 = +
m m M
Normal modes
To find the normal modes of the system, the expanded form of the eigen equation ∑ j (Vij −
ω 2 Gij ) a j = 0 is taken. To each value of normal frequency, we shall have a set of a that represents
the normal modes or the eigen state.
The equations are
(k − ω 2p m) a1p − ka2p + 0 = 0
−ka1p + (2k − ω 2p M) a2p − ka3p = 0
0 − ka2p + (k − ω 2p m) a3p = 0
Substituting the frequency ω1 = 0 in above expression we get
ka11 − ka21 = 0 =⇒ a11 = a21
−ka11 + 2ka21 − ka31 =⇒ a11 = a31
Hence the solution will be, a11 = a21 = a31 = α

This indicates that the displacements of all the atoms are equal and are in the same direction.
It clearly shows that this mode is not an oscillation but a pure translation of the system. This
can also be confirmed
rwith null value of the frequency.
k
Using ω = ω2 = in the general equations,
m
k
(k − m) a1p − ka2p + 0 = 0 =⇒ a22 = 0
m
k
−ka1p + (2k − M) a2p − ka3p = 0 =⇒ a12 = − a32 = β
m
In this mode because a22 = 0, the central atom is at rest while the outer ones oscillate in out
of phase. This mode is called symmetric stretching mode since both the bonds either stretch or
216
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
compress at the same time.

r
k 2k
Now using ω = ω2 = + in the general equation we get,
m M
M M
a13 = − a2 3 and a33 = − a2 3
2m 2m
2m
If a13 = a33 = γ, then a23 = − γ
M
With the solution we can observe that the outer atoms vibrate with the same amplitude,
while the inner atom oscillates out of phase with them with a different amplitude. This mode
of vibration is called asymmetric or antisymmetric stretching since when one bond gets com-
pressed another bond gets elongated.
Normal Coordinate
From the solutions of normal modes we can write the matrix of eiten vectors A as
 
α β γ
 2m 
A = α 0 −
 
γ
 M 
α −β γ
We have the condition on this matrix of eigen vectors as AGA

e = 1. Hence,
     
α α α m 0 0 α α 1 0 0
α
     
0 − β  0 M 0   β 0 − β  = 0 1 0
     
β
 2m   2m   
γ − γ γ 0 0 m γ − γ γ 0 0 1
M M
Upon simplifying the above equation we get,
s
1 1 M
α= √ β= √ γ=
2m + M 2m 2m( M + 2m)
Also we know the relation between the position coordinates and normal coordinates as X =
AQ. Then we can write
      
x1 α α α Q1 Q1 α + Q2 β + Q2 γ
      
 x2  =  β 0 − β  Q2  =  Q1 α − (2m/M) Q3 γ
      
   2m     
x3 γ − γ γ Q3 Q1 α − Q2 β + Q3 γ
M
Solving the above equations for Q1 , Q2 and Q3 and substituting the expressions for α, β and
217
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
γ we obtain the normal coordinates as
√
mx1 + Mx2 + mx3 x − x3 mM( x1 − 2x2 + x3 )
Q1 = √ Q2 = √1 Q3 = √
M + 2m 2/m 2M + 4m
13.7 Check your progress
Check your progress by answering the questions below.
1. Why small oscillations are significant?
2. What are normal frequencies?
3. How many normal frequencies exist for a system?
4. What is the significance of normal modes?
13.8 Keywords
• Small oscillations
• Normal frequencies
• Normal modes
• Linear triatomic molecule
13.9 Worked examples
1. A simple pendulum has a bob of mass m and with a mass M at the moving support. Mass
M moves on a horizontal line in the vertical plane in which the pendulum oscillates. Find
the normal frequencies of vibrations.
Answer:
The kinetic energy of the system can be written as
1 1
T= (m + M) ẋ2 + m(l 2 θ̇ 2 + 2l ẋ θ̇ cos θ )
2 2
Since, cos θ = 1 at equilibrium position we can write the G matrix as
218
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
x M
θ l
Figure 13.28: Pendulum with moving support.
 
m+M ml
G= 
ml ml 2
Taking the point of support as the zero potential point, we can write the potential energy
matrix at equilibrium as
 
0 0
V= 
0 mgl
Then the characteristic determinant will be

−ω 2 (m + M) −mlω 2

=0
−mlω
2 2 2
mgl − ml ω

−ω 2 (m + M)(mgl − ω 2 ml 2 ) − m2 l 2 ω 4 = 0

2 2 m+Mg
ω ω − =0
m l
Then the normal frequencies
r
m+Mg
ω1 = 0 and ω2 =
m l
2. Find the normal frequencies and normal modes for a double pendulum, each having a
219
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
mass m suspended by a string of length l.
Answer:
The figure above illustrates a double pendulum in displaced position. The coordinates of
the two bobs can be taken as
x1 = l sin θ y1 = l cos θ
x2 = l sin θ + l sin φ y2 = l cos θ + l cos φ
The kinetic energy of the system would be
1 1 1
T= m( ẋ12 + ẏ21 ) + m( ẋ22 + ẏ22 ) = ml 2 θ̇ 2 + ml 2 φ̇2 + ml 2 cos(θ − φ)θ̇ φ̇
2 2 2
Then the elements of the G matrix will be
G11 = 2ml 2 B22 = ml 2 G12=G21=ml 2
Let us consider the reference level for the potential energy is at distance 2l below the point
of suspension. Then the height of the upper mass above the zero level would be l + l (1 −
cos θ ) and the height of the lower mass above the zero level is l (1 − cos θ ) + l (1 − cos φ)
Then the potential energy will be
V = 4mgl − 2ml cos θ − mgl cos φ
The elements of V matrix will be
∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
V11 = = 2mgl =0 = mgl V21 = 0
∂θ 2 θ,φ=0 ∂θ∂φ θ,φ=0 ∂φ2 θ,φ=0
Then the normal frequencies can be determined using the determinant
220
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU

2mgl − ω 2 2ml 2 2
−ω ml 2

=0

2
−ω ml 2 2 2
mgl − ω ml

2(mgl − ω 2 ml 2 )(mgl − ω 2 ml 2 ) − ω 4 m2 l 4 = 0
g g h√ g ih√ g i
2 − ω2 − ω2 − ω4 = 0 =⇒ 2 − ω2 + ω2 2 − ω2 − ω2 = 0
l l l l
√ √
2g/l √ g 2g/l √ g
ω2 = √ = (2 − 2) and ω2 = √ = (2 + 2)
2+1 l 2−1 l
Then the normal frequencies are
√ √
r r
g g
ω1 = (2 − 2) and ω2 = (2 + 2)
l l
To find the normal mode eigen functions using the following equations with ω1 ,
√ g √ g
2) 2ml 2 a11 − (2 − 2) ml 2 a21 = 0

2mgl − (2 −
l l
g √ √ g
2) ml 2 a11 + mgl − (2 − 2) ml 2 a21 = 0

−(2 −
l l
√
On simplification, we get a11 = 1 and a21 = 2. Similarly using the normal frequency
√
ω − 2 we would get a12 = 1 and a22 = − 2.
 
1 1
Then the matrix of eigen vectors will be √ √ 
2 − 2
Then to find the normal coordinates we have
      
θ 1 1 Q1 Q1 + Q2
  = √ √    = √ √ 
φ 2 − 2 Q2 2Q1 − 2Q2
Solving the above equation, we get the normal coordinates as
221
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
θ φ θ φ
Q1 = + √ and Q2 = − √
2 2 2 2 2 2
3. Determine the resonant frequencies, normal modes and normal coordinates of a two cou-
pled pendulum.
Answer:
A two coupled pendulum consists of two simple pendula of mass m and length l connected
by a massless spring of spring constant k. The displacement of the bobs to the right are x1
and x2 , and the corresponding angular displacements are θ1 and θ2 . The potential energy
when the bob is at the mean position is taken as zero. Angles θ1 and θ2 are taken as
generalized coordinates.
The potential energy of the system
1
V = mgl (1 − cos θ1 ) + mgl (1 − cos θ2 ) + k ( x1 − x2 )2
2
1
V = mgl (1 − cos θ1 ) + mgl (1 − cos θ2 ) + kl 2 (sin θ2 − sin θ1 )2
2
For small angles, we can approximate
θ12 θ22
cos θ1 = 1 − cos θ2 = 1 − sin θ2 − sin θ1 = (θ2 − θ1 )
2 2
Substituting these values and simplifying we get,
1 1
V= (mgl + kl 2 )θ12 + (mgl + kl 2 )θ22 − kl 2 θ1 θ2
2 2
∂2 V ∂2 V
2
V11 = = mgl + kl V12 = V21 = = −kl 2
∂θ12 θ1 ,θ2 =0 ∂θ1 ∂θ2 θ1 ,θ2 =0
∂2 V
V22 = = mgl + kl 2
∂θ22 θ1 ,θ2 =0
The kinetic energy of the system would be
222
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1 1 1
T= m( ẋ12 + ẋ22 ) = ml 2 θ̇12 + ml 2 θ̇22
2 2 2
Hence, G11 = G22 = ml 2 and G12 = G21 = 0
The resonant frequencies can be determined using the equation,

mgl + kl 2 − ω 2 ml 2 −kl 2

V − ω2 G = 0

=⇒ =0

−kl 2 2 2 2
mgl + kl − ω ml

On expanding the above determinant we have,
mg 2
2
+k−ω m − k2 = 0
l
Simplifying the above equation we get,
r r
g g 2k
ω1 = and ω2 = +
l l m
To find the normal modes we shall consider the eigen equation of the system as
∑ (Vij − ω2 Gij )a j = 0
j=1,2
Substituting the terms Vij and Gij gives us,
(mgl + kl 2 − ω 2 ml 2 ) a1 − kl 2 a2 = 0
−kl 2 a1 + (mgl + kl 2 − ω 2 ml 2 ) a2 = 0
g
Using ω 2 = ω12 = , we get two simultaneous equation in a1 and a2 . On solving the two
l
equations we get the values a1 = a2 = α, a random constant.
g 2k
Similarly using ω 2 = ω22 = + , we get another set of simultaneous equations which
l m
would result in a1 = − a2 = β. Then the eigenvector matrix will be
223
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
 
