MODERN PHYSICS

OLAJIDE HERITAGE TIMOTHY

Table of Content

1. Atomic Structure
2. Atomic Spectrum
3. Electromagnetic Radiation
4. Photons Interaction with Matter
5. Laser Principle

. X-Rays
7. Wave-Particle Paradox

. Radio Activity
9. Electronics

10. Transistors
ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Atom

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that takes place in a chemical reaction. Away from
Dalton's theory that stated that “atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element”,this is not true

because in recent researches,atom consist of over 46 sub-particles but the major sub-particles
are:proton,neutron and the electron.

Contributors to the discovery of Proton,Neutron and Electron

Charge Representation Discovery Atomic mass unit

J.j.Thompson using
Electron -ve cathode ray tube 0.00054

experiment

R.A. Milikan using oil

-1.6*10^-19C
drop experiment

Proton +Ve J.J. Thompson 1.00727

1.6*10^-19C
 Charge Representation Discovery Atomic mass unit

Chadwick using
alpha particle to
Neutron 1.00867
bombard beryllium

plate.

Thompson Model Of The Atom

J.J. Thompson in 1908 proposed that an atom is spherical in shape with a radius of 1A°(1A°≈10^-10m)

in which the positive charge is uniformly distributed. The electrons are embedded in such a way as to

give the most stable electrostatic arrangement.

Rutherford Model Of The Atom

Postulate:

1. Electron and Nucleus are held together by electrostatic force.

2. The nucleus are surrounded by electrons that move around the nucleus with a very high speed in a

planetary motion.
3. The positive charge and most of the atoms are densely concentrated in the nucleus.

Limitations:

The model could not explain the conservation of energy and momentum.
The model could not explain the stability of an atom as a whole.

The planetary motion of electrons round the nucleus despite the attractive electropositive force

cannot be explained.

It could not explain the radiating energy of photons and the continuous spectrum as electrons move
from one energy level to another.

Bohr Model Of The Atom

Postulate:

1. As long as the electrons revolve in a particular orbit, they can neither gain nor lose energy.

2. The angular momentum of an electron is an integral multiple of h/2πmvr = Nh/2π.

3. When an electron jumps from higher orbit to a lower orbit, it releases energy in form of radiation

and when an electron jumps from lower orbit to a higher orbit, it absorbs energy in form of

radiation.

4. According to Bohr's theory, electrons revolve in definite circular orbit around the nucleus and these

orbits are designed by the letters K,L,M,N or by the numbers 1,2,3,4 and so on.
5. It explains the stability of an atom and also the line spectrum of hydrogen atom.

Limitations:

1. Bohr model failed to explain zeeman effect.

2. Bohr model failed explain spectrum of atoms other than hydrogen atom.

3. Bohr model could not give better explanation of hydrogen spectrum because it could not explain

the spectrum when two spectral lines are very close to each other,i.e doublet.

4. It could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecule by chemical bonds.

Bohr's Atom

Fe = KZe²/r²....(1)-- electrostatic force;

Fc = mv²/r...(2)-- centripetal force

Equate equation (1) and (2);

mv²/r = KZe²/r²

mv² = KZe²/r

Since v and r is quantized;

mv² = KZe²/r; r = KZe²/mv²...(3)

Recall; L = mvr = NH/2π:

mvr = NH/2π

r = nh/2πmv....(4)

Equate equation (3) and (4);

KZe²/mv² = NH/2πmv

v = 2πKZe²/NH

v is the velocity of orbiting electron in a given orbit.

NB: For Hydrogen atom, Z = 1

Bohr's radius, from equation (4)

r = NH/2πmv

r = NH/2πm * NH/2πKZe²

r = n²h²/4πmKZe²

r is the radius occupied by orbiting electron

Energy of an electron in a given orbit in Hydrogen atom;

En = -13.6eV/n²

eV = 1.9*10-¹⁹j

The energy difference;

E = Ei - Ef

Ei is initial energy and Ef is final energy.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

1. What is the highest state that unexcited hydrogen atom can reach when they are bombarded with

-2.8eV electrons? Ans. n=2

2. What is the minimum accelerating potential that will enable an electron to excite a hydrogen atom

of it's ground state to energy level of n=3? Ans. v=12.1volts.

ATOMIC SPECTRUM

Spectrum is an array of entity,as light waves or particles,ordered in accordance with magnitudes of a

common physical property.

Atomic Spectrum is the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed during transitions

of electrons between energy levels within an atom.

