Performing in Musicals - Novak, Elaine Adams

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MT 955 .N7 1988
Novak, Elaine Adams.
Performing in musicals
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PERFORMING
IN
MUSICALS
ELAINE ADAMS NOVAK
SCHIRMER BOOKS
A Division of Macmillan, Inc.
NEW YORK
NICQLET COLLEGE LRC

P.O. BOX 518
RHINELANDER, Wl 54501
Copyright © 1988 by Schirmer Books
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher.
Schirmer Books
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Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 87-20669
Printed in the United States of America
printing number
123456789 10
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Novak, Elaine Adams.

Performing in musicals.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Musical revue. Comedy, etc—Production and
direction. 2. Music—Performance 3. Title.
MT955.N7 1988 782.8U07 87-20669
ISBN 0-02-871731-7
CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS vii 5. VOCAL EXERCISES 55

Breathing 55
Phonation 57
PREFACE ix Resonation 59
Articulation and Pronunciation 62
1. THE MUSICAL 1 Variety 68
Characteristics of the Musical 3 Projection 73
Development of the Musical 4 Phrasing and Pausing 75
Development of Musical
Production 11 6. ACTING TECHNIQUES 77
Stage Techniques 77
Exercises 13
Comedy Techniques 94
Concentration 100
2. ELEMENTS OF A MUSICAL 15 Improvisations 101
Book 15
Lyrics 19 7. PREPARING A MUSICAL
Score 21 ROLE 105
Dances 22 Analyzing the Musical and Role 105
Exercises 25 Rehearsing 109
Creating a Character 113
Preparing Songs 119
3. PRODUCTION OF A MUSICAL 27
Preparing Dances 126
Producer 28
Exercises 129
Stage Director 28
Musical Director/Conductor 29
30
8. BEHAVIOR AT
Orchestrator and Arrangers REHEARSALS AND
Choreographer 30 133
PERFORMANCES
Designers of Scenery, Lighting, Rehearsals 133
Costumes, Sound 30 136
Performances
Stage Manager 32
Exercises 33 9. PREPARING A MUSICAL
AUDITION 139
35 All Types of Auditions 139
4. MOVEMENT EXERCISES
36 Specific Auditions for Actors 143
Relaxation 144
44 General Auditions for Actors
Body Alignment 146
47 Singing Auditions
Flexibility 149
Balance and Coordination 48 Dance Auditions
Interviews 150
Sense Memory, Emotional 150
50 Photographs and R6sum6
Memory, Imagination 152
51 Notices of Auditions
Rhythm 152
53 Exercises
Observation
v
vi CONTENTS
10. SCENES FROM MUSICALS Scene for One Man, One Woman
FOR REHEARSAL 155 from How to Succeed in
Scene for Three Men from Business Without
Iolanthe 157 Really Trying 232
Song: "He Who Shies at Scene for One Man, One Woman
Such a Prize” 160 from Funny Girl 234
Scene for One Man, One Woman Scene for Three Women from
from The Mikado 167 Fiddler on the Roof 237
Song: "Were You Not to Song: "Matchmaker,
Ko-Ko Plighted" 170 Matchmaker” 240
Scene for One Man, One Woman Scene for Three Women from
from Brigadoon 174 Mame 253
Song: "The Heather on the Scene for One Man, One Woman
Hill" 178 from Cabaret 255
Scene for One Man, One Woman Song: "Perfectly Marvelous” 259
from Kiss Me, Kate 186 Scene for three men from 1776 269
Song: "Wunderbar” 189 Song: "The Lees of Old
Scene for One Man, One Woman Virginia" 274
from South Pacific 197 Scene for Two Men, One Woman
Song: "Some Enchanted from Company 283
Evening” 200 Scene for One Man, Two Women
Scene for One Man, One Woman from Grease 288
from My Fair Lady 205
Scene for One Man, One Woman SUGGESTED READING 291
from Gypsy 209
Song: "You’ll Never Get Away
From Me” 213 GLOSSARY OF THEATRICAL
Scene for One Man, One Woman TERMS 295
from Camelot 220
Song: "Camelot” 224 INDEX 301
LIST OF
ILLUSTRATIONS
1-1 Wanda Richert, as Peggy Sawyer, 5-1 Some parts of the body that are