α β
A= 
α −β
To find the exact values of α and β we shall use the identity AGA
e = 1 as
     
α α ml 2 0 α β 1 0
   = 
β −β 0 ml 2 α −β 0 1
=⇒
   
2ml 2 α2 0 1 0
 = 
0 2ml 2 β2 0 1
This gives
1
2ml 2 α2 2ml 2 β = 1 =⇒ α=β= √
2ml 2
Then the eigenvector matrix will become,
1 1
 
 √2ml 2 √
2ml 2 
A= 1

1 

√ −√
2ml 2 2ml 2
We know from the properties of normal coordinates,
1 1
 
   
√
 2ml 2 √ 2 Q
θ 2ml 
 1 =    1
 1 1 
θ2 √ −√ Q2
2ml 2 2ml 2
Using the above equation, we can deduce the expression for normal coordinates as
s s
ml 2 ml 2
Q1 = ( θ1 + θ2 ) and Q2 = ( θ1 − θ2 )
2 2
224
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
13.10 Questions for self study
1. What is a simple harmonic oscillation? Obtain an expression for the instantaneous dis-
placement of a particle executing simple harmonic oscillation.
2. What are small oscillations? Describe the eigenvalue equation of small oscillations.
3. Explain normal modes and frequencies of free oscillations of a general system.
4. Obtain an expression for a normal frequencies and normal modes of a symmetric linear
triatomic molecule.
13.11 Answers to check your progress
1. When the oscillations are of small amplitude, most of the oscillations can be treated as sim-
ple harmonic oscillations. As the amplitude becomes large, unharmonic factors increase
that make the analysis of the oscillations difficult.
2. Frequencies of free oscillations are called normal frequencies.
3. Equal to the number of degrees of freedom of the system.
4. When a system is oscillating in normal mode, it oscillates with just one frequency. If not,
the oscillation will be a complex combinations of the frequencies.
13.12 References
• Herbert Goldstein, Charles Poole, John Safko, (2010) Classical Mechanics. Pearson Educa-
tion.
• G. Aruldhas, (2008) Classical Mechanics. Prentice Hall of India pvt. Ltd.
• R. G. Takwale and P. S. Puranik (2006) Introduction to Classical Mechanics. Tata McGraw-

Hill Publishing Company Ltd.
• N. C. Rana and P. S. Joag (2005) Classical Mechanics. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Com-
pany Ltd.
225
UNIT-14: Theory of relativity
Galilean relativity, Michelson-Morley experiment, Special theory of relativity-postulates, Lorentz

transformation, Consequences: Length contraction, time dilation and velocity addition theorem.
14.0 Objectives
• Describe the Galilean transformations between two inertial frames of references.
• Discuss Michelson-Morley experiment and explain its significance.
• State the postulates of special theory of relativity
• Deduce the Lorentz transformation equations.
• Explain the length contraction as a consequence of special theory of relativity.
• Describe time dilation and loss of simultaneity.
• Derive velocity transformation equations between two inertial frames of reference moving
relative to each other.
14.1 Introduction
Theory of relativity is all about connecting the different results observed in a physical phe-
nomena or a process by different observers. Depending on the state of motion of the observer,
different values and properties are measured different observers for the same system. These
differences are usually observed when two observers are in relative motion with respect to each
other. Theory of relativity provides the necessary mathematical tools to compare the measure-
ments of the two observers when they are in relative motion. It provides a set of transformation
equations to obtain the measurements with respect to any observer when his state of motion is
known with respect to another observers with respect to whom the measurements are already
known.
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
14.2 Galilean relativity
An observer is a personification of measurement. This is impersonated by the introduction of

a frame of reference. As we have already discussed in Unit-I, a frame of reference consists of a
coordinate system to measure the position or configuration of a system and a clock to measure
the time. There are two types of frames of references: Inertial frame of reference and non-inertial
frame of reference. A frame of reference in which Newton’s law of inertia is valid is called an
inertial frame of reference. A frame of reference in which Newton’s law of inertia is not valid is
called non-inertial frame of reference.
Figure 14.29: Inertial frames of reference
Newton’s first law the law of inertia states that the system at rest will remain at rest or a
system in uniform motion will remain in uniform motion if no net external force acts on it. In
other words, unless the action of an net external force a body does not get accelerated in inertial
frame of reference. Hence a frame of reference in which a body never gets accelerated unless
there is a presence of net non-zero unbalanced force is called inertial frame of reference. If a
body may get accelerated even when there is no net non-zero unbalanced force, then the frame
of reference is called non-inertial frame of reference. For most purposes a set of co-ordinate
Axes attached to the earth may be regarded as an inertial frame of reference. Here the small
acceleration resulting from the rotational motion about its own axis and orbital motion about
the sun is neglected. An ideal inertial frame is a coordinates frame of reference fixed in space
with respect to fixed stars.
Galilean relativity provides a set of transformation equations that connect two inertial frames
of references. Consider two inertial frames of references S and S0 with cordinate axis xyz and
x 0 y0 z0 attached to them. let S0 be moving with respect to S with a uniform velocity v along xx 0
227
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
direction as shown in the figure. Let us assume the origin of both the frames coincide with each
other at t = t0 = 0. Let an event that take place at P is described as ( x, y, z, t) with respect to
frame S and ( x 0 , y0 , z0 t0 ) with respect to the frame S0 . Then the Galilean transformation equations
that connect the coordinates of the same event with respect to the two inertial frames of reference
are,
x 0 = x − vt; y0 = y; z0 = z; t0 = t
On differentiating the above set of equations, we get Galilean velocity transformation as
dx 0 dx dy0 dy dz0 dz
= −v = =
dt dt dt dt dt dt
=⇒
u0x = a x − v; u0y = uy ; u0z = uz
Differentiating once again gives the Galilean acceleration transformation equations as
a0x = a x ; a0y = ay ; a0z = az
Note that the acceleration in both the frames of reference are equal. Hence, the force acting
on a particle will also be equal. If a particle does not get accelerated in one frame of reference
it will not get accelerated in another frame of reference. Hence we can conclude that a frame of
reference moving with a constant velocity with respect to an inertial frame of reference is also
inertial frame.
14.3 Michelson-Morley experiment
In the later part of 19th century Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory predicted the existence of
electromagnetic waves propagating through space with a speed of c = 3 × 108 ms−1 . Then, if
electromagnetic wave starts from origin, in a time span of t it would have travelled a distance
of ct and form a spherical wave front such that
x 2 + y2 + z2 − c2 t2 = 0
228
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
For this equation to be invariant, its form in the frame of reference S0 would be
2 2 2 2
x 0 + y 0 + z 0 − c2 t 0 = 0
On the other hand if we use the Galilean transformation equations in the first equation, we
would get,
2 2 2 2
( x 0 + vt) + y0 + z0 − c2 t0 = 0
The above two equations are not same. Hence, the Galilean transformation equations do not
hold good in the case of electromagnetic waves. This lead to several consequences including a
suggestion that there must be some special frame of reference wherein the velocity of electro-
magnetic wave is c = 3 × 108 ms−1 . People called this frame of reference as absolute frame of
reference. It was also believed that this frame is fixed to the hypothetical medium called ether
suggested by Huygens theory of light. Then its velocity in other frames would be different
depending on the state of motion of the respective frames of reference.
Figure 14.30: Michelson-Morley experiment setup
229
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
In order to verify this Michelson and Morley proposed an experiment and to confirm the
existence of that absolute frame of reference. If the ether is at rest, when the earth moves through
it there must be a relative velocity of the earth with respect to the ether and hence with respect to
the absolute frame of reference. This results in the different values in the velocity of light (which
is also an electromagnetic wave) along different directions. Hence the experiment intended to
determine the difference in the speed of the light in different directions.
The experimental setup used is the Michelson interferometer as shown in the figure. The
light from a source is split into two beams by a half silvered plate P. One beam travels to mirror
M1 and the other to mirror M2 . The beams are reflected by M1 and M2 and are recombined
again after passing through P. Beam 2 goes through the plate P three times, where as beam
1 goes through p only once. Hence to make the optical paths of the two beams equal, a com-
pensating plate P0 is placed in the path of beam 1. Beams 1 and 2 arrive at the telescope T and
produce interference fringes. If the optical path lengths of the beams are exactly equal, con-
structive interference occurs, leading to bright fringe. If one mirror is moved by a distance of
λ/4 which corresponds to a path difference of λ/2 between the beans, destructive interference
occurs, giving rise to a dark fringe. Thus, by moving one of mirrors, the fringe system can be
made to move past the crosswire which serves as the reference mark. Let the earth be moving to
the right with a velocity ~v with respect to the stationary ether. Michelson arranged the interfer-
ometer in such a way that PM1 is parallel to the direction of the vector ~v. To reduce mechanical
vibrations, the interferometer was mounted on a large stone that floated in a tank of mercury.
The experiment
To start the mirrors M1 and M2 are set such that PM1 = PM2 = d. If the apparatus is
stationary in ether, the two waves take the same time to return to the telescope and hence meet
in the same phase. Bit the apparatus is moving with the same velocity v to the right. Therefore,
the time required by the two aves for their journey through the same distance will not be equal.
First we consider beam 1 which travels parallel to the velocity. The transmitted wave travels
towards M1 with relative velocity c − v. After reflection at M1 it travels towards glass plate P
with relative velocity c + v. Hence the time required by this wave for its round trip is
d d 2cd 2d
t1 = + = 2 2
=
c−v c+v c −v c(1 − v2 /c2 )
The path of beam 2 when the interferometer is moving with velocity v parallel to beam 1 is
shown in figure. By vector addition, the velocity component perpendicular to the direction of
230
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
motion of the interferometer is (c2 − v2 )1/2 . The time taken by beam 2 to travel from P to M2
and back is
2d 2d
t2 = =
( c2 2
−v ) 1/2 c(1 − v2 /c2 )
The difference between the time taken by the two beams is
2d h v 2 −1 v2 −1/2 i
∆t = t1 − t2 = 1− 2 − 1− 2
c c c
v
Since << 1, we can use binomial expansion,
c
2d h v2 v2 i dv2
∆t = 1 + 2 + ... − 1 + 2 + ... = 3
c c 2c c
In the experiment of Michelson and Morley rotated the interferometer through an angle of
90o . In the rotated position, beam 2 will be parallel to the velocity and beam 1 perpendicular to
it. This leads to a total difference in time (∆t) + (∆t) which is equivalent to the path difference
of 2(∆t)c = 2dv62/c2 . Therefore there would be a shift in the fringe system across the crosswire
in the telescope. The number of fringes shifted
Path difference 2dv2 /c2 2dv2