Types Of Atomic Spectra

1. Emission Spectrum: These are obtained by subjecting a substance to an electrical stimulation or

excitation by using electric care,spark or discharge. It is classified into three namely; (a) Line
Spectra (b) Bond Spectra (c) Continuous Spectra.
2. Absorption Spectra(Fraunhofer Line): These are formed when light of a particular wavelength is

absorbed by passing through a substance. In this case, black lines are found in spectrum
corresponding to the wavelength absorbed.
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Planck's Theory

Planck's Theory states that “the energy radiated from a blackbody is emitted in separate pasket of
energy, which is a whole number multiple of the minimum energy (which is called the quantum of
energy)”.

E = nhf, n=1,2,3,......

Ultraviolet Catastrophe

The word “ultraviolet” refers to the error in the short wavelength (high frequency) region of the

electromagnetic spectrum.
Hence, Ultraviolet Catastrophe is the error at the short wavelength or high frequency in the Rayleigh

Jeans Law( which is a prediction of classical physics) for the energy emitted by an ideal black body.
PHOTONS INTERACTION WITH MATTER

When photon interact with matter,some of the energy which it absorbs can lead to:

1. Photoelectric effect:

This process occur when light of suitable energy irradiate the surface of a metal which causes the
release of electrons by overcoming the barrier surface energy. Mathematically, according to Herbert

Einstein;
E = W° + K.Emax

Where, E is Photon energy, W° is work function and K.Emax is maximum kinetic energy.

E = hf = hc/λ

f is the photon frequency and λ is the photon wavelength

W⁰ = hf⁰ = hc/λ⁰

f⁰ is the threshold frequency and λ⁰ is the threshold wavelength.

h is the Planck's constant = 6.63*10-¹⁹j

c is the speed light = 3*10-⁸m/s.

Work Function: This is the minimum energy required to liberate electron from the surface of a metal by
an incidence photon. It is measured in joules or eV.

Threshold Frequency: This is the minimum frequency required by an incidence photon to liberate
electron from the surface of a metal. It is measured in Hertz(Hz).
Threshold wavelength: This is the maximum wavelength required by an incidence photon to liberate
electron from the surface of a metal. It is measured in meter.

Photoelectrons: These are electrons ejected from the surface of a metal when light of suitable electron

irradiates it.

Electron volt(eV): This is the unit of energy which is the amount of potential difference needed to liberate

an electron.

Stoping Potential

This is a negative voltage applied across the cathode and anode of a solar cell which prevents the
ejected photoelectrons at the cathode from reaching the anode. It is also known as “retarding voltage”.
Vs = E-W°/e

Where, Vs is stopping potential, e is electron charge.

2. Compton's Effect:

This is a photon interaction with essentially free and stationary but loosely bound orbital electron in a
material resulting to an increase in wavelength between the initial and the scattered photon.

3. Attenuation/Absorption of Photon:

When photons interact with matter and penetrate through it, the intensity will be reduced as it emerges

from the material. Hence,the material has attenuated the incidence photon.
I = I°e^-μx

Where, I is emergent photon, I° is incidence photon, μ is attenuation coefficient and x is the thickness.

Half Value Layer

Half Value Layer is the thickness of a given material that would reduce the intensity of photon to half as

it passes through the material.

4. Pair Production:
In the process of pair production, the energy carried by a photon is completely converted into matter,

resulting in the creation of an electron-position pair.

5. Pair Annihilation:

This is the inverse of pair production; in which a position-electron is annihilated, resulting in the creation
of two (or more) photons.

SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS

1. What are the speed and momentum of a 500-nm photon? Ans. 2.998*10^8m/s,133*10^-²⁷kg.m/s
2. Electrons with a maximum kinetic energy of 3.00KeV are ejected from a metal surface by
ultraviolet radiation of wavelength 150-nm. Determine the work function of the metal. Ans. 5.27eV
3. What is the wavelength of light in which photon have an energy of 600eV? Ans. 2.07nm

4. The threshold wavelength for photoelectric emission in tungsten is 240nm. What wavelength is
needed in order that the emitted photoelectrons have a maximum K.E of 1.2eV?. Ans. 1.95*10-⁷m
5. A metal has a work function of 2eV and is illuminated by a mono chromatic light of wavelength
4.5*10-⁷m. Calculate; (a) the threshold wavelength (b) maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron.
Ans. 4.8*10-¹⁶Hz, 1.22*10-¹⁹j
LASER PRINCIPLE

The name “LASER” is an acronym for; Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. LASER is

a light source that produces a beam of highly coherent and very nearly monochromatic light as a result
of co-operative emission from many atoms.

SPONTANEOUS EMISSION

This is the process by which excited atoms that absorbs photons lose their energy to return to the
ground level by each emitting a photon randomly with the same frequency as the one originally absorbed
with different direction and phase.

