Chapter 2

1) Define personality, describe how it is measured, and explain the factors that determine an
individual’s personality

Personality is a dynamic concept 动态的概念 describing the growth and development of a person’s
whole psychological system 心理系统. The text defines personality as the sum total of ways in which
an individual reacts to and interacts with others.

Managers need to know how to measure personality is that personality tests are useful in hiring
decisions and help managers forecast who is best for a job. The most common means of measuring
personality is through self-report surveys and provide an independent assessment of personality.

Personality determined by: Heredity 遗传? Environment?

Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. 遗传是指那些在受孕时就已

经决定的因素
The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality is the
molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. 遗传方法认为，对一个人性格的最
终解释是基因的分子结构。 个体的个性的最终解释是基因的分子结构。 位于染色体中。
2) Identify and briefly describe what is meant by the "Big Five" personality factors.

 The big Five personality factors are general concepts 一般的概念 or descriptions that
can be used to integrate 整合 the enormous 巨大 number of personality traits 人格特
征 or dimensions 维度 that have been identified by personality researchers 人格研究
者所.
 The Big five personality factors are used to describe an individual’s:
i. Emotional stability/adjustment. Ability of a person to withstand stress 一个
人 承 受 压 力 的 能 力 (stable, confident, effective versus nervous, self-
doubting, moody)
ii. Extraversion 外 向 . Extraversion is a comfort level with relationships
(gregarious, energetic, self-dramatizing versus shy, unassertive, withdrawn)
iii. Conscientiousness 责任心. Measure of reliability. (Careful, neat, dependable
versus impulsive, careless, irresponsible)
iv. Agreeableness 宜人性. Individual’s propensity to defer to others 个人服从
他人的倾向. (Warm, tactful, considerate versus independent, cold, rude)
v. Openness to experience/intellectual openness. Range of interests and
fascination with novelty 兴 趣 范 围 和 对 新 奇 事 物 的 迷 恋 (Imaginative,
curious, original versus dull, unimaginative, literal-minded.)

3) Demonstrate how the Big Five traits predict behavior at work

Emotional stability- Less negative thinking and fewer negative emotions, less hyper-vigilant

•Higher job & life satisfaction, Lower stress levels

Extraversion- Better interpersonal skills, Greater social dominance, More emotionally expressive

•Higher performance, Enhanced leadership, Higher job & life satisfaction

Openness- Increased learning, More creative, More flexible & autonomous

•Training performance, Enhanced leadership, More adaptable to change

Agreeableness- Better liked, More compliant and conforming 合规和符合

• Higher performance, Lower levels of deviant behaviour 越轨行为

Conscientiousness- Greater effort & persistence 坚持, More drive and discipline, Better organized &
planning

•Higher performance, Enhanced leadership, Greater longevity

4) Contrast three component of an attitude

• Attitudes are patterns of feelings, beliefs, and behavioral tendencies 倾向 directed toward
specific people, groups, ideas, issues, or objects.(Def)

• Attitudes have affective (feelings, emotions), cognitive (beliefs, knowledge), and behavioral (a
predisposition 倾向 to act in a particular way) components.

• The relationship between attitudes and behavior isn’t always clear, although important
relationships exist.

Chapter 3

1) Define perception and explain the factors that influence it

Perception 感知 is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions
感官印象 in order to give meaning to their environment.

2)Identify the shortcuts individuals use in making judgments about others

Selective Perception 选择性知觉

Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out will increase the probability that it
will be perceived. It is impossible for us to absord 吸收 everything we see, only certain stimuli can be
taken in.

Contrast Effects 对比效果

Contrast effects occurs when We do not evaluate 评估 a person in isolation 孤立. Our reaction to
one person is influenced by other persons we have recently encountered.

For example, an interview situation in which one sees a pool of job applicants can distort perception.

The Halo Effects 光环效应

The halo effect occurs when we draw a general impression based on a single characteristic. E.g
Jennifer has already presented two excellent reports. The report she has just presented is clearly not
as good as the first two reports, yet she is given the same high grade as before.