∆N = = = 2
Wavelength λ c λ
In the experiment conducted this calculation resulted ∆N = 0.4. Detection of this fringe
width is possible, since their apparatus was capable of observing a fringe shift as small as 0.01
fringe. But they could observe no significant fringe shift. They repeated the experiment at dif-
ferent places at different times of the day and at different seasons. But they did not observe a
significant fringe shift, indicating the absence of ether and that the speed of light in the interfer-
ometer is the same for the two perpendicular paths.
The null result can be explained if the Galilean transformation is abandoned and the velocity
of light is assumed to be the same in all inertial frames. This lead to the development of special
theory of relativity.
14.4 Special theory of relativity
Einstein in his theory dropped the concept of ether and the accompanying assumption of an
absolute frame of reference at rest. Also he revised the classical ideas regarding space and
231
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
time by asserting that absolute motion is meaningless. Einstein’s ideas are embodied in two
postulates. The first one is an extension of the Newtonian principle of relativity to include not
only the laws of mechanics but also all the laws of physics.
14.4.1 Postulates of special theory of relativity
There are two postulates of special theory of relativity.
1. The principle of equivalence: The laws of physics have the same form in all inertial
frames of references.
2. Constancy of the speed of light: The speed of light in free space (vacuum) is always a
constant and is independent of the speed of the source, the observer or the relative motion
of the inertial system.
These two postulates form the foundations of the special theory of relativity. It is referred to
as special to distinguish it from its later theory, the general theory of relativity which deals with
the non inertial frames of reference.
14.4.2 Lorentz transformations
The transformation equations for inertial frames of reference moving with uniform relative ve-
locity were derived by Einstein. However they are called Lorentz transformations since Lorentz
derived the same relations in electromagnetism prior to him.
Consider two frames of reference frames S and S0 moving with uniform relative motion. Let
two observers O and O0 observe any event P from systems S and S0 respectively. Let the event
P produced at t = 0 when the origins of the two frames coincide. For the observer at O, the
coordinates of the event at a articular instant be ( x, y, z, t). The same event is described by the
coordinates ( x 0 , y0 , z0 , t0 ) for the observer O0 . The frame of reference S0 is moving with respect to
S along x-axis. Hence,
y0 = y and z0 = z
Both the forward and reverse transformation equations relating x and x 0 can be written as
x 0 = k( x − vt) and x = k ( x 0 + vt0 )
232
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
The same constant k is used in both the equations, since according to the first postulate
nothing distinguishes S and S0 from one another except for their relative velocity.
Combining the above two equations we can write,
1 − k2
x = k [k( x − vt) + vt0 ] =⇒ t0 = kt + x
kv
However we do not know the value of k which can be found using the second postulate of
special theory of relativity that says that velocity of light is constant in all frames of reference.
Hence, the equation x2 + y2 + z2 − c2 t2 = 0 is satisfied by in both the frames of references.
Therefore,
2 2 2 2
x 0 + y 0 + z 0 − c2 t 0 = 0
Using the transformation equations in above equation,
2c2 tx (1 − k2 ) c2 x2 (1 − k2 )2
k2 ( x − vt)2 + y2 + z2 − c2 k2 t2 − −
v k 2 v2
Comparing the coefficients of x on either side we get
2c2 t(1 − k2 ) 1
2k2 vt + =0 =⇒ k= r
v v2
1−
c2
Then the transformation equations becomes
x − vt t − (v/c2 ) x
x0 = r y0 = y z0 = z t0 = r
v2 v2
1− 2 1− 2
c c
The above set of equations are called Lorentz transformation equations. We represent these
v 1
equation in a simpler form by assuming β = and γ = r as
c v2
1− 2
c
β
x 0 = γ( x − βct) y0 = y z0 = z t0 = γ(t − x )
c
Also,
x 0 = γx − γβct y0 = y z0 = z ct0 = γct − γβx
233
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
The above set of equations can also be written in matrix from as

    
x0 γ 0 0 −γβ x
    
 0 
y   0 1 0 0 y
 
 =  
 0 
z   0 0 1 0 z
 
    
ct0 −γβ 0 0 γ ct
In the above equation, the matrix

 
γ 0 0 −γβ
 
 0 1 0 0 
 
Lx =  
 0 0 1 0 
 
 
−γβ 0 0 γ
is the Lorentz transformation matrix also called x-boost.
14.5 Consequences of special theory of relativity
14.5.1 Length contraction
Let S and S0 be inertial frames of references moving with relative velocity v along the xx 0 axes.
Consider a rod at rest in inertial frame S0 lying parallel to the x 0 -axis. Though the frame of
reference S0 is moving with a relative velocity, to the observer in S0 the rod is at rest. The length
of in an inertial frame in which the rod is at rest is called proper length. The length of the rod
Lo = x20 − x − 10 , where x10 and x20 are the coordinates of the two end measured at the same
instant of time. To an observer in S, the length of the rod is L = x2 − x1 where x1 and x2 are
the coordinates of its two ends measured at the same time; therefore t2 = t1 = t. Using Lorentz
transformation we can write,
x20 = γ( x2 − vt2 ) x10 = γ( x1 − vt1 )
If we use these in the expression for the proper length Lo we have
Lo = x20 − x − 10 = γ( x2 − vt) − γ( x1 − vt) = γ( x2 − x1 ) = γL
=⇒
234
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
s
v2
L = Lo 1−
c2
r
v2
Because 1 − 2 is always less than unity, the length L < Lo . That is, to an observer in
c
S the rod looks as though it is contracted parallel to the direction of motion. This contraction
phenomena is referred to as Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction.
14.5.2 Time dilation
Consider two successive events occurring at the same point x 0 in the inertial frame S0 . Let t10 and
t20 be teh times recorded by the observer in frame S0 . Then the time interval measured by him is
t20 − t10 . For the observer in S0 , the rest frame is S0 itself. The time interval between the events in
the rest frame is called the proper time ∆τ. Hence,
∆τ = t20 − t10
However an observer in frame S measures these instants as
t1 = γ[t10 + (v/c2 ) x 0 ] t2 = γ[t20 + (v/c2 ) x 0 ]
Then the time interval as measured in frame of reference S will be
∆t = t2 − t1 = γ[t20 + (v/c2 ) x 0 ] − γ[t10 + (v/c2 ) x 0 ] = γ(t20 − t10 ) = γ∆τ
Therefore,
∆τ
∆t = r
v2
1−
c2
From the above equation it follows that the proper time interval is a minimum. This effect is
known as time dilation. This also implies that moving clocks go slow.
14.5.3 Loss of simultaneity
Another important consequence of Lorentz transformation is that the simultaneity is relative.