and the company of 42nd Street. 2 involved in speaking and singing. 56
1-2 Poster for The Black Crook, the 5-2 Some parts of the head and neck
show that many consider to be that are involved in speaking and
the first American musical. 6 singing. 59
1-3 The chorus of the Ziegfeld 5- 3 Resonation exercise 1. 60
Follies of 1924. 6 6- 1 Example of a proscenium stage. 79
1-4 One of Ziegfeld’s biggest stars, 6-2 Example of an arena stage. 80
Fanny Brice, playing the character 6-3 Example of a thrust stage. 80
of Baby Snooks. 7 6-4 Full front body positions. 82
1-5 Mandy Patinkin and Bernadette 6-5 One-quarter body positions. 83
Peters in Sunday in the Park with 6-6 Profile body positions. 84
George. 9 6-7 Three-quarter body positions. 85
1- 6 An environmental theatre 6-8 Full back body positions. 86
production of Candide at the 6-9 A curtsy. 91
Broadway Theatre in 1974. 12 6-10 A bow. 92
2- 1 Rex Harrison as Henry Higgins 6- 11 Chotzi Foley, Maria Karnilova,
and Julie Andrews as Eliza and Faith Dane as the three
Doolittle in the Broadway strippers in Gypsy. 97
production of My Fair Lady. 17 7- 1 Robert Goulet, Julie Andrews,
2-2 Dancers in the original Broadway Richard Burton, and other
production of Oklahoma!. 23 performers at a reading rehearsal
4-1 and 4-2 Relaxation exercise 4. 37 of Camelot. 111
4-3, 4-4, and 4-5 Relaxation 9- 1 R6sum6 form. 151
exercise 7. 39 10- 1 Richard Burton as Arthur and
4-6 and 4-7 Relaxation exercise 8. 42 Julie Andrews as Guenevere in
4-8 Front view of standing alignment. 45 Camelot. 221
4-9 Side view of standing alignment. 46 10-2 Grease, as produced at Marshall
4-10 Flexibility exercise 5. 48 University. 289
4-11 Balance and coordination
exercise 4. 49
vii
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PREFACE
This book is for beginning performers in musicals—for the actors, singers,

and dancers who would like to broaden their knowledge of this type of
entertainment. It is assumed that you presently know very little about
musicals but would like to learn more about being in amateur or
professional musical productions. Whether you are working in a class with
an instructor, with a small group, or alone, you can use this basic acting book
for musical performers. Whether you are interested in being in college,
community, summer, regional, or professional musicals, this book will show
you how to prepare to audition and perform.
The first three chapters will help you understand what a musical is.
Chapter one provides the characteristics and a brief history of the
development of the musical and its technical production. Chapter two gives a
description of the elements of a musical: the book, lyrics, score, and dances.
Chapter three tells you how a musical is produced and the responsibilities of
the various people who work on a production.
You will find numerous exercises in chapters four and five to improve
your stage movement and voice. Chapter six gives a description of stage and
comedy techniques and more exercises for concentration and improvisation.
When you get a part in a musical, you will need to know how to analyze
the show and the role, create a character, and perform the dialogue, songs,
and dances; that is what chapter seven is all about. The goal of chapter eight
is to advise you on how to conduct yourself at rehearsals and performances.
To help you audition for musicals successfully, chapter nine gives you
many suggestions and tips, and chapter ten offers excerpts from famous
musicals to use in practicing your performing skills. At the end of this text,
you will find a list of books for further reading and a glossary of theatrical
terms.
