Griffin Mgmt12e IM Ch11

Management 12e by Ricky W.
Griffin
CHAPTER 14
Basic Elements of Individual Behavior in
Organizations
Part Five, THE LEADING PROCESS, covers the third basic managerial function, the leading process.
Part Five consists of five chapters. Chapter 14 introduces basic elements of individual behavior in
organizations. Chapter 15 covers employee motivation and Chapter 16 is devoted to leadership.
Interpersonal processes and communication are the topics of Chapter 17. Chapter 18 covers group and
team processes in organizations.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Chapter 14 covers the basic elements of individual behavior in organizations. The chapter first
investigates the psychological nature of individuals in organizations. The next sections introduces the
concept of personality and discusses several important personality attributes that can influence behavior
in organizations. The text then examines individual attitudes and their role in organizations. The role of
stress in the workplace is discussed, followed by a discussion of individual creativity. Finally, the chapter
concludes by describing a number of basic individual behaviors that are important to organizations.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After covering this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Explain the nature of the individual–organization relationship.
2. Define personality and describe personality attributes that affect behavior in organizations.
3. Discuss individual attitudes in organizations and how they affect behavior.
4. Describe basic perceptual processes and the role of attributions in organizations.
5. Discuss the causes and consequences of stress and describe how it can be managed.
6. Describe creativity and its role in organizations.
7. Explain how workplace behaviors can directly or indirectly influence organizational effectiveness.
MANAGEMENT IN ACTION
Engaging with the Company Garbage
The opening case discusses organizations sustainable management programs. Research shows that
employees find value in and even put forth discretionary effort towards programs they feel are
meaningful. Organizational commitment is greater when a company fosters a combination of top-down
leadership and bottom-up empowerment in its sustainability practices. As a nice by-product, companies
are finding they save money and may even make money from their sustainability efforts.
Discussion Starter: Ask students what the sustainability practices are in their work
environment. Are there handy recycling bins? Do employees use the recycling program?
Do students feel these are worthy programs? Do they feel such programs are a nuisance,
a sort of social pressure?
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Chapter 14: Basic Elements of Individual Behavior in Organizations
LECTURE OUTLINE
I. UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUALS IN ORGANIZATIONS
A. The Psychological Contract

A psychological contract is the overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect
to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in
return. It is neither written on paper nor are the terms negotiated.
1. The individual provides the organization with contributions such as effort, skills, ability,
time, loyalty, and so forth.
2. In return for these contributions, the organization provides inducements to the individual
such as pay and career opportunities, (tangible), job security, or status (intangible).
3. If both the individual and the organization perceive the contract is fair and equitable, they
will be satisfied to continue the relationship. If either party feels an imbalance or
inequity, they may initiate a change.
4. A basic challenge faced by the organization is to manage psychological contracts.
Teaching Tip: Discuss with your students the nature of the psychological contract that
exists between you as the instructor and them as students.
Discussion Starter: Solicit ideas regarding unusual or novel individual contributions

and/or organizational inducements that might be part of a psychological contract.
B. The Person–Job Fit
Person–job fit is the extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the
inducements offered by the organization.
There are several possible reasons for an imperfect person–job fit.
1. Organizational selection procedures are imperfect.
2. Both people and organizations change.
3. Each individual is unique.
Group Exercise: Have small groups of students discuss what they consider a “perfect”
job. Ask them to identify similarities and differences among the various jobs suggested.
C. The Nature of Individual Differences
Individual differences are personal attributes that vary from one person to another.
Individual differences may contribute to or detract from the job depending on the
circumstances. Attempting to consider both individual differences and contributions in
relation to inducements and contexts is a major challenge for organizations.
Cross-Reference: Note the role of organization culture, as described in Chapter 3, in
defining psychological contracts and person–job fit and how individual differences might
cause one person to fit while another person will not fit into that same organization at all.
Discussion Starter: Ask students if they can recall any instances in which they observed
one person who really liked a particular job and another person who strongly disliked the
same job. Ask them to speculate on why the differences occurred.
II. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
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permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
Management 12e by Ricky W. Griffin
Personality is the relatively permanent set of psychological and behavioral attributes that
distinguish one person from another.
A. The “Big Five” Personality Traits
Contemporary researchers have identified five fundamental personality traits that are
especially relevant to organizations. Commonly called the “Big Five” personality traits, it is
a popular personality framework based on five key traits.
1. Agreeableness refers to a person’s ability to get along with others.
2. Conscientiousness is the number of things a person can effectively work on at one time.
3. Negative emotionality refers to which a person is poised, calm, resilient, and secure.
4. Extraversion is a person’s comfort level with relationships.
5. Openness refers to a person’s rigidity of beliefs and range of interests.
Cross-Reference: Note that in Chapter 13 we discussed how some organizations attempt
to measure the personality of job applicants as part of the selection process.
Group Exercise: Ask students to discuss with each other how they might see themselves
on each of the “big five” traits.
Discussion Starter: Ask students to speculate as to how easy or hard it might be to