Consider two events occuring at two different points x1 and x2 at times t1 and t2 in the inertial
235
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
frame of reference S. Let t10 and t20 be teh times at which the two events are observed to occur
with respect to S0 . Then from Lorentz transformation
v v
t10 = γ(t1 − x1 ) t20 = γ(t2 − x2 )
c2 c2
=⇒
v v γv
t20 − t10 = γ(t2 − 2
x2 ) − γ ( t1 − 2 x1 ) =⇒ t20 − t10 = γ(t2 − t1 ) − ( x2 − x1 )
c c c2
When the two events are simultaneous, that means they occur at same time and hence t2 −
t1 = 0 and then
γv
t20 − t10 = ( x1 − x2 ) 6 = 0
c2
Hence two events that are simultaneous in one frame of reference may not be simultaneous
frames of reference. This is known as loss of simultaneity.
14.5.4 Twin paradox
Because moving clocks run slower, if an experiment is conducted involving a twin by sending
one of them to a space journey in a high speed rocket to return after some time, and other remain
on earth. Then one would think because moving clocks runs slow, the twin who have gone to
space travel ages less and the one on earth ages high. On the other hand, with respect to a frame
of reference attached to the space travelling twin, the earth is in motion and hence the twin on
earth would age less. This is known as twin paradox.
The paradox appears like a puzzle because each twin sees the other twin as moving and so
as the consequence of time dilation, each should paradoxically find the other to have aged less.
However, the situation can be resolved within the framework of special theory of relativity. The
travelling twin trajectory does not involve just one inertial frame of reference as to return, he
would have to take a turn and there will be an acceleration involved that makes the correspond-
ing frame of reference non inertial. Hence there is no symmetry between the spacetime paths of
the twins and therefore it is not a paradox at all in the sense of logical contradiction.
236
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
14.6 Velocity addition theorem
Consider two inertial frames of reference S and S0 moving with relative velocity v along the
xx 0 direction. Consider a particle at P which is moving with a velocity u as observed by the
observer from frame of reference S. Let u0 be the velocity of the particle with respect to S0 . The
components of the velocity in the two frames of reference can be taken as
dx dy dz
ux = uy = uz =
dt dt dt
dx 0 dy0 dz0
u0x = u0y = u0z =
dt0 dt0 dt0
Consider the Lorentz transformation
x − vt t − (v/c2 ) x
x0 = r y0 = y z0 = z t0 = r
v2 v2
1− 2 1− 2
c c
Differentiating the above equations we get
dx − vdt dt − (v/c2 )dx

dx 0 = r dy0 = dy dz0 = dz dt0 = r
v2 v2
1− 2 1− 2
c c
Then the components of the velocity will be
dx − vdt (dx/dt) − v ux − v
u0x = = =
dt − (vdx/c2 ) 1 − (v/c2 )(dx/dt) 1 − (v/c2 )u x
r r
v2 v2
dy (dy/dt) 1 − 2 uy 1 − 2
u0y = = c = c
dt − (v/c2 )dx 1 − (v/c2 )(dx/dt) 1 − (v/c2 )u x
r
v2
1− 2
c
r r
v2 v2
dz ( dz/dt ) 1 − u z 1 −
u0z = = c2 = c2
dt − (v/c2 )dx 1 − (v/c2 )(dx/dt) 1 − (v/c2 )u x
r
v2
1− 2
c
In summary, the components of velocity transform as
237
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
r r
v2 v2
ux − v uy 1 − 2 uz 1−
u0x = u0y = c u0z = c2
1 − (v/c2 )u x 1 − (v/c2 )u x 2
1 − (v/c )u x
In terms of γ and β,
ux − v γuy γuz
u0x = u0y = u0z =
1 − ( β/c)u x 1 − ( β/c)u x 1 − ( β/c)u x
These equations are known as Lorentz velocity transformation equations. This is also known
as velocity addition theorem.
1. What is a inertial frame of reference?
2. State the postulates of special theory of relativity
3. What is x-boost?
4. What is length contraction?
5. What do you mean by loss of simultaneity?
14.8 Keywords
• special theory of relativity
• constancy of velocity of light in free space
• Lorentz transformation
• Length contraction
• Time dilation
• Twin paradox
238
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1. At what speed does a meter stick move if its length is observed to shrink to 0.5m?
Answer: We have the Lorentz length contraction equation,
s
v2
L = L0 1−
c2
From data, when the length of meter scale ( Lo = 1m) is measured in moving frame of
reference, it appears to be 0.5m( L = 0.5m) The above formula can be rewritten as
s
2
L
v=c 1−
L0
Using the above formula, the value of v will be
s
2
0.5
v = 3 × 108
1− = 3 × 108 × 0.866 = 2.598 × 108 ms−1
1
2. A spacecraft is moving relative to a frame of reference attached to the earth. The clock
with an observer on earth ticks between 2pm and 3pm. But the same observer finds that a
clock on spaceship shows elapsed time as 3601s. Find the velocity of the spaceship relative
to earth.
Answer: We see that the proper time is time measured on earth, t0 = 3600s, while t =
3601s. We have,
2
t0 v2 t0
t= q =⇒ 1− 2 =
1− v2 c t
c2
2 !
t0
v2 = c2 1−
t
Therefore, s s
2 2
t0 3600
v=c 1− = 3 × 108 1−
t 3601
v = 7.069 × 106 ms−1
239
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
3. A rod of length L0 moves with speed v along the horizontal direction. The rod makes an
angle theta0 with respect to the x 0 axis. Determine the length of the rod as measured by a
stationary observer. Determine the angle θ the rod makes with the x-axis.
Answer:
Let us take the S0 frame to be the rest frame of the rod. A rod of length L0 in S0 makes an
angle θ0 with the x 0 axis. Its projected lengths ∆x 0 and ∆y0 are
∆x 0 = L0 cos θ0 and ∆y0 = L0 sin θ0
In a frame S in which the rod moves at speed v along the x-axis, the projected lengths ∆x
and ∆y are given by
∆x
∆x 0 = r and ∆y0 = ∆y
v2
1−
c2
The length L of the rod as measured by a stationary observer in S is
L = ∆x2 + ∆y2
We can write that,
s  s 
v2 v2
∆x = ∆x 0  1−  = L0 cos θ0  1− 
c2 c2
And,
∆y0 = ∆y = L0 sin θ0
Therefore,
v
u s 2
u
v 2
L = t L0 cos θ0 1 − 2  + ( L0 sin θ0 )2
u
c
s
v2

L= L20 1 − 2 cos2 θ0
c
240
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
The rod makes an angle θ with the x-axis in S where
∆y
tan θ =
∆x
L0 sin θ0 tan θ0
tanθ = r =r
v2 v2
L0 cos θ0 1− 2 1− 2
c c
The rod in S appears contracted and rotated.
1. Write a note the Galilean transformations between two inertial frames of references.
2. Explain Michelson-Morley experiment and comment on its significance.
3. State the postulates of special theory of relativity.
4. Derive the Lorentz transformation equations.
5. What is length contraction? Derive an expression for the contracted length.
6. What are time dilation and loss of simultaneity?
7. Write a note on twin paradox.
8. Derive velocity transformation equations between two inertial frames of reference moving
relative to each other.
1. A frame of reference in which Newton’s laws of motion are valid is known as inertial
frame of reference.
2. The postulates of special theory of relativity are: (i) All laws of physics are same in all
inertial frames of references and (ii) Velocity of light in free space is constant.
3. The Lorentz transformation matrix between two frames of reference moving with respect
to each other along x-axis is known as x-boost.
241
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
4. Moving objects appear shorter than their rest length.
5. Two events that are simultaneous in one inertial frame of reference may not be simultane-
ous in another inertial frame of reference.
14.12 References
tion.

pany Ltd.
242
UNIT-15: 4-vectors
Minkowski space: space-like, time-like and world line. Proper time and proper length, 4-
velocity, 4-acceleration, 4-momentum, and 4-force.
15.0 Objectives
• Appreciate time as fourth dimension.
• Describe Minkowski spacetime diagram.
• Differentiate proper time and coordinate time.
• Explain proper length and proper velocity.
• Describe velocity, acceleration, momentum and force as 4-vectors.
15.1 Introduction
Special theory of relativity opened up a new perspective towards space and time. In the Newto-
nian mechanics, the space and time were believed to be absolute. Also, the space and time were
treated to be independent. However, the special theory of relativity through Lorentz transfor-
mations connected the space and time proving that they are not independent as well as absolute.
This lead to the treatment of time as equally with the space coordinates and being treated as an-
other additional dimension.
15.2 Time as fourth dimension
From Lorentz transformation we have,
x − vt t − (v/c2 ) x
x0 = r y0 = y z0 = z t0 = r
v2 v2
1− 2 1− 2
c c
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Note that the space and time are treated equally in the above set of equations. To keep the
dimensionality of the coordinates identical, the time coordinate is multiplied with the velocity
of light. In this method the space and time are combined and called spacetime. The coordinates
of spacetime are represented as ( x, y, z, ct). In some notations the time is chosen as fourth di-
mension in some other notations this fourth dimension is considered as zeroth dimension. Out
of the four dimensions, the three spatial dimensions behave differently compared to the tem-
√
poral dimension. Hence while representing the event in spacetime i = −1 is included along
with the temporal dimension as ( x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (ict, x, y, z)
15.3 Classification of space-time curves
When describing an event or a process in relativity we use spacetime diagrams or Minkowski

diagrams. In general it is a four dimensional plot in which x, y, z and time are four dimensions.
Figure 15.31: Minkowski spacetime diagram
In above diagram A( x A , ct A ) and B( x B , ct B ) represents two events. The line connecting A

