Personality

Personality is not just an attitude towards life or how a person is but is defined as a dynamic
concept describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system.
The definition for personality given by Gordon Allport is “the dynamic organization within
the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to
his environment.” Personality is basically the sum total number of ways in which a person
reacts to and interacts with others.
Measuring personality is important to find the right person for the job. Personality tests are
used. Evaluation is done on various factors.
Personality determinants - personality can be determined by mainly two factors-
Heredity and the environment. Heredity refers to factors determined during conception.
Physical stature, facial structure, etc. heredity approach explains that the personality of a
person is based on the molecular structure of his/her genes. The environment on the other
hand explains that a person’s personality is influenced by the environment he exists. The
people he interacts with, his surrounding physical environment.,

Personality traits are enduring characteristics of a person

Myers-Briggs type indicators- most widely used performance assessment tool. It is a 100-
question personality test about how a person feels in a particular situation. Respondents
are classified as extraverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N),
thinking or feeling (T or F), and judging or perceiving (J or P).
Extraverted (E) versus Introverted (I). Extraverted individuals are outgoing,
sociable, and assertive. Introverts are quiet and shy.
● Sensing (S) versus Intuitive (N). Sensing types are practical and prefer
routine and order. They focus on details. Intuitive relies on unconscious
processes and looks at the “big picture.”
● Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F). Thinking types use reason and logic to handle
problems. Feeling types rely on their personal values and emotions.
● Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P). Judging types want to control and prefer their
world to be ordered and structured. Perceiving types are flexible and
spontaneous.
MBTI lacks strong supporting evidence.
Research supports the thesis of the Big Five Model
i. Extraversion – It captures the comfort level of relationships. Extroverts tend to
be assertive and sociable whereas introverts tend to be reserved and quiet.
 ii. Agreeableness – It refers to an individual’s propensity to defer to others. Highly
agreeable people are cooperative, and warm whereas people with low agreeable
nature are cold and antagonistic.
iii. Conscientiousness – It is a measure of reliability. A highly conscientious person is
responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent whereas a person with a
negative score in this measure tends to be distracted and unreliable.
iv. Emotional Stability – It measures an individual’s ability to withstand stress.
People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and
secure whereas those with a high negative score in this dimension tend to be
nervous, anxious, and depressed.
v. Openness to experience – This dimension addresses a range of interests and
fascination with novelty. Extremely open people are creative, curious, and
artistically sensitive whereas the opposite is conventional and find comfort in
familiarity.

The big five traits play an important role when comes to work behavior. Research has found
relationships between these personality dimensions and job performance.
Other traits-
Core Self-Evaluation People who have positive core self-evaluations like
themselves and see themselves as effective, capable, and in control of them
environment. People with positive core self-evaluations
perform better than others because they set more ambitious goals, are more
committed to their goals and persist longer in attempting to reach these goals.
The personality characteristic of Machiavellianism (often abbreviated Mach)
is named after Niccolò Machiavelli, who wrote in the sixteenth century on how
to gain and use power. An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic,
maintains emotional distance, and believes ends can justify means (Basically looks for logic
and is pragmatic).
Narcissism
It describes a person who has a grandiose sense of self-importance, requires
excessive admiration has a sense of entitlement and is arrogant.
Self-Monitoring-Self-monitoring refers to an individual’s ability to adjust his or her
behavior to external, situational factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring show
considerable adaptability in adjusting their behavior to external situational
factors.
Risk-taking - a person’s willingness to take chances.
Proactive personality - Proactive personality identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes
action, and perseveres until meaningful change occurs, compared to others who passively
react to situations. Proactive creates positive change in their environment, regardless of, or
even in spite of, constraints or obstacles.
Other orientation - Some people just naturally seem to think about other people
a lot, being concerned about their well-being and feelings.

