What is CDMA?

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital mobile generation used for
mobile communication. CDMA is the base on which get entry to techniques
together with cdmaOne, CDMA-2000, and WCDMA are built. CDMA mobile
structures are deemed advanced to FDMA and TDMA, that is why CDMA plays
a important position in building efficient, robust, and secure radio
communication systems.

A simple Analogy

Let’s take a easy analogy to recognize the concept of CDMA. expect we have
some students accrued in a classroom who would like to speak to every different
concurrently. nothing could be audible if anyone begins speaking at the equal
time. both they have to take turns to talk or use special languages to speak.

The second choice is quite just like CDMA − students talking the equal
language can recognize each other, at the same time as other languages are
perceived as noise and rejected. similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users
is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the equal channel, however best the
ones users related to a selected code can communicate.

Salient Features of CDMA

CDMA, which is based on the spread spectrum method has following salient
features −

• In CDMA, each channel uses the total to be had spectrum.

• Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital series
and then transmitted the usage of a huge frequency range.
• CDMA consistently presents higher ability for voice and information
communications, permitting more subscribers to attach at any given time.
• CDMA is the common platform on which 3G technology are built. For
3G, CDMA uses 1x EV-DO and EV-DV.

Third Generation Standards

CDMA2000 uses Frequency division Duplexing-Multicarrier (FDD-MC) mode.

here, multicarrier implies N × 1.25 MHz channels overlaid on N present IS-95
providers or deployed on unoccupied spectrum. CDMA2000 includes −

• 1x — uses a spreading price of 1.2288 Mcps.

• 3x — uses a spreading price of 3 × 1.2288 Mcps or 3.6864 Mcps.
• 1xEV-DO (1x Evolution – data Optimized) — makes use of a spreading
rate of 1.2288 Mcps, optimized for the records.
• WCDMA/FDD-DS — Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) Frequency
department Duplexing-Direct collection spreading (FDD-DS) mode. This
has a single 5 MHz channel. WCDMA makes use of a single service
consistent with channel and employs a spreading rate of 3.84 Mcps.
CDMA Development Group (CDG)

The CDMA development group (CDG), based in December 1993, is an

international consortium of agencies. it works together to lead the increase and
evolution of superior wireless telecommunication systems.

CDG is produced from carrier companies, infrastructure producers, device

providers, test equipment providers, application builders, and content providers.
Its members together outline the technical requirements for the development of
complementary structures CDMA2000 and 4G. similarly, the interoperability
with other emerging wireless technologies are supposed to increase the supply
of wireless products and services to customers and agencies worldwide.
 What are CDMA Channels?

CDMA channels may be widely classified as forward channel and reverse

channel. This chapter explains the functionalities of these channels.

What is Forward Channel?

The forward channel is the direction of the communique or mobile-to-mobile

downlink route. It consists of the following channels −

• Pilot Channel − Pilot channel is a reference channel. It uses the mobile

station to collect the time and as a section reference for coherent
demodulation. it is constantly transmitted by using every base station on
every active CDMA frequency. And, each mobile station tracks this sign
constantly.
• Sync Channel − Synchronization channel includes a single, repeating
message, which offers the data about the time and system configuration to
 the mobile station. Likewise, the mobile station will have the precise
device time by using the way of synchronizing to the short code.
• Paging Channel − Paging Channel’s primary objective is to send out
pages, that is, notifications of incoming calls, to the mobile stations. the
base station uses those pages to transmit machine overhead data and
mobile station particular messages.
• Forward Traffic Channel − forward traffic Channels are code channels.
it's far used to assign calls, normally voice and signaling site visitors to the
individual users.

What is Reverse Channel?

The opposite channel is the mobile-to-mobile path of communication or the

uplink path. It includes the following channels −

• Access Channel − access channel is utilized by mobile stations to set up a

communication with the base station or to reply Paging Channel messages.
The get entry to channel is used for brief signaling message exchanges
including call-ups, responses to pages and registrations.
• Reverse Traffic Channel − opposite traffic channel is used by the person
customers in their actual calls to transmit visitors from a single mobile
station to one or more base stations.
 •

What are CDMA Multiple Access Methods?

The possibility to function in both FDD or TDD mode is allowed for efficient
use of available spectrum in step with frequency allocation in special regions.

Frequency Division Duplex

A duplex technique whereby the Uplink and the Downlink transmissions use
separate frequency bands −

• Uplink − 1920 MHz to 1980 MHz

• Downlink − 2110 MHz to 2170 MHz
• Bandwidth − each provider is placed at the center of a 5 MHz huge band
Channel Separation

Nominal value of 5 MHz that can be adjusted.

Channel Raster

200 kHz (center frequency must be a multiple of 200 kHz).

Tx-Rx Frequency Separation

Nominal value of 190 MHz. This value may be both constant or variable
(minimum of 134.8 and most of 245.2 MHz).

Channel Number

The service frequency is specific by the UTRA Absolute Radio Frequency

Channel number (UARFCN). This quantity is sent by way of the network (for
the uplink and downlink) at the BCCH logical channel and is defined through
Nu = 5 * (Frequency uplink MHz) and ND = 5 * (Frequency downlink MHz).

Time Division Duplex

Time division duplex is a method through which the Uplink and the Downlink
transmissions are carried over the equal frequency by means of using
synchronized time periods. The service uses a 5 MHz band, even though there is
a low chip price solution below observe by using the 3GPP (1.28 Mcps). The to
be had frequency bands for TDD can be 1900–1920 MHz and 2010–2025 MHz.

Duplex Methods of Radio links

In case of Time division Duplex, the forward link frequency is equal because the
opposite link frequency. In each link, alerts are transmitted continuously in turns
− similar to a ping-pong game.
Example of TDD System

TDD uses a single frequency band for each to transmit and to receive. similarly,
it shares the band by assigning change timeslots for transmitting and receiving
operations. The data to be transmitted may be voice, video, or computer
information in bit-serial layout. each time interval may be 1 byte long or may be
a part of several bytes.