Stereotyping 刻板印象

Judging someone based on our perception of the group to which he or she belongs，we are using
the shortcuts called stereotyping. E.g. The teacher believes that men perform better in oral
presentations than women

3)Explain attribution theory 归因理论 and list the three determinants of attribution

Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine
whether it was internally or externally caused.

Internally caused - those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual.

Externally caused - resulting from outside causes.

a) Distinctiveness 独特性-Refers to whether the individual displays different behaviours in different

situations. An employee who does a sloppy job, frequently misses important work datelines, who
arrives late to work on day. his employer is incline to attribute it to internally caused behavior.

b) Consensus 共识 - If everyone faces a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the
behavior shows consensus. If everybody is late for class, there is a tendency to attribute it to
external causes.

c) Consistency 一致性 – The frequency of the person respond the same way over time. If an
employee is report to work late for 3 times a week, there is a higher tendency 倾向 for the
supervisor to attribute it to internal causes

Chapter 4

1)Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is the most well known theory of motivation. He hypothesized
that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs: (See Exhibit 7-1). (ppt 7-5)

 Physiological: Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs
 Safety: Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm
 Social: Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship
 Esteem: Includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement;
and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention
 Self-actualization: The drive to become what one is capable of becoming: includes growth,
achieving one's potential, and self-fulfillment

2. As a need becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. No need is ever fully
gratified: a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates.

3. Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders.

Maslow's need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among managers. Research does
not generally validate the theory.
2. Explain how Job Characteristics Model works as motivations.

The Job Characteristics Model (JCM). JCM proposed that any job may be described by five core job
dimensions

Skill variety 技能多样性 is the degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities, so
the worker can use a number of different skills and talent

Task identify 任务识别 is he degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and
identifiable piece of work.

Task significance 任务的重要性 is the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives
or work of other people

Autonomy 自主性 is the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and
discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in
carrying it out.

And feedback 反馈 is the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results
in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her
performance

The first three dimensions-skill variety, task identity, and task significance combine to create
meaningful work the incumbent will view as important, and worthwhile. From a motivational
standpoint, the JCM proposes that individuals obtain internal rewards when they learn (knowledge
of results) that they personally (experienced responsibility) have performed well on a task they care
about (experienced meaningfulness). Individuals with a high growth need are more likely to
experience the critical psychological states when their jobs are enriched-and respond to them more
positively-than are their counterparts with low growth need

6. Equity theory can be used to explain consequences stemming from differences in pay. Assume
many employees in a department feel underpaid. What do you predict their behavior and
performance to be?

When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices:

 Change their inputs.

 Change their outcomes.
 Distort 扭曲 perceptions of self. 自己的看法。
 Distort 扭曲 perceptions of others. 他人的看法
 Choose a different referent. 参照物
 Leave the field.
Some may reduce their contributions or performance. Others may leave the organization. The other
or comparison person can be changed. Or, the inequity can be rationalized and eventually accepted.
A few workers may even try to alter the companion person's inputs and outputs.

6) Discuss goal-setting theory 标设定理论 and its implications for managers.

 Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work
motivation.
 Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be
expended.
 The evidence strongly supports the value of goals.
 It shows that specific goals increase performance;
 that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals;
 that feedback leads to higher performance than does nonfeedback.

 Managers need to consider the following:

 Specific challenging goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of
"do your best." The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.
 The more challenging the goals, the higher the level of performance.

 However, it's logical to assume that easier goals are more likely to be accepted. But once an
employee accepts a challenging task, he or she will exert a high level of effort until it is
achieved, lowered, or abandoned.

 People will do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their
goals because feedback helps to identify discrepancies between what they have done and
what they want to do; that is, feedback acts to guide behavior.

Goal-setting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the goals, that is, is determined
not to lower or abandon the goal when:

1.the goal is made public

ii. the individual has an internal locus of control

iii. the goal is self-set rather than assigned.

Chapter 5

1) Leaders Use of Power

 Legitimate Power
 Reward Power
 Coercive Power
 Referent Power
 Expert Power

Chapter 6

1. What is organizational culture, and what are its common characteristics?

Organizational culture refers to a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes 区
分 the organization from other organizations.

Innovation and risk taking (Risk Orientation)

 Companies with cultures that place a high value on innovation encourage their employees to
take risks and innovate in the performance of their jobs.

