CHAPTER 15

Intluence, Empowerment,
and Politics

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

When you finish studying the material in this

chapter, you should be able to:
Explain the concept of
mutuality of interest.
2 Name least three "soft" and two
at
summarize the practical lessons
"hard" influence tactics, and
from influence
3 research.
ldentify and briefly describe French and Raven's five
discuss the responsible use of bases of power, and
power.
4 Define the term empowerment, and
explain why it is a matter of degree.
5 Explain why delegation is the highest form of
the connections among empowerment, and discuss
delegation, trust, and personal initiative.
6 Define organizational politics, and explain what triggers it.
7 Distinguish between favorable and unfavorable impression
tactics. management
8 Explain how to manage organizational politics.
 online resources
Student Resources for Studying Chapter 15
TL Web site for your text includes resources that will help
you master the concepts
hic chapter. As you read, you'll want to visit the site for these
helpful tools:
Your online Study Guide includes learning objectives, a chapter summary, a glossary
of key terms, and discussion questions.
Take a practice quiz and test your knowledge!
. Scroll through a PowerPoint presentation with key concepts for this chapter.
Your instructor might also direct you to the Web site for these exercises:

Self-assessments that correspond with the chapter content and a Group Exercise.
. You'll also find Video Cases and Internet Exercises for this chapter online.

www.mhhe.com/kreitner

Julie Larson-Green had presented her work to
Bill Gates earlier in her career, and like just about
everyone in her shoes, had to manage some but-
terflies beforehand. But in January 2005, the stakes
were higher. The 39-year-old program manager was
out to the company's chairman to radically
persuade
overhaul of the most profitable products in the
one
intermediate bosses, she felt she had a strong case.
But there was always the danger that Gates might
think about the $I I billion that Office reaps annually
and say that the change in this upgrade was too risky.
Remember New Coke?
But at the end of the demo, Gates said the words

history of mankind: Microsoft Office. The dropdown

Larson-Green had been waiting for: "I can't believe
you convinced me to get rid of menus and toolbars"
menus and toolbars that Gates had
personally helped
craft in the '80s had to go, she would tell him, to be
replaced by an onscreen "ribbon" loaded with options FOR DISCUSSION
that would dynamically change according to what you What were the keys this
were poised to do next. Armed with results from
to
impressive case of
extensive testing and already having convinced her
persuasion?

At the very heart of interpersonal dealings in today's work organizations is a

constant struggle between individual and collective interests. For example, Sid wants
a raise, but his company doesn't make enough money to both grant raises and buy
needed capital equipment. Preoccupation with self-interest is understandable. After
a, Cach of us was born, not as a cooperating organization member, but as an indi
Idual with instincts for self-preservation. It took socialization in family, school,
gious, sports, recreation, and employment settings to introduce us to the notion of
nuruality of interest. Basically, mutuality of interest involves win-win situations in Mutuality
which one's self-interest is served by cooperating actively and ereatively with potential of interest
adversaries. A pair of organization development consultants offiered this managerial Balancing individual
perspective of and organizational
mutuality of interest: interests through
and qud
Smore important than this sense mutuality to the eltectiveness
of win-win cooperation.
7 O an organization's products and services. Management must strive to stumulate a

because otherISe an organiza-

sense of shared ownership in every employee, their own personal
dnnot do its best in the long run. Employees who identity
understand mutuality and
T
VE
e s t with the quality of their organization's output
To maintain it in their jobs and work relations.
434
Part Four Organizational Processes

igure 151 TheConstant Tug-ofWar between Self-Interest

Action
and Mutuality of Interrst Requirs Managerial
Climate of Opennes,
Climate of Destructive
Cooperation, and Trust
Competition and Suspicion
Influence tactics
Organizational Empowerment Mutuality
of interest
contributors
Self-interest
Pblitical tactics
Individuals
Motivation (Chs. 8-9) (organizational
Groups
Team building (Ch. I )
effectiveness)
Communication (Ch. 14)
Leadership (Ch. 16)

Figure 15-1 graphically portrays the constant tug-of-war between employees' self.
interest and the organization's need for mutuality of interest. It also shows the linkage
between this chapter--influence, empowerment, and politics and other key topics in
this book. Managers need a complete tool kit of techniques to guide diverse individuals
who are often powerfully motivated to put their own self-interests first, to pursue com-
mon objectives. At stake in this tug-of-war between individual and collective interests is
no less than the ultimate survival of organizations such as Microsoft. (As for perTsuasive
Julie Larson-Green, in our chapter-opening vignette, she received a big promotion: "she's
in charge of interface for the next version of Windows, post-Vista."

Organizational Influence Tactics

How do you get others to carry out your wishes? Do you simply tell them what to
do? Or do you prefer a less direct approach, such as
promising to return the favor
Whatever approach you use, the crux of the issue is social influence. A large measure
of interpersonal interaction involves attempts to influence others,
including parents
bosses, co-workers, spouses, teachers, friends, and children. All of us need to sharpen
our influence skills (see the inspiring story in the Real World/Real People feature on the
next page). A good starting point is familiarity with the following research insights.

Nine Generic Influence Tactics

A particularly fruitful stream of research, initiated by David Kipnis and his colleagues
in 1980, reveals how people influence each other in organizations. The Kipnis men-
odology involved asking employees how they managed to get either their bosses, co*
workers, or subordinates to do what they wanted them to do.' Statistical refinements
and replications by other researchers over a
13-year period eventually yielded n
influence tactics. The nine tactics, ranked in
are as follows:
diminishing order of use in the workpla
1. Rational persuasion. Trying to convince someone with reason, logic, or tacts.
2. Inspirutional appeals. Trying to build enthusiasm by appealing to others emoto
ideals, or values.
3. Consultation. Getting others to participate in
planning, making decisions, and chang
4. Ingratiation. Getting someone in a
good mood prior to nmaking a request; being TIe
helpful, and using prai_e or flattery.
 REAL WOR RLD Teal
real people
people
Has
ethics **

Jolhn a
Positive Intluence on
There'sa
hole in higher education that
you
Minorities' Career Choices
haven't heard about. probably consider going
American undergraduate schools,
to business school,
At
23% of
and mainly for cultural
sociological reasons. So he started
are black or
the
student
Hispanic. At the
top 20 organization to address those issues, nonprofita

colleges,they account for 14% of the student graduates to the business world introducing
rOD 20 law and medical schools? body. coaching, test prep.
and through seminars,
Fourteen to
S%. Today he has a monster hit on his
But at the top 20 business schools, the No. I source of hands. MLT is
blacks and minorities for the top ten MBA
Hispanics represent ust 7% of the student programs.... "Talent is our most
body. important asset,
ln the current second-year class, that's
about says Chuck Prince, CEO of
900 longtime
ople.... So what's a
diversity officer to do? You Citigroup. "But unfortunately there's a MLT partner
can't hire people who arent there. So you have to diversity pipeline in the US at the very limited
find a way to get superstar minorities to to when someone comes present time, so
go the top up with a unique, innovaive,
MBA programs, where you can one and interesting new idea
day woo them. and brings the
And there's only one program that does power that John does, it has the positive
that.... dramatic impact in the next potential to have a
Management Leadership for Tomorrow started five, ten, 20 years"
out as an independent-study project at Harvard Does this inspire you to enact one of your "big ideas"
Business School. John Rice,
wondered second-year student,
a
for making the world a better place?
why
there were so few nonwhite faces
in
the program. He found that many of the most SOURCE: Excerpted from NA
talented Hira,"An Eye for Talent," Fortune
minority graduates from elite
colleges didn't even
November 27,2006, pp 200-208.