TDD alternates the transmission and reception station information over time.
Timeslots can be of variable period. because of the nature of high-speed
information, the communicating events can not suggest that the transmissions
are intermittent.

Transmissions that seem as simultaneous are genuinely competing every

different. Digitally converted into analog voice, no one can say that it is not a
complete duplex.
In some TDD systems, opportunity time periods are of equal period or having
each DL and UL; but, the machine does not want to be symmetric 50/50. The
system can be asymmetrical as required.

For example, while accessing the net, the download speed is generally higher
than the upload speed. maximum of the system work on asynchronous mode in
which the download speed is better than the add speed. when the download
speed is better than the add speed, less timeslots are needed for importing. some
TDD formats provide dynamic bandwidth allocation while the range of time
intervals or durations is modified at the fly as wanted.

The actual advantage of TDD is that it is best a single channel of the frequency
spectrum and it doesn’t require band guards or channel separations because the
periods take region the use of timeslots. The disadvantage is that the a hit
implementation of TDD requires a timing system. the right timing to each the
transmitter and the receiver is needed to make sure that the time periods do not
overlap or interfere with another.

Timing is frequently synchronized to GPS atomic clock requirements particular

derivative. The defend time is likewise wanted between timeslots to avoid
duplication. This time is usually same to the transmission-reception processing
time (transmission-reception switching time) and the transmission delays
(latency) on the communications channel.

Frequency Division Duplex

In Frequency division Duplex (FDD), the forward link frequency is not similar
to the reverse link frequency. In each link, signals are continuously transmitted
in parallel.

Example of FDD System

FDD requires two symmetrical segments of spectrum for the uplink and
downlink channels.

In a mobile phone with a transmitter and receiver, operating simultaneously in

such near proximity, the receiver has to filter as much of the signal from the
transmitter as possible. more separation of the spectrum, the most effective
filters.
FDD uses a lot of frequency spectrum, usually twice of the specified TDD
spectrum. similarly, there must be adequate spectrum separation among
transmission and reception of the channels. those bands preserve saying − it
cannot be used, they may be unnecessary. Given the scarcity and cost of the
spectrum, they are real disadvantages.

Use of FDD

FDD is widely utilized in special mobile phone systems. In some systems, the
band 869-894 MHz is used as the downlink (DL) spectrum from the mobile site
tower to the device. And, the band 824-849 MHz is used because the uplink
(UL) spectrum of the handset at the mobile site.

FDD also works on a cable in which transmit and obtain channels are given
different parts of the cable spectrum, as in cable tv systems. And, filters are used
to preserve the channels separate.
Disadvantage of FDD

The disadvantage of FDD is that it does not allow unique strategies like multiple
antennas, multiple input-output (MIMO), and beamforming. those technologies
are an important detail of the new techniques long term Evolution (LTE) 4G
mobile phone to increase the records price. it is hard to make large sufficient
bandwidth to cover each sets of antenna spectrum. Circuit complicated dynamic
adjustment is needed.

Multiple Access Methods

The radio channel is a communique medium shared by using several users in a

geographic place. mobile stations are in competition with one another for the
frequency useful resource to transmit their information flow. without different
measures to control concurrent access of several customers, collisions can arise.
because collisions are undesirable for connection-oriented conversation
including mobile phones, personal/mobile subscriber stations need to be allotted
the dedicated channels on request.
The mobile communique, sharing wireless assets on all users, should be
communicated to perceive the person. while identifying the person, it is known
as "multiple access" (multiple access) that is receiving a radio wave of some of
transmitting stations in a receiving station (as shown in the following image).

What is FDMA Technology?

Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) is one of the most common

analogue multiple access techniques. The frequency band is divided into
channels of equal bandwidth so that each conversation is carried on a special
frequency (as shown inside the figure below).
FDMA Overview

In FDMA technique, protect bands are used among the adjoining signal spectra
to reduce crosstalk among the channels. a selected frequency band is given to
one person, and it will received by using identifying every of the frequency at
the receiving end. it is often used in the first generation of analog mobile phone.

Advantages of FDMA

As FDMA systems use low bit charges (huge symbol time) in comparison to
common delay spread, it gives the following benefits −

• Reduces the bit rate data and using efficient numerical codes increases the
capacity.
• It reduces the value and lowers the inter symbol interference (ISI)
• Equalization is not important.
 • An FDMA system may be easily carried out. A machine may be
configured so that the upgrades in terms of speech encoder and bit price
reduction may be easily included.
• Since the transmission is continuous, less quantity of bits are required for
synchronization and framing.

Disadvantages of FDMA

Although FDMA gives numerous advantages, it has some drawbacks as well,

that are listed below −

• It does now not range significantly from analog systems; improving the
capacity depends at the signal-to-interference reduction, or a signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR).
• The most flow price per channel is fixed and small.
• Protect bands result in a waste of ability.
• Hardware implies narrowband filters, which can not be realized in VLSI
and therefore increases the value.

What is TDMA Technology?

Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a virtual mobile cellphone

communication technology. It allows many users to share the equal frequency
with out interference. Its generation divides a signal into special timeslots, and
increases the information carrying capacity.

TDMA Overview

Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a complex generation, because it

requires an correct synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver.
TDMA is used in digital mobile radio structures. The person mobile stations
cyclically assign a frequency for the special use of a time interval.

In most of the cases, the complete system bandwidth for an interval of time is
not assigned to a station. but, the frequency of the machine is divided into sub-
bands, and TDMA is used for the multiple get entry to in each sub-band. Sub-
bands are called carrier frequencies. The mobile system that makes use of this
method is referred as the multi-carrier systems.