LEADERSHIP
LEADERSHIP CAN BE DEFINED AS THE ABILITY TO INFLUENCE A GROUP TOWARD
ATTAINING A COMMON GOAL. The source of this influence may be
formal, such as that provided by managerial rank in an organization. But
not all leaders are managers, nor, for that matter, are all managers leaders.
Non-sanctioned leadership
the ability to influence that arises outside the formal structure of the
organization—is often as important or more important than formal influence.
In other words, leaders can emerge from within a group as well as by
formal appointment.
Trait theory- traits used as predictors of leadership.
Extraversion is the most important trait of effective leaders, 5 but it is more strongly
related to the way leaders emerge than to their effectiveness. Sociable and dominant
people are more likely to assert themselves in group situations, but leaders need to make
sure they’re not too assertive.
Unlike agreeableness and emotional stability, conscientiousness and openness to
experience also showed strong relationships to leadership, though not quite as strong as
extraversion. One reason is that conscientiousness and extraversion are positively related
to leaders’ self-efficacy, which explained most of the variance in subordinates’ ratings of
leader performance. Emotional intelligence is also an imp trait.

Behavioral theories- behavioral theories of leadership implied we could train

people to be leaders. The two most substantial dimensions are-
Initiating structure is the extent to which a leader is likely to define and
structure his or her role and those of employees in the search for goal attainment. attempts
to organize work, work relationships, and goals. performance,” and “emphasizes the
meeting of deadlines.”

Consideration is the extent to which a person’s job relationships are characterized

by mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas, and regard for their
feelings.
Employee-oriented leader - A leader who emphasizes interpersonal relations, takes a
personal interest in the needs of employees and accepts individual differences among
members.
Theories of leadership
 The Fiedler’s model- the first comprehensive contingency model for
leadership. The Fiedler contingency model proposes that effective group
performance depends on the proper match between the leader’s style and the
the degree to which the situation gives the leader control.
Identifying Leadership Style Fiedler believes a key factor in leadership success
is the individual’s basic leadership style. He created the least preferred co-worker
(LPC) questionnaire to identify that style by measuring whether a person is a task
or relationship oriented.
Leader-member Exchange
Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory argues that, because of time pressures, leaders
establish a special relationship with a small group of their followers. These individuals make
up the ingroup, they are trusted, get a disproportionate amount of the leader’s attention,
and are more likely to receive special privileges. Leader categorizes either as in or out.
Charismatic Leadership - based on some features that are mostly physical, leaders tend to
influence the people around them. Charismatic leaders can be born and made.

Transformational Leadership –
Transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their self-interests for the good of
the organization and can have an extraordinary effect on their followers. They pay attention
to the concerns and needs of individual followers; they change followers’ awareness of
issues by helping them look at old problems in new ways, and they excite and inspire
followers to put out extra effort to achieve group goals.
Transactional and transformational leadership complement each other. Transformational
leadership builds on transactional leadership and produces levels of follower effort and
performance beyond what transactional leadership alone can do. Transformational leaders
are more effective because they are more creative, but also because they encourage those
who follow them to be creative, too. The personal nature of transformational leadership
may be most effective when leaders can directly interact with the workforce and make
decisions than when they report to an external board of directors or deal with a complex
bureaucratic structure.

Servant leadership- Servant leaders go beyond their own self-interest and

focus on opportunities to help followers grow and develop. They don’t use power to
achieve their goals but use persuasion. Characteristic behaviors include listening,
empathizing, persuading, accepting stewardship, and actively developing followers’
potential. Servant leadership may be more prevalent and more effective in certain cultures.
Attribution theory - The attribution theory of leadership says leadership is merely an
attribution people make about other individuals. We attribute various elements of a leader
such as intelligence, outgoing personality, strong verbal skills, aggressiveness,
understanding, and industriousness. Attribution theory suggests what’s important is
projecting the appearance of being a leader rather than focusing on actual
accomplishments. Leader-wannabes who can shape the perception that they’re smart,
personable, verbally adept, aggressive, hardworking, and consistent in their style can
increase the probability that their bosses, colleagues, and employees will view them as
effective leaders.