k a a u b a v

5. Personalappeals. Referring to friendship and loyalty when

6.
Exchange. Making express or implied promises and making a request.
7. Coalition tactics. Getting others trading favors.
to
support your effort to persuade someone.
8. Pressure.
Demanding compliance or using intimidation or threats.
9.
Legitimating tactics. Basing a request on one's authority or
rules or policies, or right, organizational
express or implied support from
hese
superiors.
approaches can be considered generic influence tactics because
SOCial influence in all directions and in a wide variety of they characterize
is
ranking to be fairly consistent
settings. Researchers have
IS
downward, upward, or lateral. regardless of whether direction of influence
the

Some call the first five influence tactics-rational persuasion,

inspirational appeals,
sultation, ingratiation, and personal appeals-soft tactics because they are friendlier
unot as coercive the last four tactics. Exchange, coalition,
as
pressure, and
actics accordingly are called hard tactics because they involve more overtlegitimat
pressure.
garerG
a
career
McGlynn, president of Merck Vaccines, is a good role model for having made
out of skillfully using rational persuasion:
An:
to argue her case in a "relentlessly logical and wonderfully intense
K-DOSS David Anstice
way" as
puts it, helped McGlynn rise rapdly...
CGlynn's powers of persuasion have also helped her achieve results on Capitol
dLast summer, after Merck won approval to market a vaccine for shingles-a pantu
dis
T tnat strikes the elderly-she started knocking on doors al over Capitol Hill.
from get-
Ed Out that the new Medicare Part D drug plan prevented doctors
that shingles is a
tüngfuly paid to administer vaccines. "I explained to [policymakers] 435
 Organizational Processcs
436
Part Four

impact quality of life, she says. The

on ney seem to
causes a major
ilness that
debiltating
Congress passed a bill that edicare payment
fixes the Medicars
have listened. On Dec. 9. [20O6]
shortfall which the Prosident igned.

Outcomes
Three Possible Influcnce
It's Wednesday and a big project v o u s tve.
Put yoursclf in this familiar situation. beeno
You're behind on the nrena
preparation
team is due Friday.
working on for your project and presentation. You catch a f

Vour computer graphics for your final report

IS great at computcr graphies as he heads out of the office at quitting time
this evchange tactic to get your friend to help you out: "T| m way behind. I need.your
help. If you could come back in for two to three hours tonight and help me withthese
graphics. I'l complete those spreadsheets you' ve been complaining about" Acce.
cording
to researchers. your friend will engage in one of three possible influence outcom.
mes
I. Commitment. Your friend enthusiastically agrees and will demonstrate initiative.
an
persistence while completing the assignment.
2. Compliance. Your friend grudgingly complies and wll need prodding to satish
minimum requirements.
3. Resistance. Your friend will say no, make excuses, stall, or put up an argument

The best outcome is commitment because the target person's intrinsic motivation wil
energize good performance. However, managers often have to settle for compliancen
today's hectic workplace. Resistance means a failed influence attempt.

Practical Research Insights

Laboratory and field studies have taught us useful lessons about the relative effectve
ness of influence tactics
along with other instructive insights:
Commitment is more likely when people rely on consultation, strong 1 onal
persuasion, and inspirational appeals and do not rely on pressure and coaliton
tactics. Interestingly, in one study, managers were not
very effective at down-
ward influence. They relied most
heavily on
inspiration (an effective tactic),
ingratiation (a moderately effective tactic), and pressure (an ineftfective tactick
A meta-analysis of 69 studies
suggests ingratiation (making the boss feei god
can slightly improve
your performance appraisal results and make your boss ake
you significantly more.
Commitment is likely when the influence attempt involves something8
more
important and enjoyable and is based on afriendly relationship.
A recent field
study of sales managers in the United States looked at how the
ity of the working relationship between a qu
manager and a team member
are
willingness to help teammates. When the
appeals and exchange tactics actually reducedrelationship was not good,
inspira
bility being the likely culprit. On the other helping behavior, with lack
ot
hand, exchange tactics
behavior when the
relationship was good. Consultation increased increaseun havior.
heipimg iorP
regardless of the quality of the relationship. This is a
ticipation, whereby managers and leaders solicit strong endorsement
In a survey, 214 employed MBA students (55% input fromtended
female) employees
to perceiveinfair
their
superiors soft intluence tactics as
fair and hard influence tactics as una Infair
influence tactics were associated
with greater resistance
among employ es.
 Chapter Fifteen Intluence, Empowerment, and Politics 437

dyprobed male-female differences in

Anany
bers. Many studies have found women to be
influencing work group mem-
l1ential in work groups than perceived as less competent and
less in. men. The
researchers had male and female
engage in either task behavior
leaders
mnetence) or dominating behavior (relying (demonstrating
vork g r o u p
ability and
task c o m p on threats). For both
nd men, task behavior was associated with
women
perceived
ominating behavior was not effective. The competence
influence. Do
and effective
searchers has important practical implications for following
all currentconclusion
and futureby
the
anagers who desire
aers who to
successfully influence others: "The display of task cues
ISan means
effective me to enhance one's status in
groups and.. . the attempt to
in influence in task groups through dominance is an ineffective and
gan.
poorly
received
i strategy for both men and women"15
nersonal influence is culture bound. The foregoing research evidence
Interpo
on iinfluence tactics has a bias in favor of European-North Americans. Much
emains to be learned about how to effectively influence others (without unin-
tended insult) in today 's diverse labor force and cross-cultural economy.'

Kinallv. Barbara Moses, consultant and author from Toronto, Canada, offers this advice
on influencing your boss:

fyour boss doesnt under'stand the need for change, this might be partly your fault. You
can't make change: you have to sell it. And the key to selling anything is to understand
where the other person Is coming from-rather than to assume that your boss is a
complete jerk But most of us communicate from an egocentric place. We construct
an idea or a project mainily in terms of what makes sense to us. Instead, ask yourself.
"What's most important to my bos?" "What are his greatest concerns?" Go forward
only after you've answered these questions.

Social Power
The term power evokes mixed and often passionate reactions. Citing recent instances
of government corruption and corporate misconduct, many observers view power as
aSinister force. To these skeptics, Lord Acton's time-honored statement that
"power
corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely" is as true as ever. However, OB
specialists remind us that, like it or not, power is a fact of life in modern
organizations.
ACcording to one management writer,
rower must be used because managers must influence those they
dso Is
depend on. Power
crucial in the development of managers' self-confidence and
willingness to
3Upport subordinates. From this perspective, power should be accepted as a natural
Pato any organization. Managers should recognize and develop their own power to
ordnate and support the work of subordinates; it is powerlessness, not power, that
undermines organizational effectiveness.
hu
seder 1sa necessary and generally positive force in organizations. As the term is
used here,
social power is defined as "the ability to arshal the human, informational, Social power
material resources to get something 20 Ability to get things
doumImpa
done with human,
ntly, the exercise of social power in is not necessarily a
organizations informational, and
nward proposition. Employees can and do exercise power upward and laterally.
An
Cxample of an
of an upward power play occurred at Alberto-Culver Company, the personal
material resources.