measure these five personality traits with a questionnaire.
B. The Myers-Briggs Framework
Based on the work of Carl Jung, this framework assesses personality along four key dimensions.
1. Extroversion (E) versus Introversion (I). Extroverts get their energy from being around
other people, while introverts are worn out by others and need solitude to recharge their
energy.
2. Sensing (S) versus Intuition (N). The Sensing type prefers concrete things, while
intuitives prefer abstract concepts.
3. Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F). Thinking individuals bases their decisions more on logic
and reason, while feeling individuals base their decisions more on feelings and emotions.
4. Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P). People who are the judging type enjoys completion or
being finished, while perceiving types enjoy the process and open-ended situations.
Teaching Tip: Direct students to the interpersonal skill-building exercise for this chapter
for information about the Myers-Briggs framework and for an online assessment tool.
C. Other Personality Traits at Work
Beside the Big Five and the Myers-Briggs framework, there are other personality traits that
influence behavior in organizations. Among the most important are locus of control, self-
efficacy, authoritarianism, Machiavellianism, self-esteem, and risk propensity.
1. Locus of control refers to the degree to which an individual believes that his or her
behavior has a direct impact on the consequences of that behavior.
a) Internal locus of control is a belief that success or failure results from one’s own
behavior.
Extra Example: Successful top managers appear to have an internal locus of control.
b) External locus of control is a belief that success or failure results from fate, chance,
luck, or the behavior of others.
Teaching Tip: Many different questionnaires exist that purport to measure locus of
control. Obtain a copy of one of these and have your students complete it. Be careful not
to make actual attributions based on in-class results. Rather, use the results to discuss the
nature of locus of control and whether students see the results as being valid.
2. Self-efficacy is an individual’s beliefs about her or his capabilities to perform a task.
3. Authoritarianism is the extent to which an individual believes that power and status
differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems like organizations.
Discussion Starter: Ask students whether they see themselves as having high or low
levels of authoritarianism.
Discussion Starter: Ask students to identify jobs for which different levels of
authoritarianism might be more or less appropriate.
4. Machiavellianism is behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of
others.
Discussion Starter: Ask students for examples of individuals they know or have known
who appeared to be high on the Machiavellianism scale.
5. Self-esteem is the extent to which a person believes that he or she is a worthwhile and
deserving individual.
6. Risk propensity is the degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make
risky decisions.
Discussion Starter: Ask students to comment on their relative level of risk propensity.
Ask them to suggest jobs in which high levels of risk propensity are desirable, and jobs in
which high levels of risk propensity are less desirable.
D. Emotional Intelligence
Yet another way to think about personality at work is the concept of emotional intelligence or
EQ. This is the extent to which people are self-aware, manage their emotions, motivate
themselves, express empathy for others, and possess social skills.
There are five dimensions of EQ.
1. Self-awareness refers to a person’s capacity for being aware of how they are feeling.
2. Managing emotions refers to a person’s capacities to balance anxiety, fear, and anger so
they do not interfere with getting things accomplished.
3. Motivating oneself refers to a person’s ability to remain optimistic in the face of failure.
4. Empathy refers to a person’s ability to understand how others are feeling.
5. Social skill refers to a person’s ability to get along with others and establish positive
relationships.
Preliminary research suggests that persons with high EQ may perform better than others,
especially in jobs requiring a high degree of interpersonal interaction and involve
influencing or directing the work of others.
EQ appears to be something this not biologically based but can be developed.
III. ATTITUDES AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
Attitudes are complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations, or
other people. Attitudes are made up of three components.
The affective component reflects feelings and emotions that an individual has toward a situation.
The cognitive component is derived from perceived knowledge that an individual has about a
situation.
The intentional component reflects how an individual expects to behave toward or in the situation.
Extra Example: Select a given attitude that a student might hold (e.g., a positive attitude
toward a particular academic department). Illustrate its three parts (e.g., I like that
department; the professors do a good job, and the courses they teach are relevant; I will
take another course from that department).
The conflict that individuals may experience among their own attitudes is called cognitive
dissonance.
Extra Example: Students may experience cognitive dissonance as part of their academic
programs. For example, when they begin taking courses in their intended major, they may
find they do not like that field after all. Ask students about their experiences.
A. Work-Related Attitudes
1. Job satisfaction or dissatisfaction is an attitude that reflects the extent to which an
individual is gratified by or fulfilled in his or her work.
2. Organizational commitment is an attitude that reflects an individual’s identification
with and attachment to the organization itself.
3. Organizational engagement is the extent to which an employee sees him or herself as
part of the organization, actively looks for ways to contribute to the organization, and is
involved with the organization in multiple ways.
Extra Example: Firms that have recently downsized often find that the downsizing has
led to employees experiencing lowered organizational commitment and job involvement.
Group Exercise: Have students think of attitudes they have held for a long time, and
discuss what might be necessary to get them to change those attitudes. Ask them to
identify attitudes they have changed and to note why those changes took place.
B. Affect and Mood in Organizations
1. Some people seem to have a higher degree of positive affectivity. They have a tendency
to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a
positive light, and seem to be in a good mood.
2. Others, those with negative affectivity, have a tendency to be generally downbeat and
pessimistic, see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood.
Discussion Starter: Ask students to identify and discuss characters from popular
television shows who seem to have a lot of positive and/or negative affectivity.
IV. PERCEPTION AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
Perception is the set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets
information about the environment.
A. Basic Perceptual Processes
1. Selective perception is the process of screening out information that we are
uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs. Selective perception is helpful only if
our basic perception is accurate, if not it can become quite detrimental.
2. Stereotyping is the process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single