Creative leadership is a style of leadership based on the concept of working cooperatively

to develop innovative ideas. Those who employ creative leadership tend to do so by
creating conditions that promote creativity. Creating such conditions, which are sometimes
called "supportive contributions", are described as psychological, material, and/or social
supports that trigger, enable, and sustain creative thinking in others.
Maverick Style of leadership - Maverick leaders have a capacity to see the bigger picture,
they recognize where a change in the 'system' could bring about a greater collective good.
They are driven by a personal belief that not only propels them to take action but also
motivates them when they encounter resistance or obstacles.
Transactional leadership theory (1947): bases leadership on a system of rewards
and punishments depending on the performance of the followers

Styles of leadership
• Coercive leader: This style of leadership demands strict compliance and high performance
immediately and without question. The phrase “do what I tell you” Describes this style of
leadership the best.
• Pace-setting leader: This style of leadership presents the ability of the leader as an
example of how the job should be done.
• Coaching leader: This style of leadership focuses on individuals, often placing team
members’ personal, and professional goals ahead of the company’s mission
• Democratic leader: This style of leadership achieves consensus by allowing the team to
voice their opinions in decision-making.
• Affiliative leader: strengthens bonds between people within an organization, often with
an ability to enhance a feeling of belongingness.
• Authoritative leader: gets people to understand and believe in a common vision or goal,
offering clear and inspiring directions to team members. This is a visionary leader.

CHANGE
Change can be planned or unplanned. People in an organization responsible for change are
called change agents. Resistance to change can be positive if it leads to an open discussion
and debate. When they treat resistance only as a threat, rather than a point of view to be
discussed, they may increase dysfunctional conflict. The method for overcoming resistance
is education and communication, participation, building support, develop positive
relationships.

Lewin’s three-step model

Unfreezing -> Movement -> Refreezing
Kurt Lewin argued that successful change in organizations should follow
three steps: unfreezing the status quo, movement to the desired end state, and
refreezing the new change to make it permanent.
To move from equilibrium—to overcome the pressures of both individual resistance and
group conformity— unfreezing must happen in one of three ways. The driving forces, which
direct behavior away from the status quo, can be increased. The restraining forces, which
hinder movement away from equilibrium, can be decreased or combined with the first two
approaches.

Kotter’s eight-step model

Built on Lewin’s three-step model. Started by making a list of mistakes that managers
make. They may fail to create a sense of urgency about the need for change, to create a
coalition for managing the change process, to have a vision for change and effectively
communicate it, to remove obstacles that could impede the vision’s achievement, to
provide short-term and achievable goals, and to anchor the changes into the organization’s
culture. They may also declare victory too soon. Kotter then established eight sequential
steps to overcome these problems.
1. Establish a sense of urgency by creating a compelling reason for why change is needed.
2. Form a coalition with enough power to lead the change.
3. Create a new vision to direct the change and strategies for achieving the vision.
4. Communicate the vision throughout the organization.
5. Empower others to act on the vision by removing barriers to change and encouraging
Risk-taking and creative problem-solving.
6. Plan for, create and reward short-term “wins” that move the organization toward the
new vision.
7. Consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make necessary adjustments in the
new programs.
8. Reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship between new behaviors and
organizational success.

Motivation
We define motivation as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction,
and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. While general motivation is concerned
with an effort toward any goal, we’ll narrow the focus on organizational goals in order to
reflect our singular interest in work-related behavior.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs -
1. Physiological. Including hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
2. Safety. Security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
3. Social. Affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
4. Esteem. Internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement, and external
factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
5. Self-actualization. Drive to become what we are capable of becoming; includes growth,
achieving our potential, and self-fulfillment.

Maslow provided no empirical substantiation, and several studies that sought to validate it
found no support for it. There is little evidence that needs structures are organized as
Maslow proposed, that unsatisfied needs motivate, or that a satisfied need activates
movement to a new need level. But old theories, especially intuitively logical ones,
apparently die hard. (The need structure may not be what he proposed and that unsatisfied
needs lead to motivation or that only a satisfied need leads to the movement to the next
level.)
McGregor(X&Y)- Under Theory X, managers believe employees inherently dislike work and
must therefore be directed or even coerced into performing it. Under Theory Y, in contrast,
managers assume employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play,
and therefore, the average person can learn to accept, and even seek, responsibility.
Two-factor theory - According to Herzberg, the factors that lead to job satisfaction are
separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers
who seek to eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace, but
not necessarily motivation.
hygiene factors Factors—such as company policy and administration, supervision, and
salary—that, when adequate in a job, placate workers.
When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied.
To motivate people, you need factors such as motivators that people find rewarding such
as recognition, etc.

