sustainability

Article
Adoption of Green Supply Chain Management
among SMEs in Malaysia
Chieh-Yu Lin 1, * , Syed Shah Alam 2 , Yi-Hui Ho 1 , Mohammed Emad Al-Shaikh 3 and
Parves Sultan 4
1 Chang Jung Christian University, Tainan 71101, Taiwan; vicky@mail.cjcu.edu.tw
2 MAHSA University, Jenjarom Selangor 42610, Malaysia; syed@mahsa.edu.my
3 College of Business Administration, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University,
Dammam 34212, Saudi Arabia; mealshaikh@iau.edu.sa
4 School of Business and Law, Central Queensland University, Level 4/08, 120 Spencer Street,
Melbourne VIC 3000, Australia; p.sultan@cqu.edu.au
* Correspondence: jylin@mail.cjcu.edu.tw




Received: 21 June 2020; Accepted: 4 August 2020; Published: 11 August 2020


Abstract: The purpose of this study is to integrate the Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) theory and
Technology, Organization and Environment (TOE) theory to examine the factors that affect the adoption
of green supply chain management (GSCM) practices among SMEs in Malaysia. Twelve hypotheses
were developed based on the integrating theories in technology adoption context. In this study,
data were collected through questionnaire survey on the SMEs in Klang Valley Malaysia. A total
of 298 responses were analyzed. The regression analysis method was used to test the hypothetical
relationships among technological, organizational and environmental factors and SMEs’ intention
to adopt GSCM practices. Research findings show that perceived relative advantage, perceived
cost, top management support, complexity, compatibility, firms size, customer pressure, regulatory
pressure and the quality of human resources are statistically significant factors influencing GSCM
adoption among SMEs in Malaysia. However, observability and governmental support do not have
significant effects on GSCM adoption intention. According to research findings, some implications
which are valuable to academics and practitioners are also addressed. This study can serve as a
guideline for successful implementation of GSCM among the SMEs in an emerging country.

Keywords: green supply chain management; integration model; SMEs; Malaysia

1. Introduction
The global industrialization has increased energy and material consumption, and ultimately led
to various environmental concerns such as higher carbon emissions, toxic pollution and chemical
spills. Due to the regulatory, competitive and community pressure, firms have to stabilize their
environmental and economic performance. Nowadays, firms all over the world in various industries
are becoming increasingly concerned about environmental degradation. They have realized that the
adoption of green technology in business operations has greater benefits and also affects suppliers
and customers’ relationships within firms. To manage environmental pressures from a variety of
stakeholders, several firms begin to implement green supply chain management (GSCM).
GSCM practices are considered as environmentally friendly practices, which include water
efficiency, energy efficiency, waste management, environment conservation, recycling and reuse,
toxic substance management and hazardous and optimization of transportation [1]. Emmett and
Sood [2] highlighted that GSCM practices can be implemented at the product design stage, sourcing
and supplier selection, procurement stage, logistics control, manufacturing and production processes,

Sustainability 2020, 12, 6454; doi:10.3390/su12166454 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 6454 2 of 15

during delivery of the product to the end user and finally during end-of-life product management.
Zhu et al. [3] stated that GSCM has appeared as a way to associate elements of supply chain management
and environmental management. Srivastava [4] also argued that the whole product life cycle has taken
the design stage of the product to end-of-life management into consideration.
GSCM is a relatively new topic in the manufacturing areas in the Asian Emerging Economies that
has provided much attention towards regulatory institutions, academia, customers and industry [5].
So far research in implementing GSCM is still insufficient and small in number in this area. The research
gap in the existing literature related to GSCM is massive and there is no broad range of studies
to support the advancement of GSCM [6]. The implementation of GSCM within SMEs is not very
clear [7]. Very few empirical studies identified the factors affecting GSCM adoption for the SMEs in
the South East Asian Region. SMEs constitute a relevant part of the entire industrial sector in this
region. They may generate a significant impact on the environment. Environmental management in
the SMEs may lead to sustainable success by studying and identifying necessary adjustments to the
environmental impacts for those SMEs.
Although several studies analyzed GSCM adoption in developed countries [6], these studies may
not be relevant for emerging countries like Malaysia due to cultural differences and levels of economic
development. Welsh et al. [8] asserts that compared to the developed nations the implementation of
GSCM in the emerging market are characterized by lower levels of economic development. It can be
assumed that the constructs that affect GSCM adoption may differ among countries. This justifies the
rationality and significance of conducting empirical research on the factors affecting GSCM adoption
in a Malaysian SMEs context. Therefore, to fill the gap in GSCM research, the purpose of this research
is to identify the factors that affect the adoption of GSCM among SMEs in Malaysia.