attribute. Common attributes on which people stereotype are race, gender, and age.
Extra Example: Note that if the newspaper featured a headline story about a big increase
in tuition at your school, most students would be aware of it. However, assuming that
was not the case, fewer students can recall the headline because it was less relevant to
them.
Discussion Starter: Ask students to identify specific examples, other than those in the
text, to illustrate positive and negative examples of selective perception and stereotyping.
B. Perception and Attribution
Attribution is a mechanism through which we observe behavior and then attribute causes to it.
The observed behavior may be our own or that of others.
Attribution occurs as a result of three forces.
1. Consensus is the extent to which other people in the same situation behave the same way.
2. Consistency is the extent to which the same person behaves in the same way at different
times.
3. Distinctiveness is the extent to which the same person behaves in the same way in other
situations.
V. STRESS AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
A. Stress is an individual’s response to a strong stimulus, called a stressor.

Teaching Tip: Students can easily relate to the topic of stress.
B. Stress generally follows a cycle referred to as the General Adaptation Syndrome, or GAS.
The stages in the GAS are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
C. Stress is not all bad. The absence of stress may lead to stagnation. An optimal stress level can
motivate. Too much stress can have negative consequences. Stress can be caused by “good”
as well as “bad” things.
D. Type A individuals are competitive, devoted to work, and have a strong sense of time urgency.
Type B individuals are less competitive, less devoted to work, and have a weaker sense of
time urgency. Type B people are less likely to experience stress.
Discussion Starter: Ask whether students consider themselves to be Type A or Type B.
Cross-Reference: Note that the Type A/B distinction parallels the discussion of
individual differences earlier in this chapter. If there was not this separate section on
stress, Type A/B could have been discussed along with locus of control, self-esteem, and
the other personality-based differences.
C. Causes and Consequences of Stress
1. Work-related stressors fall into one of four categories.
a) Task demands are associated with the task itself.
Extra Example: Telemarketer is a job with a high level of task demands-related stress.
Workers must follow a prescribed script, are under intense pressure to make a quota of
calls, and often encounter abrupt, negative reactions from the people they call.
b) Physical demands are stressors associated with the job setting.
c) Role demands are stressors associated with roles (discussed fully in Chapter 18).
Extra Example: When an executive reported for work at the U.S. Bank of Washington
on a holiday, he noted that he was the one-hundredth manager to sign in for work that day
—a holiday when the bank was officially closed.
d) Interpersonal demands are stressors associated with relationships that confront
people in organizations. For example group pressures and norm conformity.
Teaching Tip: While stress can be a trigger for workplace violence, other factors enter in
such as organizational culture, the individual’s background and propensity for violence.
Extra Example: While stress can initiate workplace violence, the fact that violence has
occurred subsequently increases stress for other employees.
2. There are several likely negative consequences of stress.
a) Behavioral consequences include detrimental or harmful actions such as smoking,
alcoholism, overeating, drug abuse, accident proneness, and violence.
b) Psychological consequences of stress include sleep disturbances, depression, family
problems, and sexual dysfunction.
c) Medical consequences of stress include heart disease, stroke, headaches, backaches,
ulcers, and skin conditions.
Global Connection: The Japanese use the word karoshi to refer to death from overwork.
Some experts estimate that karoshi claims as many as 30,000 people a year in Japan.
d) Individual stress also has direct consequences for businesses, including poor quality
work, lower productivity, faulty decision making, absenteeism, and turnover.
e) Burnout is a feeling of exhaustion that may develop when someone experiences
too much stress for an extended period of time
D. Managing Stress
1. People manage stress through exercise, relaxation, time management, and support
groups.
Extra Example: Prayer and meditation are increasingly being used to manage stress.
Discussion Starter: Ask students how they manage their own stress.
2. Organizations can help employees cope with stress through wellness programs, stress
management programs, health promotion programs, and fitness programs.
Discussion Starter: Ask for ideas on how organizations can help workers manage stress.
VI. CREATIVITY IN ORGANIZATIONS
Creativity is the ability of an individual to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives
on existing ideas.
A. The Creative Individual
Researchers attempt to describe the common attributes of creative individuals. These
attributes fall into three categories: background experiences, personal traits, and cognitive
abilities.
1. Creative individuals were raised in environments in which creativity was nurtured.
2. Creative people share traits of openness, an attraction to complexity, high energy,
independence and autonomy, self-confidence, and a strong belief that they are creative.
3. Creative people tend to be intelligent and have divergent and convergent thinking skills.
Divergent thinking is a skill allowing people to see difference among situations,
phenomena, or events. Convergent thinking is a skill allowing people to see similarities
among situations, phenomena, or events.
Discussion Starter: Ask students to assess their own creativity and/or the creativity of
people they know.
Teaching Tip: Stress for students that these individual characteristics tend to be
generalizations, not rigid requirements that someone must meet to be deemed creative.
B. The Creative Process
The creative process often follows four distinct stages.
1. Preparation occurs when an individual is getting ready to be creative and can include
education and experiences.
2. Incubation is a period of low intensity during which the individual takes a break from the
problem, allowing it to mature and develop.
Teaching Tip: Point out the adage “sleep on it” often refers to the incubation process.
3. Insight is the spontaneous breakthrough that allows a new understanding of some
problem or situation. It may emerge gradually or suddenly and can be triggered by an
external or internal event.
Teaching Tip: Point out for your students that the common visual metaphor of a light
bulb over a person’s head as he or she gets an idea actually shows insight.
Extra Example: Legend has it that Archimedes first coined the phrase “Eureka!” (which
means “I have found it!” in Greek) when he achieved a critical insight into a problem
while bathing one day. On the downside, he was so excited by his discovery that he then
ran naked through the streets of Athens.
4. Verification follows breakthrough and is used to determining the validity of the insight.
C. Enhancing Creativity in Organizations
Organizations can attempt to promote creativity by making it a part of the firm’s culture and
by integrating creative activities with the reward system.
VII. TYPES OF WORKPLACE BEHAVIOR
Workplace behavior is a pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or