Criticism-

1. Herzberg’s methodology is limited because it relies on self-reports. When

things are going well; people tend to take credit. Contrarily, they blame
failure on the extrinsic environment.
2. The reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questionable. Raters have to
make interpretations, so they may contaminate the findings by interpreting
one response in one manner while treating a similar response differently.
3. No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized. A person may dislike part of
a job yet still thinks the job is acceptable overall.
4. Herzberg assumed a relationship between satisfaction and productivity,
but he looked only at satisfaction. To make his research relevant, we must
assume a strong relationship between satisfaction and productivity.

McClelland’s Theory of Needs:

 Developed by David McClelland, it looks at three needs:
1. Need for Achievement: Drive to excel, to achieve for setting standards
2. Need for Power: To make others behave in a way that they would not have
3. Need for Affiliation: Desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.
Refer to Page no. 208 in Stephen Robbins 15th edition PDF for further elaboration.
Contemporary theories:
Self-Determination Theory – This theory proposes that people prefer to feel they have
control over their actions, so anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like
an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation. Much more
evaluation of this theory led to cognition evaluation theory which states that extrinsic
rewards will reduce intrinsic interest in a task.
Goal Setting Theory – This theory assumes that an individual is committed to the goal and
determined not to lower or abandon it. The individual (1) believes he/she can achieve the
goal and (2) wants to achieve it.
Refer to Page no. 213 in Stephen Robbins 15th edition PDF for further elaboration.
Expectancy theory (victor vroom)- to work toward a goal is a major source of work
motivation. That is, goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is
needed. Evidence strongly suggests that specific goals increase performance; those difficult
goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals; and that feedback
leads to higher performance than non-feedback. Specific goals produce a higher level of
output than the generalized goal since they act as an internal stimulus. People do better
when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals because it
helps identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do—that
is, feedback guides behavior. The goal-setting theory assumes an individual is committed to
the goal and determined not to lower or abandon it.
Implementing Goal-Setting As a manager, how do you make goal-setting
Is theory operational? That’s often left up to the individual. Some managers set aggressive
performance targets some don’t. A more systematic way to utilize goal-setting is with
management by objectives (MBO), which emphasizes participatively set goals that are
tangible, verifiable, and measurable.

Expectancy theory - Expectancy theory argues that the strength of our tendency to act a
certain way depends on the strength of our expectation of a given outcome and its
attractiveness. Employees will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe
it will lead to a good performance appraisal; that a good appraisal will lead to
organizational rewards such as bonuses, salary increases, or promotions; and that the
rewards will satisfy the employees’ personal goals. The theory assumes 3 relationships
1. Effort–performance relationship. The probability perceived by the individual
that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.
2. Performance–reward relationship. The degree to which the individual
 believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a
desired outcome.
3. Rewards–personal goals relationship. The degree to which organizational
rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness
of those potential rewards for the individual.

Lawler and porter- The Porter and Lawler theory of motivation is based on the assumption
that rewards cause satisfaction and that sometimes performance produces a reward. They
hypothesize that the relationship between satisfaction and performance is linked to
another variable rewards. They see good performance as leading to rewards which lead to
satisfaction. It is a multi-variable model and explains the complexities of the relationship
between motivation, performance, and satisfaction. They argue that satisfaction does not
always lead to performance. Rather the reverse is true because people can become
complacent after having achieved satisfaction once. On the other hand, performance can
lead to satisfaction if the reward systems are effective

The theory proposed two types of reward:

1. Intrinsic Rewards: Intrinsic rewards are given to an individual by himself for good
performance. They include feelings of accomplishment and satisfaction with higher-level
needs as defined by Maslow. Intrinsic rewards are directly related to good performance
only if the job structure is varied and challenging so an individual can reward himself if he
feels he has performed well.
2. Extrinsic Rewards: The organization gives extrinsic rewards and mainly satisfies lower-level
needs. They include such things as pay, promotion, status, and job security. Extrinsic
rewards are the weekly connection to performance

Kohlberg’s model of Moral Development

 Based on Jean Piaget’s theory of moral judgment for children (1932), Lawrence Kohlberg
developed a comprehensive model of moral development in 1958.
 This theory focused on the thinking process that occurs when one decides whether a
behavior is wrong or right. It is very cognitive in nature. The emphasis is on how one
 decides to respond to a moral dilemma, not what one decides or what one actually
does.
 The framework for this theory consisted of three general levels of moral development
which were further divided into six stages. The three levels were the pre-conventional
level, Conventional Level, and Post-conventional Level.

