Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49 – 67

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Geochemistry, petrology and origin of Neoproterozoic

ironstones in the eastern part of the Adelaide Geosyncline,
South Australia
B.G. Lottermoser a,*, P.M. Ashley b
a
School of Earth Sciences, James Cook Uni6ersity, P.O. Box 6811, Cairns, Qld 4870, Australia
b
Di6ision of Earth Sciences, Uni6ersity of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia

Received 31 March 1999; accepted 19 November 1999

Abstract

The eastern part of the Adelaide Geosyncline contains well preserved glaciomarine sequences of the Sturtian
glaciation ( :750–700 Ma) including calcareous or dolomitic siltstone, manganiferous siltstone, dolostone and
diamictite units and the associated Braemar ironstone facies. The ironstone facies occurs as matrix to diamictites and
as massive to laminated ironstones and comprises abundant Fe oxides (hematite, magnetite) and quartz, minor
silicates (muscovite, chlorite, biotite, plagioclase, tourmaline), carbonate and apatite, and detrital mineral grains and
lithic clasts. Micro-textures indicate that magnetite and hematite are of metamorphic origin. They are intergrown with
silicates and carbonates, with the mineral assemblage indicative of greenschist facies (biotite grade) metamorphism.
Chemical compositions of ironstones vary greatly and reflect changes from silica-, alumina-poor ironstones formed by
predominantly chemical precipitation processes to silica-, alumina-rich examples with a significant detrital component.
Silica-, alumina-poor ironstones are characterised by low concentrations of transition metals and large ion lithophile
and high field strength elements and display REE signatures of modern coastal seawater. The Braemar facies
accumulated in a marine basin along the border of a continental glaciated highland and a low-lying weathered
landmass. Wet-based glaciers originated from the Palaeoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic metamorphic basement and
debouched into a fault-controlled depocentre, the Baratta Trough. The intimate association of dolostones, mangani-
ferous siltstones, ironstones and diamictites can be explained by a transgressive event during a postglacial period.
Hydrothermal exhalations added significant amounts of Fe and other metals to Neoproterozoic seawater. Melting of
floating ice led to an influx of clastic detritus and deposition of glaciomarine sediments from wet-based glaciers and
to oxygenation of ferriferous (9manganiferous), carbonate and CO2 charged coastal waters. Release of CO2 to the
atmosphere from the oxygenated waters resulted in the precipitation of carbonate as dolostones and oxygenation of
ferriferous ( 9 manganiferous) waters led to the precipitation of Fe3 + oxides as laminated ironstones and as matrix
of diamictic ironstones. Further increases in Eh conditions led to the precipitation of Mn oxides or carbonates and
their incorporation in clastic sediments. Thus the Braemar ironstone facies is the result of chemical precipitation of
dissolved Fe (and Mn) during a postglacial, transgressive period and formed in a near-coastal environment under

* Corresponding author. Fax: + 61-7-40421284.

E-mail address: bernd.lottermoser@jcu.edu.au (B.G. Lottermoser)

0301-9268/00/$ - see front matter © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 0 1 - 9 2 6 8 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 9 8 - 4
50 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67
significant terrestrial influences. © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Ironstones; Geochemistry; Glaciation; Adelaide Geosyncline; Neoproterozoic; South Australia
1. Introduction
Glaciogenic and iron-rich rocks are intimately
associated in Neoproterozoic sequences. Examples
are known from North and South America (e.g.
Young, 1976; Yeo, 1983; Urban et al., 1992; Klein
and Beukes, 1993; Graf et al., 1994), Africa (e.g.
Breitkopf, 1986; Bühn et al., 1992), China (Rui
and Piper, 1997), and South Australia (Whitten,
1970). In some cases, the iron-rich rocks are
present as iron-rich clastic sediments (e.g. South
Australia; Whitten, 1970; China; Rui and Piper,
1997), whereas others occur as ironstones (e.g.
Klein and Beukes, 1993). However, despite nu-
merous research efforts, the reason for the com-
mon association of iron- and carbonate-rich and
glaciogenic rocks in the Neoproterozoic, the ap-
parent glaciation in low-latitude environments
during that time, and the source of chemical
components and genesis of ironstones remain
controversial.
Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks of the Ade-
laide Geosyncline in South Australia and far west-
ern New South Wales host well preserved
glaciomarine sequences and associated ferrugi-
nous units (Preiss, 1987; Preiss et al., 1993; Fig.
1). These ferruginous rocks are rich in magnetite
and/or hematite, iron-bearing silicates and car-
bonates. The purpose of this paper is to describe
the geochemical composition of Braemar iron-
stones, to establish the genetic processes responsi-
ble for their formation and the
palaeoenvironment of deposition, and to discuss
their genesis in light of other models for
Neoproterozoic glaciogenic and iron-rich rock
occurrences.
2. Geology
The Adelaide Geosyncline in South Australia is
a major, deeply subsident Neoproterozoic to
Cambrian sedimentary basin which overlies
Palaeoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic metamor-
phic basement rocks. It contains one of the most
complete and well preserved Neoproterozoic suc-
cessions and displays evidence of two major glaci-
ations during the Neoproterozoic, the Sturtian
(: 750–700 Ma) and Marinoan glaciation (:
650–600 Ma; Preiss, 1987; Preiss et al., 1993). The
widespread Sturtian glaciation event is manifest in
the Umberatana Group (Preiss et al., 1998), and
particularly in the great thicknesses of
glaciomarine sedimentary rocks deposited in the
fault-controlled Baratta Trough, extending from
the central Flinders Ranges to the Yunta-Olary
region in eastern South Australia (Sumartojo and
Gostin, 1976; Preiss, 1987; Preiss et al., 1993; Fig.
1). Much of the glaciogenic sedimentation in the
Umberatana Group is characterised by diamictite,
laminated siltstone and orthoquartzite, but in
places there are distinctive intercalated dolomitic
and ferruginous units (Preiss, 1987; Preiss et al.,
1993). In this paper, diamictite is a nongenetic
term referring to poorly sorted siliciclastic sedi-
mentary rocks containing a wide range of class
sizes in an abundant fine-grained matrix in which
the clasts are dispersed so that most of them are
not in contact (cf. Panahi and Young, 1997).
The section in the Barratta Trough comprises
the diamictite- and quartzite-dominated Pualco
Tillite (3300 m) and overlying siltstone- and sand-
stone-dominated Benda Siltstone (260 m; Preiss et
al., 1993). Both units pass laterally into the lentic-
ular, ferruginous Braemar ironstone facies in the
Yunta-Olary region and the thinner Holowilena
Ironstone (130 m) in the central Flinders Ranges
(Preiss, 1987; Preiss et al., 1993). In places, the
Pualco Tillite passes vertically into the Braemar
ironstone facies (also known as the Hoof Hearted
Formation). The latter, although locally lenticu-
lar, is widespread in the Yunta-Olary region and a
possible equivalent is present southwest of Broken
Hill in western New South Wales (Preiss, 1987).
In the Yunta area, four to six lenticular ironstone
units grade into the host diamictites and siltstones
 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67 51