indirectly influences organizational effectiveness.
A. Performance Behaviors
Performance behaviors are the total set of work-related behaviors that the organization
expects the individual to display. For many jobs, performance behaviors are diverse and may
be difficult to assess.
Cross-Reference: Note that the methods of performance evaluation discussed in Chapter
13 focus primarily on measuring workplace behaviors.
B. Withdrawal Behavior
Another important type of work-related behavior is that which results in withdrawal.
1. Absenteeism occurs when an individual does not show up for work.
Discussion Starter: Ask students to recall examples of when they were absent from
work for reasons that their employer might not have thought of as being legitimate.
2. Turnover occurs when people quit their jobs.
Discussion Starter: Ask students who have quit one or more previous jobs to recall what
caused them to do so.
C. Organizational Citizenship
Organizational citizenship refers to the behavior of individuals that makes a positive overall
contribution to the organization. The determinant of organization citizenship behaviors is
likely to be a complex mosaic of individual, social, and organizational variables.
D. Dysfunctional Behavior
Dysfunctional behaviors are those that detract from, rather than contribute to, organizational
performance. They include absenteeism and turnover but also theft, sabotage, sexual and racial
harassment, politicized behavior, and violence.
Teaching Tip: Stress for students that citizenship goes beyond strict productivity.
Extra Example: Note that the person making the highest grade on a test may be the top
performer. However, that same person may not always be in class, may contribute little to
class, and may come in late and/or leave early. Someone else, however, may attend class
more regularly, participate in class discussion more often, always be in class on time, and
be willing to sit past class ending time for a few minutes while you finish an important
point. This individual may be a better organizational citizen.
END OF CHAPTER QUESTIONS
Questions for Review