Care products firm. Leonard Lavin, founder of the company, was under pressure to revi-
the firm because employees were departing for more
innovative competitors
such as key Lavin's daughter Carol Bernick, and her husband Howard,
Procter & Gamble.
 Organizational Processes
438 Part Four

both longime employces. took things into their own hands

hp c. Seeer 94
Even the Bernicks nere thnkng of umprz
wth an utmatu
marched into Lavin's office and presented
him

reins as CEO or run the company /thout then. it waS a uge 0 or 2 n i o -

him to tace selling his company to Outsiders or cedig contro to the U g e r ze*s
uon Unwilling to sell, he reluctantiy stepped down, tnough re remans cnamen
tather and wrest opera onero ci e
Ho does it feel to push asiIde your OWn
Company he created! "t isn t an easy thing to do with the fo CompE
whether he's your father or not." says Carol Bernick, 46.no Vce chaman and re
dent of Alberto-Culver North Arnerica
Howard Bernick became CEO, the firm's top-down management style was scramed
in more open culture, and Lavin reportedly is with
favor ofa
turned out.22
things happy how hae

Dimensions of Power
While power may be an elusive
concept to the casual observer. social scientists view
Socialized power power as having reasonably clear dimensions. Two dimensions of power that deserve our
Directed at helping attention are (1) socialized versus personalized power and (2) the five bases of power.
others.
Two Types of Power Behavioral scientists such as David McClelland
Personalized that one of the basic human needs is the need for contend
power (n Pwr), as discussed in
power Chapter 8. Because this need is learned and not
innate, the need for power has been
Directed at helping extensively studied.
Historically, need for power was said to be high when subjects
oneself. interpreted TAT pictures in terms of one person attempting to influence,
convince
persuade, or control another. More recently. how-
ever, researchers have drawn distinction between
a
socialized power and
personalized power.
There are two subscales or
"faces" in n Pwr One
face is temed "socialized"
wmasten (s Pwr) and is scored in
the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT) as"plans. set
doubts, mixed outcomes and concems
while the second face is
for others..
"personalized
P Pwr), in which expressions of power for the
power
of personal
saxe
3
aggrandizement become paramount
This distinction between socialized and
1Zed power
person
helps
explain why power has a nega
connotation for many Manage and others
people.
who pursue personalized their own
selfis
power for
ends give power Nancy
bad name. For
a xample,
chil
raversy, cofounder and CEO of the
dren's book publisher
uccessful

related
Barefoot Books, recenth reneur

this story about how she came to be an entrep

udied

was bon in Canada to a family of artists. ISTUAt After

business, which made me the black sheep. Price-

division of
college I worked for the banking d

waterhouse in London. One day I was edarng

dont
SUit One ofthe partners said to me,"Women was

Abuse of power in the corporate world

helped put Nancy wear trousers" and sent me home chang8
to
Traversy on the road to entrepreneurial success. a formative experience.
 Chapter Fifteen
nfluence, npowerment,?
series
OI
intervieWS iowS with 25
with
American women Politics
A reference i
sacialized power. The elected to
public
strong
p r e f e

power elffectively and ethicallh following comments office 439

illustrate theirfound
effectivel

power
a
wield
o
"Powe
itsclf means nothing. I think power desire
on your community." is the
have a n i m p a c t
opportunity to really
"Mygoal is ta be a
powertul advocate on the part of
my
Bases of PowerA popular classification constitucnts"2%
five
hack niore t h a n 45 years ago to the ork of scheme for social
that power arises fron John French and power traces
five different
om Bertram Raven. They
Oscd

pitimate power. expert power, and

bases: reward
referent power.' Each power, coercive
oach to encing others: involves a power, different
A
Reward power. manager has reward power to the
sing or granting rewards.
pliance by promisin extent that he or she
obtains
ample. relies heavily on reward power. On-the-job
behavior shaping, for Reward power
i e Dower. Threats of Obtaining
and actual
ercive power. For instance, consider this punishment
punishment give an individual
Compliance with
promised or actual
a heavy-handed tactic by Wolfgang
Darnhard Volkswagen executive: "A ruthless rewards.
favorite technique: He
routinely locks staffers in cost-cutter, Bernard, 46, has a
to onen the doors until they've stripped $1,500 inmeeting rooms, then refuses Coercive power
Bathroom break, anyone? costs from a future model."28 Obtaining
Iegitimate power: This base of power is anchored compliance through
to one's formal threatened or actuai
authority. Thus, individuals who obtain position or
Authority to make decisions have compliance primarily because of their formal punishment
legitimate power. Legitimate power
jtself in either a positive or negative may express
manner in
managing Legitimate power
pOwer focuses constructively on job performance. Negativepeople. Positive legitimate Obtaining
to threatening and demeaning to those being influenced. Its
be legitimate power tends compliance through
build the power holder's ego. main is
Importantly, there is growing concern purpose to formal authority.
the limits of managers'
legitimate power relative to privacy rights andtoday about
behavior.2 (For example, see the Real World/Real off-the-job
People feature on page 440.)
Expert power. Valued knowledge or information
power over those who need such gives an individual expert
visors is enhanced because knowledge information. The
or
of
Expert power
they know about work schedules and power super- Obtaining
before their employees do. Skillful assignments compliance through
use of
effectiveness of team leaders in a expert power played a key role in the one's knowledge or
study of three physician medical diagnosis
teams. Knowledge is power in today's high-tech workplaces.
information.
Referent power. Also called charisma, referent
one's power comes into play when Referent power
personality becomes the reason for compliance. Role models have referent
power over those who identify closely with them." Obtaining
compliance through
InNgarding
their
charisma, Jack and Suzy Welch recently offered this instructive charisma or
Business Week column: perspective personal attraction.

A]lmost everyone wonders at some point in his or her career how big a role cha-
d plays in success. So how big is it? In the short term, very In the long term, very
again-but not alone.
,were obviously not talking here about "bad" charisma, exuded without brains,
vision, and characte That trait is useless, and even dangerous. In business,
wow personaities

ind-than-wow minds are called empty suits for good reason. Too many of these
indivic
f manage to ho-ho-ho their way to the top, even to the CEO's office, but most
Jestruct after ooking great for a couple of years while achieving little. On a larger scale,
arkly charismatic lead
aders have the power to wreck lives and
nations...
 Chapter riiteen Iniluence, Empowerment, and Politics
439

A series of interviews with 25 American women elected to public ofice found a

for socialized power. The following comments illustrate their desire
ctrong preference
and ethically:
to wield power effectively
Power in itself means nothing..T think power is the opportunity to really

have an impact on your community."

is to be a powerful advocate on the part of my constituents."2

My goal
A popular classification scheme for social power traces
Five Bases of Power John French and Bertram Raven. They
hack more than
45 years ago to the work of
arises from 1ive different
bases: reward power, coercive power
nroposed that power Each involves a different
and referent power.
legitimate power. expert power.
to influencing others
approach he she obtains Reward power
has reward power to the extent that
or
Reward power. A manager
or granting rewards. On-the-job behavior shaping, for Obtaining
compliance by promising compliance with
reward power.
example. relies heavily
on
individual promised or actual