In the following instance, the frequency band has been shared by means of three
customers. every person is assigned specific timeslots to send and obtain data.
In this situation, user ‘B’ sends after person ‘A,’ and user ‘C’ sends thereafter.
in this way, the peak energy will become a trouble and larger by the burst
communication.
FDMA and TDMA

This is a multi-provider TDMA system. A 25 MHz frequency variety holds 124

single chains (service frequencies 200) bandwidth of each kHz; every of those
frequency channels includes 8 TDMA conversation channels. therefore, the
collection of timeslots and frequencies assigned to a mobile station is the
physical channels of a TDMA system. In every timeslot, the cell station
transmits a information packet.

The period of time assigned to a timeslot for a cell station also determines the
number of TDMA channels on a provider frequency. The period of timeslots are
combined in a so-known as TDMA frame. TDMA signal transmitted on a
provider frequency normally requires greater bandwidth than FDMA signal. due
to the use of multiple instances, the gross statistics rate must be even higher.

Advantages of TDMA

Here is a list of few great advantages of TDMA −

 • Allows flexible rates (i.e. several slots can be assigned to a consumer, for
example, each time interval translates 32Kbps, a person is assigned two 64
Kbps slots consistent with frame).
• Can with stand gusty or variable bit price visitors. variety of slots allotted
to a person may be modified frame through frame (as an instance, slots
within the frame 1, three slots inside the frame 2, one slot within the frame
3, frame 0 of the notches 4, etc.).
• No protect band required for the wideband system.
• No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.

Disadvantages of TDMA

The disadvantages of TDMA are as follow −

• High information rates of broadband systems require complex

equalization.
• Because of the burst mode, a massive quantity of extra bits are required for
synchronization and supervision.
• Call time is wanted in each slot to house time to inaccuracies (because of
clock instability).
• Electronics operating at high bit prices increase power consumption.
• Complex signal processing is needed to synchronize within short slots.
What is CDMA Technology?

Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a type of multiplexing that allows

various signals to occupy a single transmission channel. It optimizes the use of
to be had bandwidth. The generation is generally utilized in ultra-excessive-
frequency (UHF) cellular smartphone systems, bands ranging among the 800-
MHz and 1.9-GHz.

CDMA Overview

Code division multiple access system is very special from time and frequency
multiplexing. on this device, a person has access to the complete bandwidth for
the whole period. The basic principle is that special CDMA codes are used to
distinguish some of the special users.

Techniques generally used are direct series spread spectrum modulation (DS-
CDMA), frequency hopping or combined CDMA detection (JDCDMA). here, a
signal is generated which extends over a huge bandwidth. A code known as
spreading code is used to carry out this motion. the use of a set of codes, that are
orthogonal to every other, it is feasible to choose a signal with a given code in
the presence of many different signals with special orthogonal codes.

How Does CDMA Work?

CDMA allows up to 61 concurrent users in a 1.2288 MHz channel by using
processing each voice packet with two PN codes. There are 64 Walsh codes
available to distinguish between calls and theoretical limits. Operational limits
and best problems will lessen the most quantity of calls particularly lower than
this value.

In truth, many special "signals" baseband with special spreading codes may be
modulated on the equal service to allow many specific users to be supported. the
usage of specific orthogonal codes, interference between the signals is minimal.
Conversely, when signals are obtained from numerous mobile stations, the
bottom station is able to separating every as they have special orthogonal
spreading codes.

The following figure suggests the technicality of the CDMA system. during the
propagation, we combined the signals of all users, but by using which you use
the equal code as the code that was used on the time of sending the receiving
side. you could take out best the signal of each user.
CDMA Capacity

The factors deciding the CDMA capacity are −

• Processing Gain
• Signal to Noise Ratio
• Voice Activity Factor
• Frequency Reuse Efficiency

Capacity in CDMA is smooth, CDMA has all users on each frequency and users
are separated by using code. this means, CDMA operates in the presence of
noise and interference.

Similarly, neighboring cells use the equal frequencies, this means that no re-use.
So, CDMA ability calculations need to be very simple. No code channel in a
mobile, improved by using no mobile. but it is not that easy. even though not to
be had code channels are 64, it can not be feasible to apply a single time, since
the CDMA frequency is the equal.

Centralized Methods

• The band utilized in CDMA is 824 MHz to 894 MHz (50 MHz + 20 MHz
separation).
• Frequency channel is divided into code channels.
• 1.25 MHz of FDMA channel is divided into 64 code channels.

Processing Gain

CDMA is a variety spectrum method. each records bit is spread by using a code
collection. this means, energy consistent with bit is also improved. this means
that we get a gain of this.

P (gain) = 10log (W/R)

W is Spread Rate

R is Data Rate

For CDMA P (gain) = 10 log (1228800/9600) = 21dB

This is a advantage aspect and the actual data propagation rate. On a mean, a
regular transmission condition requires a signal to the noise ratio of 7 dB for the
adequate excellent of voice.

Translated into a ratio, signal need to be 5 times stronger than noise.

Actual processing gain = P (gain) - SNR

= 21 – 7 = 14dB

CDMA uses variable rate coder

The Voice Activity Factor of 0.4 is considered = -4dB.

Hence, CDMA has 100% frequency reuse. Use of equal frequency in

surrounding cells reasons a few extra interference.

In CDMA frequency, reuse efficiency is 0.67 (70% eff.) = -1.73dB

Advantages of CDMA

CDMA has a tender ability. The extra the quantity of codes, the more the
number of users. It has the following benefits −

• CDMA calls for a tight power manage, because it suffers from near-far
effect. In other words, a user close to the base station transmitting with the
equal power will drown the signal latter. All signals need to have more or
less same power at the receiver
 • Rake receivers can be used to improve signal reception. delayed variations
of time (a chip or later) of the signal (multipath signals) can be accrued
and used to make choices at the bit level.
• Flexible switch may be used. mobile base stations can transfer without
changing operator. base stations obtain mobile signal and the mobile gets
signals from the two base stations.
• Transmission Burst − reduces interference.