1. What is a psychological contract? List the things that might be included in individual
contributions. List the things that might be included in organizational inducements.
A psychological contract is the overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what
he or she will contribute to the firm and what the organization, in return, will provide to the
individual. Individual contributions include effort, time, ability, skills, and creativity. Organizational
inducements include pay and benefits as well as security, status, and opportunities for advancement
and learning.
2. Describe the three components of attitudes and tell how the components are related. What is
cognitive dissonance? How do individuals resolve cognitive dissonance?
Attitudes are made up of an affective, or emotional, component; a cognitive, or intellectual,
component; and an intentional component, which reflects expectations about behavior. The three
components are inter-related, with each affecting the others. Feelings, thoughts, and intent all play a
part in forming attitudes. Cognitive dissonance occurs when one individual’s attitudes are in
conflict. To resolve cognitive dissonance, individuals typically revise one or more attitudes.
3. Identify and discuss the steps in the creative process. What can an organization do to increase
employees’ creativity?
The steps in the creative process are (1) preparation—getting ready to be creative; (2) incubation—
a period of low-intensity or subconscious thought; (3) insight—a spontaneous breakthrough; and (4)
verification—determining the validity of the insight. Firms can provide structures and mechanisms
that improve creativity, such as establishing rewards for innovation or developing a culture in which
experimentation and mistakes are not punished.
4. Identify and describe several important workplace behaviors.
Performance behaviors are the total set of work-related behaviors that the organization expects the
individual to display. Absenteeism is when an individual does not show up for work. Turnover
behavior occurs when people quit their jobs. Organizational citizenship refers to the behavior of
individuals that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization.
Questions for Analysis

5. Organizations are increasing their use of personality tests to screen job applicants. What are
the advantages and disadvantages of this approach? What can managers do to avoid some of
the potential pitfalls?
Personality testing can increase the person–job fit, providing benefits to the organization. However,
personality testing is controversial and will upset some job applicants. It is also very difficult to
perform accurately and thus may result in a mismatch between a worker and a job. Finally, there is
little scientific evidence to link personality to job fit or future job performance in many cases. Most
importantly, managers can work to ensure that there is a link between the personality attributes that
are being tested and future job performance. Also, managers can receive training in the accurate
interpretation of personality test results.
6. As a manager, how can you tell that an employee is experiencing job satisfaction? How can
you tell that employees are highly committed to the organization? If a worker is not satisfied,
what can a manager do to improve satisfaction? What can a manager do to improve
organizational commitment and engagement?
Job satisfaction is likely to be expressed through low turnover and absenteeism, conformance to
company policy and cultural norms, sound personal relationships with co-workers, contentment with
working conditions and pay, and high job effort and performance. The signs of high commitment
are much the same. To improve satisfaction, managers can focus on each of the areas mentioned
above such as effective socialization into the firm’s culture, development of positive working
relationships, adequate work conditions and pay, and so on. These actions are also likely to improve
commitment.
7. Managers cannot pay equal attention to every piece of information, so selective perception is a
fact of life. How does selective perception help managers? How does it create difficulties for
them? How can managers increase their “good” selective perception and decrease the “bad”?
Selective perception can aid in the decision-making process by reducing the amount of information,
which increases the manager’s ability to focus on the truly important data. However, selective
perception may inappropriately eliminate information that would be useful, thereby reducing
decision quality. One technique calls for group decision making, which would tend to reduce the
impact of the individual’s decision-making biases. Another solution would be the adoption of a
process that explicitly requires attention to data that contradicts the manager’s basic beliefs such as a
“what-if” analysis or a devil’s advocate process.
Questions for Application

8. Write the psychological contract you have in this class. In other words, what do you
contribute, and what inducements are available? Ask your professor to tell the class about the
psychological contract that he or she intended to establish with the students in your class. How
does the professor’s intended contract compare with the one you wrote? If there are
differences, why do you think the differences exist? Share your ideas with the class.
This question makes a good experiential exercise. Contributions made by students usually include
such things as their attendance, class preparation, class participation, and the tuition and fees they
pay to attend. Inducements include such things as a well-organized class, an interesting and
effective instructor, and a fair and clear grading system. Students are often surprised to discover the
extent to which the intended psychological contract, as developed by the instructor, differs from,
and in some cases directly contradicts, the contract as it is perceived by students.
9. Assume that you are going to hire three new employees for the department store you manage.
One will sell shoes, one will manage the toy department, and one will work in the stockroom.
Identify the basic characteristics you want in each of the people, to achieve a good person–job
fit.
The shoe salesperson may need to be especially friendly, courteous, outgoing, and willing to work
on a commission. The toy department manager might need to be well organized, friendly, fond of
children, and able to supervise regular workers in the department. The stockroom employee may
need to be able to lift heavy boxes and carefully follow instructions.
10. Describe a time when someone displayed each one of the Big Five personality traits at either a
very high or a very low level. For example, tell about someone who appeared to be highly
agreeable or highly disagreeable. Then tell about the outcomes that person experienced as a
result of displaying that particular personality trait. Do the outcomes seem logical; that is, do
positive personality traits usually lead to good outcomes and negative traits to bad ones?
Explain your answer.
Clearly, students’ answers will vary. Students will be able to think of times when the outcomes
appeared to be logical, as well as examples in which the consequences seemed illogical.
END OF CHAPTER EXERCISES
Building Effective Interpersonal Skills