with decreasing iron minerals, but also contain
dolostone beds and quartzites (Whitten, 1970;
Figs. 2 and 3). Throughout the Yunta-Olary re-
gion, ironstone occurrences crop out prominently
(Fig. 4A) and are interbedded with diamictites,
carbonate-rich rocks, quartzites (in part with
heavy mineral lamination), siltstones and man-
ganiferous siltstones. The distribution of the iron-
stone and associated ferruginous siltstones and
diamictites is especially notable on aeromagnetic
images. The ironstones are particularly prominent
at Razorback Ridge south of Yunta (Fig. 2),
where the thickest iron-rich sub-units have been
evaluated as a potential iron ore resource (Whit-
ten, 1970). Although at some locations, there is
only one prominently ferruginous horizon, at
many locations, there are several zones (e.g. 3 or
4), separated by tens to hundreds of metres of
other strata, e.g. in the Bimbowrie Hill region and
at Razorback Ridge (Fig. 3).

Fig. 1. Location of the Adelaide Geosyncline in South Australia showing the inferred distribution of Sturtian ferruginous facies of
the Umberatana Group in the Baratta Trough (modified from Preiss et al., 1993).
52 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67

Fig. 2. Outcrop of ferruginous facies (Braemar ironstone facies) and associated Sturtian glaciogenic rocks (Pualco Tillite) in the
eastern part of the Adelaide Geosyncline (modified from Rogers, 1978; Forbes, 1991).

3. Sampling and methods of analysis occurrences in the Olary-Yunta region. In addi-

Thirty-nine samples (BR1 – 12, BR29 – 47,
BR49–56) were taken from surface outcrop and
included laminated and diamictic ironstones, silt-
stones, diamictites and carbonate-rich rocks
which were representative of the rock types and
tion, 17 samples (BR13–28, BR48) were collected
from the exploration adit dump at Razorback
Ridge. Thin and polished thin sections and blocks
were prepared and subsequently investigated by
optical microscopy. Twenty-seven laminated iron-
stone, clastic and carbonate sediment samples
 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67 53

were crushed and pulverised in a chrome steel ring
mill. Major and trace elements were analysed by
X-ray fluorescence on duplicate fused discs and
pressed powder pellets at the Division of Earth
Sciences, University of New England (UNE). Se-
lected rare earth elements (REE, La to Lu;
LREE: light REE, La to Sm; HREE: heavy REE,
Tb to Lu) and additional elements (As, Au, Hf,
Sb, Sc, Ta, Th, U, W) were determined on nine
samples by instrumental thermal neutron activa-
tion analysis at Becquerel Laboratories, Sydney.
REE concentrations exceeded the detection limits
by several orders of magnitude. In addition, data
on geochemical reference materials were within
10% of the accepted values. Oxygen and carbon
isotope mass spectrometry on 15 rock samples
was conducted at the Centre for Isotope Studies,
CSIRO, Sydney, following conventional CO2 gen-
eration using phosphoric acid. Electron mi-
croprobe analyses were performed on garnets,
carbonates and chlorites of ironstone and siltstone
samples at UNE.
4. Petrography and mineralogy
The Braemar ironstone facies consists of lentic-
ular laminated and diamictic ironstones interbed-
ded in calcareous or dolomitic siltstone including
several thin quartzite and dolostone units (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Stratigraphic succession of the Adelaide Geosyncline in the southeastern Nackara Arc (a, b) (modified from Preiss, 1987;
Preiss et al., 1998) and (c) Braemar ironstone facies in the Razorback Ridge area (modified from Whitten, 1970).
54 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67

Fig. 4. (A) Typical outcrop of the Braemar ironstone facies. Ironstone is intercalated with carbonate-bearing siltstone and minor
diamictite and dolostone. Near Bimbowrie Hill, AMG: 420 700 mE, 6 455 650 mN. (B) Diamictic ironstone with recrystallised
carbonate-rich siltstone, quartz and carbonate clasts (sample BR24). Razorback Ridge, AMG: 379 740 mE, 6 352 770 mN. (C)
Laminated ironstone. Darker laminae are rich in magnetite and hematite, and lighter laminae in siliciclastic and carbonate
components (sample BR6). Field of view approximately 30 mm long, note scale bar in millimetres. Iron Peak, AMG: 384 100 mE,
6 353 900 mN. (D) Laminated ironstone with interbedded lighter coloured siltstone displaying cross-laminations and soft-sediment
deformation (sample BR28). Razorback Ridge, AMG: 379 740 mE, 6 352 770 mN. (E) Laminated ironstone with interbedded lighter
coloured siltstone displaying soft-sediment deformation (sample BR16). Razorback Ridge, AMG: 379 740 mE, 6 352 770 mN.

The Braemar ironstone facies is made up of two cal compositionally.

types, diamictic and laminated ironstones, which The mineralogy of the laminated ironstones and
are substantially different in macroscopic appear- the matrix of diamictic ironstones is simple: com-
ance (Fig. 4B–E) but apart from the clasts, identi- mon facies are fine-grained (typically B 0.05 mm)
 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67 55

and composed of magnetite, hematite and quartz apatite, plagioclase and tourmaline. Associated
with minor muscovite, chlorite, biotite, carbonate, siltstones contain abundant quartz, biotite, car-