Coercive power. punishment and actual punishment give an

Threats of rewards.
coercive power. For instance, consider
this heavy-handed tactic by Wolfgang
Bernhard a Volkswagen executive: "A ruthless cost-cutter,
Bernard, 46, has a Coercive power
favorite technique: routinely
He locks staffers in meeting rooms, then refuses Obtaining
to open the doors
until they've stripped $1,500 in costs from a future model."23 compliance through
threatened or actual
Bathroom break. anyone?
punishment
Legitimate power This base of power is anchored to one's position formal or

who obtain compliance primarily because of their formal

authority. Thus, individuals
Legitimate power
authority to make decisions have legitimate power. Legitimate power may express
itself in either a positive or negative manner in managing people. Positive legitimate Obtaining
legitimate power tends compliance through
power focuses constructively on job performance. Negative formai authority.
to be threatening and demeaning to those being
influenced. Its main purpose is to
build the power holder's ego. Importantly, there is growing concern today about
the limits of managers' legitimate power relative to privacy rights and off-the-job
behavior.2 (For example, see the Real World/Real People feature on page 440.)
or information gives an individual expert Expert power
Expert power Valued knowledge
or information. The power of super- Obtaining
power over those who need such knowledge
visors is enhanced because they know about work schedules and assignments compliance through
role in the one's knowledge oor
before their employees do. Skillful use of expert power played key
a

effectiveness of team leaders in a study of three physician medical diagnosis information.

teams. Knowledge is power in today's high-tech workplaces.

referent power comes into play when Referent power
Referent power Also called charisma,
Role models have re ferent Obtaining
one's personality becomes the reason for compliance.
with them." compliance through
power over those who identify closely charisma or
offered this instructive perspective
Regarding charisma, Jack and Suzy Welch recently personal attraction.

in their BusinessWeek column:

career how big a role cha-
at some point in his or her
A]Imost everyone wonders
it? In the short term, very. In the long term, very
risma play in success. So how big is
again-but not alone.
charisma, exuded without brans,
we're obviously not talking here about "bad
Now, In business, wow personalities
trait is useless, and even dangerous.
vision, and character That suits for good reason. Too many
of these
less-than-wow minds are called empty
with the top, even to the CEO's office,
but most
to ho-ho-ho their way to
individuals manage while achieving little. On a larger scale,
for a couple ot years
self-destruct after looking great wreck lives and nations..
leaders have the power to
darkly charismatic
 REAL WORLD real peoplethicS

Get Healthv. That's an Order Hence the wellness fixation at companies as varied
Getting health insurance from your employer n Entertainment, and Scotts
as1BM, Microsoft, Harrah's
the United States] is sometimes seen as an entitle tor such
ment, but the benefit owes its existence to a quirk Employees who voluntarily sign up programs
often receive discounts on health-care premiums, free
of history. During World War ll, employers desperate
weight-loss and smoking-cessation programs, gratis
to attract workers began offering healch insurance.
gym memberships, counseling8 for emotional prob-
Providing coverage has been an increasing burden
lems, and prizes like vacations or points that can be
for companies ever since. As a result, businesses have
redeemed for gift cards.
been forcing employees to shoulder more and more
of the cost. Companies save money. Employees get healthier.
Some theorized that
What's not to like? But the wellness craze raises inmpor
higher co-payments and pric- tant issues. One is that people could start blaming
would get
ier premiums
themselves. It's
people to take better care of
not happening. '"We have this notion unhealthy colleagues for helping push upP premiums.
that you can gorge on hot dogs, be in a pie-eating con- Then there are the privacy and discrimination issue:
test, and drink every day, and society will take care of How far should managers intrude into employees' lives
you," says Harvard Business School Professor Michael What is your position on this issue?
E Porter, who coauthored
Redefining Health Care. "We
can't afford to let individuals drive sOURCE: Excerpted from M Conlin,"Get Healthy-or Else"
up costs because
cheyre not willing to address their health problems." Business Week, February 26, 2007, p 60.

But good charismatic leaders are everywhere, too, leading with magnetism plus
integrity and inteligence. And for them, charisma just makes the job a whole lot easier.
Why! Because leaders have always had to energize their people.32

go to the Web for the Self-Exercise: What Is Your Self-Perceived

Power?

UEESAVERS
orhit.
Research Insights about
Social Power
In one study, a sample of 94 male and 84 female non-
managerial and professional employees
in Denver,
Colorado, completed TAT tests. The researchers
found that the male and female
similar needs for power employees had
(n Pwr) and
power (p Pwr). But the women had a personalized
higher need for socialized power (s significantly
SPLARMINT
their male Pwr) than did
Free
work
counterparts.3
This bodes well for today's
Where your name is on the
building, you've got a lot of ever
organizations
where
playing
women are an
power. So it is with Bill Wrigley, Executive greater administrative role. Unfortunately, as
Wm.Wrigley Jr. Co., the Chicago gum and Chairman of
candy giant. But
women gain
power in the workplace,
sion between men and greater ten-
contrary to skepticism about his women has been
observed.
with Bill Perez wilingness to share
power Training magazine offered this
Bill Wrigley is
(left), the firm's first outside CEO
in 116 perspective:
proving to be a years, [O]bservers view the tension between women
good team player.
440 and men in the
workplace as a natural outcome
 Chapter Fifteen Influence, Empowerment, and Politics 441

of oower inequities betweern the genders. I heir argument is that men still have most of
the power and are resisting any change as a way to protect their power base. [Consul-
t SIsan L]Webb asserts that sexual harassment has far more to do with exercising
tant
than with sexual attraction. Likewise, the glass ceiling, a
nower in an unhealthy way
women face in climbing the corporate ladder to manage
metaphor for the barriers
Is about power and access to power34
ment and executive positions,
women were described more positively by women than by
Accordingly. "powertul
and 125 male college students in Sydney, Australia.35
men" in a study of 140 femalestudies that measured French and Raven's five bases of
A of 18 field
reanalysis
nower uncovered methodological shortcomings."36 After correcting for these
"severe
the following relationships between power bases and
Droblems, the researchers identified and turnover:
Work outcomes such as job performance, job satisfaction,
Expert and referent power generally positive impact.
had a

Reward and legitimate power had a slightly positive impact.

Coercive power had a slightly negative impact.
The same researcher, in a follow-up study involving 25 1employedbusinessseniors,
looked at the relationship between influence styles and bases ofpower. This was a bottom-
up study. In other words, employee perceptions of managerial influence and power were
exarnined. Rational persuasion was found to be a highly acceptable managerial influence
tactic. Why? Because employees pereeived it to be associated with the three bases of
power they viewed positively: legitimate, expert, and referent."
In summary, expert and referent power appear to get the best combination of
results and favorable reactions from lower-level employees.35

Using Power Responsibly and Ethically

As democracy continues to spread around the world, one reality stands clear: Leaders who
power responsibly risk losing it. This holds for corporations and nonprofit
do not use their
organizations as well as for government leaders and public figures. Case in point: On
Apil 4, 2007, Radio Hall of Fame broadcaster Don Imus made a degrading comment
about the Rutgers University women's basketball team. A ripple of public outcry about
SexIsm and racism quickly turned into a tsunami of protest. Eight days later, with key
pOnsors defecting, CBS Radio fired Imus from his S10 million-a-year job.39A step in
ght direction for managers who want to avoid such a turnaround and wield power
ponsibly is understanding the difference between commitment and mere compliance.
Kesponsible managers strive for socialized power while avoiding personalized
n fact, in a survey, organizational commitment was higher among US fed-
Lovernment executives whose superiors exercised socialized power than among
gues with "power-hungry" bosses. The researchers used the appropriate terms
p o w e r versus dominating power 0 How does this relate to the five bases of
A S With influence tactics, managerial power has three possible outcomes: com-
f n , compliance, or resistance. Reward, coercive, and negative legitimate power
produce compliance (and sometimes, resistance). On the other hand, positive
legitimate power, expert power, and referent power tend to foster commitment. Once
again,
, commitment is superior to compliance because it is driven by internal or intrin-
SiC motivation41
who merely comply require frequent jolts" of power
Employees
tendboss to keep them headed in a productive direction. Committed employees
cnd to be
self-starters who do not require close supervision-a key success factor in
oday's latter, m-oriented organizations.
 Organizational Processes
442 Part Four