Disadvantages of CDMA

The disadvantages of using CDMA are as follows −

• The code period need to be carefully selected. A huge code period can set
off delay or may also reason interference.
• Time synchronization is required.
• Gradual switch will increase the use of radio assets and may reduce
capacity.
• Because the sum of the power received and transmitted from a base station
needs regular tight power manage. this can result in several handovers.
What is CDMA Network?

CDMA network is the system supposed to regulate CDMA generation. It

consists of all factors and functionality starting from the base station,
transmitting antenna, receiving antenna, to mobile switching centers.

CDMA Network Overview

A base station is an important detail of the CDMA network. A base station

covers a small geographical region called a cell. A mobile may be
omnidirectional or sectoral. each base station has a transmitting antenna and
receiving antennas for every mobile. two receiving antennas are used in step
with mobile for the cause of spatial diversity. in lots of programs, it is a BSC
(Base Station Controller), which controls numerous base stations.

As the charge of the mobile phone records is either 13kbps or 8kbps, that's
nonISDN, however the switches that are the mobile switching center (MSC) are
usually switched to 64 kbps. consequently, earlier than it is switched, it is
important to convert this mobile information prices to 64 kbps. this is done by
using a member, that's the transcoder. The transcoder may be a separate detail
or it may be collocated in every base station or MSC.

All base stations are related to the MSC, which is the mobile switching center.
MSC is the entity that manages the establishment, connection, maintenance, and
disposal of calls in the network and also with the outside world.

MSC also has a database known as HLR/AC, that is a home region

register/authentication center. HLR is the database, which continues the
database of all network subscribers. AC Authentication Centre is the a part of
the security of the HLR, which some algorithms to observe mobile phones.

The MSC is attached to the outside world, i.e. the constant line network. MSC
also can be related to several different MSCs.

CDMA Identities

Network Identities −
 • SID (System Identity)
• NID (Network Identity)

Mobile Station Identities −

• ESN (Electronic Serial Number)

• Permuted ESN
• IMSI (International Mobile Station Identity)
• IMSI_S
• IMSI_11_12
• Station Class Mark

System and Network Identity

A base station is a member of a mobile system and a network. A network is a

subset of a system. The structures are installed with an identity called
identification system (CIS). The networks with a system receiving is network
identification (NID). it is a uniquely recognized network pair of (SID, NID).
The mobile station has a list of one or more home (non-roaming) pairs (SID,
NID).

SID

A system identification indicator 15 bits (SID) is saved in a cell station. it is

used to decide the host machine of the mobile stations. The bit allocation of the
system identity indicator is shown below.
The distribution of international codes (INTL) (bits 14 and 13) is also proven
inside the table. Bits 12-0 is assigned to every US machine by using the FCC for
non-US countries. The bit allocation can be made by way of local regulatory
authorities.

NID

NID has a range of 0-65535 reserved values. price of 65535 in a SID approach,
NID pair is to indicate that the mobile Station considers the entire SID as home.

Systems and Networks

A mobile station has a list of 1 or more home (non-roaming) pairs (SID, NID).
A mobile station is roaming when the bottom station broadcast (SID, NID) pair
does not suit with one of the non-roaming mobile stations (SID, NID) pairs.

A mobile station is a foreign NID roamer −

• If the mobile station is roaming and there are some (SID, NID) pair within
the mobile stations (SID, NID) list that corresponds to SID.
 • If the mobile station is roaming and there are some (SID, NID) pair inside
the mobile stations (SID, NID) listing for which no matching SID is to be
had (method a mobile station has roaming customer foreign SID).

Electronic Serial Number (ESN)

ESN is a 32-bit binary range that uniquely identifies the mobile station in a
CDMA mobile system. It need to be set at the factory and can not be easily
modified within the subject. converting the ESN will require unique equipment,
not usually to be had to subscribers. The bit allocation of ESN is shown below –

The circuit that offers the ESN need to be remoted so that no one can touch and
tamper. attempts to trade the ESN circuit need to make the mobile station
inoperative. at the time of the issuance of the initial recognition, the producer
should be assigned a code manufacturers (MFR) inside the eight most huge bits
(bits 31-24 bits) 32-bit serial number. Bits 23-18 are reserved (to start with
zero). And, every producer best allocates 17 bits to 0. when a producer has used
nearly all feasible mixtures of serial numbers in bits 17-0, the producer may also
post a notification to the FCC. The FCC will assign the following sequential
binary number in the reserve block (bits 23 through).

Permuted ESN
CDMA is a selection spectrum method in which multiple customers to access
the system on the same example in a mobile, and of course on the equal
frequency. therefore, it discriminates the customers on the reverse link (i.e. data
from MS to the base station). It spreads data using codes which can be specific
to the mobile station in all the CDMA mobile structures. This code has an detail
that is the ESN, but it doesn’t use the ESN inside the equal layout instead, it
makes use of an ESN swapped.

If there are two mobiles in a mobile of the equal logo and have consecutive
serial numbers and for the receiver of the bottom station, it becomes hard to
attach them. therefore, to avoid a strong correlation among the long codes
similar to successive ESN, we use permuted ESNs.

International Mobile Station Identity (IMSI)

Mobile stations are recognized by the identity of the international mobile station
identity (IMSI). The IMSI includes up to 10 to 15 numeric digits. the primary
three digits of the IMSI are the country code of the mobile (MCC), the closing
digits are the national NMSI mobile station identity. The NMSI includes the
mobile network code (MNC) and the mobile station identification number
(SIDS).

