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UEC1602 Wireless Communications

Prabagarane.N
prabagaranen@ssn.edu.in
Session Meta Data

Author Prabagarane N

Reviewer

Version Number 1

Release Date 20 Jan 2021

2 v1
Revision History

Revision Date Details Version


no.

3 v1
Introduction
• For most wireless systems, multiple devices should communicate
simultaneously in the same area.

• It is therefore necessary to provide means for multiple access.

• For most first- and second-generation cellular systems, as well as


for cordless phones and wireless Local Area Networks (LANs),
different devices communicate either on different frequencies or at
different times.

• The multiple-access schemes based on that principle (called


frequency-division multiple access, time-division multiple access,
and packet radio).

4 v1
Introduction
• A different type of multiple access is based on spreading the signal
over a large bandwidth, and to make that spreading unique for each
user.

• This allows multiple users to be on the air simultaneously, and the


receiver can determine from the spreading which part of the “on-air”
signal comes from which user.

• This spread-spectrum approach, is used, e.g., for third-generation


cellular systems in the form of Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA).

5 v1
Session Objectives

• The objectives of this session is to introduce

• Duplexing and Multiple access schemes

• TDMA

• FDMA

• System capacity

6 v1
Session Outcomes

At the end of the session, the student will be able to:

• Analyze access scheme based of frequency

• Understand the advantages of access scheme based on time

• Analyze the effect of C/I on the system capacity

7 v1
Outline

• General Wireless System Architecture

• Media Access Control

– Classes of MAC protocols


– Simplex and Duplex Channels

• Coordinated MAC Schemes

– FDMA
– TDMA
• Capacity of TDMA systems and which factors affect the capacity.

8 v1
Multiple Access
• How can we share a wireless channel:
– Results in Wireless Media Access Control Protocols
• How we can change base stations: Results in Handoff
algorithms and protocols
• How can we seamlessly support mobile applications
over wireless links:
– Results in mobility protocols like Mobile IP, Cellular
IP, etc.
• How can we design efficient transport protocols over
wireless links:
– Results in solutions like SNOOP, I-TCP, M-TCP, etc.
• How different wireless networks/systems are designed?
– Bluetooth, IEEE 802.11, GSM, etc.
9 v1
Medium Access Control
• Wireless spectrum (frequency band) is a very precious and
limited resource.
– We need to use this resource very efficiently
• We also want our wireless system to have high user capacity
– A lot of (multiple) users should be able to use the system
at the same time.
• For these reasons most of the time, multiple users (or
stations, computers, devices) need to share the wireless
channel that is allocated and used by a system.
– The algorithms and protocols that enables this sharing by
multiple users and controls/coordinates the access to the
wireless channel (medium) from different users are called
MEDIUM ACCESS, or MEDIA ACCESS or MULTIPLE ACCESS
protocols, techniques, schemes, etc…)
10 v1
Wireless Media Access Control
• Random Schemes (Less-Coordinated)
– Examples: MACA, MACAW, Aloha, 802.11 MAC,…
– More suited for wireless networks that are designed
to carry data: IEEE 802.11 Wireless LANs
• Coordinated Schemes
– Examples: TDMA, FDMA, CDMA
– More suited for wireless networks that are designed
to carry voice: GSM, AMPS, IS-95,…
• Polling based Schemes
– Examples: Bluetooth, BlueSky,…
– Access is coordinated by a central node
– Suitable for Systems that wants low-power, aims to
carry voice and data at the same time.
11 v1
Duplexing
• It is sharing the media between two parties.
• If the communication between two parties is one way,
the it is called simplex communication.
• If the communication between two parties is two- way,
then it is called duplex communication.
• Simplex communication is achieved by default by using
a single wireless channel (frequency band) to transmit
from sender to receiver.
• Duplex communication achieved by:
– Time Division (TDD)
– Frequency Division (FDD)
– Some other method like a random access method
12 v1
Duplexing
• Usually the two parties that want to communication in a
duplex manner (both send and receive) are:
– A mobile station
– A base station
• Two famous methods for duplexing in cellular systems
are:
– TDD: Time Division Duplex
– FDD: Frequency Division Duplex