It is not within the scope of this book to try to teach you how to sing or
dance. But if you are a singer, dancer, or actor who wants to work in
musicals, this text will give you many exercises, sixteen scenes to rehearse
(ten of them with songs, for which the piano part and lyrics are provided),
and information about how to audition, analyze a musical, and prepare,
rehearse, and perform a role.
Grateful acknowledgment is made to my daughter, Deborah Novak, and

my son, Edwin Novak, for their great help and encouragement; to Milton
Brooks and to my colleagues at Marshall University—N. B. East, Maureen
Milicia, Bruce Greenwood, Mary Marshall, William Kearns, J. D. Folsom,
Susan Dolen, and James Morris-Smith—for their advice and assistance; to
artist-photographer Kimberly Harbour for drawings and pictures of
exercises; to Sonya McMillion and Dwayne Johnson for modeling for
IX
photographs; and to the copyright owners for permission to reprint songs
and dialogue excerpts from the following:
From 42nd. Street, produced by David Merrick and directed by Gower
Champion, Copyright © by Michael Stewart and Mark Bramble. Used by
permission of Michael Stewart and Mark Bramble.
From Applause, Copyright © 1971 by Betty Comden and Adolph Green.
Reprinted by permission of Random House, Inc.
From West Side Story, Copyright © 1956, 1958 by Arthur Laurents,
Leonard Bernstein, Stephen Sondheim, and Jerome Robbins. Text reprinted
by permission of Random House, Inc. Lyrics Copyright © 1957 by Leonard
Bernstein and Stephen Sondheim. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Lyrics used by
permission of G. Schirmer, Inc.
From Dames at Sea, Copyright © 1966, 1967,1969 by George Haimsohn,
Robin Miller, and Jim Wise (book, music, and lyrics). Reprinted by
permission of International Creative Management, Inc.
Amateurs wishing to arrange for the production of Dames at Sea must make application to SAMUEL
FRENCH, INC., at 45 West 25th Street, New York, NY, 10010, giving the following particulars:
1. The name of the town and theatre or hall in which it is proposed to give the production.
2. The maximum seating capacity of the theatre or hall.
3. Scale of ticket prices.
4. The number of performances it is intended to give, and the dates thereof.
5. Indicate whether you will use an orchestration or simply a piano.
Upon receipt of these particulars SAMUEL FRENCH, INC., will quote the terms upon which permission
for performances will be granted. Anyone presenting the play shall not commit or authorize any act or
omission by which the copyright of the play or the right to copyright same may be impaired. No changes
shall be made in the play for the purpose of your production unless authorized in writing. The publication
of this play does not imply that it is necessarily available for performance by amateurs or professionals.
Amateurs and professionals considering a production are strongly advised in their own interests to apply
to Samuel French, Inc., for consent before starting rehearsals, advertising, or booking a theatre or hall.
From My Fair Lady, Copyright © 1956 by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick
Loewe. All rights to perform excerpts and songs are reserved to the copyright
owners thereof. Excerpts are reprinted by courtesy of the estate of Alan Jay
Lerner.
From Camelot, Copyright © 1960,1961 by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick
Loewe. Text reprinted by permission of Random House, Inc. “Camelot,”
words by Alan Jay Lerner, music by Frederick Loewe. Chappell & Co., Inc.,
owner of publication and allied rights throughout the world. International
Copyright Secured. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Used by permission.
From Kiss Me, Kate, Book-Copyright © 1948 by Bella Spewack; Book
Revisions-Copyright © 1953 by Samuel and Bella Spewack. "Wunderbar,”
words and music by Cole Porter. Copyright © 1948 by Cole Porter. Copyright
renewed, assigned to John F. Wharton, Trustee of the Cole Porter Musical
and Literary Trusts. Chappell & Co., Inc., publisher and owner of publication
and allied rights throughout the world. International Copyright Secured.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Used by permission.
From Funny Girl, Book Copyright © 1964 by Isobel Lennart, Jule Styne,
and Bob Merrill. Reprinted by permission of Random House, Inc.