Fig. 4. (Continued)
56 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67
Fig. 4. (Continued)
bonate, plagioclase, muscovite, chlorite, variable
amounts of magnetite and hematite and traces of
clinozoisite/epidote, tourmaline, zircon and pyrite
(altered to goethite due to supergene oxidation).
Detrital mineral grains and lithic clasts occur in
laminated and diamictic ironstones and siltstones.
They are angular to subrounded and include scat-
tered detrital grains of quartz, carbonate, plagio-
clase, K-feldspar, muscovite and tourmaline,
foliated sediments, siltstones, quartzites, and
quartzofeldspathic and quartz-carbonate rocks.
Detrital feldspars have been variably replaced by
carbonate, muscovite and traces of chlorite and
biotite, and biotite has been retrogressed to chlor-
ite and traces of rutile.
Diamictic ironstones are massive and clasts
range in size from 10 mm to 1.2 m but are most
commonly between 25 mm and 150 cm (Fig. 4B).
A few striated boulders were noted by Whitten
(1970). Angularity and nature of the detrital
grains and lithic clasts are similar to those found
in the associated laminated ironstones and
siltstones.
Laminated ironstones are usually inequigranu-
lar with grain sizes ranging from B0.1 to 5 mm.
Lamination is generally well developed and ranges
from B 0.5 mm to 1 cm in thickness (Fig. 4C – E).
The laminae are defined by the relative abundance
of magnetite and hematite, ranging from : 80 to
: 20%. Magnetite grains display varying degrees
of martitization and larger subhedra are up to 0.1
mm in diameter. Rare pressure shadows of chlor-
ite and/or biotite are well developed adjacent to
magnetite–hematite porphyroblasts. However,
much hematite is not weathering-related, because
grains display a preferred orientation oblique to
compositional laminations, and late dilational
veins contain magnetite, quartz, carbonate,
goethite and platy hematite. Therefore hematite
is, in part, syn- or pre-tectonic. Locally, nearly
pure layers of Fe-oxides (: 80%) are present,
with magnetite, hematite and quartz forming a
metamorphic granoblastic aggregate.
There are large variations in modal proportions
of the major rock-forming minerals quartz, Fe
oxides, carbonate and silicates within single rock
specimens thereby forming fine layers of iron-
stones and siltstones. Fe oxide-rich laminae dis-
play sharp or gradational bases with associated
siltstone layers. The Fe-oxide beds are commonly
graded with magnetite decreasing and abundances
of quartz and silicates increasing. Other sedimen-
tary structures include cross-laminations (Fig.
4D), microfaulting and piercement of laminae,
and micro- to meso-scale folding of laminae (Fig.
 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67
4D – E) which may be the result of soft-sediment
deformation.
The Braemar ironstone facies has undergone
regional metamorphism and deformation. The
rocks display interlocking aggregates of mineral
grains and rare porphyroblastic Fe oxide and
carbonate grains. Slaty cleavage is commonly
Fig. 5. Ternary plot of (a) SiFeAl, (b) SiFe(Ca+ Mg),
and (c) Al(Ca+ Mg) (Na +K) for ironstones (; N: 20) and
clastic sediments ( ; N: 6).
57
defined by the preferred orientation of layer sili-
cates and hematite plates. The subhedral shape of
the magnetite crystals, the presence of rare por-
phyroblastic magnetite grains, together with the
occurrence of magnetite/hematite-bearing veins
and foliated hematite, indicate that the magnetite
and some hematite are of metamorphic origin
and not detrital. The Fe oxides are intergrown
with silicates and carbonates, with the mineral
assemblages indicative of greenschist facies (bi-
otite grade) metamorphism.
Carbonates in the ironstones and associated
ferruginous siltstones are ferroan dolom-
ite (Fe0.01 – 0.10Mn0.00 – 0.03Ca0.48 – 0.53Mg0.37 – 0.46CO3)
and ferroan calcite (Fe0.01 – 0.06Mn0.00 – 0.01Ca0.92 –
0.99Mg0.00 – 0.02CO3) in composition and chlorite is
typically ripidolite (Si 2.61–2.73 atoms per for-
mula unit and atomic Fe/Fe +Mg, 0.27–0.63).
Calculations using chlorite compositions on the
Al(IV)–T plot of Cathelineau (1988) indicate
chlorite growth at :360–400°C. In the Bim-
bowrie Hill region (Fig. 2), the Braemar iron-
stone facies is associated with manganiferous
siltstone units : 1 m thick. These are composed
of variable amounts of fine-grained (B0.05mm)
granoblastic carbonate, garnet, magnetite, quartz,
plagioclase, muscovite and phlogopite (Holm,
1995). Garnet is typically spessartine (py2.6 – 3.2
alm4.2 – 9.0spess82.l – 87.2gross1.4 – 2.2uvar0 – 0.1a-ndra3.5 –
11.4) in composition, with carbonates including
calcite, ankerite and manganoan magnesian sider-
ite.
5. Geochemistry
5.1. Major and trace elements
The major oxide components of the laminated
ironstones are SiO2 and Fe2O3. All ironstones
consist of \ 70 wt.% SiO2 + Fe2O3 (all Fe as
Fe3 + ) with Fe2O3 ranging between 22.94 and
78.91 wt.% (N= 20) (Table 1 and Fig. 5). Minor
element contents of the ironstones show some
variations, with Al2O3 ranging from 0.28 to 10.64
wt.%, CaO from 0.10 to 5.82 wt.%, K2O from
0.03 to 3.43 wt.%, MgO from 0.02 to 3.76 wt.%,
Na2O from 0.10 to 3.11 wt.% and LOI from 0.20
 58
Table 1
Representative geochemical analyses of Mn-rich sediment (sample R74203; Holm, 1995), dolostone (sample BR30), siltstones (samples BR38, BR45), aluminous
ironstones (samples BR15, BR36), and ironstones (samples BR8, BR13, BR40, BR52, BR53)a

Sample R74203 BR30 BR38 BR45 BR15 BR36 BR8 BR13 BR40 BR52 BR53
Mineralogy ca-qz-pl- qz-bio-ca- Qz-pl-Kfs- Feox-qz-ca- Feox-qz-ca- Mt-hm-qz- Mt-hm-qz- Mt-hm-go- Feox-qz-ca- Mt-hm-qz-
lithic clasts pl-ms-chl- lithic clasts- chl-ms-pl- bio-ms-tm- chl-bio-ca chl-bio-ca bio-qz-ca pl-chl-bio- ca-chl/bio
go-tm-zir bio-mt-ca-m ap-tm ap-pl go
s-chl
Location Bimbowrie Razorback Oultalpa Mt Mulga Razorback Bimbowrie Iron Peak Razorback Oultalpa Braemar Braemar

B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67

ridge NW S Ridge Hill Ridge NW
Northing 6 459 900 6 352 610 6 440 620 6 443 250 6 352 770 6 454 240 6 353 900 6 352 770 6 440 620 6 326 240 6 325 150
Easting 421 800 379 090 411 760 433 700 379 740 422 790 384 100 379 740 411 760 371 820 371 820