2. Theoretical Framework
As many realize that customers and other stakeholders do not always distinguish between
a company and its suppliers, more and more companies have started to undertake significant
efforts towards establishing green supply chain management (GSCM) [3,4]. GSCM as a form of
environmental improvement is an operational initiative that many organizations are adopting to
address environmental issues [4]. It is a concept that is gaining popularity throughout the world.
For many organizations, it is a way to demonstrate their sincere commitment to sustainability.
GSCM practices can be implemented at the different supply chain stages, including green materials
management/manufacturing, green purchasing, reverse logistics and green distribution [9]. GSCM is
generally perceived to be able to promote efficiency and synergy among business partners and their
lead corporations, and to help to enhance green performance, minimize waste and achieve cost
savings. This synergy is expected to enhance corporate image, competitive advantage and marketing
exposure [10].
Several studies on the adoption of GSCM can be found in the literature [11]. However, very few
empirical studies have identified the factors affecting GSCM adoption for the SMEs in the South East
Asian Region. For example, Mohanty and Prakash [12] led a study in India. The main focus of that
research was to identify what are the internal and external pressures that contributed to the adoption
of GSCM practices among micro, small and medium size enterprises. However, this scarce research
may not be relevant for emerging countries like Malaysia due to cultural differences and varying levels
of economic development. Furthermore, none of them focused on the adoption of GSCM among SMEs
in Malaysia using the theories of diffusion of innovation and technology-organization-environment.
There are no models that could help to explain the theoretical contribution to the GSCM
practices. Thus, it is important for researchers to find other models that have been commonly
used for innovation diffusion research. The two models, Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) [13] and
Technology-Organization-Environment (TOE) [14], have been widely used explain innovation adoption
at the organizational level. This study will integrate the DOI theory and TOE theory to examine the
factors that affect the adoption of GSCM practices among SMEs in Malaysia.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6454 3 of 15

Numerous researchers who examined the adoption of innovation at the organizational level
employed the DOI theory [15,16]. The DOI theory elucidates how the groups or individuals adopt
new innovation and the processes involved in their decision towards it. Rogers has explained five
characteristics which affect an organization’s adoption of innovation rate. These characteristics include
trialability, compatibility, relative advantage, observability and complexity. Rogers recommended
that these five constructs play a pivotal role in an individual’s attitudes towards the adoption of
innovation. The main drawback of the application of the DOI theory for innovation adoption at the
firm level is that this model mainly focuses on the individual’s attitude and behavioral perspective in
any adoption of innovation processes [17]. Another drawback of the DOI theory is that environmental
factors such as competition have not been taken into consideration where the firms conduct business,
which could negatively or positively affect the adoption and acceptance of technology [18]. Parker and
Castleman [19] suggested integrating the DOI theory with other theories. Moreover, other external
factors may have an effect on the adoption decision of GSCM in organizations that provide incentives
or barriers towards GSCM usage intention. GSCM adoption does not occur widely across firms; it is
acceptable that external factors for firms will play a pivotal role in the firms’ acceptance decision
together with technological factors. Therefore, it is important to develop one integrated model that
will combine the external factors, organization and technological factors that are likely to affect the
degree and scope of GSCM adoption at the firm level. Thus, researchers have tried to identify other
organizational and environmental factors affecting a firm’s innovativeness and combine Roger’s DOI
theory to explain the model better [13].
The TOE model is found to be one step ahead as it is further integrated with the environmental
construct, whereas the DOI framework was constructed within technology and organizational
perspectives to explain innovation adoption [20]. The TOE model is found to be more complete
and both industry and size friendly [21]. Based on the comparisons of the theoretical model, in this
research we integrate the DOI and TOE models, which were both empirically validated in the previous
studies. To examine the organizational acceptance of new technologies, several studies have utilized
the TOE model as a theoretical basis in their research [22]. Although the TOE theory is considered as a
holistic model, it still has some limitations. Due to the richness of resources in developed countries,
some factors of the TOE framework are supposed to be more pertinent to a large organizational context
compared to SMEs in developing countries [23]. In fact, the TOE framework itself is insufficient
in explaining the adoption of innovation in SMEs [24]. Integrating the TOE framework with other
theories would provide improved theoretical lenses to understand the adoption behavior and offer
more important factors than the original one [24,25]. So far there is no particular research which
utilized this integration model in a GSCM technology adoption decision context. This study will
provide another alternative model combining the TOE model and DOI theory. Hence, using a TOE
framework combined with the DOI theory could provide a holistic model to explain firms’ green
initiative in general and GSCM adoption among SMEs in particular.
Numerous research on innovation adoption from the organizational perspective has highlighted
the integration of TOE with DOI theories [26]. Recently, Chiu et al. [25] conducted a study using
an integrated TOE framework with the DOI theory on broadband mobile applications adoption
among enterprises and confirmed that environmental, organizational and technological factors have a
significant influence on broadband mobile application adoption decisions. Piaralal et al. [27] reported
that integration of the TOE framework with the DOI theory was a useful theoretical framework for
examining the adoption decision of green technology among logistics based SMEs. Oliveira et al. [28]
conducted studies using an integrated model of TOE and DOI on cloud computing adoption decision.
But none of these research was conducted with a GSCM perspective. Deploying different theoretical
viewpoints such as integrating TOE with DOI in forthcoming research would provide a useful result [29].
Therefore, to propose a framework for GSCM implementation among SMEs in Malaysia, the current
study is grounded on the integration of the TOE framework with the DOI theory. The main reason for
integrating the TOE model and the DOI theory is that at the end it can explain the firms’ implementation
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6454 4 of 15
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15

implementation
of of innovation
innovation among businessamong business
organization byorganization
consideringby considering
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constructs, constructs,
while DOI is
whilesince
used DOI itisaccepts
used since it accepts organizational
organizational and technological
and technological constructs. constructs.