 Pre-conventional Level – In this level, morality is externally controlled. Rules imposed by

authoritative figures are conformed to in order to avoid punishment or receive rewards.
i. Obedience and punishment – The child is motivated to avoid punishment and has
little or no independent moral reasoning.
ii. Individualism and exchange – Individuals are focused on fulfilling their own self-
interests while acknowledging that different people have different views.
 Conventional Level – In this level, conformity to social rules remains important to the
individual. Emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships with other people and
social systems.
i. Maintaining interpersonal relationships – At this stage, individuals emphasize the
importance of being kind to other people, engaging in “good” behavior, and
showing concern for others. This stage includes a strong emphasis on gaining
approval.
ii. Law and order – The individual is determined to obey the rules, focusing on the value
that the law adds to human life. A person at this stage might argue that breaking
 the law is wrong because the law is designed to protect people. Individuals focus
on maintaining the social order and upholding cultural norms.
 Post-Conventional Level – In this level, the individual moves beyond the perspective of
his or her own society. The individual attempts to take the perspective of all individuals.
i. Social contract – People at this stage of development focus on doing what is best for
society as a whole and respecting individual rights. Civil disobedience would be
endorsed by people in both stages of post-conventional morality.
ii. Universal principles – At this stage, individuals are focused on upholding principles of
universal justice, fairness, and ethics. They believe in the democratic process, but
also endorse disobeying unjust laws.

PERCEPTION
Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. What we perceive can be
substantially different from what reality is.
Physical perception is the process of gathering and interpreting information about physical
objects. This process is relatively objective because the physical environment is stable.
Social perception is the process of gathering, selecting, and interpreting information about
how we view ourselves and others. Because information about people is often subjective
and open to interpretation and because people change in response to many different
situations.

Factors that affect perception-

In the perceiver- attitudes, motives, interests, experience, expectations
Factors in the situation- time, work setting, social setting
Factors in the target- novelty, motion, sounds

Three stages of perception-

Social perception is multi-stage and has mainly 3 stages to it

 Attention stage- The first stage of the social perception process involves paying attention
to signals from the environment. The attention stage involves the selection of stimuli,
cues, and signals to which we will pay attention. It is in the attention stage of perception
that we consciously and unconsciously select various social cues to which we pay
attention. We filter out some information and allow other cues to enter the perceptual
process. The filtering is called a perceptual filter and works on selective attention.

 Organisation stage- The second stage of the social perception process is organization.
During this stage, we organize the information that the perceptual filter allowed during
the attention stage. We group the information into an orderly and useful whole. We
 assign the new information to categories that are familiar to us. We create relationships
among the various parts and put them in bundles and chunks that we can remember.

 Interpretation and judgement stage-In the third part of social perception, the
interpretation and judgment stage, we clarify and translate the information we have
organized so we can decide on its meaning. Through interpretation, we also make a
judgment or form an opinion about the event or the person. Through judgment, we
decide the cause of the behavior.

Attribution theory- Attribution theory tries to explain the ways in which we judge people
differently, depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior. It suggests that
when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was
internally or externally caused. That determination, however, depends largely on three
factors: (1) distinctiveness, (2) consensus, and (3) consistency. First, let’s clarify the
differences between internal and external causation, and then we’ll elaborate on each of
the three determining factors.

Internally caused behaviors are those we believe to be under the personal control of the
individual. Externally caused behavior is what we imagine the situation forced the individual
to do.

Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual display different behaviors in different

situations.
If everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the
behavior shows consensus.
Finally, an observer looks for consistency in a person’s actions

Shortcuts for judging people

Selective perception-Any characteristic that makes a person, an object, or an event stand
out will increase the probability we will perceive it.

Halo Effect When we draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single
characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance, a halo effect is operating.