From Brigadoon, Copyright © 1947 by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick
Loewe. All rights to perform excerpts and songs are reserved to the
copyright owners thereof. Excerpts are reprinted by courtesy of the estate
of Alan Jay Lerner. "The Heather on the Hill,” words by Alan Jay Lerner,
music by Frederick Loewe. Copyright © 1947 (Renewed 1975) Alan Jay
Lerner and Frederick Loewe. World rights assigned to and controlled by
United Artists Music Co., Inc. All Rights of United Artists Music Co., Inc.
Assigned to CBS Catalogue Partnership. All Rights Controlled and Ad¬
ministered by CBS U Catalog.
From South Pacific, Lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II, Music by Richard
Rodgers, Book by Oscar Hammerstein II & Joshua Logan, adapted from
James A. Michener’s novel Tales of the South Pacific. Libretto New Matter:
“Dialogue and Cues Added." Registered in the names of Oscar Hammerstein
II and Richard Rodgers under D. Pub. 2535—following Publication
February 13, 1956. “Some Enchanted Evening” by Richard Rodgers &
Oscar Hammerstein II. Copyright © 1949 by Richard Rodgers & Oscar
Hammerstein II. Copyright Renewed & Assigned to Chappell & Co., Inc.
International Copyright Secured. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Used by
permission.
From Gypsy, Copyright ©1959, 1960 by Arthur Laurents, Gypsy Rose
Lee, and Stephen Sondheim. “You’ll Never Get Away from Me,” words by
Stephen Sondheim, music by Jule Styne. Copyright © 1959 by Norbeth
Productions, Inc. and Stephen Sondheim. Williamson Music, Inc., and
Stratford Music Corporation, owners of publication and allied rights
throughout the world. Chappell & Co., Inc., sole selling agent. International
Copyright Secured. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Used by permission.
From How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying, Copyright ©
1961 by the Frank Loesser Literary and Musical Trust. Used by permission.
From the libretto of Fiddler on the Roof, Copyright © 1964 by Joseph
Stein. Reprinted by permission of Joseph Stein. "Matchmaker, Match¬
maker,” words by Sheldon Harnick, music by Jerry Bock. Copyright © 1964
by Alley Music Corporation and Trio Music Company, Inc. All Rights
Administered by Hudson Bay Music, Inc. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Used
by Permission.
From Mame, Copyright © 1967 by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee.
Copyright © 1966 by Jerry Herman. All rights controlled by Jerryco Music
Co. Exclusive distributor: Edwin H. Morris & Co., Inc. Text reprinted by
permission of Random House, Inc.
From Cabaret, Copyright © 1967 by Joe Masteroff and Fred Ebb. Text
reprinted by permission of Random House, Inc. Perfectly Marvelous,
lyrics by Fred Ebb, music by John Kander. Copyright © 1966 by Alley Music
Corporation and Trio Music Company, Inc. All rights administered by
Hudson Bay Music, Inc. International Copyright Secured. ALL RIGHTS
RESERVED. Used by permission.
From 1116: A Musical Play by Peter Stone and Sherman Edwards. Text
Copyright © 1964 by Sherman Edwards. Copyright © 1969 by Peter Stone.
Lyrics Copyright © 1964, 1968, 1969 by Sherman Edwards. Reprinted by
permission of Viking Penguin Inc. “The Lees of Old Virginia Copyright ©
1964, 1968, 1969 by Sherman Edwards. Music 28, Inc. is owner o
publication and allied rights. International Copyright Secured. ALL RIGHTS
RESERVED. Music and lyrics by Sherman Edwards. From 1116, Broadway
production by Stuart Ostrow. Reprinted by permission of Music 28, Inc.
From Company, Text Copyright © 1970 by George Furth, Stephen
Sondheim, and Harold Prince. Reprinted by permission of Random House,
Inc.
From Grease, Copyright © 1970, 1971 (as an unpublished work), 1972
by Jim Jacobs and Warren Casey. Reprinted by permission of International
Creative Management, Inc.
This play is restricted. Write for particulars on availability including the
following information.