and B is called as worldline. The worldline represents the evolution of event A to event B or
simply the process or motion involved. A particle launched from x = 0, ct = 0 with a constant
c
velocity v will have a worldline that is a straight line with slope v in Minkowski diagram. The
244
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
light signal worldline will also be a straight line with unit slope. Introducing another coordinate
y, makes the spacetime diagram to look like two cones as shown below.
The above cone is called as light cone. As any material particle cannot attain velocity more
than c, worldliness of all material particles come within this light cone. The events outside the
light cone cannot occur and hence they are called elsewhere.
Spacetime Interval
In three dimensional Euclidean geometry, d2 = x2 + y2 + z2 defines the distance square of
any point from origin. The quantity ∆d2 = ∆x2 + ∆y2 + ∆z2 , the square of distance between any
two points is a constant in three dimensional Euclidean geometry. Similarly in spacetime we
have ∆S2 = ∆x2 + ∆y2 + ∆z2 − c2 ∆t2 is an invariant. Where ∆S is known as spacetime interval
between two events.
If ∆S2 = 0, then ∆x2 + ∆y2 + ∆z2 = c2 ∆t2 and the two events are connected only by a light
signal and the events are said to be light like.
If ∆S2 > 0, then ∆x2 + ∆y2 + ∆z2 > c2 ∆t2 and no signal can travel fast enough to connect
two such events. They are not actually connected and such events are known as spacelike.
If ∆S2 < 0, then ∆x2 + ∆y2 + ∆z2 < c2 ∆t2 and the two events can be actually connected even
by a material particle and the events are called as timelike.
15.4 Proper time and coordinate time
For any particle in motion in a frame of reference we can always associate another frame of
reference which moves along with the particle. This frame in which the particle is at rest is the
instantaneous rest frame of the particle or inertial frame of the particle. Measurements done in
such a frame are very important like the time measured in such a frame is called as proper time.
The time interval measured between two events by a single clock present at both events (the
clock need not be inertial) is called proper time. Proper time is also the time measured in the
rest frame. For example, consider a particle’s motion along its worldline. The particle initially
observed at A( x A , y A , z A ) at time t A and later it was observed at B( x B , y B , z B ) at time t B then
these two events are represented by A(ct A , x A , y A , z A ) and B(ct B , x B , y B , z B ). The proper time
interval between these two events is the time measured by a clock which travels along with the
particle. More precisely it is the time measured in the frame of reference in which the particle
and the clock used to measure the time both are at rest.
Proper time depends not only on the events but also on the motion of the particle/clock
245
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
between the events. In four dimensional spacetime, proper time with respect to the world line
of a particle is analogous to the arc length of a curve (path) in three dimensional Euclidian
geometry. The definition of proper time involves describing the path through spacetime that
represents the moving clock, observer or the particle of interest.
We represent it by τ to distinguish from coordinate time t. The coordinate time is the time
measured by a distant observer sitting at origin of the frame which we may call as home frame.
Mathematically proper time is defined in terms of coordinate time as
dt
Z
τ=
γ
s
v ( t )2
Z
τ= 1− dt
c2
v (
Z u 2 2 2 )
t1 − 1
u dx dy dz
τ= + + dt
c2 dt dt dt
15.5 Proper length
Proper length or the rest length of an object is the length measured in the rest frame of the object.
In classical mechanics, lengths are measured based on the assumption that the locations
of all points involved are measured simultaneously. But in the theory of relativity, the notion
of simultaneity is dependent on the observer. A different term, proper distance, provides an
invariant measure whose value is the same for all observers.
Proper distance is analogous to proper time. The difference is that the proper distance is
defined between two spacelike-separated events (or along a spacelike path), while the proper
time is defined between two timelike-separated events (or along a timelike path).
15.6 4-velocity
When we consider the motion of a particle we are actually not observing the particle from its
rest frame but other frame which we may call as home frame. Hence the distance covered by the
particle is measured from home frame. But the time taken by the particle to cover so measured
distance can be measured in both home frame and rest frame of particle. Hence we can have
two kinds of velocities. One the rate of distance covered with respect to coordinate time and
246
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
other with respect to proper time.

dl
u = the velocity with respect to coordinate time. We call this as ordinary velocity the
dt
velocity measured in home frame.
dl
η = the velocity with respect to proper time. This is a kind of hybrid quantity which
dτ
is derived from the distance measured in one frame and time measured in other frame. This
velocity is called proper velocity. Proper velocity and ordinary velocity are related to each other
through the expression,
u
η = γu = r
v2
1− 2
c
For velocities much less than c the proper velocity and the ordinary velocities approach each
other. Proper velocity has more advantage over ordinary velocity as it transforms like spatial
part of a four vector under coordinate transformation of spacetime. For which the components
would be
dx µ dx0 dt c
ηµ = with µ = 1, 2, 3 and η0 =
=c =r
dτ dτ dτ v2
1− 2
c
dx µ dt

Thus the four velocity can be taken as η = , c . The most important feature of four
dτ dτ
velocity, the ordinary three velocity is not the spatial part of four velocity. However if a body
is moving with non relativistic speeds, the spatial part of four velocity will the measured three
velocity of the particle.
When we make a transformation from one frame to another frame the distance dl changes
but the proper time τ doesn’t change. Then the transformation equations of this proper velocity
between two frames S and S0 in which S0 is moving with a velocity v with respect S to can be
taken as
η 0 0 = γ (η0 − βη1 ) η 0 1 = γ (η1 − βη0 ) η 0 2 = η2 η 0 3 = η3
In more compact form

3
0
∑

η µ = Lνµ ην
ν =0
Where Lµν being elements of Lorentz transformation matrix.
247
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
15.7 4-acceleration
In general acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. In rel-
ativity because ordinary velocity does not get transfer like a four vector under Lorentz trans-
formation, we always consider proper velocity over the ordinary velocity. Similarly the time
measured with respect to the particle of interest i.e. the proper time. Thus the relativistic accel-
eration or 4-acceleration can be defined as the rate of change of 4-velocity (i.e. proper velocity)
over the proper time. Mathematically,
dη dηµ d2 x µ
A= =⇒ Aµ = =
dτ dτ dτ 2
But we have,

dxm~u dt
η= ,c (γ~u, γc) = γ (~u, c)
dτ dτ
Then
d
Aµ = [γ (u) (~u, c)]
dτ
d
Aµ = γ (u) [γ (u) (~u, c)]
dt
Aµ = γ (u) [γ (u) a + γ̇ (u) ~u, cγ̇ (u)]
h i
Aµ = γ2~a + γγ̇~u, cγγ̇
This expression gives the 4-acceleration in terms of 3-acceleration and 3-velocitiy.
15.8 4-momentum
In nonrelativistic mechanics, momentum is defined as mass multiplied by velocity. We can

extend the same to relativistic domain also. If we do so, we should use proper velocity not
ordinary velocity to make momentum to transfer like a 4-vector under Lorentz transformation
and to be consistent with momentum conservation. Then mathematically the 4-momentum can
be written as
248
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
p = mη = [γm~u, γmc]
m
In the above expression, we can call γm = r = mrel , with mrel called as relativistic
u2
1− 2
c
mass. Then expression for 4-momentum becomes
p = (mrel~u, mrel c)
By writing like this we can make the spatial part of 4-momentum to be just relativistic mass
multiplied by the 3-velocity exactly similar to its non relativistic counterpart. But this has a lot
of disadvantages: the first thing is the relativistic mass is a variable mass, by the introduction
of variable mass fails to achieve a complete parallel with the classical mechanics for example,
1
with the help of this variable mass we can write neither kinetic energy T = mrel u2 nor the
2
expression of force as ~F = mrel~a. Secondly, this variable mass is not a Lorentz scalar and it can
not transfer like the scalar mass under Lorentz transformation. For all these reasons we don’t
use the variable mass in our analysis.
Then the acceptable expression for the relativistic 4-momentum will be
 
 m~u mc 
p= r , r 
u2 u2
 
1− 2 1− 2
c c
E mc2
In modern terminology, we write p0 = mη0 = because E = r Then the expression
c u2
1− 2
c
for 4-momentum is also taken as

E
p = γm~u,
c
15.9 4-force
Newton’s first law is consistent with relativity by its nature. Newton’s second law also valid in
the form
dp
F=
dt
249
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
provided we use the relativistic 4-momentum. We have, p = mη = mrel v
d (mrel v) dv dm
F= = mrel + v rel
dt dt dt
E
We know that E = mrel c2 and hence, mrel = where E being the relativistic energy which
c2
includes both kinetic energy and rest energy through the expression E = K + mc2 so that
dmrel 1 dE 1 d 1 dK
= 2 = 2 K + mc2 = 2
dt c dt c dt c dt
But
dK d ~F · d~l d~l
= = ~F · = ~F · ~v
dt dt dt
Then the Newton’s second law takes the form.
dv ~F · ~v
F = mrel + ~v 2
dt c
An important observation can be made with respect to above equation that the force and
~v ~F · ~v
acceleration are not parallel because of the term . Another important observation must
c2
be made at this point. That is while obtaining the force the 4-momentum is differentiated with
respect to coordinate time not with proper time. Because of this when we transform force under
Lorentz transformation, both numerator and denominator must be transformed individually.
Then the transformation equation of the force under x-boost can be taken as,
dp x
dp0 x γdp x − γβdp0 − β dp
dt
0
F0 x = = = dt
dt0 γβ β dx
γdt − dx 1−
c c dt
β ~
dE
Fx − β dt Fx − ~u · F
F0 x = = c
β β
1 − ux 1 − ux
c c
dpy
dp0 y dpy
F0 y = = = dt
dt0

γβ β dx
γdt − dx γ 1−
c c dt
250
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Fy
F0 y =
βu x
γ 1−
c
Similarly
Fz
F0 z =
βu x
γ 1−
c
Writing all the equations together, the transformation equation for force becomes,
β ~
Fx − ~u · F Fy Fz
F0 x = c ; F0 y = ; F0 z =
β βu x βu x
1 − ux γ 1− γ 1−
c c c
1. What are spacelike and timelike events?
2. What is proper time?
3. Define proper length.
4. What is the fourth component of linear momentum?
15.11 Keywords
• Minkowski diagram
• Spacelike and timelike
• Proper length and proper time.
• 4-vectors
ˆ 2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 1 ∂2
1. Show that the operator = + 2 + 2 − 2 2 is invariant under Lorentz trans-
∂x2 ∂y ∂z c ∂t
formations.
251
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Answer:
We know the Lorentz transformations as
vx
x 0 = γ( x − vt); y0 = y; z0 = z; t0 = γ(t − )
c2
∂ ∂x 0 ∂ ∂y0 ∂ ∂z0 ∂ ∂t0 ∂