Stereotyping When we judge someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which
he or she belongs, we are using a shortcut called stereotyping.

Application of shortcuts in organizations

Employment Interview Few people are hired without an interview. But interviewers make
perceptual judgments that are often inaccurate 20 and draw early impressions that quickly
become entrenched.

Performance Expectations People attempt to validate their perceptions of reality even

when these are faulty. 23 The terms self-fulfilling prophecy and Pygmalion effect describe
how an individual’s behavior is determined by others’ expectations.

Performance evaluation-that they very much depend on the perceptual process. An

employee’s future is closely tied to the appraisal—promotion, pay raises, and continuation
of employment are among the most obvious outcomes.

Group and teams

A group is two or more people who interact in some organized manner to perform a task
or activity to achieve a common goal.
Types of groups-
Formal- Formal groups have required, prescribed goals and form to satisfy an
organizational need.
Informal-Informal groups are not required by an organization. They exist because of the
members' common interests, social ties, or friendships. While formal groups are generally
related to work, informal groups typically focus on social interaction.
The distinction between formal and informal groups is not always clear. Many formal
groups have informal functions and many informal groups become formal.
We join groups for two main reasons. First, we join groups to help satisfy individual needs
and reinforce our sense of identity. People need others to help meet their own needs.
Stages of group formation-
Forming - The first stage, forming stage, is characterized by a great deal of uncertainty
about the group’s purpose, structure, and leadership. Members “test the waters”
to determine what types of behaviors are acceptable. This stage is complete when
members have begun to think of themselves as part of a group.
Storming is one intragroup conflict. Members accept the existence of the group but resist
the constraints it imposes on individuality. There is conflict over who will control the group.
When this stage is complete, there will be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership within
the group.
Norming- In the third stage, close relationships develop and the group demonstrates
cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie.
This norming stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the group has
assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct member behavior.
Performing- The fourth stage is performing. The structure at this point is fully functional
and accepted. Group energy has moved from getting to know and understand
each other to perform the task at hand.
For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in development.
Adjourning- the adjourning stage is for wrapping up activities and preparing to disband.

The difference between a team and a workgroup lies in the performance results. A working
group’s performance is a function of what its members do as individuals. A team’s
performance includes both individual and collective efforts. Teamwork represents joint
collaboration and results that are achieved by working together. A team is shared
leadership but the group has a defined one. Group has individual accountability & a team
has individual and mutual accountability. Groups’ purpose is the same as organisation, a
team has a specific purpose.

Emotional intelligence (EI)

The ability to detect and manage emotional cues and information.

Cases for EI
Intuitive Appeal Almost everyone agrees it is good to possess social intelligence.
Intuition suggests people who can detect emotions in others, control their own emotions,
and handle social interactions well have a powerful leg up in the business world.

EI Predicts Criteria That Matter Evidence suggests a high level of EI means a person will
perform well on the job.
EI is genetically influenced, further supporting the idea that it measures a real underlying
biological factor.

Cases against EI
EI Researchers Do Not Agree on Definitions To many researchers, it’s not clear what EI is
because researchers use different definitions of the construct.
EI Can’t Be Measured Many critics have raised questions about measuring EI. Because EI is
a form of intelligence, they argue, there must be right and wrong answers for it on tests.
Some tests do have right and wrong answers, although the validity of some questions is
doubtful.
EI Is Nothing but Personality with a Different Label Some critics argue that because EI is so
closely related to intelligence and personality, once you control for these factors, it has
nothing unique to offer.

OB application of EI
Selection- employers should consider it as a factor in hiring employees, especially in jobs
that demand a high degree of social interaction.
Decision making- more to do with positive mood and how it affects decision-making in a
positive way.
Creativity- People in good moods tend to be more creative than people in bad moods. They
produce more ideas and more options, and others think their ideas are original.
Motivation, Leadership, Negotiation, and Job attitude.
OB
Organizations are groups of two or more people who cooperate and coordinate their
activities in a systematic manner to reach their goals. Organizational behavior (OB) is the
study of how people behave in organizations as individuals and as teams and how
organizations structure human resources (their employees and managers) to achieve their
goals. The purpose of OB is to understand people in organizations, provide practitioners
and managers with the tools to manage people more effectively, and help organizations
achieve their goals.