MCC MSN MSIN

 NMSI

IMSI ≤15 digits

• MCC: Mobile Country Code

• MNC: Mobile Network Code
• MSIN: Mobile Station Identification
• NMSI: National Mobile Station Identity

An IMSI that is 15 digits in period is known as a class 0 IMSI (NMSI is the 12

digits in length). IMSI, that's less than 15 digits in duration, is known as a class
1 IMSI (NMSI the period is less than 12 counts). For CDMA operation, the
same IMSI can be registered in multiple mobile stations. person systems may
also or may not permit those abilties. The control of those functions is a feature
of the base station and the system operator.

What are CDMA Techniques?

What is Rake Receiver?

Due to the reflection on the challenges of a broadband, radio channel can

includes many copies (multipath), signals originally transmitted with special
amplitude, segment, and delay. If the sign components arrive over a chip period
of each other, a rake receiver can be used to modify and combine. The Rake
receiver uses a principle of variety through multiple paths. The figure given
under suggests the Rake receiver scheme.

The Rake receiver methods numerous multipath signals components. The

correlator outputs are blended to obtain better reliability and communication
performance. Bit choice on the basis of a single correlation can produce a big bit
errors rate as multipath issue processed by the fact that the correlator can be
damaged by using discoloration. If the output of a correlator is corrupted
through fading, the opposite cannot be, and the corrupt signal may be reduced
through the weighting method.
What is Walsh Code?

Walsh Codes are maximum usually used within the orthogonal codes of CDMA
applications. those codes correspond to lines of a unique square matrix known
as the Hadamard matrix. For a fixed of Walsh codes of length N, it includes n
lines to form a square matrix of n × n Walsh code.

The IS-95 system uses 64 Walsh feature matrix 64. the first line of this matrix
includes a string of all zeros with each of the following traces containing
different combinations of bit 0 and 1. each line is orthogonal and equal
representation for binary bits. when applied with the CDMA system, each
mobile user uses one of the 64 sequences of rows in the matrix as a spreading
code. And, it gives zero cross-correlation amongst all of the different users. This
matrix is described recursively as follows −

Where n is a power of two and suggests the special dimensions of the matrix W.
similarly, n represents the logic not operation on all bits in this matrix. The three
matrices W2, W4, and W8, respectively show the Walsh feature for the size 2,
4, and 8.
Each line of the 64 Walsh matrix 64 corresponds to a channel range. The
channel quantity 0 is mapped to the primary row of the Walsh matrix, that is the
code of all zeros. This channel is also known as the pilot channel and is used to
shape and to estimate the impulse response of a mobile radio channel.

To calculate the cross-correlation among the sequences, we can want to

transform the bits into the matrix to form the antithesis of ± 1 values. but, all
users at the equal CDMA channel may be synchronized with an accuracy of one
chip interval the usage of a common long PN collection. It additionally
functions as a records scrambler.

• Walsh Code is a set of spreading codes having right autocorrelation

properties and poor cross correlation properties. Walsh codes are the
backbone of CDMA systems and are used to increase the person channels
in CDMA.
• For IS-95, there are 64 codes available.
o Code 0’isused∵theπlotandcode

•
 o 32’ is used for synchronization.
o Codes 1 through 7 are used for manage channels, and the last codes
are available for traffic channels. Codes 2 to 7 are also to be had for
traffic channels if they are not needed.
• For cdma2000, multitude of Walsh codes exist, which range in length to
house the unique data rates and Spreading factors of the specific Radio
Configurations.
• One of the 64 orthogonal bit sample at a rate of 1.2288 Mcps.
• Walsh codes are used to perceive the information for every person
transmission. within the forward link, they outline forward code channels
inside a CDMA frequency.
• In the reverse link, all 64 codes are utilized by every reverse channel to
carry data.

Test the following example. It shows how multiplexing is carried out the use of
Walsh Code.
What is CDMA Spread Spectrum?

All technical modulation and demodulation try for extra power and/or efficiency
of bandwidth in a white Gaussian additive stationary noise channel. because
bandwidth is a confined resource, one of the primary layout goals of all of the
modulation schemes is to reduce the bandwidth required for transmission. on the
other hand, spread spectrum strategies use a transmission bandwidth that is
order of the value greater than the bandwidth required the minimum signal.

The advantage of spread spectrum method is that − many users can

simultaneously use the same bandwidth without interfering with every different.
therefore, spread spectrum is not economic while the number of users is less.

• Spread spectrum is a shape of wireless communications in which the

frequency of the transmitted signal is deliberately numerous resulting
higher bandwidth.
• Spread-spectrum is apparent in the Shannon and Hartley channel-capacity
theorem −

C = B × log2 (1 + S/N)

• In the given equation, `C’ is the channel ability in bits according to second
(bps), that is the maximum records rate for a theoretical bit-error fee
 (BER). ‘B’ is the specified channel bandwidth in Hz, and S/N is the sign-
to-noise electricity ratio.
• Spread spectrum uses wideband, noise-like signals which are difficult to
detect, intercept, or demodulate. moreover, spread-spectrum signals are
harder to jam (interfere with) than narrow band signals.
• Because spread-spectrum alerts are so wide, they transmit at a much lower
spectral power density, measured in watts per hertz, than narrow band
transmitters. spread-spectrum and narrowband signals can occupy the
equal band, with little or no interference. This functionality is the primary
appeal for all the interest in spread spectrum today.

Points to Remember −

• The transmitted signal bandwidth is greater than the minimum data

bandwidth, which is wanted to transmit the signal correctly.
• some feature other than the data itself is usually employed to decide the
consequent transmitted bandwidth.

Following are the two forms of spread spectrum techniques −

• Direct sequence and

• Frequency Hopping.

Direct collection is followed by CDMA.

What is Direct Sequence (DS)?

Direct collection Code division multiple access (DS-CDMA) is a way to
multiplex users by using unique codes. on this method, the same bandwidth is
used by unique users. each person is assigned with one its own spreading code.
these units of codes are divided into two classes −

• Orthogonal Codes and

• Non-Orthogonal Codes

Walsh sequences come into the primary class that is Orthogonal Codes whereas
different sequences i.e. PN, Gold, and Kasami are shift register sequences.