3. Research Hypotheses
This study synthesized a research framework, as shown in Figure 1, on the the adoption
adoption of
of GSCM
GSCM
in SMEs by
by integrating
integratingthetheDOI
DOIandandTOE
TOEframework
framework by using the innovation’s characteristics as
by using the innovation’s characteristics as the
the representative
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construct for the
for the technological
technological perspective.
perspective. Therefore,
Therefore, basedbased
on theonTOE
the TOE and
and DOI
DOI
framework, this study attempts to examine the influence of environmental, organizational and
framework, this study attempts to examine the influence of environmental, organizational
technological
technological factors
factors on
on the
the adoption
adoption of
of GSCM
GSCM practices
practices among
among Malaysian
Malaysian SMEs.
SMEs.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework.

3.1. Technological Factors

3.1. Technological Factors
Researchers highlighted that the technological characteristics such as complexity, compatibility
Researchers highlighted that the technological characteristics such as complexity, compatibility
and relative advantage have a significant influence on innovation diffusion [13,14,30]. Therefore,
and relative advantage have a significant influence on innovation diffusion [13,14,30]. Therefore, in
in this research, Rogers’ five innovation characteristics were considered as the factors. Previous
this research, Rogers’ five innovation characteristics were considered as the factors. Previous studies
studies identified several technological innovation characteristics (i.e., cost of adoption, complexity,
identified several technological innovation characteristics (i.e., cost of adoption, complexity,
compatibility, relative advantage, trial-ability, ease of use, observability, perceived usefulness) to have
compatibility, relative advantage, trial-ability, ease of use, observability, perceived usefulness) to
an impact on innovation diffusion [30–32]. In this study, we considered cost, observability relative
have an impact on innovation diffusion [30-32]. In this study, we considered cost, observability
advantage, complexity and compatibility, as these characteristics were confirmed to be important for
relative advantage, complexity and compatibility, as these characteristics were confirmed to be
conducting an innovation diffusion study [13,14,16,33].
important for conducting an innovation diffusion study [13,14,16,33].
Adoption cost is a pivotal construct in the adoption decision of innovation. Researchers identified
Adoption cost is a pivotal construct in the adoption decision of innovation. Researchers
that cost has a negative effect on innovation adoption [13,34,35]. The cost of GSCM adoption related to
identified that cost has a negative effect on innovation adoption [13,34,35]. The cost of GSCM
green processes such as green manufacturing, green design, green labeling, packing, etc. Adopting
adoption related to green processes such as green manufacturing, green design, green labeling,
GSCM requires a high initial investment because the prerequisite of the adoption of GSCM is providing
packing, etc. Adopting GSCM requires a high initial investment because the prerequisite of the
training and motivating their employees, providing a need to hire good quality employees and enabling
adoption of GSCM is providing training and motivating their employees, providing a need to hire
advanced technology. High cost may be a barrier for the adoption of GSCM. Thus, the following
good quality employees and enabling advanced technology. High cost may be a barrier for the
hypothesis was proposed:
adoption of GSCM. Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed:
Hypothesis 1 (H1). Perceived Cost in GSCM Has a Negative Effect on GSCM Adoption Among SMEs
Hypothesis 1 (H1). Perceived Cost in GSCM Has a Negative Effect on GSCM Adoption Among SMEs in
in Malaysia.
Malaysia.
Agarwal and
Agarwal and Prasad
Prasad [36]
[36] argue
argue that
that relative
relative advantage
advantage is is aa perception
perception that
that could
could be
be more
more
advantageous than its substitute idea. Researchers identified that perceived relative advantage
advantageous than its substitute idea. Researchers identified that perceived relative advantage as one
of the important factors which significantly influences the adoption decision of
as one of the important factors which significantly influences the adoption decision of innovationinnovation
technology [15].
technology [15]. Companies
Companies areare willing
willing to
to adopt
adopt or implement aa technology
or implement technology which
which is
is assumed
assumed to
to
provide higher economic benefits and better performance than the other technologies. By increasing
the efficiency of green practices, it could reduce the cost of waste disposal and treatment, reduce
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6454 5 of 15

provide higher economic benefits and better performance than the other technologies. By increasing
the efficiency of green practices, it could reduce the cost of waste disposal and treatment, reduce
natural resources and energy consumption and improve financial and environmental performance and
productivity [37]. Researchers suggest that organizations consider financial and economic advantages
as vital technological characteristics, which directly influences green technologies adoption decisions.
Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed:

Hypothesis 2 (H2). Perceived Relative Advantage in GSCM Has a Positive Effect on GSCM Adoption Among
SMEs in Malaysia.