SiO2 40.10 18.58 67.13 65.65 47.86 40.54 28.12 28.68 14.81 33.29 23.54
TiO2 0.68 0.16 0.83 0.70 0.57 0.48 0.22 0.33 0.18 0.37 0.26
Al2O3 10.19 3.16 11.92 10.06 7.82 6.46 2.92 3.97 2.80 3.16 2.74
Fe2O3 7.28 4.96 5.08 13.50 25.52 37.20 66.77 62.34 78.91 49.76 66.20
MnO 6.29 0.36 0.13 0.04 0.15 0.30 0.04 0.06 0.11 0.18 0.23
MgO 2.80 13.26 3.15 1.56 3.76 3.27 0.88 1.28 2.02 2.22 1.59
CaO 14.12 22.94 3.34 1.63 3.68 3.49 0.28 0.64 0.33 3.86 1.98
Na2O 2.44 1.65 2.24 3.49 0.26 1.29 0.05 1.32 0.11 1.66 0.80
K 2O 2.19 0.15 2.60 1.82 2.55 1.77 0.82 0.32 1.37 0.19 0.24
P2O5 0.17 0.02 0.19 0.37 0.46 0.68 0.23 0.24 0.15 0.64 0.94
S 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03
LOI 12.57 34.49 2.63 1.20 6.43 3.99 0.20 0.49 0.20 5.16 2.11
Total 98.80 99.73 99.26 100.04 99.06 99.49 100.54 99.66 101.00 100.53 100.67

As na na B0.5 na 1.1 2.5 B0.5 1.8 B0.5 3.9 10.4

Au na na B5 na B5 B5 B5 B5 B5 B5 B5
Ba 353 29 527 530 444 271 145 43 201 61 180
Cu 9 8 18 13 14 44 24 20 29 30 27
Ga 16 B1 15 15 14 10 13 10 10 8 8
Hf na na 8.2 na 3.8 2.7 1.6 2 0.7 1.9 1.1
Nb 15 2 13 16 7 9 3 8 6 6 4
Ni 56 4 16 14 17 19 5 6 B5 7 14
Pb 12 3 17 13 7 8 7 10 6 9 B5
Rb 115 5 123 108 109 101 37 16 96 5 9
Sb na na 0.4 na B0.2 0.4 B0.2 0.5 0.6 0.7 2.2
Sc na na 12.5 na 12 10.4 5 5.3 5.2 6.3 8.9
Sr 152 525 81 91 104 146 24 33 7 56 77
Ta na na 1.3 na 0.9 0.9 B0.5 0.8 B0.5 0.7 B0.5
Th na na 16 na 9.6 8.9 4.2 6.5 2.4 6.3 4.7
U na na 2.8 na B1 c1 B1 B1 B1 B1 B1
V 76 2 54 56 87 60 80 88 85 52 113
Table 1 (Continued)

Sample R74203 BR30 BR38 BR45 BR15 BR36 BR8 BR13 BR40 BR52 BR53
Mineralogy ca-qz-pl- qz-bio-ca- Qz-pl-Kfs- Feox-qz-ca- Feox-qz-ca- Mt-hm-qz- Mt-hm-qz- Mt-hm-go- Feox-qz-ca- Mt-hm-qz-

B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67

lithic clasts pl-ms-chl- lithic clasts- chl-ms-pl- bio-ms-tm- chl-bio-ca chl-bio-ca bio-qz-ca pl-chl-bio- ca-chl/bio
go-tm-zir bio-mt-ca-m ap-tm ap-pl go
s-chl
Location Bimbowrie Razorback Oultalpa Mt Mulga Razorback Bimbowrie Iron Peak Razorback Oultalpa Braemar Braemar
ridge NW S Ridge Hill Ridge NW
Northing 6 459 900 6 352 610 6 440 620 6 443 250 6 352 770 6 454 240 6 353 900 6 352 770 6 440 620 6 326 240 6 325 150
Easting 421 800 379 090 411 760 433 700 379 740 422 790 384 100 379 740 411 760 371 820 371 820

W na na B1 na B1 B1 1.3 B1 B1 B1 9.7
Y 25 15 27 33 24 33 28 26 13 31 49
Zn 61 20 46 31 42 52 33 38 101 17 37
Zr 157 38 266 142 130 92 51 73 26 65 40
La na na 33.2 na 21.8 22.9 10.6 5.41 6.21 13.4 15.2
Ce na na 69.9 na 43.4 49.1 22.9 11.4 13.4 29.7 33.8
Nd na na 33.7 na 22.9 29.6 12.4 7.12 7.59 15.4 19.9
Sm na na 6.54 na 4.74 5.71 2.52 1.73 1.74 3.03 4.76
Eu na na 1.5 na 0.99 1.37 0.62 0.44 0.56 0.89 1.23
Tb na na 1.06 na 0.75 1.11 0.62 0.45 0.37 0.66 1.06
Ho na na 1.38 na 1.03 1.46 0.96 0.75 0.53 0.95 1.54
Yb na na 3.14 na 2.62 3.45 2.60 2.39 1.27 2.82 4.04
Lu na na 0.38 na 0.41 0.46 0.35 0.36 0.17 0.40 0.58
(La/Sm)cn 3.19 2.89 2.52 2.65 1.97 2.24 2.78 2.01
(La/Lu)cn 9.08 5.52 5.17 3.15 1.56 3.79 1.12 2.72
(Tb/Lu)cn 1.89 1.24 1.64 1.20 0.85 1.48 3.48 1.24
REE 150.8 98.64 115.16 53.57 30.05 31.84 67.25 82.11

a
Major elements given in wt%, trace elements in ppm, Au in ppb. Abbreviations: na, not analysed; ap, apatite; bio, biotite; ca, carbonate; chl, chlorite; Feox, Fe
oxides, i.e. magnetite and/or hematite; go, goethite; hm, hematite; Kfs, K-feldspar; mt, magnetite; ms, muscovite; pl, plagioclase; qz, quartz; tm, tourmaline; zir, zircon.
Reference to sample locations is given in northings (N) and eastings (E) of the Australian Mapping Grid (AMG). Sample numbers refer to samples stored in the
Division of Earth Sciences, University of New England. Chondrite normalised ratios (La/Sm)cn, (La/Lu)cn, and (Tb/Lu)cn are calculated using chondrite values given
by Boynton (1984).