4Empowerment:
From Power Sharing
to Power Distribution
on giving employees a greater
trend in today's organizations centers say
An exciting labels, including "high-involvement m
in the workplace. This trend
w e a r s various n
Empowerment management," and "open-book management." Regardleso eof
agement," "participative
Sharing varying Those who dismiss the emplua
degrees of power the label one prefers, it is all about empowerment. yee
of a much, much lare
trend a passing fad need to see it as part larger
with lower-level empowerment as

a respected
Swis businessman and philanthropist, recenel.
employees to tap picture. Klaus Schwab,
their full potential. offered this sweeping perspective:
A1 general issue will be the changing power
equation, which means that everywhere in soi
ety and business, the power is moving from the

wORLO
tCONOMIC
center to the periphery,Vertical command-and.
control structures are being eroded and replaced
by communities and different platforms. We are

PORUM moving into the Web 2.0 world, and this has tre-
mendous implications on the national level and
on business models.
Management consultant and writer W Alan Randolph
offers this definition: "empowerment is recognizing
and releasing into the organization the power that peo-
ple already have in their wealth of useful knowledge,
experience, and internal motivation. A core com-
Swiss power broker Klaus Schwab sees an erosion of tradi-
ponent of this process is pushing decision-making
tional command-and-control structures in the Web 2.0 world.
authority down to progressively lower levels. Steve
Kert, who has served as the "chief learning officer" at General Electric and now Goldman
Sachs, adds this important qualification: "We say empowerment is moving decision mak
ing down to the lowest level where a competent decision can be made:* Of course, its
naive and counterproductive to hand power over to unwilling or unprepared employees.
A Matter of Degree
The concept of
empowerment requires some adjustments in traditional thinkin
(see the Real Word/Real People feature on page 443). First, power is not a 2ero-su
situation where one person's gain is another's loss. Social
power is unlimited. I
requires win-win thinking. Frances Hesselbein, the woman credited with moderni
the Girl Scouts of the USA, put it this more

way: "The more power you give away, t0

you have.* Authoritarian managers who view
employee empowerment as a
their personal power are missing the point because of their win-lose thinking:
The second adjustment to traditional t as
thinking involves seeing empoweuet
a matter of degree not as an either-or proposition.46 Figure 15-2 illustrates
n0e 10
can be shifted the hands of
to
nonmanagers step by step. The overriding Ethis
increase productivity and competitiveness in
leaner organizations. Each si
evolution increases the power of
told what, when, and how to do organizational contributors who traanu Ne
things.
ment is Motorola executive Greg Brown:
A good role model for the
spinto
He boils his philosophy down to three words: ed to
listen, learn, lead. It means yo
understand your business down to the nuts and
bolts, let your employee
 REAL ORLD real people
Head of
ethics
Azinm Pre
Premii's most
India's Outsourcing Giant Wipro. Is Not "King
ant
One
of
important "hing
has
been creating a accomplishments
sinewy management ror
under intense culture that Premji, openness
is more than a
personal style.
ven
competitive
thrhed two core principles that are pressure. He
ts a
strategy.
"I find that
people excel when theyre
instrumental provided a fair, free, and apolitical
in
uilding the character of his
leadership team. The says. "At Wipro we strive to environment, he

are among India's that provide an open culture

first
family-controlled compa- encourages diversity of opinions. An
nies:The chairman is not king. While
Premji owns ability to encourage and harness diversityorganizational
of
a thought
is
trolling stake in Nipro, he shares a
significant competitive advantage.
subordinates. Theauthority
onsibility with his and
second Playing the game of business according to Prems
principle: Premji
believ in key rules has worked well for
zero-politics
a

t Wipro, backstabbing. Playing favorites,

culture. enues
Wipro. It's expanding rev-
nd kissing consistently at some 30% annually, while the
the boss--tactics that sap much
of American
overall tech services industry is
expanding at about
5% per year. Meanwhile,
executives energy-simply don't work. Open and operating margins in its tech
business top 20%-more than twice the level of large
onest disagreements are not only
hone
tolerated, but also Western services outfits.
required-of everyone.
Think of Wipro's success as a wake-up call for
The chairman's style isnt just to encourage his lieu- Americans who are complacent about the future of
tenants to debate one another: Premji insists that they
their companies or their job security. With its work
debate him as well-or even take him to task for his
ethic and intense drive to win, Wipro is a reminder of
decisions or actions.The man takes frontal criticism,
the America of 100 years ago.
and it's celebrated. You can openly disagree with him"
says [Subroto] Bagchi, the former Wipro executive Would you thrive or struggle in this sart of organization
who launched Wipro's U.S. business from his dining SOURCE: Excerpted from S Hamm,"How This Tiger Got lts Roar
room table....
BusinessWeek, October 30, 2006, pp 92-100.

Figure 15-2 The Evoutionof Porwer: From Domination to Delegation

Power Distribution
High Followers granted
authority to make
decisions.
Power Sharing
Manager/leader
and followers
jointly make
decisions.
Influence Sharing
Manager/leader
consults followers

when making
decisions.
Authoritarian
Power
Manager/leader
imposes decisions.

Consultation Participation Delegation

None Domination
443
 Orgauizational Proccsses

Part Four
444
handful of truly crucial things
things, even
a
and locus on just
answer's,

won't have all the

secm asinporlant,
dozens
though

Participative Management
ot partiCipalive management (PM). Manage
about the exact meaning fh nent
Confusion exists participative management
as

this situation by defining

( 1) sctting goals, (2) making decisions, (31co
clarified
Participative experts have
whereby employees play a direct
role
in Participative management inoi.g
management
and (4) mnaking changes in the organization. udes,
Involving employees problems., for their ideas or opinions.
in various forms of but goes beyond, sinmply
asking employees
increases employee saticfa
Advocates of PM
claim employee participation
decision making.
Consistent with both Maslow's need theor o ion,
commitment, and performance. Job
characteristics model of job design (see
Chapter 8), participative managementisn
because it helps employees fulfill three basic needs: (1) a d
to increase motivation
contact. Satisfaction of th se my,
(2) meaningfulness of work, and (3) interpersonal need
enhances feelings of acceptance and commitment, security, challenge, and satisfach
turn, these positive feelings supposedly lead to increased innovation and performo
Participative management does not work in all situations. The design of wor
level of trust between management and employees, and the employees' compete,the
and readiness to participate represent three factors that influence the effectivenes
of
PM. With respect to the design of work, individual participation is counterproduetie
when employees are highly interdependent on each other, as on an assemblyline
The problem with individual participation in this case is that interdependent empl.
ees generally do not have a broad understanding of the entire production proce
Participative management also is less likely to succeed when employees do not trs
management. Finally, PM is more effective when employees are competent, prepared
and interested in participating. Northwest Airl1nes is a good case in
point. Employes
responded very positively to the company's new employee suggestion system because
they weremotivated to help the airline reduce operating costs in order to
save jobs.
The suggestion system resulted in $6 milion in annual
savings from workers' ideas.
A flight attendant, for instance, noticed that too
many coffeepots were being boarded
on planes, so Northwest cut back and now
saves $|20,000 a
year.A customer-service
agent suggested that blanket folding and washing be done in-house, for
$205,000 annually. A manager in Minneapolis had an idea that resulted savingsof
in an annual
saving of $916,000 on maintenance on DC-10 thrust reversers.49