Another important factor that affects the firms’ environmental practices is complexity.
Lin and Ho [33] describe the complexity in innovation when an innovation becomes difficult to
understand and complex to use. To reduce complexity, researchers suggested to gather more
knowledge and clear ideas on green innovation [38]. This researcher highlighted that SMEs in China
gathered information about the environment and green innovation. Another researcher confirmed
a negative relationship exists between complexity and innovation adoption [14]. To overcome the
complexity, much effort is required to diffuse and learn about technology. Thus, the following
hypothesis was proposed:

Hypothesis 3 (H3). Perceived Complexity in GSCM Has a Negative Effect on GSCM Adoption among SMEs
in Malaysia.

Another technological characteristic that shows a consistent significant relationship with

innovation adoption is the compatibility of an adapted technology. Organizations adopt new technology
if it is competent with the existing individual job responsibilities and values of an organization [13,14].
Researchers identified the significant and positive effect of compatibility on innovation adoption [15].
Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed:

Hypothesis 4 (H4). Compatibility in GSCM has a positive effect on GSCM adoption among SMEs in Malaysia.

Observability is considered as the visibility of the innovation to others. Rogers [13] opine that
visibility/observability plays a vital role at an early stage of adoption of innovation. Venkatesh and
Brown’s [39] study results confirmed the positive and significant relationship between observability
and innovation adoption intention. Kolodinsky, Hogarth and Hilgert [40] stated that the intention to
use an innovation will be better when an optimistic outcome can be observed of an innovation that can
be discussed with others. Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed:

Hypothesis 5 (H5). Observability in GSCM Has a Positive Effect on GSCM Adoption Among SMEs
in Malaysia.

3.2. Organizational Factors

A number of researchers have identified that certain factors such as organizational size,
organizational support, quality of human resources, top management’s leadership and cultures
of firms have a substantial effect on adoption intention of technology [14,41]. Lee [42] highlighted that
organizational learning capabilities, availability of resources, top management support and quality
of human resources have significant effects on green practices adoption. Lin and Ho [22,33] further
emphasized that organizational factors are represented by the quality of human resources, company
size, and organizational support. In this study, we included company size, quality of human resources
and top management support to denote organizational aspects, as they show a wider impact in
previous research.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6454 6 of 15

A company has a higher chance of adoption of technology when the company has qualified human
resources with a modern training facility and higher education. Tornatzky and Fleischer [14] have
supported this notion that employees with a higher quality of human resources significantly influence
the technological innovation adoption. A company can implement an advanced environmental
strategy when the company has a higher innovative capacity [43]. Moreover, it is difficult to transfer
knowledge within a firm if they have an absence of absorptive capacity. The knowledge barrier to a
green initiative can be overcome by providing specialized and extensive training of the employees in
the organization [22]. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 6 (H6). Quality of Human Resources Has a Positive Effect on GSCM Adoption Among SMEs
in Malaysia.

Organizational support influences the adoption intention of the technical systems. Lin and Ho [33]
explain that organizational support is important as a motivation for employees to implement green
practices. In the diffusion process of green practices, collaboration among different divisions and
departments is needed. Subsequently, top management has to encourage and endorse a successful
diffusion. Researchers stated that adoption of new innovation depends on top management support,
as it will provide sufficient resources necessary for the diffusion of the innovation [44]. This means that
top management support is another vital construct of the adoption of GSCM practices among SMEs in
Malaysia. Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed:

Hypothesis 7 (H7). Top Management Support Has a Positive Effect on GSCM Adoption among SMEs
in Malaysia.

Researchers highlighted that company size significantly influences the adoption decision of
technological innovation [45]. The size of the company seems to have an influence on the adoption of
innovation. Larger companies may have greater possibilities to accept innovation technology than a
smaller business entity [46]. Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed:

Hypothesis 8 (H8). There is a Positive Relationship between Company Size and GSCM Adoption among
SMEs in Malaysia.

3.3. Environmental Factors

Researchers exert that the external environment where firms conduct their business influences
the organizational innovation capability and innovation adoption intention. Innovation diffusion
researchers have identified several environmental variables such as the type of industry, network
relations and competition, environmental uncertainty and environmental munificence [14,30].
Researchers consistently identified the main influential factors in the diffusion of innovation and
environmental decision strategy, which are external resources and environmental uncertainty [14,47].
A study by Kimberly and Evanisko [48] on the organizational innovation for hospitals, found that
environmental uncertainty and complexity would influence innovation decisions. Damanpour [49]
emphasized that environmental uncertainty significantly influences organizational innovation adoption
decisions. The growing uncertainty of the environment lends support to a higher rate of new technology
adoption at an organization. Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed:

Hypothesis 9 (H9). Environmental Uncertainty Has a Positive Effect on GSCM Adoption among SMEs
in Malaysia.

Governmental support was determined as an environmental element which has an influence

on technological innovation adoption in an organization. Using regulations, the government can
discourage and encourage innovation adoption [14]. By providing pilot projects and financial incentives,
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6454 7 of 15

governments can stimulate technological innovation among SMEs. Lee [42] argued that government
support plays an important role in innovation adoption. It is proposed that government support might
affect the decision to adopt GSCM for SMEs. Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed:

Hypothesis 10 (H10). Governmental Support Has a Positive Effect on GSCM Adoption among SMEs
in Malaysia.