59
60 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67
to 7.4 wt.%. Such variations reflect different
modal contents of magnetite and/or hematite,
quartz, plagioclase, carbonate, biotite, chlorite
and muscovite in the analysed samples.
Ironstones with higher Si contents tend to have
higher A1 and Ca +Mg values (Fig. 5a, b). These
element trends indicate the addition of plagioclase
and carbonate. The associated clastic sediments
have lower Fe and higher Si, Al and Ca+ Mg
values, and similar Na +K contents compared to
the ironstones (Fig. 5a – c). There is also variation
in the Na + K content, reflecting the abundance
of biotite, chlorite and muscovite in both iron-
stones and clastic sediments (Fig. 5c).
Clastic-dominated sediments have lower Fe2O3,
P2O5 and V contents than the ironstones and
Al2O3, TiO2, Na2O, K2O, Hf, LREE, Nb, Pb, Sc,
Ta, Th, U and Zr are somewhat more abundant
(samples BR38, BR45; Table 1). Such increased
element concentrations compared to the associ-
ated ironstones are due to more plagioclase, K-
feldspar, biotite, muscovite, chlorite, and lithic
clasts within the analysed samples. The siltstones
and sandstones have trace element abundances
similar to the average upper crust with the excep-
tion of lower Nb, Zr, Ba and Sr values (cf. Taylor
and McLennan, 1981). The compositions of man-
ganiferous siltstones are quite similar to the clastic
sediments, except for higher MnO, Ni, V and Zn
contents (sample R74203, Table 1). The analysis
of a dolostone indicates that clastic sediments
exhibit higher trace element contents with the
exception of lower Sr values (sample BR30, Table
1).
Trace element constituents of the ironstones
show large scale variations and appear to be
largely dependent on the type and quantity of the
minerals present. The ironstones are depleted in
most transition metals (Sc, V), high field strength
elements (Nb, U, Th, Zr, Hf, Pb, LREE), and
large ion lithophile elements (Ba, Sr, Rb) when
compared to the average upper continental crust
(cf. Taylor and McLennan, 1981). Only the Ni, Y
and HREE concentrations are similar to average
upper crustal abundances. Such low trace element
concentrations could either reflect their removal
during metamorphism, which is most unlikely as
many of these elements are regarded as immobile,
or may have important implications for the
source(s) of these elements and the depositional
environment of the Braemar facies.
For the Braemar ironstones, a correlation ma-
trix of log-transformed data (N= 20) shows that
there are significant positive correlations (r\ +
0.6) of Al with Ti, Ca, Mg, K, Ga, Hf, Rb, Sc,
Ta, Th and Zr, and of Si with Ti, Ca, Hf, Sc, Sr,
Ta, Th, Zr, La, Ce and the REE content. These
correlations reflect increasing sedimentary inputs
of siliciclastic material to chemical sediments (cf.
Ewers and Morris, 1981; Klein and Beukes, 1993;
Manikyamba and Naqvi, 1995). In contrast, Fe
exhibits weak positive correlations with few ele-
ments, including As, Cu, Sb, V and Zn (r= +
0.4– + 0.6) pointing to a hydrothermal source of
these metals. Thus the chemical compositions of
Braemar ironstones reflect variations from iron-
stones formed by predominantly chemical precipi-
tation processes to examples with a significant
detrital component.
5.2. Rare earth elements
Laminated ironstones possess REE concentra-
tions (REE: La+ Ce+ Nd+Sm+ Eu+ Tb+
Ho+ Yb+ Lu) ranging from 30.05 to 115.16 ppm
and chondrite normalised (La/Sm)cn ratios of
1.97–2.89, (La/Lu)cn ratios of 1.56–6.23, and (Tb/
Lu)cn ratios of 0.85–1.73 (Table 1). Fig. 6 illus-
trates the REE patterns of Braemar ironstones
normalised to the North American Shale Com-
posite (NASC; Gromet et al., 1984). All iron-
stones display REE patterns with variable LREE
depletions, modest negative Ce anomalies and no
Eu anomalies with the exception of sample BR40,
which exhibits a distinctly positive Eu anomaly.
A correlation matrix of log-transformed iron-
stone data (siliceous, aluminous and silica-, alu-
mina-poor laminated ironstones; N= 9) reveals
that correlations of REE with most elements are
insignificant (rB + 0.7). However, La, Ce and the
REE content show correlations with Si (+ 0.6)
and all REE and also the REE content show
slight positive correlations with Mn (+ 0.4– +
0.8), P (+0.6– + 0.8), Ca (+ 0.5– + 0.6), Ba (+
0.1– + 0.6), Sc ( +0.5– + 0.8), Sr ( +0.7– + 0.8),
Th ( +0.4– + 0.6) and Y ( + 0.5– +0.9). Correla-
 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67
Fig. 6. NASC normalised REE patterns for (a) silica-, alu-
mina-poor ironstones (BR8, BR13, BR25, BR35, BR40, BR52,
BR53), and (b) siliceous, aluminous ironstones (BR15, BR36),
and clastic sediment (BR38). NASC values taken from Gromet
et al. (1984).
tions of REE with A1 (+0.1 – +0.4), Ti (+ 0.2 –
+ 0.4) and Fe (− 0.3 – − 0.5) are much lower.
Such element correlations suggest that the REE
within the ironstones are largely incorporated into
accessory apatite and carbonate.
The ironstones have been subdivided according
to their SiO2 and A12O3 contents and individual
REE distributions into two different suites. Iron-
stones are here called siliceous, aluminous if
SiO2 \40 wt.% and A12O3 \6 wt.% (samples
BR15, BR36; Table 1) and silica-, alumina-poor if
SiO2 B40 wt.% and A12O3 B6 wt.% (samples
BR8, BR13, BR35, BR40, BR52, BR53; Table 1).
Samples from the same locality can have different
SiO2 and A12O3 contents and REE distributions.
Silica-, alumina-poor ironstones have the lowest
REE concentrations and the lowest (La/Sm)cn,
(La/LU)cn and (Tb/LU)cn ratios (samples BR8,
61
BR13, BR35, BR40, BR52, BR53; Table 1). Such
samples are moderately depleted in LREE and
variably depleted or enriched in HREE compared
to the NASC (Fig. 6a). Siliceous, aluminous iron-
stones display REE patterns only very slightly
depleted in LREE compared to the NASC (Fig.
6b). They also have REE contents and (La/
Sm)cn, (La/Lu)cn and (Tb/Lu)cn ratios similar to
the clastic sediment sample BR38 (Table 1 and
Fig. 6b). The clastic sediment BR38 shows a
relatively flat REE pattern, nearly identical to
that of the NASC.
The strong similarities of the REE patterns of
the Braemar siltstone and siliceous, aluminous
ironstones with the NASC REE distribution is
consistent with these sediments gaining their REE
from detrital sources. However, silica-, alumina-
poor ironstones display a different REE geochem-
istry indicating that the REE were gained during
chemical precipitation.
5.3. Carbon and oxygen isotopes
Sheet-like dolostones are commonly associated
with Neoproterozoic glaciogenic rocks (Kennedy,
1996; Hoffman et al., 1998) and such dolostones
cap the Braemar facies (Fig. 3). In addition, car-
bonate occurs as ferroan dolomite and ferroan
calcite within siltstones and ironstones. Sedimen-
tological and stable isotope data of Adelaidean
dolostones have been interpreted to reflect a
palaeoenvironment whereby carbonate sedimenta-
tion occurred during a postglacial marine trans-
gression in deep waters (below storm wave base;
Kennedy, 1996).
Ironstone and siltstone samples for stable iso-
tope analyses were selected from several sites
within the Yunta-Olary region and 15 samples
were analysed (Table 2). The Braemar facies has
undergone diagenesis and metamorphism and the
observed carbonate within these rocks has clearly
recrystallised during metamorphism. However,
dolostones are an integral part of the sedimentary
sequence and there is no petrographic evidence
for major carbonate mobilisation or veining, and
therefore the carbonate within the Braemar facies
is regarded as sedimentary in origin.
62 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67