= + + +
∂x ∂x ∂x 0 ∂x ∂y0 ∂x ∂z0 ∂x ∂t0

∂ ∂ v ∂
=γ 0
− 2 0
∂x ∂x c ∂t
∂2

∂ v ∂ ∂ v ∂
=γ 0
− 2 0 γ −
∂x2 ∂x c ∂t ∂x 0 c2 ∂t0
∂2 ∂2 2v ∂2 v2 ∂2

= γ2 − +
∂x2 ∂x 02 c2 ∂x 0 ∂t0 c4 ∂t02
Similarly we can show,
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂
= 0; = 0 =⇒ = ; =
∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y2 ∂y02 ∂z2 ∂z02
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 2

∂ ∂ ∂ 2 ∂
=γ − v =⇒ = γ2 − 2v + v
∂t ∂t0 ∂x 0 ∂t2 ∂t02 ∂x 0 ∂t0 ∂x 02
Now consider the operator,
2 2 2 2
ˆ2 = ∂ + ∂ + ∂ − 1 ∂

∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 c2 ∂t2
∂2 2v ∂2 v2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 γ2 ∂2 ∂2 2

ˆ =γ
2 2 2 ∂
− + + 02 + 02 − 2 − 2v + v
∂x 02 c2 ∂x 0 ∂t0 c4 ∂t02 ∂y ∂z c ∂t02 ∂x 0 ∂t0 ∂x 02
252
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
γ2 v2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 γ2 v2 γ2 ∂2 −2γ2 v 2γ2 v ∂2

ˆ =
2 2
γ − 2 + + + − 2 + + 2
c ∂x 02 ∂y02 ∂z02 c4 c ∂t02 c2 c ∂x 0 ∂t0
1 γ2 v2
We know γ = r . Therefore γ2 − = 1. Then we can write
v2 c2
1−
c2
2 2 2 2
ˆ2 = ∂ + ∂ + ∂ − 1 ∂

∂x 02 ∂y02 ∂z02 c2 ∂t02
ˆ 2 is invariant under Lorentz transformations.
Hence the operator
2. Obtain the transformations for the components of the momentum energy four vector un-
der x-boost.
Answer:
We know the 4-momentum is defined as

iE
Pµ = ( P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 ) = ~p, = (~p, imc)
c
Under x-boost we know the transformation of a general vector is defined as
A10 = γ( A1 + iβA4 ); A20 = A2 ; A30 = A3 ; A40 = γ( A4 − iβA1 )
Using these for momentum transformations we can write
P10 = γ( P1 + iβP4 ); P20 = P2 ; P30 = P3 ; P40 = γ( P4 − iβP1 )
0
iE0

iE iE
Px0 = γ Px + iβ( ) ; Py0 = Py ; Pz0 = Pz ; = γ ( ) − iβPx
c c c

βE
Px0 = γ Px − ; Py0 = Py ; Pz0 = Pz ; E0 = γ ( E − βPx c)
c
v
We know β = . Therefore the transformation equations will become,
c
253
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
v
Px0 = γ Px − 2 E ; Py0 = Py ; Pz0 = Pz ; E0 = γ ( E − vPx )
c
These are the transformation equations for four momentum.
3. In non relativistic mechanics we know the Newton’s second law is defined as ~F = m~a.
Obtain the relativistic equivalent of this equation.
Answer:
From Newton’s law we have,
~F = d~p
dt
But we have, ~p = m~η = γm~v then,
 
~F = d (γm~v) = m d (γ~v) = m d  r v
 

dt dt dt  v2

1− 2
c
Consider,
1
 
−
v2

d r 1 = d
 2
1−
dt 
v 2  dt c2
1− 2
c
3 3
− −
v2 v2

1 2 2v dv v 2 dv
=− 1− 2 − 2 = 2 1− 2
2 c c dt c c dt
3 1
 
− −
 v2 v2 v2

2 dv 2 dv 
F = m 2 1− 2
 + 1− 2 
c c dt c dt 
1(
− 2 −1
)
v2 2

2 v v dv
F=m 1− 1− 2 +1
c2 c 2 c dt
254
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1 3
− −1 −
v2 v2 v2

2 dv 2
F=m 1− 1− = m 1− 2 a
c2 c2 dt c
F = mγ3 a
1. Write a note on time as fourth dimension.
2. Write Minkowski spacetime diagram and explain classification of events based on it.
3. Explain the difference between coordinate time and proper time.
4. Explain 4-velocity.
5. Obtain the relativistic expression for acceleration of a particle.
6. Write a note on 4-momentum.
7. Obtain the transformation equations for 4-force.
15.14 Answer to check your progress
1. The events that are separated by space and time such that ∆x2 + ∆y2 + ∆z2 > c2 ∆t2 are
called spacelike events. The events that are separated by space and time such that ∆x2 +
∆y2 + ∆z2 < c2 ∆t2 are called timelike events.
2. Time interval measured between two events by a clock that is present at both the events is
called proper time.
3. Length of an object measured in a frame of reference in which the object is at rest is called
proper length.
E
4. .
c
255
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
15.15 References
tion.

pany Ltd.
256
UNIT-16: Relativistic dynamics
Rest energy and relativistic energy of the particle. Mass-energy equivalence, Evidences of mass-
energy equivalence. Principle of general theory of relativity.
16.0 Objectives
• Distinguish between relativistic energy and rest energy and obtain the relation between
them.
• Deduce the mass energy equivalence relation.
• Explain the various examples of mass energy equivalence.
• Explain general theory of relativity and Einstein’s field equations.
• Describe principle of equivalence and principle of covariance.
• Explain inertial mass and gravitational mass.
16.1 Introduction
As special theory of relativity open up new branches in the physics and revise what all existed
before, several interesting aspects evolve. We have seen in the previous section that length and
time measured by an observer differ from one another depending on the state of motion of the
observer as a consequence of relativity. Because the measurement of length and time form the
basis of all the measurement, the value of almost every physical quantity appears to be different
for different observers in different states of motion. We shall see much deep into the concepts of
special theory of relativity to appreciate such matters in this unit.
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
16.2 Relativistic energy and rest energy
The rest energy and the relativistic kinetic energy of a particle In general, energy can be defined
with the help of work energy theorem. For now let us consider the kinetic energy defined as the
work done in moving a particle from r=0 to r=r as,
Z r
T= ~F · d~r
0
If the displacement d~r and force ~F are parallel to one another the above equation can be written
as
Z r
T= Fdr
0
We have, F = mγ3 a then,

Z r Z r
3 dv
T= mγ adr = mγ3 v dt
0 0 dt
Just in terms of velocities, the above integral can be rewritten as,
Z r Z V
T= mγ3 v dv = mγ3 v dv
0 0
The integration limits are changed from position coordinates to velocities as the integration is
done with respect to velocity with initial velocity and final velocity being zero and v respectively.
− 32
v2
Z V
T= m 1− 2 v dv
0 c

v2
To integrate the above integral, let u = 1 − c2
du 2v 2
=− 2 → du = − v dv
dv c c2
1 V
Z V
− c2 mc2 V − 3 mc2
Z u− 2
− 23
T= mu • du = − u 2 duT = −

1
0 2 2 0 2 −
2 0
 
2 − 12
V
T = mc2  1 − 2 − 1
c
− 1
V2
2
2
T = mc 1− 2 − mc2 = mrel c2 − mc2
c
258
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Where mrel is relativistic mass and m is rest mass. Then the total kinetic energy becomes the
difference between the relativistic energy and rest energy making the expression for relativistic
energy to be
E = mrel c2 = T + mc2
Let us look at another interestingrelation. We have inner product of 4-momentum with itself
E 2
being an invariant. i.e. with pµ ≡ p1 , p2 , p3 , , pµ pµ = | p|2 − Ec2 being an invariant. Thus
c
2 2 2
the quantity | p| c − E must be an invariant. Let us find what this invariant becomes,
| p|2 c2 − E2 = m2 η 2 c2 − mrel 2 c4
= m2 γ2 v2 c2 − γ2 m2 c4
−1 −1
v2 v2

2 2 2
=m 1− 2 v c − 1− 2 m2 c4
c c
−1
v2

2 2 2 2 4
= 1− 2 m v c −m c
c
−1
v2 v2

= 1− 2 1− 2 m2 c4
c c
| p |2 c2 − E2 = m2 c4
Thus the relativistic energy can also be written as
E2 = p2 c2 + m2 c4
We usually write the expression for relativistic energy as
q
E= p2 c2 + m2 c4
16.3 Mass energy equivalence
We see in this section how kinetic energy and total energy gets modified in relativity. Consider
a particle of rest mass mo acted upon by a force ~F through a distance x in time t along the x-axis.
259
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Because of the force, the particle attains a final velocity ~u. Then the kinetic energy of the particle
T is defined as
Z x Z x Z u Z u
d dx
T= Fdx = (mu)dx = d(mu) = ud(mu)
0 0 dt 0 dt 0
We have ignored the vector notation as we have assumed the force as well as displacement
are along same direction.
Z u
T = mo ud(γu)
0
1
We know γ = r . Carrying out the differentiation we can write,
v2
1− 2
c
u u2 du du
d(γu) = γdu + udγ = r + =
v2 c2 v 2 3/2 v2
3/2
1− 1− 2 1− 2
c2 c c
Substituting the above expression in kinetic energy,
 u
Z u
udu 2
 1 
T = mo 3/2
= m o c r 
0
2
v 2
v
 