STIMULATED EMISSION

This is the process by which excited atoms that had previously absorb photon are further induced with
photons which leads to resonance effect that cause the atoms to emit second photons with the same
frequency, direction, phase, and polarization as the incident photon, which is not charged by the process

POPULATION INVERSION

This is a non equilibrium situation in which the number of atoms in the higher energy state is greater
than the number in a lower energy state. This, the rate of energy radiation by Stimulated emission can
exceed the rate of absorption.

Application Of LASER

1. To catalyze chemical reactions.

2. To perform bloodless surgery.

3. In the creation of plasma.

X-Rays

X-rays are high energy photon with a wavelength of the order of 1A°(10^-10m). They are produced by

bombarding a target (usually metals) with a beam of high energy electrons. The kinetic energy of the
electrons emitted at the cathode by thermionic emission is negligible so that when they strike the target,
the electrons have kinetic energy.The ejected electrons are then accelerated to the target (anode) by
connecting a high accelerating voltage between the cathode and the anode. Therefore, when the
accelerated electrons hit the target, X-rays are produced.

Properties of X-rays

1. They are electromagnetic waves.

2. They have high penetrating power.

3. They are uncharged.
4. They can cause fluorescence is many materials.
5. They have much shorter wavelength than light waves.

Applications of X-rays

1. X-ray crystallography.
2. Atomic spectroscopy.

Uses of X-rays

1. To determine counterfeit cheques.

2. To determine defects in artifacts.
 3. To determine fractures in bridges.
4. It is used in radio diagnosis.

5. It can be used for treatment of cancer and tumor.

Miscellaneous Questions

1. Differentiate between soft and hard X-rays.

2. Differentiate between X-rays and gamma rays.
WAVE-PARTICLE PARADOX (DUALITY)

This phenomenon explain the existence of a quantum entity in behaving like a wave at a certain instance
and as a particle at other instances. When a particle behave as a wave, it's wavelength is the ratio of
Planck's constant to it's linear momentum. This relation is known as “De Broglie's Hypothesis”.

λ = h/P

Where, h is the Planck's constant, P is linear momentum and λ is De Broglie's wavelength.

P = mv

Where, m is the mass of the particle and v is the speed of the particle.

In relation to kinetic energy;

λ = h/√2mK.E

Where, K.E is kinetic energy and λ is De Broglie's Wavelength

In relation to charged particles;

λ = h/√2mQV

Where Q is Charge of the particle and and V is the Voltage.

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that it is impossible to measure accurately and simultaneously
both the momentum and position of a quantum entity.

Δx*ΔP = h/4π

Where, Δx is uncertainty in position and ΔP is uncertainty in momentum.

Since, P = mv
Δx*mΔV = h/4π

Where m is the mass and ΔV is uncertainty in speed.

In terms of energy and time, Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that it is impossible to measure

accurately and simultaneously both the energy and time of a quantum entity.

ΔE*Δt = h/4π

Where, ΔE is uncertainty in energy and Δt is uncertainty in time.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

1. A sodium is illuminated with a light of energy 3.5eV. The work function of sodium metal is 2.46eV.

Find; (a) the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons (b) the De Broglie's wavelength of
one of the ejected electrons. Ans. 1.66*10-¹⁹j, 1.21*10-⁹m
2. Find the De Broglie's wavelength of a baseball of mass 0.17kg moving at 100km/hr. Ans. 1.404*10-
³⁴m
3. What is the potential difference required in the electron microscope used in biology lab in LASU to

give an electron at a wavelength of 0.5*10-¹⁰m? Ans. 603.80v

4. Suppose that the momentum of a certain particle can be measured to an accuracy of one part in a
thousand. Determine the minimum uncertainty in the position of the particle of the particle is of
mass 5*10-³kg and moving with a speed of 2m/s. Ans. 5.27*10-³⁰m
5. An electron having a velocity of 2*10⁶m/s has uncertainty in kinetic energy of 6.62*10-³⁴j. (a) what
is the uncertainty in the position of the electron? (b) what is the De Broglie's wavelength of the

electron? 159,375m, 3.64*10-¹⁰m

. A LASU student examine an E-coli under a microscope swimming with a speed of 1.7*10-⁶m/s and
having a mass of 1*10-¹⁵g. If its speed is measured to an accuracy of 3%, what is the uncertainty in
the bacterium's position? Ans. 1.03*20-³⁴m

NB: UNCERTAINTY/ACTUAL VALUE ≈ ACCURACY

RADIO ACTIVITY

Radio Activity is the spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of an atom which result to the emission
of radiation and heat. Radio Activity is a statistical event in which the atom that will decay can never be
predicted. Radioactivity is of two types; (a) Natural (b) Artificial.