Carbon isotope values vary greatly (d 13CPDB − Palaeoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic metamor-

5.5 – + 0.9‰), however, d 13CPDB isotopic signa- phic basement possess slightly higher d 18OSMOW
tures are nearly all negative, whereas oxygen (+ 15.0– + 29.5‰) and d 13CPDB values
isotope values range from d 18OSMOW +10.6 to+ 13
(d CPDB − 5.0– +0.9‰) than those in the
29.5‰ (Table 2). The distinctly negative d 13CPDB Braemar area (d 18OSMOW + 10.6– + 28.3‰;
values of Braemar facies samples are in agreement d CPDB − 5.5– −2.2‰) (Table 2). Lower
13

with the pronounced negative d 13CPDB values of d 13CPDB values in samples from the Braemar area
marine carbonates in Neoproterozoic successions imply that the Barratta Trough deepened to the
(cf. Kaufman et al., 1991; Kaufman and Knoll, south-southwest, which is in agreement with
1995). Negative d 13CPDB excursions occur during palaeogeographic reconstructions (cf. Preiss,
the otherwise enriched Neoproterozoic isotopic 1987).
values and are coincident with major glaciations
(cf. Kaufman et al., 1991; Kaufman and Knoll,
1995; Hoffman et al., 1998). 6. Sources of chemical components
Carbon isotopic values are also in agreement
with those obtained by Williams (1979) and
6.1. Origin of Al, Fe, Mn and Si
Kennedy (1996) in Australian Neoproterozoic cap
dolostones. Kennedy (1996) detected a distinct
The patterns of element abundances preserved
d 13CPDB depletion upsection in several successions
in ancient chemical sediments can be used to
of widely separated Neoproterozoic basins and
constrain the influence of seawater, hydrothermal,
suggested that more negative d 13CPDB values cor-
biogenic and detrital sources on the sediment
relate with greater paleobathymetry within the
composition (e.g. Dymek and Klein, 1988; Won-
marine depositional basin. Samples of this study
der et al., 1988; Derry and Jacobsen, 1990). Pure
cannot be related to a distinct stratigraphic
chemical sediments are enriched in Mn and Fe,
profile, however, samples taken in the Olary re-
but addition of detrital or volcanic material
gion close to the unconformity with the
causes their dilution and enrichment of Ti, A1