 Companies with cultures that place a low value on innovation expect their employees to do
their jobs the same way that they have been trained to do them, without looking for ways to
improve their performance.

Attention to Detail (Precision Orientation)

 A culture that places a high value on attention to detail expects its employees to perform
their work with precision 精确. A culture that places a low value on attention to detail does
not.
Outcome orientation (Achievement Orientation)

 Companies that focus on results, but not on how the results are achieved, place a high
emphasis on this value of organizational culture.

 A company that instructs its sales force to do whatever it takes to get sales orders has a
culture that places a high value on the emphasis on outcome characteristics.

People orientation (Fairness Orientation)

 Companies that place a high value on this characteristic of organizational culture place a
great deal of importance on how their decisions will affect the people in their organizations.

 For these companies, it is important to treat their employees with respect and dignity.’

Team orientation (Collaboration Orientation)

 Companies that organize work activities around teams instead of individuals place a high
value on this characteristic of the organizational culture.

 People who work for these types of companies tend to have a positive relationship with
their coworkers and managers.

Aggressiveness (Competitive Orientation)

 Companies with an aggressive culture place a high value on competitiveness and

outperforming the competition at all costs.

Stability (Rule Orientation)

 A company whose culture places a high value on stability is rule-oriented, predictable, and
bureaucratic in nature. These types of companies typically provide consistent and
predictable levels of output and operate best in non-changing market conditions.
 2. Can an organisation’s culture be a liability/problem? How?
 Institutionalization
 Barriers to change
 Barriers to Diversity
 Barriers to Acquisitions and Mergers

3. Identify the factors that create and sustain an organization’s culture 确定创造和维
持组织文化的因素

Culture creation occurs in three ways:

 Founders hire employees who feel the way they do.
 Employees are instill and socialized into the founders’ way of thinking.
 Founders’ behaviors act as role models.

Sustain Through Selection

The explicit goal of the selection process is to identify and hire individuals with the knowledge, skills,
and abilities to perform successfully.

Top Management

The actions of top management also have a major impact on the organization’s culture.

Chapter 7

1) Define stress

Stress is defined as a dynamic condition 动态条件 in which an individual is face 面对 with an

opportunity, constraint 约束, or demand related to what he or she desires 希望 and for which the
outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important 认为既不确定又重要。.

2) Identify the consequences 后果 of stress

Consequences of Stress-Physiological Symptoms 生理症状

 Most early concern 关注 with stress was directed 针对 at physiological symptoms because
most researchers were specialists in the health and medical sciences.
 Research has found profound effect of stress on physical aspects
 E.g Headaches, high blood pressure, heart disease

Consequences of Stress-Psychological Symptoms 心理学症状

 Job-related stress and job-related dissatisfaction.

 Job dissatisfaction is “the simplest and most obvious 明显 psychological effect” of stress.
 Multiple and conflicting demands increase stress and dissatisfaction.
  The less control people have over the pace of their work, the greater the stress and
dissatisfaction.
 E.g. Anxiety 焦虑， Depression 沮丧，Decrease in job satisfaction

Consequences of Stress-Behavioral Symptoms 行为症状

 Behavior-related stress symptoms include reductions in productivity, absence, and turnover,

as well as changes in eating habits, increased smoking or consumption of alcohol, rapid
speech, fidgeting, and sleep disorders.

Chapter 8

1) Basic Types of Intrapersonal Conflict 个人内部冲突

 Approach-approach conflict
- "Approach-approach" conflict describes the situation where a person is trying to
make a choice between two desirable 理想 options. For example, a student wishes
to pursue a graduate degree and has been accepted into two graduate programs
and needs to decide about which one to attend.

 Avoidance-avoidance conflict
-This conflict involves choosing between undesirable alternatives or outcomes in which a
person tends to avoid. For example, choosing between a lower salary at work or
unemployment.

 Approach-avoidance conflict
-A situation involving a single goal or option that has both desirable and undesirable aspects
or consequences. For example, deciding to accept a dream job that pay less.