13 v1
Duplexing - FDD
 A duplex channel consists of two
simplex channel with different F
carrier frequencies B M
– Forward band: carries traffic
from base to mobile Base R Mobile
– Reverse band: carries traffic Station Station
from mobile to base

Reverse Forward
Channel Channel

fc,R fc,,F frequency

Frequency separation

Frequency separation should be carefully decided


Frequency separation is constant
14
Duplexing - FDD

15 v1
Duplexing - TDD
 A single radio channel (carrier
frequency) is shared in time in a
deterministic manner.
– The time is slotted with fixed slot B M
length (sec)
Base Mobile
– Some slots are used for forward
channel (traffic from base to mobile) Station Station
– Some slots are used for reverse
channel (traffic from mobile to base)

Slot number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 …
channel F R F R F R F R ….

Reverse Forward
Channel Channel

Ti Ti+1 time

Time separation
16
TDD

17 v1
Duplexing –TDD versus FDD
• FDD
– FDD is used in radio systems that can allocate individual radio
frequencies for each user.
• For example analog systems: AMPS
– In FDD channels are allocated by a base station.
– A channel for a mobile is allocated dynamically
– All channels that a base station will use are allocated usually
statically.
– More suitable for wide-area cellular networks: GSM, AMPS all
use FDD
• TDD
– Can only be used in digital wireless systems (digital modulation).
– Requires rigid timing and synchronization
– Mostly used in short-range and fixed wireless systems so that
propagation delay between base and mobile do not change
much with respect to location of the mobile.
18 • Such as cordless phones…
v1
Multiple Access - Coordinated
• We will look now sharing the media by more than two
users.
• Three major multiple access schemes
– Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• Could be used in narrowband or wideband systems
– Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
• Usually used narrowband systems
– Code Division Multiple Access
• Used in wideband systems.

19 v1
Narrow- and Wideband Systems
• Narrowband System
– The channel bandwidth (frequency band allocated for
the channel is small)
• More precisely, the channel bandwidth is large compared to the
coherence bandwidth of the channel (remember that coherence
bandwidth is related with reciprocal of the delay spread of multipath
channel)
• AMPS is a narrowband system (channel bandwidth is 30kHz in one-
way)
• Wideband Systems
– The channel bandwidth is large
• More precisely, the channel bandwidth is much larger that the
coherence bandwidth of the multipath channel.
• A large number of users can access the same channel (frequency
band) at the same time.

20 v1
Narrow- and Wideband Systems
• Narrowband Systems
– Could be employing one of the following multiple
access and duplexing schems
• FDMA/FDD
• TDMA/FDD
• TDMA/TDD
• Wideband systems
– Could be employing of the following multiple access
and duplexing schemes
• TDMA/FDD
• TDMA/TDD
• CDMA/FDD
CDMA/TDD

21 v1
Cellular Systems and MAC

Cellular System Multiple Access Technique

AMPS FDMA/FDD

GSM TDMA/FDD

USDC (IS-54 and IS-136) TDMA/FDD

PDC TDMA/FDD

CT2 Cordless Phone FDMA/TDD

DECT Cordless Phone FDMA/TDD

US IS-95 CDMA/FDD

W-CDMA CDMA/FDD
CDMA/TDD
cdma2000 CDMA/FDD
CDMA/TDD

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23
Frequency Division Multiple Access
 Individual radio channels
are assigned to individual B
users
 Each user is allocated a
frequency band (channel) f1,F f2,F fN,F

– During this time, no


other user can share f1,R f2,R fN,R
the channel
M M … M
 Base station allocates
channels to the users

24
Features of FDMA
• An FDMA channel carries one phone circuit at a time
• If channel allocated to a user is idle, then it is not used
by someone else: waste of resource.
• Mobile and base can transmit and receive
simultaneously
• Bandwidth of FDMA channels are relatively low.
• Symbol time is usually larger (low data rate) than the
delay spread of the multipath channel (implies that inter-
symbol interference is low)
• Lower complexity systems that TDMA systems.