Table 2
Carbonate C and O isotopic data from the Braemar ironstone facies

Sample Location Mineral d 18OSMOW‰ d 13CPDB

‰

Braemar area
BR7 Iron Peak Ferroan dolomite +20.9 −3.7
BR10 Iron Peak Calcite +21.5 −5.5
BR15 Razorback Ridge Ferroan dolomite +19.6 −2.4
BR16 Razorback Ridge Ferroan dolomite +16.7 −3.7
BR30 Razorback Ridge Ferroan dolomite +20.0 −3.3
BR48 Razorback Ridge Ferroan dolomite +10.6 −4.0
BR55 Braemar Ferroan dolomite +28.3 −2.2
Olary area
BR36 Bimbowrie Hill Ferroan dolomite +18.5 −3.3
BR41 Outalpa Ferroan dolomite +23.4 −0.8
BR42 Outalpa Ferroan dolomite +23.5 +0.9
BR44 Mt Mulga Ferroan dolomite +15.0 −5.0
R74205 Bimbowrie Hill Calcite +27.6 −0.2
R74199 Bimbowrie Hill Ferroan dolomite +24.9 −3.5
R74203 Bimbowrie Hill Ferroan dolomite +27.9 −2.0
R74210 Bimbowrie Hill Ferroan dolomite +29.5 −0.8
 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67
Fig. 7. Composition of Braemar ironstones and associated
clastic sediments in terms of Fe/Ti versus Al/Al+ Fe+ Mn.
Curve represents mixing of East Pacific Rise sediment with
terrigenous and pelagic sediment (modified from Barrett, 1981;
Wonder et al., 1988).
and Zr (cf. Bonatti, 1975). Proposed methods for
distinguishing between seawater, hydrothermal,
biogenic and detrital sources are based on differ-
ences in the mineralogical, chemical and isotopic
composition. Geochemical differences can be il-
lustrated using a series of discrimination dia-
grams. However, discrimination diagrams have to
be applied with caution as some of them (e.g.
FeMn(Co +Co+ Ni)10 ×diagram) can
provide misleading information on the origin of
metalliferous sediments (cf. Lottermoser, 1991).
For the Braemar ironstone facies positive corre-
lations of Al and Si with Ti, Ca, Mg, K, Ga, Hf,
Rb, Sc, Sr, Ta, Th, Zr, La and Ce indicate that
these elements clearly derived from detrital
sources. Addition of alumina-rich detrital mate-
rial to a chemical sediment decreases the Fe/Ti
ratio and increases the proportion of A1 with
respect to the hydrothermal/hydrogenous ele-
ments, Fe and Mn (cf. Barrett, 1981). This trend
is illustrated in the Fe/Ti versus Al/(Al +Fe +
Mn) diagram (Fig. 7) whereby pure chemical sed-
iments, mixed chemical – detrital sediments,
terrigenous sediment and pelagic clay plot on a
compositional curve. The Braemar ironstones and
clastic sediments plot on the chemical – detrital
mixing curve and ironstones cluster toward the
chemical sediment end.
63
6.2. Origin of REE
The Neoproterozoic Braemar ironstone pos-
sesses REE patterns (i.e. weak LREE and Ce
depletions and with one exception no clear, posi-
tive Eu anomaly; Fig. 6a, b), which are broadly
similar to other Neoproterozoic ironstones includ-
ing the Urucum formation of Bolivia and Brazil
and the Rapitan formation of Canada (Fryer,
1977; Derry and Jacobsen, 1990; Klein and
Beukes, 1993; Graf et al., 1994). Klein and Beukes
(1993) concluded that the Rapitan ironstone has a
REE signature similar to seawater and the chemi-
cal sediments gained their REE from this source.
The positive correlation of La and Ce with Si
suggests that the siliceous, aluminous ironstones
of the Braemar facies obtained much of their
LREE from detrital sources. However, silica-, alu-
mina-poor ironstones of the Braemar facies have
REE patterns unlike the NASC (Fig. 6a). Overall,
the REE pattern shapes of silica-, alumina-poor
ironstones are more like those of modern coastal
seawaters (cf. Elderfield et al., 1990). The REE
concentrations and patterns of coastal seawaters
are intermediate between those for rivers and for
ocean waters, reflecting the influence of continen-
tal drainage (Elderfield et al., 1990). Similarly,
Graf et al. (1994) suggest that the Neoproterozoic
Urucum ironstone in South America formed in a
mixture of river and ocean water. It is thus possi-
ble that the Braemar ironstones obtained their
REE from detrital sources and coastal seawater.
7. Palaeoenvironment
Braemar siltstones and ironstones display low
concentrations of large ion lithophile elements
and high field strength elements compared to the
upper continental crust (Taylor and McLennan,
1981) suggesting the absence of felsic or basic
volcanic debris in the source region. In addition,
the REE composition of an analysed siltstone
(sample BR38, Table 1) is largely identical to that
of the early Proterozoic upper continental crust
(Condie, 1991). Thus during Neoproterozoic
times, detrital materials were delivered from an
exposed upper continental crust characterised by
64 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67
no volcanicity to the depositional environment
of the Braemar ironstone.
Deposition of the Pualco Tillite diamictites
during the Sturtian glacial maximum was re-
stricted to the marine Baratta Trough and the
main depocentre was in the Braemar area
(Preiss, 1987). The diamictites have been inter-
preted as glaciomarine sediments, deposited from
wet-based glaciers originating from the
Palaeoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic Willyama
basement (Curnamona Cratonic Nucleus) and
debouching into a marine basin (Preiss et al.,
1993). The lack of local detritus in the basal
diamictite and the generally regionally planar de-
positional surface probably imply deposition of
the Pualco Tillite from an extensive floating ice-
sheet (Preiss, 1987). Reworking of the diamic-
tites, possibly by water currents, is indicated by
interbedded quartzites, or the quartzites may
have been derived from a different, more mature
sediment source than the associated diamictites.
The Pualco Tillite rests on a slightly irregular
erosional surface developed on the Burra Group,
or locally on crystalline basement, over the
whole Olary province (Preiss, 1987). It contains
basement-derived material near Olary, probably
shed from the exposed Willyama Inliers. An
800-m long slide block of granite in the Pualco
Tillite adjacent to the MacDonald Fault and
lenticular granite conglomerates suggest an ac-
tively rising fault scarp in the Olary region and
it is thus interpreted that the diamictites and
conglomerates may have been deposited in deep
glacial valleys of a highland terrain (Preiss,
1987). Faulting is less obvious at the other mar-
gins of the Barratta Trough, which may have
been a halfgraben. The preservation of pre-
glacial regoliths in parts of the southern and
central Flinders Ranges, as well as possibly on
the Stuart Shelf, suggests that the lowlands to
the west were not severely glaciated (Preiss,
1987). These sedimentological data imply that
the Braemar ironstones accumulated in a basin
along the border of a continental glaciated high-
land to the northeast and a low-lying weathered
landmass to the west.
8. Genesis
8.1. Formation of the Braemar facies
The role of glaciation in the formation of
Neoproterozoic ironstones has been emphasised
by a number of authors (Yeo, 1983; Urban et
al., 1992; Klein and Beukes, 1993; Graf et al.,
1994). The occurrence of ironstones in several
Neoproterozoic glacial deposits inspired the hy-
pothesis that during glaciation, the underlying
stagnant seawater was cut off from oxygen sup-
ply and was rendered anoxic by organic matter
decomposition. Build-up of dissolved Fe oc-
curred in the Proterozoic oceans during glacial
periods and deposition of Fe followed during
transgressive interglacial periods (e.g. Urban et
al., 1992; Klein and Beukes, 1993). In fact, the
‘snowball-type Earth’ theory suggests the pres-
ence of floating pack ice over most of the ocean
surface at middle to high latitudes as well as
equatorial glaciation (Kirschvink, 1992). Oxy-
genation of ferriferous waters after glaciation
would drive the precipitation of ferric oxide in