I. Purpose
This exercise introduces students to the Meyers-Briggs personality type framework and then uses
those concepts to consider personal relationships between individuals with differing characteristics.
II. Format
Completion of the online test should be done by individuals and will require about 30 minutes
outside of class. The follow-up questions may be used as a written assignment or as the basis for an
in-class discussion.
III. Follow-Up
After the students have determined their four-letter code, help them to discover their two-letter
personality type based on the following rule. If the student’s code has an “S,” look at the last letter
and choose either “SP” or “SJ.” If the student’s code has an “N,” look at the third letter and choose
either “NT” or “NF.”
Reproduce the following pages for students and hand them out after they have completed the
questionnaire.
Teaching Tip: Point out to students that, as a manager, it is just as important to
understand the personalities of one’s superiors and subordinates as it is to understand
one’s own personality. Therefore, it is useful to learn about every personality type.
A. How easy is to measure personality?

Students will agree that personality is difficult to measure. Some will point out that self-
reported answers to written questions may not reflect one’s true character, either by intent or
ignorance, or do the influence of temporary moods. Also, the interpretation of results depends
on the personality of the interpreter, confusing and diluting the power of the tests. In addition,
some students will see the questions as ambiguous; others may disagree with the four
dimensions of personality used in the Meyers-Briggs test. Finally, students will note that, if an
individual resents or fears the testing, results are unlikely to be accurate.
B. Do you feel that the online test accurately assessed your personality?
C. Why or why not? Share your assessment results and your responses with the class.
Clearly, opinions will vary. Students should not be required to share their individual results if
they do not feel comfortable in doing so. You can point out to students that even if they don’t
agree with the personality test results, the results may nevertheless be accurate. In other words,
you can remind students that we often don’t see a true picture of ourselves.
The following information is adapted from Keirsey, David and Marilyn Bates, Please Understand Me.
Copyright © 1978 by Prometheus Nemesis Book Company.
SP—the “Artisan”
SP’s are likely to be drawn to professions such as athlete, pilot, soldier, police, firefighter, artist,
performer, construction worker, logger, truck driver, corporate raider, entrepreneur, and salesperson.
They live in the moment and thrive on crises. Their word is “Freedom.” They love change for its own
sake, enjoy physical activity and the out-of-doors, and are impulsive and generous. About 38% of the
population of the world are SP’s.
Strengths as a Manager: As managers, SP’s are practical. They observe, identify problems, and suggest
answers quickly. SP managers are adaptable and flexible, and they welcome change. They are in touch
with reality. SP managers are efficient. They are skilled in fixing problems but also in realizing which
battles are not worth fighting.
Weaknesses as a Manager: SP managers want action, not talk, which can lead them to neglect the role
of thoughtfulness and analysis. They may forget past commitments or just decide that they no longer need
to honor those commitments. They can focus too much on the present and lack a long-term vision. To
others, they may seem unpredictable or undisciplined.
SJ—the “Guardian”
SJ’s are likely to be drawn to professions such as teaching, ministry, accounting, management, insurance,
banking, public office holder, nursing, museum management, and historian. They want to preserve
tradition and maintain social order. Their word is “Duty.” They try to be of service to other people and
enjoy security. About 38% of the population of the world are SJ’s.
Strengths as a Manager: SJ managers, above all, value stability. They make decisions easily. They are
excellent writers of policy because they understand how rules and traditions can benefit the organization.
SJ managers are patient, persistent, and careful with details. They follow through on commitments. SJ’s
are orderly, punctual, and use common sense.
Weaknesses as a Manager: SJ managers are impatient with delays. They may make decisions too
quickly, basing their choices on what’s worked in the past, without considering each situation’s unique
circumstances. They are slow to notice changes, they and often preserve policies that are no longer
needed or are ineffective. To others, SJ’s may seem unimaginative or rigid.
NT—the “Rational”
NT’s are likely to be drawn to professions such as scientist, computer scientist, engineering, research,
technical trades, financial analyst, economist, technical writer, architect, and inventor. They are driven to
learn more and gain better skills, and they push themselves until they achieve perfection. Their word is
“Competence.” They enjoy solving problems. About 12% of the population of the world are NT’s.
Strengths as a Manager: NT managers are the architects of change. They are interested in fundamentals,
principles, laws, and systems. They plan and build complex systems and see the relationships between
different elements and decisions. They are equally skilled at long-term and short-term solutions.
Weaknesses as a Manager: NT managers excel at planning but not at implementation. As perfectionists,
they usually feel that their plans are not executed correctly. Their preference for abstraction can cause
NT’s to neglect concrete reality. They set very high standards that can be too challenging from some
workers. NT’s tend to avoid personal relationships at work, which can make the workplace seem cold and
unfriendly to others.
NF—the “Idealist”
NF’s are likely to be drawn to professions such as teaching, ministry, creative writer, mental health
therapist, actor, and physician. They enjoy learning more about themselves and other people. Their word
is “Identity.” They are very sensitive to their own feelings and those of others. About 12% of the
population of the world are NF’s.
Strengths as a Manager: The management style of NF managers relies on charisma. They genuinely
care about their employees, and they communicate this caring effectively. They are enthusiastic and enjoy
bring out the gifts of others. Their organizations tend to be democratic and participative. NF’s are
comfortable with unstructured situations. They are patient but can also respond with a sudden burst of
energy and enthusiasm.
Weaknesses as a Manager: NF managers may spend too much time seeking out and enjoying personal
interaction—to the neglect of the organization’s tasks. They can be immobilized by conflict, not wanting
to displease anyone. NF’s also commit too much and often fail to care for themselves.
Personality Types at Work
Type Strengths Weaknesses Managerial Tasks at Which
You Excel
SP Bold Impatient Responding to crises
Clever Dislikes planning ahead Troubleshooting
Action-orientation Dislikes obeying policy Negotiating
Adaptable Dislikes stability Changing organization
Risk taker Dislikes theory Motivating
Confident Forgetful Risky tasks
Open-minded Unpredictable
Realist
SJ Accurate Rigid Executing plans
Careful Overly traditional Establishing policies
Thorough Resists change Maintaining organization
Responsible Judgmental Making factual decisions
Loyal Pessimist Unpleasant tasks
Hard-working Dislikes delays Repetitious tasks
Common sense Perfectionist
Fair
NT Competent Difficulty communicating Designing organization
Intelligent Assumes others understand Technical tasks
Inventive Not appreciative New businesses or tasks