Delegation
Delegation
The
highest degree of empowerment is
delegation, the process of granting decisiu
Granting decision- making authority to lower-level employees.50 This amounts to power distributtol
making authority Delegation has long been the recommended
to
people at lower way to lighten the busy managers
while at the same time
levels developing employees' abilities.5
Importantly, delegation gi
nonmanagerial employees more than simply a voice in decisions. It empowers
em to
make their decisions. A prime example is the Ritz-Carlton Hotel chain
own

At Ritz-Cariton,
every worker is authorized to spend up to $2000 to tx any blem a
guest encounters. pro
Employees do not abuse the privilege. "When you treat pEo n-

SIDly, they act responsibly" said Patrick

Mene, the hotel chain's director ot qualily
Not
surprising, then, that Ritz-Carlton has won national service qualny awards.

aw
Barriers to Delegation
nan-

agers find it hard to

Delegation is easy to talk about, hefollot
actually do. A concerted effort to overcome
fne
 Chapter Fifteen Influence, Empowerment, and Politics
445
mmon harriers to delegation needs to be made:

Belief in
the i fallacy. "If you want it
done right, do
af confidence and trust in
lower-level employees.
it
yours
irself"

Low self-confidence.

Fcar of becing called lazy

Vague job definition.
Fear of competition from those below.
eluctance 1o take the risks
involved in
depending others. on
ack of controls that provide early
warning of problems with delegated
Poor example set by bosses who do not
delegate 5 duties.
nelegation Research and Implications for Trust and
Initiative Researchers at the State University of New York at Personal
fmanagers employees did
and and Albany surveyed pairs
dheir delegation habits. Their resultsfollow-up interviews with the managers concerning
confirmed some important common sense notions
ahout delegation. Greater delegation was associated with the following factors:
1. Competent employee.
2. Employee shared manager's task
objectives.
3. Manager had a
long-standing and positive relationship with
4. The lower-level person also was a employee.
supervisor.34
This delegation scenario boils down to
pivotal factor, trust.55
one
Managers prefer delegate important tasks and decisions to the people
to
trust. As discussed in they
Chapter 11, it takes time and favorable experience to build trust.
Of course, trust is fragile; it can be
destroyed by a single remark, act, or
Ironically, managers cannot learn to trust someone without, initially at least,omission.
the risk of betrayal. This is where the running
empowerment evolution in Figure 15-2 repre-
sents a three-step ladder to trust:
consultation, participation, and delegation. In other
words, managers need to start small and work up the empowerment ladder.
to delegate small tasks and decisions and scale They need
up as competence, confidence, and trust
grow. Employees need to work on their side of the trust equation as well.56 One of the
best ways to earn a
manager's trust is to show initiative (see Figure 15-3). Researchers
in the area offer this
instructive definition and characterization:
Personal initiative is a behavior syndrome resulting in an individual's taking an actve Personal initiative
and self-starting approach to work and going beyond what is formally required in a gven
Going beyond
job. More specifically. personal initiative is characterized by the following aspects: it (!) s formal job
Consistent with the organization's mission, (2) has a long-term focus, (3) is goal-directed requirements and
and action-oriented, (4) is persistent in the face of barriers and setbacks, and (5) is self- being an active
starting and proactive.7 self-starter

Recall our discussion of the proactive personality in Chapter 5,

Lmpowerment: The Research Record

and Practical Advice

as TQM, 360-degree reviews, teams,
LIke other widely heralded techniques-such
organizations-empowerment
has its fair share of critics and suffers from
carning
446 rganizatioual 'roceses
Part Four

ronal
Inifintiav: 7he ther Side of Delegation

Taking
action

Asking for
approval to act

Asking someone
else to act

Telling someone
about a problem

Noncompliance

Decreasing time
Apathy
to action to
solve a problem

sOURCE: Figure from A L Frohman, "Igniting Organizational Change from Below: The Power of Persoral
Initiative" Organizational Dynamics, Winter 1997, p 46. C 1997, with permission from Elsevier.

unrealistic expectations.5 Research results to date are mixed, with a recent positve
uptrend:
A meta-analysis encompassing 27 studies and 6,732 individuals revealed thar
employee participation in the performance appraisal process was positively
related to an employee's satisfaction with his or her
performance review. per
ceived value of the appraisal, motivation to improve performance after the
review, and perceived fairness of the appraisal
process.
Another meta-analysis of 86 studies involving 18,872 people demonstrated that
participation had a small statistically significant positive impact on jod pertor
mance but only a moderate positive etfect on
job satisfaction.
Relative to work teams, a recent field study of 102 hotels in the United
States revealed that teams with empowering leadership tended to have
more knowledge sharing, a greater sense of team efficacy, and beter
performance.6
A found
study of 164 New Zealand companies employing at least 100 peopie
a positive correlation between high-involvement management practices i n

employee retention and company productivity.2

v e m e n t

A field study with 149 call center

employees documented how "hign-in is
work processes" more effectively boosted job performance (e.g cusn
faction), job satisfaction, and organizational commitment than dids

teams,3
 Chapter Fifteen
Inluence, Em powerment, and Politics
447
A recen stndy of 3,000
study Canadian
cnmployece
e
Cmpowerment and layofts.companies looked at the
Productivity tended to relationship between
inNolvenment
workplaces, except when the drop after a layoff
WS ontinued during and after the layoff 4 commitment to
empowerment
We believe
: ave
empowerment has good promise if
managers go about it
ent is a sweeping concept
with many different definitions. properly.
Empou
rchers use
inconsistent
Ise inconsist. measurements, and cause-effect relationships Consequently,
mmitted to the i1dea of employee empowerment
are fuzzy.
need to follow the
t h o f
111OUs
c o n t i n u o u s

improvement, learning from their successes and failures. Eight

10 empowered"
companies led Randolph to formulate the
three-pronged.
e d empowerment plan in kigure 15-4. Notice how open-book manage

and.
tive information sharing are needed to build the necessary foundation
ment tha t, clear goals and lots of relevant
trust.
Beyond training are needed. Noting
of empowerment process can take several years to unfold, Randolph offered

this p e r s p e c t i v e :

h e k e y s to empowerment may be easy to understand,they are hard to

It
mplement.
It takes tremendous courage to start sharing sensitive information.
at the point when people want more
takes true
strength to build more Structure Just
It takes real growth to allow teams to take over the manage-
freedom of action.
takes perseverance to complete the
decision-making process. And above all, it
ment
empowerment process.6

Empowerment Model
Figure 15-4 Randolph's The Empowerment Plan

Share Information
information.
Share company performance
understand the business.
Help people information.

Build trust through sharing sensitive

Create self-monitoring possibilities.

Let Teams Become

the Hierarchy
Create Autonomy skills.
training for
new

through Structure direction and

Provide
and support
for change.
reate clear vision and clarify
a pictures.
the litle Provide
encouragement

let go of
control.