oxic and highly oversaturated surface waters (cf.
Kaufman et al., 1991; Hoffman et al., 1998).
Previous authors have assigned the origin of
the Braemar ironstones to chemical precipitation
in a lacustrine environment (Preiss, 1987) or to
physical accumulation of detrital Fe oxides
(Whitten, 1970; Preiss, 1987). However, our
compositional data show that the Braemar facies
was generated by the intermixing of chemical
precipitates and terrigenous debris on a conti-
nental margin. Evaporation of waters in a playa-
lake complex (cf. Eugster and Chou, 1973) did
not produce Braemar ironstones as indicated by
the palaeogeographic environment.
The possibility that ferriferous exhalations
have influenced the formation of the Braemar
ironstone is supported for the following reason.
While the rocks exhibit exceptionally low con-
centrations of As, Cu, Pb and Zn compared to
upper crustal abundances values (Taylor and
McLennan, 1981), they exhibit positive correla-
tions of Fe with As, Cu, Sb, V and Zn, elements
typical of ironstones formed under hydrothermal
influences (e.g. Dymek and Klein, 1988; Duhig
et al., 1992; Lottermoser and Ashley, 1996; Ash-
 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67
ley et al., 1998). Thus the Fe of the Braemar
ironstone originally derived from hydrothermal
exhalations.
The Braemar ironstone facies consists of lentic-
ular laminated and diamictic ironstones and di-
amictic ironstones are interbedded with Braemar
facies devoid of, and also with, dropstones (Fig.
3c). Thus Fe deposition was clearly associated
with ice-melting and clastic sedimentation and
occurred during openwater ocean circulation and
melting of icebergs. The presence of Fe oxide-rich
diamictites indicates that refrigeration prevailed
during Braemar facies deposition, and was proba-
bly maintained throughout deposition of the
Benda Siltstone as indicated by scattered drop-
stones brought in by floating icebergs (cf. Preiss,
1987). Thus the Braemar facies, including the
dolostones, was deposited during the waning
stages of the Pualco glaciation, during a climate
change from deep refrigeration to slightly warmer
temperatures. When the sea ice retreated, oxy-
genation of the water column of ferriferous (+
manganiferous), carbonate and CO2 charged
waters occurred (cf. Kaufman et al., 1991; Hoff-
man et al., 1998). These waters precipitated car-
bonate upon release of CO2 to the atmosphere (cf.
Kaufman et al., 1991; Hoffman et al., 1998) and
hence the dolostones of the Braemar facies are
interpreted as inorganic cold water deposits.
During glacial periods build-up of dissolved,
reduced hydrothermal Fe occurred. A subsequent
transgressive event during an interglacial period
and associated melting of floating ice led to the
oxidation of coastal seawater and the precipita-
tion of dissolved Fe. Coprecipitation and adsorp-
tion of REE from the water column caused a
coastal seawater REE signature of the chemical
sediments. Intercalations of Fe-poor siltstones
and diamictites between the ferruginous facies
(Fig. 3c) would indicate an episodic decrease in Fe
precipitation and dominating clastic sedimenta-
tion. These siliceous, aluminous sediments ob-
tained a detrital REE signature. Climate
controlled regressions and transgressions of the
sea ice are the most likely reason for the presence
of intercalated non-ferruginous clastic sediments
in diamictic and laminated ironstones. Redox po-
tential differences kept Mn in solution, however,
65
increasing oxidising conditions led to the precipi-
tation of Mn oxides or carbonates and their in-
corporation in clastic sediments and the resulting
formation of manganiferous siltstones (cf. Urban
et al., 1992; Manikyamba and Naqvi, 1995).
8.2. Geotectonic setting
The palaeolatitude of Neoproterozoic iron-
stones and associated glacial sediments has been
controversial. Meert and Van der Voo (1994)
argued, using palaeomagnetic data, that
Neoproterozoic glaciations did not occur below
25° latitude. However, recent palaeomagnetic data
indicate that the formation of Neoproterozoic
ironstones and associated glacial sediments oc-
curred in low-latitude environments. The Mari-
noan glaciation in South Australia (650–600 Ma),
including permafrost, grounded glaciers and
marine glacial deposition, occurred near the
palaeoequator (Schmidt and Williams, 1995).
Similarly, the formation of the Rapitan ironstone
and associated glacial sediments (ca. 725 Ma) of
northwestern Canada occurred in a low-latitude
environment (Park, 1997). Young (1992, 1995)
proposed that the Sturtian glaciation in the Ade-
laide Geosyncline corresponds to the Rapitan
glaciation in northwestern Canada. Such strati-
graphic correlations would imply that the iron-
stones of the Sturtian Braemar facies (ca.
750–700 Ma) were deposited in a low-latitude
environment. However, further geochronological
and palaeomagnetic studies will be required to
establish whether the Sturtian and Rapitan glacia-
tions are diachronous or synchronous. In addi-
tion, Rui and Piper (1997) stated that the
sedimentary cycles recognised in the Neoprotero-
zoic successions of Australia and Canada were
probably driven by global eustatic changes and do
not imply close proximity of the two regions.
9. Conclusions
The Braemar ironstone facies represents the
consolidated product of Neoproterozoic Fe-rich
chemical sediments. They occur as matrix cement
to diamictites and as massive to laminated iron-
66 B.G. Lottermoser, P.M. Ashley / Precambrian Research 101 (2000) 49–67
stones. Associated rock types include diamictites,
dolostones, quartzites and siltstones. Mineralogi-
cally the ironstone facies comprises major quartz
and Fe oxides (hematite, magnetite), minor silicates
(muscovite, chlorite, biotite, plagioclase, tourma-
line), carbonate and apatite, and detrital mineral
grains and lithic clasts.
Elements of detrital derivation (Si, A1, Ti, Ca,
Mg, K, Ga, Hf, Rb, Sc, Sr, Ta, Th, Zr, La, Ce)
exhibit positive correlations as a result of compet-
ing clastic and chemical sedimentation. Weak pos-
itive correlations of Fe with As, Cu, V and Zn
indicate that these elements derived from vol-
canogenic, ferriferous exhalations. The REE geo-
chemistry appears to be controlled by clastic
contributions for siliceous, aluminous ironstones,
whereas the average REE signature of silica-,
alumina-poor ironstones is very similar to that of
present-day, coastal seawater. Thus chemical com-
ponents of the Braemar ironstone derived from the
erosional drainage of weathering solutions from the
exposed Proterozoic continental crust, hydrother-
mal exhalations and coastal seawater.
The similarities between the Braemar ironstone
facies and other Neoproterozoic ironstones includ-
ing the association with glaciogenic rocks, mangan-
iferous sediments and dolostones, the lack of
transition metal enrichments and the REE signa-
tures of modern coastal seawater suggest that
Neoproterozoic ironstones share a common gene-
sis: they are likely the result of chemical precipita-
tion during interglacial/postglacial periods and
formed in near-coastal environments under signifi-
cant terrestrial influences.
Acknowledgements
The research was supported by the Australian
Research Council. B.C. McKelvey, O.H. Holm and
D.J. Whitford are gratefully acknowledged for
their help with various aspects of the project
including sampling, sample preparation, data ac-
quisition and stimulating discussions. The Breeding
family of Braemar station is thanked for their
hospitality during a field visit in 1995. N.J. Beukes
and an anonymous reviewer are thanked for com-
menting on the manuscript.
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