Amateurs wishing to arrange for the production of Grease must make application to SAMUEL
FRENCH, INC., at 45 West 25th Street, New York, NY, 10010 giving the following particulars:
1. The name of the town and theatre or hall in which it is proposed to give the production.
2. The maximum seating capacity of the theatre or hall.
3. Scale of ticket prices.
4. The number of performances it is intended to give, and the dates thereof.
5. Indicate whether you will use an orchestration or simply a piano.
Upon receipt of these particulars SAMUEL FRENCH, INC., will quote the terms upon which
permission for performances will be granted.
A set of orchestral parts with piano conductor score and principal chorus books will be loaned two
months prior to the production ONLY on receipt of the royalty quoted for all performances, the rental
fee and a refundable deposit. The deposit will be refunded on the safe return to SAMUEL FRENCH,
INC., of all material loaned for the production.
Stock royalty quoted on application to SAMUEL FRENCH, INC.
For all other rights than those stipulated above, apply to Bridget Aschenberg, International Creative
Management Agency, Inc., 40 West 57th Street, New York, NY, 10019.
1
THE MUSICAL
PEGGY sawyer [new to Broadway]: I’m sorry, Mr. Marsh. Show business isn’t for
me. I’m going back to Allentown.
JULIAN [a producer-director]: What was that word you just said? Allentown? I m
offering you the chance to star in the biggest musical Broadway s seen
in twenty years and you say Allentown? Now listen, Sawyer, and listen
good. Even if you don’t give a damn for me, think of all those kids you 11
be throwing out of work if you don’t do this! Think of the songs that will
wither and die if you don’t get up there and sing them! Think of the scenery
that will never be seen, the costumes never worn, the orchestrations never
heard!... Think of musical comedy, the most glorious words in the English
language! Sawyer, think of Broadway, dammit!
—from 42nd Street
In the above excerpt from 42nd Street, which is a satire on Broadway

productions of the 1930s, Julian is trying to persuade Peggy to stay in
New York to star in a musical, a type of show that since World War II has
flourished in this country and elsewhere. But what is this entertainment
called the musical comedy, the Broadway musical, the American musical,
or just the musical? In past years, the label musical comedy was often
used, as in Julian's speech above, but because some shows like Show Boat
and West Side Story have serious themes, the usual term today is simply
musical
The musical is a show that is closely related to others that com¬
bine music, singing, acting, dancing, and theatrical production. When we
consider the entire American musical theatre, we can see that there are
three main divisions—the musical, opera, and revue—with various subcat¬
egories, such as:
• Musicals: musical comedies, musical dramas, operatic musicals, rock
musicals.
• Operas: grand operas, light operas, comic operas, operettas, popular
operas.
• Revues: vaudeville, burlesque, variety shows, nightclub/cabaret enter¬
tainments.
1
2 PERFORMING IN MUSICALS
Figure 1-1. Wanda Richert, as Peggy Sawyer, and the company of 42nd Street.
(Photo: © 1984 Martha Swope.)
Although both the musical and the opera tell a story using music,
singing, acting, dancing, and theatrical production, usually it is easy to
differentiate between them because in operas all or most of the lines are
sung, while in musicals there are spoken passages. In operas the singing
and music are emphasized, but in musicals the book, acting, dancing, and
production may receive as much attention as the singing and music. Also,
operas are generally produced by opera companies in opera houses with
opera singers whereas American musicals open in Broadway theatres with
Broadway performers. Examples of famous operas are La Traviata and
Madame Butterfly; examples of popular musicals are A Chorus Line and
Annie.
But what do you call a Broadway musical such as Porgy and Bess
or Sweeney Todd, in which most of the lines are sung? For these the
compromise label of operatic musical or popular opera may be used.