Create new decision-making rules that support Gradually

have managers

the leadership vacuum stage.

empowerment. W o r k through
the fearfactor
Carify goals and roles collaboratively. Acknowledge

Establish new empoweri performance management

processes.
Use
heavy doses of training
is not magic;
Empowerment
of persistence.
and a lot
Remember:

steps
t consists of a few simple permission

Vol. 24, No. 5,p 46,0 1997,with

\rsOURCE:
om ElsevieW
r. A
Dynamics,
Organizational
Randolph, "Navigating
g n g t hthe Jo
e Journey
to
Empowerment"
 Organizational Processes
448 Part Four

Organizational Politics and Impression

Management
Most students of OB find the study of orpani
tional politics intriguing. Perhaps tthis aniza-
topic
owes its
appeal to the antics of Hollywood's corporte
lains and contestants on The Apprentice stenmineil-
cach other to avoid Donald Trump's dreaded w
you're fired!" As we will
see. however,
organiza
tional politics includes, but is certainly not limited
to, dirty dealing. Organizational politics is an
ever.
present and sometimes annoying feature of dem
work life. "Executives say that they spend 19, af
their time dealing with political intighting with their
staffs, according to a survey by Office Team. a staf.
ing services firm." One expert recentiy observed
"Many 'new economy companies use the acr
Political wheeling and dealing occurs when contestants on
nym WOMBAT-or waste of money. brains, and
The Apprentice strive to avoid being fired by Donald Trump.
time-to describe office politics."* On the other
How wouid you handle yourself in such a stressful situation!
hand, organizational politics can be a positirve force
in modern work organizations. Skillful and well-timed politics can help you get your
point across, neutralize resistance to a key project, or get a choice job assignment
Roberta Bhasin, a telephone company district manager, put organizationai politics
into perspective by observing the following:
Most of us would like to believe that organizations are rationally structurec. oasec a
reasonable divisions oflabor, a clear hierarchical communication tlow, and wel-cefine
lines of authority aimed at meeting universally understood goals and obectves
But organizations are made up of people with personal agendas designec to wn power
and infuence.The agenda-the gameis called corporate politics. t is payec by aoang
the rational structure, manipulating the communications hierarchy and ignonng estabisnec
lines of authority The rules are never written down and seldom discussed.
For some, corporate politics are second nature. They instinctively know the unspo
ken rules of the game. Others must learn. Managers who don't understand the aolitcs
of their organizations are at a disadvantage, not only in winning rases and promotons
but even in getting things done.5
To that end, 32% of 3,447 middle and senior managers responding to an Internet sur
vey said they needed coaching in how to be more politicaly savvy at work."
We explore this important and interesting area by (1) defining the term organ
zational politics, (2) identitying three levels of political action. (3) discussing eighi
specific political tactics, (4) considering a related area called impression management.
and (5) examining relevant researeh and practical implications.

go to the Web for the Sef-Exercise:How Political Are You?

Organizational
politics Definition and Domain of Organizational Politics
Intentional otect
enhancement of Organizational politics involves intentional acts of influence to enhance or proto
shes

self-interest. the self-interest of individuals or groups."7 An emphasis on self-interest distingus

 Chapter Fifteen Influence, Empowerment, and Politics
449
influence. Managers are constantly challenged to achieve a workable
form ofs
this
alance between enemployees' interests and organizational interests, as discussed at
his chapter. When a proper balance exists, the pursuit of self-inter-
beginning of this
erve the organizatio interests. Political behavior becomes a negative force
cst may serve

-interests erode or defeat organizational interests. For example, researchers

have documented d the
t political tactic of filtering and distorting information flowing up
self-serving practice put the reporting employees in the best possible
boss.
This self
the
to
light.
Political Behavior Political maneuvering is triggered
rertainty
Unc
Triggers within organizations are
nty. Five common sources of uncertainty
imarily by uncertaint

I. Unclear objectives.
measures.
performance
2. Vague
decision processes.
3. 11-defined /
individual or group competition.73
4. Strong
of change.
5. Any type
this last of uncertainty, organization
source
Regarding
Raia noted, "Whatever
development specialist Anthony
we attempt
to change, the political subsystem becomes
are almost always at stake and
active. Vested interests (
of is challenged"74 ToP H1MPERIN AND SP ThE WwEEL OF LAnE, HRu
the distribution power
Thus, we would expect a field sales representative, SOURCE: Harvard Business Review, November 2003, p 86.
striving to achieve an assigned quota, to be less political Scott A Masear. Reprinted by permission of the author.
than a management trainee working on a variety of proj-
ects. While some management trainees stake their career success on hard work, competence,
and a bit of luck, many do not. These people attempt to gain a competitive edge through
some combination of the political tactics discussed below. Meanwhile, the salesperson's per-
formance is measured in actual sales, not in terms of being friends with the boss or taking
to be more political than
credit for others' work. Thus, the management trainee would tend
the field salesperson because of greater uncertainty about management's expectations.
Because employees generally experience greater uncertainty
during the earlier
more political than more senior ones?
Slages of their careers, are junior employees adults in upstate New York.
answer is to a survey of 243 employed
according
e yes,
the researcher: ""I used to play
act, senior employee nearing retirement told
one
pontical games when I was younger. Now I just do my job."

nree Levels of Political ActionAlthough much political maneuvering occurs

action. Figure 15-5 illus-
ndividual level, it also can involve group or collective level, the coalition
s different levels of political action: the individual
three characteristics. At the
inand the network level,76 Each level has its distinguishing
the individual. The political
are pursued by
a al level,personal self-interests
s OI coalitions and networks are not so obvious, however. coalition by fitting the fol-
Peo
lowina WIth a common interest can become a political
bound Coalition
is an informal group
nition. In an organizational context, a coalition
togeth issue. Coalitions may
or may not
coincide Temporary
t n e active pursuit of a single
with formal group issue is resolved (a sexual-harassing
groupings of people
ership. When the target that political who actively pursue
supervisor is fired, for example), the coalition
disbands. Experts note a single issue.
ons have are fluid in
membership, flexible in
boundaries," meaning they
"fuzzy bo
Siructure, and temporary in duration." Consider the situation
Charles

In0alitions are apotent political force in organizations.

Bradshaw faced Transworld Corporation.
Bradshaw,
14ced in a finance committee meeting at
450 Part Four Organizational Processes

Figure 15-5 Levels of Political Action in Organizations

Distinguishing Characteristics
Network
Cooperative pursuit of
level general self-interests

Coalition Cooperative pursuit of

group interests in
level
specific issues

Individual pursuit of
Individual
level general self-interests

president of the company, opposed the chairman's plan to acquire a $93 million nursino
home company:
The senior vice president for finance] kicked off the meeting with a battery of
facts and figures in support of the deal. "Within two or three minutes, I knew I had
lost" Bradshaw concedes. "No one was talking directly to me, but all statements
addressed my opposition. I could tell there was a general agreemet around the
board table".
Then the vote was taken. Five hands went up. Only Bradshaw voted no.7

After the meeting, Bradshaw resigned his $530,000-a-year position, without as much as a
handshake or good-bye from the chairman. In Bradshaw's case, the finance committee was
a formal group that
temporarily became a political coalition aimed at sealing his fate at
Transworld. In recent years, coalitions on the
corporate boards of Home Depot, Computer
Associates, and Hewlett-Packard ousted the heads of those giant companies.
A third level of political action involves networks.7?
Unlike coalitions, which
pivot on specific issues, networks are loose associations of individuals seeking soCial
support for their general self-interests.
Politically, networks are
coalitions are issue oriented. Networks have broader and longerpeople
oriented, whie
term agendas than d0
coalitions. For instance, Avon's Hispanic employees have built a network to enhance
the members' career
opportunities.0