Orthogonal codes are assigned to the customers, the output of the correlator in
the receiver can be zero besides the preferred series. In synchronous direct
series, the receiver gets the equal code collection which was transmitted in order
that there may be no time shift between the users.
How to demodulate DS signals − 1?

in order to demodulate DS alerts, you need to recognize the code that become
used at the time of transmission. In this example, by using multiplying the code
used in the transmission to the reception signal, we will get the transmitted
signal.

In this situation, multiple codes were used at the time of transmission

(10,110,100) to the received signal. here, we have calculated by using using the
regulation of additives (Modulo 2 Addition). it is similarly demodulated through
multiplying the code that became used on the time of this transmission, known
as the reverse diffusion (de-spreading). in the diagram given below, it may be
seen that in the transmission of the records to the narrow band (narrow Band)
spectrum, the spectrum of the signal is dispread.
What are demodulating DS signals − 2?

Then again, if you do not recognize the code that was used at the time of
transmission, you may not be able to demodulate. here, you are trying to
demodulation inside the code of various (10101010) and the time of
transmission, but it has failed.

Even searching on the spectrum, it is spreading during the time of transmission.

when it is passed through a band-pass filter out (Band path filter), best this small
signal remains and those are not demodulated.

What are the features of Spread Spectrum?

As proven inside the following figure, the power density of spread Spectrum
signals can be lower than the noise density. this is a awesome function that may
preserve the signals included and hold privacy.

By using spreading the spectrum of the transmitted signal, you can reduce its
power density such that it turns into less than the power density of the noise. on
this manner, it is possible to hide the signal within the noise. it can be
demodulated in case you recognize the code that changed into used to send the
signal. In case the code is not recognized, then the received signal will stay
hidden in the noise even after the demodulation.

DS-CDMA
DS code is used in CDMA. so far, it has been defined basic part of the spread
spectrum communication. From here, we can explain how Direct series Code
division multiple access (DS-CDMA) works.

The signal which is spread spectrum, can be demodulated best by using a code
used for transmission. by using the use of this, the transmission sign of each user
may be recognized by means of the separate code when it receives the signal. in
the given instance, the spread signal of the user A at the code A, and diffused
sign of user B at code B. each of the signal when it gets are mixed. but, by the
inverse diffuser (Despreadder), it identifies the signal of every person.

DS-CDMA system - Forward link

DS-CDMA System - Reverse Link

 Spreading Code

Cross-Correlation

Correlation is a way of size of how precisely a given signal suits with a

preferred code. In CDMA generation, each user is assigned with a special code,
the code which is being assigned or selected by means of the person is very
critical to modulate the signal because it is related to the performance of the
CDMA system.

One will get pleasant performance when there can be clear separation among the
signal of preferred users and signals of the other users. This separation is made
by way of correlating the preferred signal code which became locally generated
and different received signals. If the signal matches with the code of the
consumer, then the correlation feature may be excessive and the system can
extract that signal. If the consumer's preferred code has nothing in common with
the signal, the correlation need to be as close to zero as feasible (therefore
eliminating the signal); also called go correlation. So, there is a self-correlation
(Self-Correlation) and cross-correlation (cross-Correlation).

Properties of self-correlation and code are proven inside the diagram given
under where correlation among spreading code ‘A’ and spreading code ‘B’ is
proven. In this case, the calculated correlation of spreading code ‘A
(1010110001101001) and spreading code ‘B’ (1010100111001001) is given,
while acting calculations in under example, the result has come to 6/16.

Preferable Codes
Preferable code is used in CDMA. There are special codes that may be used
relying on the type of a system of CDMA. There are sorts of system −

• Synchronous (Synchronous) system and

• Asynchronous (Asynchronous) system.

In a synchronous system, orthogonal codes (Orthogonal Code) may be used. In

asynchronous system for this, including pseudo-random code (Pseudo-random
Noise) or Gold code is used.

so that you can minimize mutual interference in DS-CDMA, the spreading

codes with less pass-correlation must be selected.

Synchronous DS-CDMA

• Orthogonal Codes are appropriate. (Walsh code etc.)

Asynchronous DS-CDMA

• Pseudo-random Noise (PN) codes/maximum sequence

• Gold Codes

Synchronous DS-CDMA

Synchronous CDMA systems are realized in point to Multi-point systems. for

example, forward link (Base Station to mobile Station) in mobile phone.
Synchronization system is used in one-to-many (point to Multipoint) systems.
for example, at a given time, in a mobile communication system, a single base
station (BTS) can talk with multiple mobile phones (forward link/downlink).

in this system, a transmission signal for all the users can talk in synchronization.
method, "Synchronization" on this point is a experience that can be sent to align
the top of each user signal. on this system, it is feasible to apply orthogonal
codes and it is also feasible to reduce mutual interference. And orthogonal
codes, it is the sign, including cross-correlation i.e. 0.

Asynchronous DS-CDMA
In asynchronous CDMA system, orthogonal codes have bad cross-correlation.

Unlike the signal from the bottom station, the signal from the mobile station to
the base station, becomes the asynchronous system.

In an asynchronous machine, particularly mutual interference increases, but it

uses the other codes including PN code or Gold code.

Advantages of Spread Spectrum

Since the signal is spread over a huge frequency band, the power spectral
density turns into very low, so different communication systems do not suffer
from this type of communique. but, the Gaussian noise will increase. Given
below is a list of a few primary advantages of spread Spectrum −

• Multipath may be agreed with, as a huge variety of codes may be

generated, allowing a huge number of users.
• In spread spectrum, there's no limit of customers whereas there may be
limitations of users in FDMA technology.
 • Security − without knowing the spreading code, it is hardly possible to
recover the transmitted records.
• Descending Rejection − as huge bandwidth is used the system; it is much
less susceptible to deformation.