The stakeholders who are represented by groups or individuals affect a company’s activities.
Sharma and Henriques [50] confirmed that stakeholder pressure is one of the environmental factors
which will influence organizational behavior. It is important to consider stakeholder pressure as a
construct. Customer and regulators are a company’s most important stakeholders compared to other
groups of stakeholders [37,51]. Customer and regulatory pressure have a significant influence on firms’
environmental activities [42]. Thus, the following hypotheses were proposed:

Hypothesis 11 (H11). Regulatory Pressure has a Positive Effect on GSCM Adoption among SMEs in Malaysia.

Hypothesis 12 (H12). Customer Pressure has a Positive Effect on GSCM Adoption among SMEs in Malaysia.

4. Research Methodology
To examine the factors affecting the adoption of GSCM among SMEs in Malaysia, this study used
the questionnaire method to collect data from sampled SMEs. The questionnaire was developed based
on a review of studies analyzing similar theoretical constructs. The survey data was analyzed by using
the regression analysis method to test the proposed research hypotheses.

4.1. Sample and Data Collection

Manufacturing based SMEs were chosen as the sample in the study. This study focuses
on the manufacturing companies because many manufacturing operations often lead to several
negative environmental impacts, including air pollutants, waste disposal and fuel consumption in
Malaysia [52]. The prevalence of green concepts derives the need for implementing green practices in
the manufacturing industry. It is necessary to determine the manufacturing companies’ peculiarities
in their determination to face the environmental management problems, as well as to suggest useful
mechanisms for them.
All the sampled SMEs are collected in Klang Valley in Malaysia because Klang Valley is considered
as the main business hub in Malaysia where almost all SMEs have well equipped modern facilities [16].
A total of 1000 SMEs were chosen and were mailed the survey instruments consisting of a questionnaire,
a cover letter and a stamped reply envelope. The contact persons were either a top-level manager or
owner of the firms. There were twenty-four envelope returns due to a wrong mailing address or the
firms no longer existing.
Initially, 98 response questionnaires were received. Due to the small number of responses,
the researchers personally contacted the selected respondents through e-mail as well over the phone to
request SMEs to participate in the research. Some respondents agreed to provide feedback through
personal interview. Another 200 completed questionnaires were received during this second process of
data collection. Finally, 289 questionnaires were eligible for the analysis and other 9 questionnaires
were discarded.

4.2. Measuring Instrument

All variables measured in this research were drawn from some earlier innovation adoption studies.
To identify the level of disagreement and agreement with the statements in the survey, the 5-point
Likert scale was used for all measurement items. GSCM adoption decision was measured by how
likely it was that a company will use green practices [3].
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6454 8 of 15

The independent variables were grouped into technological, organizational and environmental
dimensions. Drawing on innovation diffusion literature, cost was measured based on the perceived
cost to adopt the green practices [15,16]. Relative advantage was measured by whether a green practice
could increase environmental and economic performance [13,33]. Complexity was measured by
whether green practices would be learned and used easily [13,33]. Compatibility was measured based
on the degrees of perceived fitness between the green practice and the company’s existing technologies
and processes [13,33]. Observability was measured based on the degree of perceived visibility of green
practices [13,39].
The quality of human resources can be measured according to employees’ learning
capabilities [14,33]. Top management support can be measured according to the degrees of the
company’s resource support and leaders’ attitudes toward environment issues [33,53]. The company
size can be measured by the number of employees it has.
The environmental uncertainty can be measured according to the degrees of changes in competitors’
innovative abilities, customers’ requirements and the development of new technologies [33].
Governmental support can be measured by whether a government provides financial and technical
support for adopting green practices [33,42]. Customer pressure and regulatory pressure can be
measured by asking the respondents to score the environmental pressure exerted by customers and
regulators, respectively [33,54].

4.3. Common Method Bias and Non-Response Bias

In this research, common method bias was performed because the same respondents responded
to the dependent and independent variables. Common method variance was tested using Harmon’s
one-factor test, as suggested by Podsakoff et al. [55]. Firstly, all independent variables were moved
into factor analysis and tested in a single factor. The first factor accounted for 37.4% of variance in the
variables, which was below 50%. From the factor analysis, more than a single factor appeared and
the majority of the variance did not account for one general factor; this confirmed no evidence of the
presence of common method bias.
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test was executed to examine the non-response bias. To test the
non-response bias, we compared 50 early responses that were received immediately with another
50 responses that were received after the follow-up. Significant differences were not found in this K-S
test. Thus, we can conclude that non-response bias is not the issue here.

4.4. Test of Reliability and Validity

The validity of the questionnaire survey was tested with exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The EFA
was conducted in this research because the adapted items in the development of the questionnaire
have not been applied in the Malaysian context. Table 1 shows the factor analysis results. To test the
suitability of the data for EFA, the sampling adequacy was measured with the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) technique. Principles axis factoring was carried out with varimax rotation. KMO values were
>0.50 for all individual variables, the overall KMO value was 0.92 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity
was significant (p < 0.001). A factor loading value of 0.50 was considered as the cut-off point in this
research. In this research, we identified eigenvalues of more than 1.0 where 11 factors were loaded
with eigenvalues of 1.0 and higher. The total variance explained for 12 factors was 74.28%. The factor
analysis results verified the validity of the questionnaire survey.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6454 9 of 15

Table 1. Factor Analysis.