Types of Radio active decay

1. Alpha decay.
2. Beta decay.
3. Gamma decay.

Radio active decay Law

Radio active decay Law states that the rate of decay (number of disintegration per second) of a

radioactive substance/atom is directly proportional to the number of atoms present at any given time.

N = N⁰e^-λt

Where, N is the number of a radioactive atoms present after decay at a time, t = t. N° is the original
number of atoms present before decay at a time, t = 0. t is the time of decay and λ is the decay constant.

Fraction remaining, Fr = N/N° = e^-λt

Fraction decayed, Fd = 1-Fr = 1-N/N° = 1-e^-λt

Half Life

Half Life is the time taken for a radioactive sample to decay to half its initial or original size.

T(1/2) = In 2/λ = 0.693/λ

Activity
This is defined as the rate of disintegration of a radioactive sample per time. It is measured in Curem or

Bq of which one Curem is 3.7*10^-10 disintegration per time while one Bq is one disintegration per
second.

Binding energy of a Nucleus

The binding energy of a Nucleus is the minimum energy required to disintegrate the nucleus of an atom
into its respective nucleon. According to Herbert Einstein,

B.E. = ΔmC^2

Where, B.E. is the binding energy, Δm is the mass defect and C is the speed of light.

Mass Defect

This is the difference in mass between the sum of the masses of the nucleus and the mass of the

nuclei.

Nuclear Reaction

There are two types of nuclear reactions; (a) nuclear fission (b) nuclear fusion.

Nuclear Fission

This is a nuclear reaction in which a radio nuclei with heavy nucleus split into smaller but nearly equal
masses nuclei resulting to the emission of radiation and heat.

Nuclear Fusion

This is a nuclear reaction in which small stable nuclei combine to form an atom atom with heavier
nucleus resulting to the emission of radiation and heat.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS
1. The half life is Carbon-14 is 5.7*10³years. What fraction of a sample of the carbon-14 will remain
after a period of 5 lives? Ans. 0.03
2. A radioactive isotope has a half life of 10 days. What is the time required for the activity of the
isotope to fall to 16 of its original value? Ans. 40days

3. The radioactive isotope of Strontium-90 has a half life of 38.1yrs. If a sample contains 100mg of
Sr-90. How many mg will remain after 152.4yrs? Ans. 6.25mg
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

Electronics is a branch of physics that deals with the emission, behavior, and effects of electrons (as in
electron tubes and transistors) and with electronic devices.

Conductors

1. The conduction and valence bond overlap

2. The conduction bond is totally filled with electrons
3. Examples are all kind of metals and graphite.

Semi-Conductors

1. The conduction and valence bond are separated by a small energy difference which is called the

forbidden gap
2. The conduction bond is partially filled with electrons
3. Examples are silicon and germanium.

Insulators

1. They have extreme gap between the conduction and valence bond
2. The conduction bond is totally empty

3. Examples are diamond,ceramic,mica and PVC.

NB: Semi-Conductors can be classified into two; 1. Intrinsic Semi-Conductors (they do not contain
impurities), 2. Extrinsic Semi-Conductors (they contain impurities).

PN Junction Diode
A diode is an electronic device that allows the flow of current in one direction.
PN Junction Diode is a diode formed when a pure crystal bar of silicon are doped equally by impurities
of different kind at both ends.

Forward and Reverse Bias of Diode

A diode is said to be forward bias when P region is connected to the positive terminal of a cell and the N
region to the negative terminal of the same cell.
A diode is said to be reverse bias when P region is connected to the negative terminal of a cell and the N
region to the positive terminal of the same cell.

Applications of Diode

1. It is used in rectification,i.e. conversion of A.C. to D.C.

2. It is used in voltage surge protector in electronic devices.

Rectifier

Rectifier is a diode or combination of diodes that convert A.C. to D.C. There are two types: 1. Half-wave
rectifier; classified into center tap transformer (2 diodes) and bridge rectifier (4 diodes), 2. Full-wave
rectifier.
TRANSISTORS

A transistor is an electronic device which consist of three terminals/regions in which an N type is

sandwich into two P terminals/regions or a P type is sandwich into two N terminals/regions.

Types of Transistors (Bipolar Junction Transistors), BJT

1. PNP
2. NPN

Applications of Transistors

1. It is used to amplify signals

2. It is used as electronic switch
3. It is used as an oscillator in feedback network.
HINTS
e = electron charge = -1.6*10^-¹⁹c

p = proton charge = 1.6*10^-¹⁹c

c = coulomb
1A° = 10^-¹⁰m
A° = Angstrom
h = Planck's constant = 6.63*10-³⁴j/s
C = speed of light = 3*10^⁸m/s