Handles complexity Dislikes implementation Sharing resources
Efficient Too impersonal Combining ideas
Technical skills High expectations Strategic planning
Visionary designer Too much planning Tasks requiring efficiency
Skeptical
Long-range focus
NF Imaginative Too optimistic, unrealistic Rewarding others
Tactful Over-commits Raising morale
Subtle Lacks follow-through Public relations
People-orientation Easily discouraged Sensitive/ethical tasks
Communication Overly personal Training
Charismatic leader Avoids conflict Participative teams
Democratic Undisciplined
Values diversity
Appreciative
Building Effective Time Management Skills

I. Purpose
This exercise is designed to aid students in seeing the relationship between poor time management
and stress. Students may also gain insight into improving their time-management skills.
II. Format
This time-management exercise is best done individually. It should take about 15–20 minutes,
although some students who take it more seriously may spend much longer completing it.
III. Follow-Up
A. Evaluate the extent to which poor time-management skills on your part play a role in the way
each stressor affects you. Do exams cause stress, for example, because you tend to put off
studying?
B. For each stressor that’s affected by your time management skills, develop a strategy for using
time more efficiently.
C. Note the interrelationships among different kinds of stressors to see if they revolve around
time-related problems. For example, financial pressures may cause you to work, but work may
interfere with school. Can you manage any of these interrelationships more effectively by
managing your time more effectively?
D. How do you typically manage the stress in your life? Can you manage stress is a more time-
effective manner?
Students’ answers will vary a great deal, as each one will notice different areas of poor time
management and different levels of stress. Most students will probably notice that poor time
management is a significant source of stress, and they could be more effective and relaxed
with better time management. Ideas for stress management include relaxation and fun with
friends, exercise, more sleep, frequent breaks from work, and reducing the number of
commitments. Learning to say “No” to undesired tasks can save a great deal of time and can
thus reduce stress.
MANAGEMENT AT WORK
Can’t Get No Job Satisfaction?
The case describes the state of satisfaction found in American workers. Using Gallup polls and survey
results from The Conference Board Job Satisfaction report, shows only about 30 percent of workers are
engaged in their work. The case provides an example of a typical employee and their reasons for
dissatisfaction. Workers appear most dissatisfied with employers’ promotion policies and their bonus
plans.
1. Case Question 1: What about you? If you’re employed, are you (relatively) satisfied or dissatisfied
with your job? If you’re not working (or haven’t yet held down a job), focus on the areas in which
you’re satisfied or dissatisfied with what you are doing (e.g. going to school). Below is a table
listing 22 factors in job satisfaction in order of importance to the U.S. workers surveyed by The
Conference Board.† Create your own list of factors in order of their importance to you at this stage
of your life. Be prepared to discuss the differences between your list and (1) the list below and (2)
the lists drawn up by various classmates.
1. Growth potential 12. Wages