Factors
Factor Loading Cronbach’s α
Technological Factors
Adoption cost
Initial set up cost is high 0.726
0.785
We need addition staff for adopting GSCM 0.845
Benefits and costs are not easy to justify 0.537
Relative Advantage
GSCM can provide better environmental performance 0.474
0.762
GSCM can provide higher economic benefits 0.597
GSCM will boost our organizational reputation 0.656
Complexity
Using GSCM needs much previous experience 0.872
0.737
Learning GSCM is difficult 0.889
Sharing knowledge of GSCM is difficult 0.545
Compatibility
GSCM are compatible with our operating procedures 0.671
0.769
GSCM are compatible with our company’s value 0.793
Integrating the GSCM with the company’s existing system is easy 0.734
Observability
GSCM will be adopted if we see other companies also using it 0.784 0.781
My company is confident that adopting GSCM will enhance the desired returns in
0.659
terms of profit
Organizational Factors
Quality of human resources
Staff are able to solve problems easily by using new technologies 0.536
Staff are able to provide new ideas for our organization 0.670 0.743
It is easier for our staff to learn new technologies 0.782
Our staff shares knowledge with each other 0.873
Top management support
Higher management always encourage our employees to learn GSCM knowledge 0.705
Necessary support for GSCM adoption within the firm is always given by our higher
0.588 0.801
management
Higher management would be enthusiastic about adopting GSCM 0.756
Necessary resources are provided by the higher management for the adoption of
0.852
GSCM
Environmental Factors
Environmental uncertainty
It is difficult to predict a competitor’s behavior 0.677 0.813
It is always good to vary customers’ choice 0.619
Governmental support
There is financial support offered by the Government for implementing GSCM 0.691
0863
There are training opportunities provided by the government to adopt GSCM 0.734
The government has given technical support for adopting GSCM 0.805
Regulatory pressure Regulatory pressure
Environmental regulations for production are set by the government 0.596
0.855
It is important for us to provide information to industrial associations about
0.623
environmental regulations
Customer pressure
Environmental performance needs to improve due to customer pressure 0.748 0.716
Our customers require us to care about the environment 0.831
Intention to adopt GSCM
Our company intends to adopt GSCM 0.929
Our company intends to use GSCM regularly in the future 0.892 0.860
Our company would highly recommend GSCM for other companies to adopt 0.842

In addition, Cronbach Alpha value was calculated to test the reliability of the data (see Table 1).
For each construct, reliability coefficients representing the adoption of cleaner production were more
than 0.7 (in between 0.805 to 0.971).
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6454 10 of 15

5. Research Results and Discussions

We employed regression analysis to test the hypotheses. The equality of variance, independence
of errors and assumption of multivariate normal distribution were tested. No auto correlation exists
as the Durbin-Watson value is 1.912, which has shown an acceptance range of between 1.5 to 2.5.
The tolerance value for the multicollinearity statistics results showed that the tolerance value for cost,
environmental uncertainty, quality of human resources, relative advantage, complexity, regulatory
pressure, compatibility, customer pressure and governmental support and top management support
found in multicollinearity statistics were all higher than 0.1 and all VIF value smaller than 10. Thus,
it can be concluded that a multicollinearity problem does not exist for the independent constructs.
The regression results are shown in Table 2. The higher F-value (F = 88.793, p < 0.001) indicates a
good model fit. The coefficient of determination, R2 was 0.746 shows that for the model, 74.6% of the
variance explained in SMEs adoption of GSCM. In the prediction model, the research results show
that all hypotheses were found to be significant except for observability and government support.
The support for the ten hypotheses can be seen in the results on the relationship between the cost and
GSCM adoption intention (t = −5.657; p < 0.001), relative advantage on GSCM adoption intention
(t = 2.798; p < 0.010), complexity on GSCM adoption intention (t = −2.776; p < 0.01), compatibility on
GSCM adoption intention (t = 3.666; p < 0.001), quality of human resources on GSCM adoption intention
(t = 3.736; p < 0.001), top management support on GSCM adoption intention (t = 8.410; p < 0.001),
company size on GSCM adoption intention (t = 2.934; p < 0.010), environmental uncertainty on GSCM
adoption intention (t = 3.972; p < 0.001), regulatory pressure on GSCM adoption intention (t = 4.465;
p < 0.001) and customer pressure on GSCM adoption intention (t = 4.694; p < 0.001). The regression
results show that all hypotheses are supported except hypotheses 5 and 10.

Table 2. Regression Results.