2) Interpersonal Conflict 人际冲突

Happen when perception that attitudes, behaviors, or preferred goals are in opposition

Role - the function assumed or part played by a person or thing in a particular situation.
 Role set - describes various roles and relationships as a consequence of a person's societal
status. A role set can include connected behaviors, rights, obligations, norms, and beliefs as
actualized in social situations by people.

Role conflict - refers to the psychological effect of the situation when role expectations
pressure a person to take on different behaviors. Occurs when the statuses and roles
someone occupies contain simultaneous, completing, or contradictory expectations.

3) Types of Role Conflict

1. Intrasender Conflict 发送者内部冲突: This type of conflict occurs when a role sender requires a
role receiver (i.e., the focal person) to perform contradictory or inconsistent roles. For example, a
role sender may request the role receiver to do something that cannot be done without violating a
rule, yet the role sender attempts to enforce the rule.

2. Intersender Conflict 发送者间冲突 : A role receiver experiences this type of conflict if the role
behavior demanded by one role sender is incongruent with the role behavior demanded by another
role sender(s). A person who often experiences role conflict, for example, is a foreman, who receives
instruction from a general foreman that may be inconsistent with the needs and expectations of the
workers under the former.

3. Inter-role Conflict 角色间冲突: •.This type of conflict occurs when an individual occupies two or
more roles whose expectations are inconsistent. A corporation president is expected, in that role, to
take part in social engagements to promote the image of the corporation. This may conflict with his
or her role as a parent, in which he or she is expected to spend more time with his or her children to
be an ideal parent.

4. Intra-role (Person-Role) Conflict 角色内（人-角色）冲突: •.This type of role conflict occurs when
the role requirements are incongruent with the focal person’s attitudes, values, and professional
behavior. For example, intrarole conflict occurs when an organizational member is required to enter
into price-fixing conspiracies, which are not congruent with the person's ethical standard.

4) Intragroup Conflict 团体内部冲突

Disputes among some or all of a group’s members, which often affect a group’s dynamics and
effectiveness. Often a problem in family-run businesses among family members

4. Discuss any three of the four sources of intergroup conflict and provide an example
of each.
 Chapter 9
1) Simple Structure

A structure characterized by a low degree of departmentalization 结构 部门化, wide spans of

control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization 很少正规化.

2) Identify the characteristics of a bureaucracy 官僚机构

A bureaucracy is characterized by:

 Highly routine operating tasks. 高度常规的操作任务。

 Very formalized rules and regulations. 非常正式的规章制度。
 Tasks grouped into functional departments. 任务分组到职能部门。
 Centralized authority. 中央集权。
 Narrow spans of control. 控制范围缩小
 Decision-making that follows the chain of Command. 遵循指挥链的决策制定

 Its primary strength 主要优势 is in its ability to perform standardized activities 标准化活动
in a highly efficient manner.
 Weaknesses include subunit conflicts, unit goals dominate, obsessive behavior, covering
weak management.
 The bureaucracy is efficient only as long as employees confront familiar problems with
programmed decision rules.

3) Describe a matrix organization 矩阵组织

The Matrix Structure
 It combines two forms of departmentalization—functional and product:
 The strength of functional is putting specialists together.

 Product departmentalization facilitates coordination.

 It provides clear responsibility for all activities related to a product, but with duplication of
activities and costs.

4) Explain the difference between the mechanistic model and the organic
model of organizational structure.
The Mechanistic Model

 High specialization 高度专业化

 Rigid departmentalization 僵化的部门化
 Clear chain of command 清晰的指挥系统
 Narrow spans of control
 Centralization
 High formalization 高度正规化

The Organic Model

 Cross-functional teams 跨职能的团队

 Cross-hierarchical teams 跨层级的团队
 Free flow of information 信息的自由流动。
 Wide spans of control
 Decentralization
 Low formalization 低正式化

5） Identify the characteristics of a virtual organization

 It is a borderless 边界 organization, located in Cyberspace 网络空间

 Geographically spread 地理分布
 Interchangeable 可互换 partners given a similar business culture
 A combination of complementary 互补 resources to accomplish a specific goal
 Spread power amongst the partners
 Electronic communication through ICT

ADV：Provide maximum flexibility while concentrating 集中精力 on what the organization does
best

DIS: Reduce managements control over key part of the business