Political Tactics
Anyone who has worked in an organization has firsthand
knowledge of blatant polinc
ing. Blaming someone else for your mistake is an obvious political ploy. But other
cal tactics are more subtle. Researchers have pou
identified a range of political behaviot.
One landmark study,
involving in-depth interviews with 87 managers from l e
tronics companies in southern
and low-level managers were
California, identified eight political tactics. 10op, heo the
represented about equally in the sample. Accoraiu a n d
researchers: "Respondents asked to describe organizational political ta
were
personal characteristics of effective political actors based upon their accumulateu
rience in allorganizations in which they had worked."31 Listed in descending
af
occurrence, the eight political tactics that
emerged were
1. Attacking or blaming others.
2. Using information as a
political tool.
 Chapter Fifteen Iniluence, Empowerment, and Politics 451

(Also known impression

tinda favorable image. as management.)

Developing
a base
of support.
5Praising others (ingratiation).
with strong allies.
Forming power coalitions
with influential people.
Associating
cating obligations (reciprocity).
and indicates how often cach reportedlyy
51 describes these political tactics
interviewed managers.
d by the
between reactive and proactive political tactics.
rescarchers distinguished
because the intent was to
f the tactics. such as scapegoating, were reactive a base of
such as developing support, were
one's self-interest. Other tactics,
e because sought to promole the individual's self-interest.
they

15-1Eight Common Political Tactics in Orgunizations

PERCENTAGE OF MANAGERS
POLITICAL TACTIC MENTIONING TACTIC BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF TACTIC

54% Used to avoid or minimize association

.Attacking or blaming otherss
with failure. Reactive when scape
goating is involved. Proactive when
goal is to reduce competition for
limited resources.
2. Using information as a S4 Involves the purposeful withhoiding
political tool or distortion of information.
Obscuring an unfavorable situation
by overwhelming superiors with
information.
3. Creating a favorable image 53 Dressing/grooming for success.
(impression management) Adhering to organizational norms
and drawing attention to one's suc-
cesses and influence. Taking credit
for others' accomplishments.
4.
Developing a base of support 37 Getting prior support for a decision.
Building others' commitment topa
decision through participation.
5.
Praising others (ingratiation) 25 Making influential people feel good
("apple polishing").
6.
Forming power coalitions with 25 Teaming up wich powerful people
strong allies who can get results.
.Associating with influential people 24 Building a support network both
inside and outside the organization.
8. 13 Creating social debts (I did you a
Creating obligations (reciprocity favor, so you owe me a favor").

RW Allen, D L Madison, L
W Porter, P A Renwick, and BT Mayes, "Organizational Politics:Tactics and
OURCE: Adapted from
Review, Fall 1979, pp 77-83.
haracteristics of Its Actors," California Management
452 Part Four Organizational Processes

Table 15-2 Are You Politically Naive, Politically Sensible, ora Political Shark?
SHARKS
CHARACTERISTIKS NAIVE SENSIBLE
Politics is an opportunity.
Undertying attitude Politics is unpleasant. Politics is necessary
Self-serving and predatory
Intent Avoid at all costs. Further departmental goals.
Manipulate; use fraud and
Tell it like it is. Network; expand connections;
Techniques deceit when necessary
use system to give and receive

favors.
Buly: misuse information,
Favorite tactics None-the truth Negotiate, bargain. cultivate and use
will win out
friends and other
contacts.

Accidental Profession" Business Horizons,

Vol 38, No. 2p 45,
SOURCE Reprinted from K Pinto and O P Kharbanda, "Lessons for an

1995, with permission from Elsevier.

What is your attitude toward organizational politics? How often do you rely on
the various tactics in Table 15-1? You can get a general indication of your political
tendencies by comparing your behavior with the characteristics in Table 15-2. Would
you characterize yourself as politically naive, politically sensible, or a political shark?
How do you think others view your political actions? What are the career, friendship.
and ethical implications of your political tendencies?2

Impression Management
Impression Impression management is defined as "the process by which people attempt
management to control or manipulate the reactions of others to images of themselves or their
Getting others to ideas"3 This encompasses how one talks, behaves, and looks. Most
see us in a certain impression man-
agement attempts are directed at making a good impression on relevant others. But, as
manner. we will employees strive to make a bad impression. For
see, some
tualclarity, will
we focus on upward purposes of concep-
impression management (trying to impress one s
immediate supervisor) becauSe it is most relevant for managers. Still, it is
remember that anyone can be the intended good to
target
teachers, peers, voters, employees, and customers
of impression
management. Parents,
are all fair
managing the impressions of others. game when it comes to

roto the Web for the

Ciroup Exerelse: You Make Me Feel
So Good!
A Conceptual
tual Crossroads Impression
erossroads involving
ties.*4 Perhaps this self-1monitoring, management is an interesting
attribution
attention in recent explains why impression theory, and conce
heir years.
High
are likely sel-monitoring
management has gotten active organizational po
surroundings) employees
to be more inclined resear
than would low
self-monitors." to ("chameleons"
engage in impression who adjust
manipulation of attributions. For Impression management managem ent

example, a bank nrm also involves the utemmi

natic
 goto the Web for the SelfExercise How Much Do You Rely on
Upward Impression Management
Tactics?

Managing Organizational Politics

Organizational politics cannot be eliminated. A manager would be naive to expect
Such an outcome. But political maneuvering can and should be managed
to keep it
Zaleznik put the issue
and
Constructive within reasonable bounds. Harvard's Abraham
 Organizational Processes
456 Part Four

Polilics uwithin Reusonable Bounds

Table153 Hou to Krep Organizational
individuals at hiring time.
Screen out overly political
Create an open-book management system.
business works and has personal line of sight to key
a
Make sure every employee knows how the
objectives for individual
measurable accountability.
results with corresponding
statements for all employees
Have nonfinancial people interpret periodic financial and accounting
Establish formal conflict resolution and grievance processes.
comfortable doing on national television.
As an ethics filter, do only what you would feel
results without political games.
Publicy recognize and reward people who get real
End of Office Politics as Usual" (New York American
SOURCE:Adapted in part from discussion in L B MacGregor Server, "The
Management Association, 2002). pp 184-99.

The more it lands

this way:"People can focus their attention on only so many things.
on politics, the less energy-emotional and
intellectual-is available to attend to the

problems that fall under the heading of real work."7

An individual's degree of politicalness is a matter of personal values, ethics. and
temperament. People who are either strictly nonpolitical or highly political generally
slow promotions and feel
pay a price for their behavior. The former may experience
left out, while the latter may run the risk of being called self-serving and lose their
credibility. People at both ends of the political spectrum may be considered poor team
players. A moderate amount of prudent political behavior generally is considered a
survival tool in complex organizations. Experts remind us that
behavior has earned a bad name
political because of its association with politcans
only
On its own, the use of power and other resources to obtain your objectives is not

inherently unethical. It all depends on what the preferred objectives are.

With this perspective in mind the practical steps in Table 15-3 are recommended
How many of the Enron- and WorldCom-type scandals could have been
this approach? Remember: Measurable objectives are management's first line of detense
prevented Witn
against negative expressions of organizational politics.