Standardized
Hypotheses t-Value p-Value Result
Coefficients (β)
H1: Cost −0.245 −5.657 0.000 Supported
H2: Relative advantage 0.110 2.798 0.010 Supported
H3: Complexity −0.081 −2.776 0.010 Supported
H4: Compatibility 0.152 3.666 0.000 Supported
H5: Observability 0.056 1.308 0.192 Not Supported
H6: Quality of human resource 0.139 3.736 0.000 Supported
H7: Top management support 0.297 8.410 0.001 Supported
H8: Company size 0.134 2.934 0.010 Supported
H9: Environmental uncertainty 0.179 3.972 0.000 Supported
H10: Governmental support 0.043 1.346 0.179 Not Supported
H11: Regulator pressure 0.194 4.465 0.000 Supported
H12: Customer pressure 0.201 4.694 0.000 Supported

The research findings show that the hypothesis 1 is supported. Perceived cost is an important
factor of GSCM adoption intention. The result is consistent with the previous study conducted by
Seyal and Rahim [35]. Although cost has been anticipated as one of the major inhibitors for technology
adoption, some researchers argued that, in order to make cost-effective production in an organization,
the cost may motivate adopters to accept innovative technologies in their organization [13,32].
Hypothesis 2 is also supported, which proposed that relative advantage has a significant effect on
GSCM adoption intention. Our research results show that the relative advantage has a positive and
significant influence on GSCM adoption intention among SMEs in Malaysia. Some previous innovation
adoption research also supported our results [16,54]. Therefore, through this finding, we suggest that
technology adoption is more likely to happen when GSCM is perceived as being better and beneficial
to SMEs in Malaysia. The perception of relative advantage is that a new innovation is much better
than its substitute idea.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6454 11 of 15

Hypothesis 3 is supported, which proposed that complexity has a significant negative effect
on GSCM adoption intention among SMEs in Malaysia. The result is consistent with the study of
Alam et al. [15]. If the new technology is complex in nature, then companies are reluctant to use
it. Complexity of green practices may be due to them containing implicit knowledge which needs
laborious efforts to learn and diffuse [33]. This might affect the adoption of GSCM practices among
SMEs in Malaysia.
Hypothesis 4 is supported, which implies that higher levels of perceived compatibility are related
to a greater rate of GSCM adoption intention among SMEs in Malaysia. The result is consistent
with previous studies in China [33]. GSCM practices should be seen as a method of integration and
knowledge gathering rather than being implemented in a silo. The ability for green technology GSCM
to diffuse among SMEs in Malaysia requires it to have compatibility with the firm’s current technologies
and processes.
The regression coefficient of observability is not statistically significant in the regression model.
Hypothesis 5 is not supported in the study. In Malaysia, many industries have sought to make supply
chain function greener. The emergence of new green supply chain functions changes the nature of
supply chain function, but the function cannot be seen until the actual change happens. Alternatively,
we can say that it has not been operationalized effectively.
Hypothesis 6 is supported in the study. The result confirms a significant relationship between the
quality of human resources and GSCM adoption intention among SMEs in Malaysia. Similar result can
be found in the study conducted by Lin and Ho [33]. Due to the complex procedures of green practices
in the organization, this requires cross-disciplinary coordination and needs to change the current
operation procedure significantly. A company has to provide extensive training to their employees
to overcome the knowledge gap and also requires specialized training to understand the underlying
innovation. Hence, trained employees are important to implement GSCM among SMEs in Malaysia.
Hypothesis 7 is supported in the study, which implies that the top management support would
be the most important construct influencing GSCM adoption decision. Top management support
has a major influence on innovation technology adoption. In SMEs, owners or managers are the top
management who plays a significant role in any decision making process. Other studies [30] lend
support to this finding that top management are the key role players to adopt GSCM among SMEs
in Malaysia.
Hypothesis 8 is supported in the study. In the Malaysian context, the research results show that
the size of the company positively and significantly affects GSCM adoption intention among SMEs.
The positive influence of company size shows the importance of company size in predicting innovation
diffusion. The results of this study are similar to previous studies [14,41]. Company size is an important
variable in the environmental debate. It is one of the structural variables that seems to most influence
the implementation of green practices [37]. Implementing corporate environmental strategies requires
knowledge and application of environmental management tools, the literature claims that company
size would affect the knowledge and application of environmental practices [42]. Larger companies
have more resources to devote to environmental management.
Hypothesis 9 is supported in the study, which indicates that the environmental uncertainty is a
significant predictor of GSCM adoption intention among SMEs in Malaysia. The result is consistent
with the findings of Ho et al. [54], which highlighted that environmental uncertainty significantly
influenced technology adoption decisions.
The regression coefficient of government support is not statistically significant in the regression
model. Hypothesis 10 is not supported in the study. The government support does not have a significant
and positive influence on GSCM adoption intention among SMEs in Malaysia. The reason may be that
Malaysian government has taken much initiatives to support firms to adopt green technology in their
production and supply chain process. So, the respondents of the study might feel that this factor is not
so significant.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6454 12 of 15

Finally, the regulatory pressure and customer pressure are found to be the two important
determinants on GSCM adoption intention by SMEs in Malaysia. Other research also found that
regulatory and customer pressure drives technology diffusion [54]. In fact, researchers like Sharma and
Henriques [50] have also identified regulatory pressure and customer pressure as two key determinants
in technology adoption. Hypotheses 11 and 12 are supported in the study.