2. Communication channels 13. Training
3. Recognition 14. People at work
4. Performance review 15. Family leave
5. Interest in work 16. Flextime
6. Workload 17. Bonus
7. Work/life balance 18. Sick days
8. Supervisor 19. Vacation
9. Physical environment 20. Pension
10. Promotion policy 21. Health coverage
11. Quality of equipment 22. Commute
Answers will vary from student to student due to the desires and needs of each student.
2. Case Question 2: What about Megan? First, draw up a list of jobs-dissatisfaction factors for
Megan. Second, regard the following as applicable to Megan’s situation:
 She likes the type of work she does and has good relationships with coworkers.
 More than a few of her coworkers are also frustrated by the company’s tight supervision
and demanding work schedule.
 She is a cheerful and positive person.
 She performs well and gets positive feedback because she looks for solutions to problems
rather than dwelling on the negative aspects of things.
What do you think Megan should do? If you think that she should find another job, be prepared to
explain why you think it’s the best move. If you think that she should try to resolve her frustrations
before looking for another job, explain the points that she should try to get across in conversations
with her boss.
Students will vary on their advice for Megan. If they feel Megan should quit her job it may center
around trust and micromanaging. If Megan cannot trust her boss to keep her word, then there may
not be a reason to stay. Her boss is a micromanager and they is unlikely to change in the future. If
they urge Megan to stay and work it out with her boss, students may use the points bulleted above
for Megan to bring up with her boss.
3. Case Question 3: Ilya Pozin, founder of the web-design company Ciplex and contributor to Inc. and
Forbes magazines (and self-confessed “terrible manager”), puts “The Boss Sucks” at the top of his
list of “The Top 10 Reasons People Hate Their Jobs.” “Do you micromanage?” he asks. “Are you a
bad communicator? If you have unhappy employees,” Pozin advises, the first thing you should look
at is your management habits. The next thing to do is actually talk to your employees to get to the
bottom of the problem. Brushing off unhappy employees will damage your company. Get to the
bottom of their troubles before you lose a valuable employee.‡
Would it be fair to apply this criticism to Megan’s manager? What aspects of it apply to her and
which do not? Assuming that she has an inkling of Megan’s dissatisfaction, how would you advise
her to respond to each area of Megan’s frustration? Finally, where did you put “The Boss Sucks” on
your list of job-dissatisfaction factors in Question 1? Does Pozin’s criticism apply to the boss with
whom you are or were dissatisfied? What advice would you offer this boss (assuming, of course,
that you were in a position to do so)?
This criticism applies to Meagan’s boss, a micromanager. Meagan works a difficult schedule and
finding a replacement for her may be difficult. Meagan’s boss should accommodate Meagan’s
request for a weekend off.
4. Case Question 4: Gad Levanon, an economist who coauthored The Conference Board report, writes
the following:
Based on macro trends – including a significantly tighter labor market, slowing productivity growth,
and more business investment – worker satisfaction should be on the rise. But job dissatisfaction
may remain entrenched until we see improvement in worker compensation, which has grown
abysmally in recent years despite historically high corporate profits.**
Levanon is expressing an opinion and making a related prediction. Explain his opinion and his
prediction in your own words. Do you agree or disagree with this opinion and prediction? In
particular, do you expect things to get better economically? Whether you answer yes or no, how do
you see your prospects for getting a job that you’re satisfied with?
Given the nature of this personal question, responses will vary.
† Gad Levanon, “The Determinants of Job Satisfaction,” The Conference Board, June 25, 2013,
www.conference-board.org, on March 7, 2015.
‡ “The Top 10 Reasons People Hate Their Jobs,” Linkedin, July 9, 2013, www.linkedin.com, on
March 3, 2015.
** The Conference Board, “U.S. Workers More Satisfied? Just Barely” (press release), June 18,
2014, www.conference-board.org, on March 4, 2015.

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Management 12e by Ricky W.

A. The Psychological Contract

Discussion Starter: Solicit ideas regarding unusual or novel individual contributions

II. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

Discussion Starter: Ask students to speculate as to how easy or hard it might be to

III. ATTITUDES AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

IV. PERCEPTION AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

2. Stereotyping is the process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single

V. STRESS AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

A. Stress is an individual’s response to a strong stimulus, called a stressor.

VI. CREATIVITY IN ORGANIZATIONS

VII. TYPES OF WORKPLACE BEHAVIOR

Workplace behavior is a pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or

END OF CHAPTER QUESTIONS

Questions for Review

Questions for Analysis

Questions for Application

END OF CHAPTER EXERCISES

Building Effective Interpersonal Skills

A. How easy is to measure personality?

Inventive Not appreciative New businesses or tasks

Building Effective Time Management Skills

1. Growth potential 12. Wages

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