25 v1
Capacity of FDMA Systems

Frequency spectrum allocated for FDMA system


Guard channel Guard
Band Band
Bt  2 Bguard
N
Bc
Bt : Total spectrum allocation
Bguard: Guard band allocated at the edge of the spectrum band
Bc : Bandwidth of a channel

AMPS has 12.MHz simplex spectrum band, 10KHz guard band, 30KHz
channel bandwidth (simplex): Number of channels is 416.

26
Time Division Multiple Access
• The allocated radio spectrum for the system is divided
into time slots
– In each slot a user can transmit or receive
– A user occupiess a cyclically repeating slots.
– A channel is logically defined as a particular time slot
that repeats with some period.
• TDMA systems buffer the data, until its turn (time slot)
comes to transmit.
– This is called buffer-and-burst method.
– Leaky bucket
• Requires digital modulation

27 v1
28 v1
TDMA Concept

Downstream Traffic: Forward Channels: (from base to mobiles)

1 2 3 … N 1 2 3 …. N …

Logical forward channel to a mobile

Base station broadcasts to mobiles on each slot

Upstream Traffic: Reverse Channels: (from mobile to base)


1 2 3 … N 1 2 3 …. N …

Logical reverse channel from a mobile


A mobile transmits to the base station in its allocated slot

Upstream and downstream traffic uses of the two different carrier frequencies.
29
TDMA Frames
• Multiple, fixed number of slots are put together into a frame.
• A frame repeats.
• In TDMA/TDD: half of the slots in the frame is used for
forward channels, the other is used for reverse channels.
• In TDMA/FDD: a different carrier frequency is used for a
reverse or forward
– Different frames travel in each carrier frequency in different
directions (from mobile to base and vice versa).
– Each frame contains the time slots either for reverse channels or
forward channel depending on the direction of the frame.

30 v1
General Frame and Time Slot Structure in
TDMA Systems

One TDMA Frame

Preamble Information Trail Bits

Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 … Slot N

Guard Sync Control


Bits Bits Bits Information CRC

One TDMA Slot

A Frame repeats in time


31
A TDMA Frame
• Preamble contains address and synchronization info to
identify base station and mobiles to each other

• Guard times are used to allow synchronization of the


receivers between different slots and frames

– Different mobiles may have different propagation delays to a


base station because of different distances.

32 v1
Efficiency of a Frame/TDMA-System
 Each frame contains overhead bits and data bits.
– Efficiency of frame is defined as the percentage of
data (information) bits to the total frame size in bits.
bOH
efficiency  f  (1  ) x100%
bT
bT  T f xR
bT: total number of bits in a frame
Tf: frame duration (seconds)
bOH: number of overhead bits

( Btot  2 Bguard )
Number of channels in a TDMA cell: N m
Bc
m: maximum number of TDMA users supported in a radio channel

33
TDMA
• TDMA Efficiency
– GSM: 30% overhead
– DECT: 30% overhead
– IS-54: 20% overhead.
• TDMA is usually combined with FDMA
– Neighboring cells be allocated and using different carrier
frequencies (FDMA). Inside a cell TDMA can be used.
– Cells may be re-using the same frequency if they are far from
each-other.
– There may be more than one carrier frequency (radio channel)
allocated and used inside each cell.
– Each carrier frequency (radio channel) may be using TDMA to
further multiplex more user (i.e. having TDMA logical channels
inside radio channels)

34 v1
Cont..
• For example: GSM uses multiple radio channels per cell
site.

• Each radio channel has 200KHz bandwidth and has 8


time slots (8 logical channels).