6. Conclusions
In this study, we proposed an integration model based on TOE and DOI theory to explore the
factors that affect the adoption intention of GSCM practices among SMEs in Malaysia. The research
findings show that technological, organizational and environmental factors may influence SMEs’
GSCM adoption decision. The perceived cost, perceived relative advantage, compatibility, perceived
complexity, top management support, quality of human resources, firms size, regulatory pressure,
customer pressure and environmental uncertainty are statistically significant factors influencing GSCM
adoption intention among SMEs. However, observability and government support do not have
significant influences on Malaysian SMEs’ GSCM adoption. Through the conceptual lens of DOI and
TOE, this paper identified the theoretical gap and bridged the different perspectives and scopes of
research by exploring the influences of technological, organizational and environmental characteristics
on the GSCM adoption intention among Malaysian SMEs.

6.1. Implications
This study adds value to the lack of theoretical foundation in supply chain management area
and serves as a guideline for understanding successful implementation of GSCM among SMEs in
Malaysia. Previous studies employed individual approach with limited viewpoint on the complex
GSCM adoption. This study applies a different approach by using an integration of two models,
TOE and DOI, as supply chain management itself is complex and organizations need to consider
various constructs which contribute to GSCM adoption. The study which deploys the integration of
TOE and DOI has successfully proven a new theoretical framework in the context of GSCM.
The synthesis in this paper extends the GSCM knowledge and contributes to the existing GSCM
body of literature. It further emphasizes the relevancy of applying multiple approaches in GSCM area
of research. This study also serves as a basis for future studies and attracts more academic arguments
to further fine-tune the suggested propositions. As this paper applies a new proposed theoretical
perspective, future research is encouraged to carry out comprehensive literature reviews. It will be
interesting to verify the concept through case studies or empirical research and reinforce the proposed
theoretical framework. Therefore, qualitative research design is recommended for future research to
validate the identified constructs which have significant impact on GSCM adoption intention among
Malaysian SMEs.
The results of this present research also show important implications for the management of
Malaysian SMEs and other developing countries, government policy makers and system suppliers that
are particularly involved in green initiative. SMEs that are prioritizing moving to green manufacturing
and green solution suppliers should consider the value of relative advantage, complexity of systems
and compatibility of the system use to potential markets. Management of the SMEs needs to give
due emphasis to personnel development though various training programs. Management also must
consider other environmental constructs that could have impacts on their green initiative, which was
the important predictor in this current research. For the legislation and regulatory aspects, authorities
must consider the key driver of economic and environmental issues in this present competitive business
environment and need to identify what regulation can be the right regulation that could be utilized to
further help implement GSCM among SMEs. Finally, this research will also help firms in the acceptance
of green initiative or adoption of GSCM which will produce new products for their future market.
Based on this study results, firms can make sure that the implemented policies could be made smoother
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6454 13 of 15

by taking into consideration the innovation characteristics that their employees will are most likely
unaware of.
This study also provides managerial implications which may encourage academics to explore
more potential constructs in their future research. The study may also benefit practitioners, especially
Malaysian SMEs. The study has proven that in ensuring successful adoption of GSCM, enhancing
significant constructs of TOE and DOI should be the prime focus. Supply chain management is an
expansive, complex undertaking which describes inter-connectedness and inter-dependencies across
a network where a change in one factor can have an effect on other factors. As proven from the
findings, all organizational factors have significant effect on GSCM adoption intention. Only one
factor (observability) of technological characteristics and government support from environmental
context does not significantly affect GSCM adoption intention. Practitioners, however, should also
give attention to these two factors, as the rapid changes in technology may require businesses to be
agile and become independent capable entities to survive in volatile environments.

6.2. Limitation and Further Research Direction

There are some limitations in the study, which needs further exploration in future research. Firstly,
this study focused on examining only the SMEs located in the main area of Malaysia and their intention
to adopt GSCM practices. Further research can explore other states in Malaysia. Secondly, in this study,
data were collected from only manufacturing companies. It will be beneficial to further understand
the intention to implement the GSCM in different type of business and industrial sectors across the
nation. Finally, only 12 factors were proposed in this study. There may be other potential factors
influencing GSCM adoption. Further research can consider more variables in a GSCM adoption model,
for example, the role of supply chain partners in the adoption of GSCM. In addition to understanding
implementation of GSCM among SMEs in Malaysia, this study proposes an integration of two models,
TOE and DOI, in GSCM research. Green supply chain management is a complex system which requires
organizations to consider various constructs influencing GSCM adoption. The integration of TOE
and DOI has been proved to be a suitable theoretical framework in explaining the implementation
of GSCM in the study. The proposed integration framework may be applicable for analyzing GSCM
implementation outside Malaysia. Further research can apply the integration of TOE and DOI to
explore the implementation of GSCM among SMEs in other countries.

Author Contributions: S.S.A., Y.-H.H. and C.-Y.L. conceptualized the central research idea and provided the
theoretical framework carried out the research. Y.-H.H. wrote and revised the article. M.E.A.-S. and P.S. designed
the research, supervised research progress. C.-Y.L. anchored the review, revisions and approved the article
submission. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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