1− 2 1− 2
c c 0
m o c2
T= r − mo c2 = mc2 − mo c2
v 2
1− 2
c
1 2
The above equation looks much different from mu . This relation implies that mass is a
2
form of energy. Einstein called mo c2 , the rest energy of the object. It is the total energy of the
object measured in a frame of reference in which the object is at rest. By analogy, mc2 , the sum
of kinetic energy and the rest energy, is called the total energy E.
E = T + mo c2 + mc2 − mo c2 + mo c2 = mc2
E = mc2
This is the most famous Einstein’s mass-energy relation.
260
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
16.4 Evidences of mass-energy equivalence
The existence of mass energy relations can be observed with many examples in nature. Here are
some of them.
1. Binding energy of nucleons: A nucleus of atomic number Z and mass number A consists
of Z number of protons and A − Z number of neutrons. Even though the protons repel
each other with electrostatic repulsion, they are held inside a very tiny space of nucleus
with a greater force. The energy required to hold the protons and neutrons together inside
the nucleus is called binding energy. In nature this energy is drawn through mass-energy
relation.
If m p is the mass of each proton and mn is the mass of each neutron, the mass of the nucleus
is supposed to be Zm p + ( A − Z )mn . However on measurement of mass of nucleus M N ,
it is found that the mass of nucleus is less than this value. This difference in the mass
(∆m = Zm p + ( A − Z )mn − M N ) is called mass defect. The required binding energy to
hold the nucleons together is drawn from the mass defect. The total binding energy hence
is equal to ∆Mc2 .
2. Nuclear fission and fusion: The production of energy through the nuclear fission and
fusion are based on energy mass relation. Fission is a process when a heavy nucleus dis-
integrates into usually two lighter nucleus. For some nuclear reactions, the initial mass
defect will be higher than that of the final products and such nuclear fission process re-
lease energy. Nuclei that belong to this category are called fissionable.
Nuclear fusion is a process in which two or more lighter nuclei combine to form a single
heavier nuclei. A very large amount of energy is released as the initial nucleus have lesser
mass defect (zero for hydrogen) than the final product. The energy released in stars are
produced through nuclear fusion reactions. In the periodic table, nuclei upto iron can
be produced through this process. Beyond iron, the energy will not be released rather
absorbed hence the reaction is not energy favourable. Such reactions only take place upon
availability of a huge energy density such as supernova explosion.
3. Electron-positron annihilation: We all know that the electron and positron are anti par-
ticles with respect to each other. A very interesting phenomena called electron-positron
annihilation takes place when an electron and positron come together. They disappear to
261
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
release a gamma photon. Such annihilation process can be observed for every particle-
antiparticle pair, but electron-positron are observed easily as the availability of positron
through β+ radioactive emission. One can calculate the energy of the gamma photon re-
leased in this process. Surprisingly the energy of the gamma photon is equal to 2me c2 .
Where me is the mass of electron as well as positron (They have same mass).
4. Pair production: This is an opposite process of electron-positron annihilation. In this

process, when a high energy gamma photon interacts with matter, it decays by producing
a pair of electron and positron.
In the above examples one can witness that energy can be converted into matter as well as
matter can be converted into energy. Hence, energy and mass are not two different entities,
rather two different phases of existence of same entity.
16.5 General theory of relativity
General relativity or also well known as theory of gravitation was published by Albert Einstein
in 1916. This theory forms the current description of gravitation which is accepted worldwide.
General theory of relativity combines the idea of gravitation as a geometric property of space-
time with the special theory of relativity. Many of the predictions of general theory of relativity
which differ significantly from those of classical physics like geometry of spacetime, gravita-
tional time dilation, gravitational lensing, gravitational red shift and many more have been
verified experimentally.
General relativity plays a important role in astrophysics for example this forms the basis of
the current cosmological models of a consistently expanding universe that received Nobel prize
of year 2011. In general relativity, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy and
momentum of whatever matter and radiation present. This relation is specified by the Einstein
Field equations.
16.5.1 Einstein’s Field Equations (EFEs)
Similar to electromagnetic fields which are determined by their causes i.e charges and currents
through Maxwell’s equations, the Einstein’s Field equations determine the local spacetime cur-
vature by their causes i.e. local energy and momentum within that spacetime. Actually it is a
262
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
set of 10 equations compacted using tensor notation. These equations describe the fundamental
interaction of gravitation as a result of spacetime being curved by matter and energy.
The presence of mass, energy and momentum are represented by stress-energy tensor and
that through EFEs determine the metric tensor. Using this metric tensor, one can determine the
inertial trajectories, which are known as geodesics of particles and radiation in the resulting
geometry with the help of geodesic equations. EFEs can be solved exactly only under the speci-
fication of assumptions of symmetry for example, exact solutions are available for the study of
models of many gravitational phenomena, such as rotating black holes, the expanding universe
etc. With certain approximation of actual spacetime as a flat spacetime with a small deviation,
one can formulate linearised EFEs. These linearised EFEs are often used in the study of gravita-
tional waves. EFEs reduce to Newton’s law of gravitation where the gravitational field is weak
and velocities are much less than the speed of light.
Einstein’s equations can be written as,
1 8πG
Rµν − gµν R + gµν Λ = 4 Tµν
2 c
Where Rµν is Ricci curvature tensor, R is the scalar curvature gµν is the metric tensor, Λ is the
cosmological constant, G is Newton’s gravitational constant, c is the speed of light in vacuum
and Tµν is the stress-energy tensor.
EFEs form a system of 10 coupled, nonlinear, hyperbolic-elliptic partial differential equa-
tions. Given the specified distribution of matter and energy in the form of stress-energy tensor,
the EFEs are understood to be the equations of metric tensor gµν , because other quantities- Ricci
tensor and scalar curvature depend on metric tensor only. By defining Einstein’s tensor as
1
Gµν = Rµν − R gµν
2
The EFEs can be written in even more compact form as
8πG
Gµν + gµν Λ = Tµν
c4
In geometrized system of units in which G = c = 1, above equation takes even simple form
as
Gµν + gµν Λ = 8π Tµν
263
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Left hand side of above equation gives the curvature of spacetime as determined by the met-
ric tensor and that in the right hand side represents the matter- energy content of the spacetime.
These equation, together with the geodesic equations, form the core of mathematical formula-
tion of general relativity i.e. the geometric formulation of gravity.
16.5.2 The principle of equivalence
In special theory of relativity, we studied Lorentz transformation that connects two inertial
frames of reference. This can also be extended to study non inertial frames like accelerating
frames or rotating frames. But nowhere in special theory of relativity, we had an insight to the
idea of gravitation. Einstein reformulated the special theory of relativity so that it includes ef-
fects of gravitation in the name of general theory of relativity. Before we speak about this let
us look at an example: Consider a man in free fall (think of a sky diver before he opens his
parachute or somebody in an unfortunate elevator if its cable breaks). He would be unable to
feel his own weight. During free fall the man will be in acceleration due to gravity by some value
may be g in gravitation field only. His weight becoming zero signifies on subtraction of this ac-
celeration effect, the force acting on the man becomes zero (treating weight as the force). Thus
one can equalise the effect of acceleration with the effect of gravitation and this is what Einstein
did in the principle of equivalence, equalizing the effect of gravitation and acceleration.
Principle of equivalence says experiments performed in a uniformly accelerating reference frame
with acceleration a are indistinguishable from the same experiments performed in a non-accelerating
reference frame which is situated in a gravitational field where the acceleration due to gravity = g =
− a = intensity of gravitational field.
Means, at any local region in spacetime it is possible to formulate the equations governing
physical laws such that the effect of gravitation can be neglected by considering an accelerating
frame. This in turn means that the special theory of relativity is applicable to that particular
situation where there is a gravitational effect also. Another way of stating this principle is to
say that gravitational mass is identical to inertial mass. Based on this principle one can also
say that as a photon has a momentum, it must have an inertial mass and they must also have
gravitational mass. Thus photons should get deflected by gravitational field. This leads to
gravitational lens, gravitational red shift and the concept of black holes.
264
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
16.5.3 Principle of general covariance
In physics, general covariance means the invariance of the form of physical laws under arbi-
trary admissible coordinate transformations. This also means that there is no coordinate system
which can be prioritized. i.e. all coordinates are only artifices used in describing the nature,
and hence should play no role in the formulation of fundamental physical laws. This allows
one for the formulation of physical laws using only those physical quantities or measurements
of which the observers in different frames of reference could unambiguously correlate. In very
simple words, principle of general covariance is just equivalence of arbitrary frames of reference
in general relativity even with the presence of observable differences among different frames of
references. These physical laws expressed in a generally covariant fashion take the same mathe-
matical form in all coordinate systems, and usually expressed in terms of tensor fields. Principle
of covariance does not mean that physical laws under the group of admissible transformations
are invariant. They may be invariant or not. But in most of the cases they are actually invariant.
However we can find the exception like the not invariant behaviour of weak interactions under
reflection transformation but they are covariant. One should not get confused the covariance
with invariance. Covariance means the form of physical laws not being changed under any ad-
missible coordinate transformation. Invariance means certain physical quantities or geometri-
cal entities being unchanged during coordinate transformations. For example: electromagnetic
field is a covariant field and charge is an invariant quantity.
16.5.4 Inertial mass and gravitational mass
Inertial mass: Inertial mass is the definition of mass given based on the law of inertia. i.e.
Newton’s second law.
F
F = ma → F = mI a → mI =
a
Based on the above equation, one can define mass or more precisely inertial mass as the ratio
force acting on any object and the acceleration produced by that force. This way of defining
mass relates the mass to the inertia of the body as: if equal force is applied to two bodies of
different mass, the one having more mass experiences less acceleration and the one having lower
mass experiences higher acceleration. Thus one can also define the Inertial mass as the mass of
an object measured by its resistance to acceleration. Hence inertial mass can be measured by
measuring the acceleration experienced by a body on application of certain known value of
265
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
force.
Gravitational mass: The concept of mass also arises in Newton’s law of gravitation
mM Fgravitation
F=G = mg → m G =
r2 g
Where g represents gravitational intensity i.e. acceleration due to gravity and mG is the mass
defined based on the gravitation law as the ratio of force experienced by gravitation to the inten-
sity of gravitational field. Hence gravitational mass can be measured by measuring the weight
i.e. Fgravitation may be by using a spring balance and then dividing it by gravitational intensity.
Although inertial mass and gravitational mass are conceptually distinct, no experiment has ever
unambiguously demonstrated any difference between them. Albert Einstein developed his gen-
eral theory of relativity by taking this itself as one of its assumption stating that no experiment
can detect a difference between inertial and gravitational mass. Thus stating that inertial mass and
gravitational masses are equivalent. This is nothing but the principle of equivalence.
16.5.5 Eötvös experiment
The Eötvös experiment was a one of the very important experiment performed by Lorand
Eötvös that measured the correlation between inertial mass and gravitational mass demonstrat-
ing that the two were one and the same. Eötvös carried out a series of experiments using tor-
sion balance between 1906 and 1909 using different types of materials and in different locations
around the earth, all of which demonstrated the same equivalence in mass. This led to the verifi-
cation of the equivalence principle of general relativity which says that gravitational and inertial
masses are same
The original experimental set-up consisted of two masses on opposite ends of a rod, hung
from a thin fibre. A mirror attached either to the rod or fibre reflects light incident on it into a
small telescope. Even a small rotation of the rod would cause the light beam to be deflected,
which can be measured by using the telescope.
If we look at the dynamics of those masses, the primary forces acting on the balance are
string tension, gravity and centrifugal force due to the rotation of earth. Gravitational force
depends on the gravitational mass. The centrifugal force which is calculated using Newton’s
laws of motion depends on inertial mass. The experiment was designed so that if the two masses
were different, the two forces will not act in the same way on those two bodies which results
in rotation of rod resulting in the shift of light spot position. But this never happened. This
266
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Figure 16.32: Eötvös experiment set-up.
negative result means that the forces of gravity and inertia i.e. centrifugal force acts in the same
way means the gravitational mass and inertial mass being same.
1. What is rest energy?
2. Write the Einstein’ mass energy equivalence.
3. Give an example of a phenomena demonstrating mass energy equivalence.
4. What is principle of equivalence?
5. Define inertial and gravitational mass.
16.7 Keywords
• Relativistic energy
• Mass energy equivalence
• General theory of relativity
• Eötvös experiment
267
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1. A π o meson of rest mass mo velocity u decays in flight into two photons of same energy. If
one of the photons is emitted at an angle θ to the direction of motion of the π o meson in
the laboratory system, show that its energy hν is given by the expression
m o c2
hν =
2γ(1 − u cos θ/c)
Answer:
The two photons have the same energy. Hence, both will be making the same angle with
the incident direction. By the principle of conservation of energy we can write
γmo c2 = 2hν
By the conservation of momentum we can write
hν
γmo u = 2 cos θ
c
Combining the two equations we can write,
u
γmo u = γmo c cos θ =⇒ cos θ =
c
Using the conservation of energy we can write
γmo c2 γ2 m o c2 m o c2
hν = = =
2 2γ u2