The revue—which may have songs, dances, music, comedy acts, black¬
out sketches, specialty numbers, and theatrical production—is different
from the musical and the opera in that the revue does not have a story line
or plot to tie the entire show together, although there may be a theme to
provide some unity. For instance, Sugar Babies was presented as a "mem-
THE MUSICAL 3
ory of burlesque,” which was the theme for this revue; and in Ain’t Mis¬
behavin’ all of the music was written or recorded by Fats Waller, which
gave this revue a unifying theme.
While this book is concerned primarily with performing in musicals,
much of what is advocated here can also be applied to revues and operas.
Now let’s examine the musical in more detail.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MUSICAL

Musicals come in all shapes and sizes. Consider the following:
• They can be large, spectacular productions or little, inexpensive ones.
Typically, when we think of the musical, we think of an elaborate show
such as 42nd Street or La Cage aux Folks; but musicals do come in
smaller sizes, such as two popular off-Broadway productions, The Fan-
tasticks and You’re a Good Man, Charlie Brown.
• The source for a musical may be a play {Hello, Dolly! from The Match¬
maker), a novel {Oliver! from Oliver Twist), stories {Fiddler on the Roof),
poems {Cats), a film {Promises, Promises from The Apartment), the life
of a person {Funny Girl), history {1776), a comic strip {Li l Abner), the
work of an artist {Sunday in the Park with George), or an original con¬
cept {Company).
• The musical can be a comedy {My Fair Lady), a farce {Kiss Me, Kate),
a satire {Of Thee I Sing), a romantic comedy {She Loves Me), a fantasy
{Brigadoon), a drama {Evita), a melodrama {Sweeney Todd), a tragedy
{West Side Story), or any other type that a play can be.
But there are characteristics that apply to most musicals, such as the
following:
• Usually, many artists collaborate to produce the show: bookwriter, com¬
poser, lyricist, producer, stage director, actors, singers, dancers, comedi¬
ans, specialists (such as magicians or circus performers), choreographer,
dance director, musical director, conductor, orchestrator, arrangers, re¬
hearsal pianists, orchestra, designers of scenery, lighting, costumes, and
sound, various assistants, and crews.
• The musical has many stage conventions that audiences must accept:
for example, characters talk then break into song; an orchestra and
conductor may be visible throughout the show; dancers may appear tor
no apparent reason except to add their talents to a production number.
• The musical is presentational theatre, not representational. The shows
are presented directly to the audience: the performers sing and speak
to the spectators much of the time, scenery often merely suggests a
location, and there is little attempt at illusion. (In representational the¬
atre, such as a realistic production of a play like Long Days Journey
into Night by Eugene O'Neill, there is a greater effort to make audiences
believe that they are watching life onstage.) While musicals may not
present much illusion onstage, audiences can empathize with a musical
as much as a realistic play if they accept the stage conventions.
• Performers in musicals must often be multitalented as they may have to

act, sing, and dance in addition to displaying other skills, such as being
funny, playing musical instruments, or roller-skating.
• The musical is a popular form of theatrical entertainment in the United
States and in other countries. The combination of music, songs, dances,
acting, and a good book with suitable scenery, costumes, and lighting
can attract large audiences. In fact, the longest-running shows in the
history of Broadway and off-Broadway are musicals.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSICAL

The development of the musical is generally considered to be the great¬
est contribution that the United States has made to the theatre of the
world. Although fine composers, writers, and directors from other coun¬
tries, especially England, have aided this progress significantly, the rise in
popularity of the musical was primarily due to Americans. Let’s look at
theatrical history to see how this came about.
Since the days of early primitive societies, the combination of music,
singing, dancing, and acting has been enjoyed. By the fifth century BC,
Greek actors and the chorus in tragedies and comedies like Oedipus Rex
and Lysistrata probably sang or chanted many of their lines, and the
chorus moved rhythmically or danced to musical accompaniment. Later,
in Rome, Plautus used songs and dances in his comedies; the Roman
pantomime involved a dancer relating a story through movement as a
chorus sang the narration; and the Roman mime may have been similar
to a revue.