PN sequence

The DS-CDMA device uses two types of spreading sequences, i.e., PN

sequences and orthogonal codes. As noted above, the PN sequenc is generated
by the pseudo-random noise generator. it is genuinely a binary linear feedback
shift sign up, including XOR gates and a shift register. This PN generator has
the capacity to create a sequence equal for each the transmitter and the receiver,
and retaining the suitable properties of the noise randomness bit sequence.

A PN series has many functions including having an almost equal range of zeros
and ones, very low correlation among shifted versions of the series, and really
low cross-correlation with other signals such as interference and noise. but, it
can correlate well with itself and its inverse. some other essential aspect is the
autocorrelation of the series as it determines the capacity to synchronize and
lock the spreading code for the received sign. This fight successfully results the
multiple interference and improves the SNR. M-sequences, Gold codes, and
Kasami sequences are the examples of this class of sequences.
 • A Pseudo-random Noise (PN) collection is a sequence of binary numbers,
e.g. ±1, which seems to be random; but it is in reality, perfectly
deterministic.
• PN sequences are used for two types of PN spread spectrum techniques −
o Direct signal spread Spectrum (DS-SS) and
o Frequency Hop spread Spectrum (FH-SS).
• If ‘u’ uses PSK for modulating the PN series, it effects in DS-SS.
• If ‘u’ uses FSK for modulating the PN series, it results in FH-SS.

Frequency Hopping Technology

Frequency hopping is a variety spectrum wherein the propagation takes region

through hopping in frequency over a huge band. an appropriate order in which
the smash occurs is decided through a hopping desk generated via the usage of a
pseudo-random code series.

Hopping charge is a function of the speed data. The order of frequencies is

selected through the receiver and is dictated by way of the pseudo-random noise
series. although the transmission of a frequency hopping sign spectrum is quite
special from that of a direct sequence signal, it suffices to observe that the data
is sent over a signal band is bigger than important to carry. In each the instances,
the ensuing signal will seem as noise and the receiver uses a similar method,
that is used within the transmission to recover the unique signal.
What is CDMA Fading?

Fading is considered as the deviation happened to the signal attenuation which

affects a certain propagation media. We observe the discoloration due to fading
and it varies with time, position or frequency of the radio. A fading channel is
considered as the channel which is experiencing channel.

Multipath Fading

Fading has two types of fading called multipath fading due to multipath and
other is Shadow fading which is caused due to shadowing from obstacles that
affects the wave propagation. In this tutorial, we dive into the affects of
receiving of signals in CDMA due to multipath fading.
Fading in CDMA System

The signals won’t be passing in a single path but it deviates at the obstacles,
passes through them and finally reaches the mobile. For spreading the spectrum,
a signal fast chip rate is used by CDMA systems. Mobile receives the different
signals from each path and sums up in the RAKE receiver which prevents
degradation of signal.

Stable communication environment is guaranteed by RAKE receiver as it

improves the loss of received signal because of fading. As CDAM has high
time-resolution, we can differentiate the signals from different paths. All of
them are summed up by adjusting their phase and path delays at RAKE receiver.
RAKE receiver improves the signal quality from multi-path propagation in
CDMA systems.

What is CDMA - Near-Far Problem?

One of the major problems that hit mobile communications seriously is Near-far
problem. The SN ratio of the user is calculated by mutual interference in a
CDMA system.

How Near-Far Problem Affects Communication?

The following diagram depicts the communication affected by Near-far

problem.
From the diagram above, we can see the user A is far away and user B is close
to the receiver. Due to this there is a huge difference between the desired signal
power and interfered signal power. For user A, the desired signal power will be
more as it is far so the SN ratio will smaller and the signal quality is seriously
damaged.

What is CDMA - Power Control?

Mobiles transmit the signals at same frequency in CDMA and because of it the
network capacity is determined by internal interference. And this interference
should be limited by transmitter power of mobile.
Near-far problem is solved by the power control and it should be at the same
level for all mobiles to the base station. A measurement Eb/N0 should be at least
level to allow the link to meet the requirements of the system. To achieve the
same power level at base station, the power transmission by mobiles near to the
station should be less and the power transmission by mobiles that are far away
from the station should be more.

From the figure shown below, we are two mobiles A and B where A is near and
B is far to the station. Let Pr is the minimum signal level required for the
performance. Mobile B should transmit high power than mobile A to have the
same Pr (PB>PA). Let us say, if there is no control on power, the mobile A
power will be much more when received at the station than B.

Depending on the distance between the Base Station and the Mobile Stations,
the signal levels received at the BS differ from each other when all the MS
transmit the signals at the same power.

Due to the fading, the signal level is not normal and varies. An acceptable power
control technique should be followed in CDMA systems to maintain the
received level at the Base Station.
In order to have the same signal power at BS, we need to have the control on the
transmission power. This is called as the transmission power control (Control
Power) and we have two types, Open-loop control and other is closed-loop
control.

Reverse Link Power Control

Apart from near-far problem discussed above, we have to deal with the transmit
power of the mobile when connecting to a BS for the first time. Mobile does not
know the level of interference in the system unless it connects to the BS. If at
all, the mobile sends high power to get the contact right, it can add more
interference. If the power is less to make sure the other mobiles are connected to
the BS, the power might not be sufficient to meet the Eb/N0 needed.

Mobile sends a signal known to be access when it wants to contact the system as
per IS-95 standards.
User sends the signals and its power is controlled by control power to have the
same power Pr at the BS. At BS, there will be access probe with low power for
every user. Whenever user sends a signal and if didn’t receive the response back
from BS, then it sends other access probe is sent with a high power.

Until the BS responds back to the user, the process continues. If the signal
power responded by BT is high, then the mobile connects to the BT which is
close to it with less transmission power. In the same way, if the BS responds
with weak signal, mobile understands that there is high path loss and then
transmits with high power.