• Hence GSM is using FHMA combined with TDMA.

35 v1
Contemporary TDMA Systems
GSM IS-54 PDC DECT
(Europa) (USA) (Japan) (European Cordless)

Bit Rate 270.8 Kbps 48.6 Kbps 42 Kbps 1.152 Mbps

Bandwidth 200 KHz 30 KHz 25 KHz 1.728 MHz

Time Slot 0.577 ms 6.7 ms 6.7 ms 0.417 ms

Upstream slots 8 3 3 12
per frame

Duplexing FDD FDD FDD TDD

Efficiency of Time Slots 73 % 80 % 80 % 67 %

Modulation GMSK p/4 DQPSK p/4 DQPSK GMSK

Adaptive Equalized Mandatory Mandatory Optional None

36
Features of TDMA
• Enables the sharing of a single radio channel among N users
• Requires high data-rate per radio channel to support N users
simultaneously.
– High data-rate on a radio channel with fixed bandwidth requires
adaptive equalizers to be used in multipath environments
(remember the RSM delay spread s parameter)
• Transmission occurs in bursts (not continues)
– Enables power saving by going to sleep modes in unrelated slots
– Discontinues transmission also enables mobile assisted handoff
• Requires synchronization of the receivers.
– Need guard bits, sync bits. large overhead per slot.
• Allocation of slots to mobile users should not be uniform.
– It may depend on the traffic requirement of mobiles.
– This brings extra flexibility and efficiency compared to FDMA
systems.
37 v1
Capacity of TDMA Systems
• Capacity can be expressed as
– System Capacity (the capacity of the overall system covering a
region)
• Depends on:
– Range of cells
– Whether the system can support macro-cells, micro-cells or
pico-cells.
– Cell Capacity
• Depends on the radio link performance between a base-
station and mobiles:
– The lowest C/I (carrier-to-interence) ratio the system can operate
for example quality of transmission. This in turn depends on the
speech coding technique, desired speech quality, etc.
– Data-rate over the channel which depends modulation efficiency
(bits_per_second/Hz) and channel bandwidth.
– The frequency re-use factor
38 v1
System Capacity:
Cluster: 7 cells constitute a cluster.

Cluster size = 7
C B
y
A B D
x
A G
z
G E A

Frequency reuse factor is 1/7: same frequency is used every 7 cell.


A is one set of frequencies, B is an other, etc.

39
Cont..
• A mobile in cell x receives carrier signal from base x and
interferences from base stations at cells y and z.

• The carrier signal strength of all combined signal


strength from interfering base stations is called C/I or S/I
ratio.

40 v1
C/I affect on capacity
• C/I ratio affects the cluster size, hence the frequency
reuse factor.
– Frequency reuse factor = 1 / clustersize
– Cluster size can be 3, 7, 12, 13, …
• Cluster size affects the cell capacity
– (it affects the maximum number of frequencies that
can be used in a cell)
• A low C/I requirement for appropriate quality enables
smaller cluster sizes, hence larger frequency reuse
factor, meaning that larger cell capacities

41 v1
Summary
We studied the following.

• FDD
• TDD
• TDMA
• FDMA
• C/I effect of capacity

42 v1
Self Assessment Questions
• Consider Global System for Mobile, which is a TDMAJFDD system that
uses 25 MHz for the forward link, which is broken into radio channels of 200
kHz. If 8 speech channels are supported on a single radio channel, and if no
guard band is assumed, find the number of simultaneous users that can be
accommodated in GSM.

• If a normal GSM time slot consists of 6 trailing bits, 8.25 guard bits, 26
training bits, and 2 traffic bursts of 58 bits of data, find the frame efficiency.

43 v1
Reference
• Rappaport T.S, Wireless communications, Pearson
Education, Second Edition, 2014.

• Andreas F. Molisch, Wireless Communications, John


Wiley India, Second Edition, 2013.

44 v1

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