2γ 1 − 2
c
Using the expression for u/c we can rewrite the above expression as
m o c2
hν =
2γ(1 − u cos θ/c)
2. In a nuclear reaction 235 U disintegrates by absorbing a neutron into 141 Ba and 92 Kr re-
leasing three more neutrons. If the proton mass is 1.67262 × 10−27 kg and neutron mass is
1.67493 × 10−27 kg calculate the energy released in the process. Given masses of 235 U, 141 Ba
268
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
and 92 Kr are 3.902996 × 10−25 kg, 2.339938 × 10−25 and 1.52647 × 10−25 kg respectively.
Answer:
The initial mass Mi = 3.902996 × 10−25 + 1.67493 × 10−27 = 3.9197453 × 10−25 kg
The final mass M f = 2.339938 × 10−25 + 1.52647 × 10−25 + 3 × 1.67493 × 10−27 kg
The final mass M f = 3.9166559 × 10−25 kg
Note that the initial mass is higher than the final mass.
The mass defect ∆M = Mi − M f = 0.0030894 × 10−25 kg
The energy released in the reaction will be
E = ∆Mc2 = 0.0030894 × 10−25 × 32 × 1016 J
E = 2.78046 × 10−11 J
In terms of electron volt,
E = 1.737787 × 108 = 173.7787MeV
3. If the sun radiates energy at the rate of 4 × 1026 Js−1 , evaluate the rate at which its mass is
decreasing if the current mass is 1.9891 × 1030 kg
Answer:
The energy released by the sun per second is E = 4 × 1026 J.

E
The mass lost by the sun per second is ∆M =
c2
4 × 1026
∆M = 16
= 0.44444 × 1010 kg
9 × 10
∆M 0.44444 × 1010
The relative mass loss of the sun is = = 0.2234 × 10−20
M 1.9891 × 1030
1. Obtain an expression for relativistic energy of a system.
2. Deduce the mass energy relation.
3. Explain the evidences of mass-energy equivalence.
4. Write the principle of general theory of relativity.
269
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
5. Write Einstein’s field equations and explain the terms.
6. State and explain the principle of equivalence.
7. Write a note on principle of general covariance.
8. What are inertial and gravitational mass?
9. Describe Eötvös experiment.
1. Energy of a particle when it is at rest.
2. E = mc2
3. Nuclear fission and fusion.
4. Principle of equivalence states that experiments performed in a uniformly accelerating

frame of reference are indistinguishable from the same experiments performed in a non
accelerating frame of reference with accelerating due to gravity equal to the acceleration
of the first frame.
5. Inertial mass is the mass exhibited by the virtue of its motion and the gravitational mass
is the mass due to interaction with gravity.
16.11 References
tion.

pany Ltd.
270

Oscillations: Normal Modes and Frequencies

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Oscillations: Normal Modes and Frequencies

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIT-13: Oscillations

After studying this unit you will be able to

• Explain the frequencies of free vibrations.

13.2 Simple harmonic oscillations

• The acceleration is always directed towards the mean position.

Mathematically, the motion is said to be simple harmonic if

Figure 13.25: Simple harmonic oscillator.

x (t) = A eiωt + Be−iωt

x = A eiωt + Be−iωt =⇒ xo = Ae0 + Be0 =⇒ xo = A + B

xo iωt xo −iωt eiωt + e−iωt

Note that we got the instantaneous displacement expression as

Figure 13.26: Simple harmonic oscillator.

13.3 Small oscillations

The description of oscillations as simple harmonic oscillations is highly idealized. In nature

13.4 Eigenvalue equation

Consider a conservative system having n degrees of freedom, described by a set of n general-

Designating the constant values (mij )o by the constant Gij ’s

Using these in the Lagrangian equations of motion we get

The above equation can be expanded as

(V11 − ω 2 G11 ) a1 + (V12 − ω 2 G12 ) a2 + ... + (V1n − ω 2 G1n ) an = 0

(V21 − ω 2 G21 ) a1 + (V22 − ω 2 G22 ) a2 + ... + (V2n − ω 2 G2n ) an = 0

(Vn1 − ω 2 Gn1 ) a1 + (Vn2 − ω 2 Gn2 ) a2 + ... + (Vnn − ω 2 Gnn ) an = 0

13.5 Frequencies of free vibrations

It is possible to effect a linear transformation to new generalized coordinates Q1 , Q2 , Q3 , ...,

The potential energy V, can be represented in matrix form as

The Lagrangian of the system will be

The Lagrange equations of motion becomes

Q̈l + ωk2 Qk = 0 with k = 1, 2, 3, ...n

The solutions of above equations of motion can be taken as

Qk = Ck e−iωk t with k = 1, 2, 3, ...n

13.6 Linear triatomic molecule

Figure 13.27: Linear triatomic molecule.

The kinetic energy of the system will be

G11 = G33 = m G22 = M and G12 = G23 = G13 = 0

Then the secular determinant will be

Expanding the above determinant we get,

ω 2 (k − ω 2 m)(ω 2 mM − 2km − kM) = 0

On solving the above equation we get the normal frequencies as

−ka1p + (2k − ω 2p M) a2p − ka3p = 0

Substituting the frequency ω1 = 0 in above expression we get

ka11 − ka21 = 0 =⇒ a11 = a21

−ka11 + 2ka21 − ka31 =⇒ a11 = a31

Hence the solution will be, a11 = a21 = a31 = α

compress at the same time.

We have the condition on this matrix of eigen vectors as AGA

γ we obtain the normal coordinates as

13.7 Check your progress

Check your progress by answering the questions below.

1. Why small oscillations are significant?

2. What are normal frequencies?

3. How many normal frequencies exist for a system?

4. What is the significance of normal modes?

• Linear triatomic molecule

13.9 Worked examples

The kinetic energy of the system can be written as

Since, cos θ = 1 at equilibrium position we can write the G matrix as

Figure 13.28: Pendulum with moving support.

Then the characteristic determinant will be

Then the normal frequencies

mass m suspended by a string of length l.

x2 = l sin θ + l sin φ y2 = l cos θ + l cos φ

The kinetic energy of the system would be