The above procedure is called open loop power control as only the mobile
controls it. This process starts when the mobile starts communicating with BS
for the first time.

This power control is used to compensate for the slow variables shading effects.
However, since the rear and forward links are on different frequencies, the
estimate transmit power does not give accurate solution for the power control
because of the path loss to the front of the base station. This power control fails
or too slow for fast Rayleigh fading channels.

When the transmit power of mobile is controlled by BS, then it is called closed
loop control. To do this, BS keeps on monitors the reverse link signal quality. If
found the signal quality is low then the BS intimates the mobile to increase its
signal power. In the same fashion, if the quality of the connection is very high
then the BS controller decreases its power.

Forward Link Power Control

Like Reverse link power control, we have forward link power control for
maintaining the link quality to a particular level. Here, mobile checks for the
forward link quality and specify the BS to turn on or off. This power control
doesn’t affect the near-far problem as the signals are brought together at same
level of power at mobile.

Effect of Power Control

Using power control, the mobile far away from the BS transmits a higher power
than the mobile which is nearer to the BS. This leads to constant communication
environment without considering the user location. Due to this, the fading effect
is reduced a lot as the fading is suppressed by the power control.

• Fading fluctuation is compensated with Power control.

• All the mobile stations transmitting power is made equal by power control.
• Near-Far problem has become less by the power control.
What is CDMA - Frequency Allocation?

Major advantage of CDMA comes in using the same allocated frequency in each
and every sector of cell.

In IS-136 and analog cellular systems, CDMA has a repeat factor of seven cells,
including three sectors each. It can be observed that only one out of every 21
channels is available to each sector. CDMA is specially designed for sharing the
same frequency in each sector of each cell. For all those users, who use
cdma2000 coding rather than IS-95, the system is more efficient.

• To not interfere with neighbor cells, a radio resource is allocated in FDMA

or TDMA -
• Same frequency band (or timeslot) is not used with neighbor cells.

In the diagram, the left side shows the cell allocation having seven frequency
bands.

In real time, due to complexity in radio propagation and uneven allocation of

cell, it’s not easy to allocate frequency.
Biggest advantage of CDMA technology is that it shares the same frequency and
arrangement of the frequency is not treated as an issue.

As the frequency is used simultaneously among all channels, all cells use an
identical radio resource.
 • In CDMA, frequency allocation is not compulsory.
• CDMA cellular system is easy to design because of this.

What is CDMA Handoff?

While roaming, the user or subscriber moves from one BS to another. During
that time, the network switches to the other BS and the coverage is maintained
throughout without causing any issues. This is called as "hand-off" (Handoff) or
"hand-over" (Handover).

While in TDMA and FDMA systems, different frequency is used for communicating with
the BS of that particular area which means, a frequency switch happens and due to that a
slight communication cut occurs. This is termed as "hard handoff" (Hard Handoff) or "hard
handover" (Hard Handover).

Hard Handoff

For a moment, the communication between MS and BS is broken during the

frequency switch and a new communication is established after the current
network is handed over to the other network.
Soft Handoff

Mobile stations are tracked by Cellular systems to maintain their communication

links during switching. Link switches from one cell to another during switching.

When a mobile entering into a new area, it sends out a message to the first BS
regarding the strength of the driver and BS notifies the MTSO. MTSO then
requests the new Walsh code assignment of the second base station.
 • After the Walsh assignment done, the first BS controls the link and the MTSO sends
the link to the second BS. Mobile is powered or controlled by two BS and MTSO
selects the best one which provides good quality by checking the status for every
20ms.
• During the mobile transmission the first BS stops the channel and releases it once it
receives a pilot strength message. At this point, the power of the MS goes low. Then
the second BS continues to provide the traffic channel.
• Communication break does not occur in CDMA as the handoff does not happen with
frequency switch.

Note – There are many available sequences and Walsh is one of them. It is a
part of Orthogonal Codes. If orthogonal codes are assigned to the users, the
correlator result in the receiver will be zero.

What is CDMA - Interferences?

We can observe high interference in CDMA signals. It has two forms – one with
the users in the same minicell and other with the adjacent cells. In addition,
background noise and other spurious signals add up to the total interference.

CDMA uses the spread spectrum modulation for encoding a signal during transmission and
retrieval.
Noise Sources

Signals are distributed over 1.23 MHz frequency band. And each subscriber has
assigned PN codes which are decoded and processed. The signals that doesn’t
match code are considered as noise.

Signal Processing: Receive

Upon receiving the signal, it is filtered and processed for recovering the signal.
Correlator removes the sources of interference as they are uncorrelated with the
process. By using this, the CDMA calls occupy the same frequency band of 1.23
MHz at the same time.

Frame Error Rate

As the calls increase, the frame error rate (FER) is also increased. FER is
nothing but the number of transmission errors. It can be overcome by increasing
the power of the either mobile or minicell to have FER at considerable amount.
This event provides a soft limit calls from a particular minicell that depends on -

• Naturally occurring noise floor and the man-made interference.

• Interference caused from calls on this minicell.
• Interference caused from calls on other cells.
Power per Walsh Code

This is the measurement of the power of active traffic channel and the power up
or down to maintain considerable FER by mobile on the channel during call
processing.

• This power is expressed in terms of digital gain units.

• Below are the list of actions that are seen in the transmit path -
• Walsh code spreads the digital voice packet from PSU2 (packet switch unit 2 in the
5ESS switch).
• Spread signal modulates the RF transmit carrier frequency.
• The direct sequence spread spectrum signal is transmitted.

Below are the list of actions occur during receiving the signal -

• The direct sequence spread spectrum signal is received.

• RF receive carrier frequency demodulates the received signal.
• Using the same Walsh code, the signal is suppressed.
• Then the decoded signal is restored by a Bit Detector to get the original speech
pattern.