Fields of OB
 Managing individual differences to achieve performance
 Motivating employees
 Managing teams
 Using the power and leading people and organizations
 Decision making
 Communicating inside and outside the organization
 Managing conflict and negotiating
 Implementing change.

Related management fields

Organization theory- Organization Theory (OT) is the study of organizational processes at
the macro level of analysis. The goal is to understand the organization from a broader
perspective. OT includes topics such as organizational environment, design and structure,
and control systems. It also includes topics that we study in OB: conflict, change, decision-
making, and power and politics.
Human resource management-Human Resource Management (HRM, also known as
personnel management) deals with the procedural, technical, and legal aspects of
employee recruiting, placement, training, evaluation, and development.
Strategic Management-Strategic Management (also called a business policy) focuses on
how upper management sets the general course for the business and uses human,
Fields that contribute to OB
Psychology-Psychology has perhaps the first influence on the field of organizational
behavior because it is a science of behavior. A psychologist studies almost all aspects of
behavior. Psychology deals with studying human behavior that seeks to explain and
sometimes change the behavior of humans and other animals. Psychologists are primarily
interested in predicting the behavior of individuals to a great extent by observing the
dynamics of personal factors. Those who have contributed and continued to add to the
knowledge of OB are teaching theorists, personality theorists, counseling psychologists, and
primary, industrial and organizational psychologists.

Sociology-The major focus of sociologists is on studying the social systems in which

individuals fill their roles. The focus is on group dynamics. They have made their greatest
contribution to OB through their study of group behavior in organizations, particularly
formal and sophisticated organizations. Sociological concepts, theories, models, and
techniques help significantly to understand better group dynamics, organizational culture,
formal organization theory and structure, corporate technology, bureaucracy,
communications, power, conflict, and intergroup behavior. Psychologists are primarily
interested in focusing their attention on individual behavior.

Anthropology- The main aim of anthropology is to acquire a better understanding of the

relationship between human beings and the environment. Adaptations to surroundings
constitute culture. The manner in which people view their surroundings is a part of the
culture. Culture includes those ideas shared by groups of individuals and languages by
which these ideas are communicated. In essence, culture is a system of learned behavior.
Much of our current understanding, environments, and differences between national
cultures are the results of the work of anthropologists or those using their methodologies.

Political sciences-Contributions of political scientists are significant to the understanding of

behavior in organizations. Political scientists study the behavior of individuals and groups
within a political environment. They contribute to understanding the dynamics of power
centres, structuring of conflict and conflict resolution tactics, allocation of power, and how
people manipulate power for individual self-interest.

Economics-Economics contributes to organizational behavior to a great extent in designing

the organizational structure. Transaction cost economics influence the organization and its
structure. This transaction cost economics examines the extent to which the organization
structure and size of an organization vary in response to attempts to avoid market failures
by minimizing production and transaction costs within the constraints of human and
environmental factors.

Managerial roles-Managers have several formal functions. The four key roles are:

Planning-Planning is the process of setting goals and deciding how to allocate resources to
achieve those goals.

Organizing is the process of assigning tasks, establishing procedures, and setting deadlines
to reach goals

Leading is the third managerial function. It involves motivating and encouraging employees
to perform their assigned work on schedule, helping them resolve conflict, and ensuring
that they coordinate their efforts to achieve the organization's goals.

Controlling is the process of monitoring, measuring, and evaluating employees'

performance based on set goals.

Managerial Roles-Roles are predetermined sets of behaviors, tasks, and actions that
managers are expected to perform.

Interpersonal roles- are those in which managers communicate with employees and peers.
Performing ceremonial duties. To motivate employees to achieve set goals.

Informational roles- focus on managers as the centre of information for the organization.
Decisional roles- Makes decisions about changes in the organization

Attitude

Attitudes are evaluative statements—either favorable or unfavorable—about objects,

people, or events. They reflect how we feel about something.

Components of attitude-

Cognitive component-a description of or belief in the way things are.

Affective component-Affect is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude and is

reflected in the statement

Behavioral- of an attitude describes an intention to behave in a certain way toward

someone or something.