In medieval Europe, wandering performers provided musical enter¬
tainment for castles, town festivals, and fairs. Music, chanting, and singing
were used in religious drama, and songs and dances were at times a part
of secular plays.
In the Italian Renaissance, the improvised comedy of the comme-
dia dell'arte included singing and dancing, and the intermezzo, which was
an entertainment presented between the acts of a play, featured music,
dances, songs, and spectacular scenery, costumes, and special effects. Sim¬
ilar to the latter were the elaborate masques presented at the English
court in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Music was also an im¬
portant part of the English theatre of that time. During the performances
of plays by Shakespeare and his contemporaries, musicians provided fan¬
fares, background music for some scenes, and accompaniment for songs
and dances, and after the plays a “jig” or some other dance was often used
to conclude the entertainment.
In 1597 in Italy, while trying to produce Dafne as they thought the an¬
cient Greeks might have performed it, the performers intoned or chanted
their lines to a musical accompaniment. This production is often regarded
as the first opera, a type of musical theatre that developed in the seven¬
teenth century in Italy and was then copied elsewhere.
In England, by the eighteenth century, there was the English pan¬
tomime, which typically used some commedia dell’arte characters (such
as Harlequin and Columbine) and had spoken dialogue, singing, dancing,
THE MUSICAL 5
and specialty acts in addition to pantomime. Another type of entertainment

was burlesque, which started as a satirical parody of a play or custom but
later came to feature beautiful women in skimpy costumes and ribald co¬
medians. There were also two types of shows that are much like the mod¬
ern musical: ballad opera (such as John Gay's The Beggars’ Opera), which
had a plot, spoken passages, and songs with new lyrics to old melodies, and
comic opera, which was similar to ballad opera except that it had original
music. Later, in the nineteenth century, W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan
wrote such delightful comic operas as H.M.S. Pinafore, The Pirates of Pen¬
zance, Iolanthe, and The Mikado, which are still popular.
By the nineteenth century, comic opera, grand opera, pantomime,
and burlesque were all being performed in the United States. There were
also minstrel shows, done by white or black male troupes—both using
blackface makeup—who played banjos, tambourines, and the "bones”;
they also sang, danced, told jokes, and did specialty numbers. There were
extravaganzas and spectacles, which were lavish productions usually about
myths or fairy tales that involved dancing, music, and elaborate scenic
effects. And there was variety entertainment in music halls and vaudeville,
which consisted of unrelated acts of comedians, singers, dancers, sketches,
trained animals, magicians, jugglers, acrobats, and the like.
While there is some debate about which production should be called
"the first musical,” many consider it to be The Black Crook, which opened
in New York in 1866. Reviewed as "a fantastic mixture of drama and
spectacle, with wonderful scenery and transformations ... with an amazing
ballet of scantily-clad dancers," it became the hit of New York and did
much to start the vogue for musical entertainment with a plot.
Shortly thereafter, the operetta, which originated in Europe, became
popular in the United States. Operettas offer romance, adventure, melodic
music, and spoken passages in such shows as Babes in Toyland, The Red
Mill, The Merry Widow, The Chocolate Soldier, Naughty Marietta, Rose
Marie, and The Student Prince.
By the early years of the twentieth century, the opulent Ziegfeld Follies
and other revues featured stars like Fanny Brice, W. C. Fields, Will Rogers,
Bert Williams, and Eddie Cantor in extravagant productions that had
beautiful girls, comedians, singers, dancers, specialty acts, and blackout
sketches. Some of the greatest composers of the time—Victor Herbert,
Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, Jerome Kern, Richard Rodgers, and George
Gershwin—wrote for revues.
Many of the above types, especially revues, comic operas, and op¬
erettas, helped to shape the American musical. But for the most part, early
musicals are of little interest today: the plots are flimsy and songs, dances,
and specialty acts are poorly integrated into the story. In 1927, however,
Jerome Kern and Oscar Hammerstein II created Show Boat, a musical with
a serious theme that skillfully combined musical numbers and plot. In
1931, a satire on American politics— Of Thee I Sing by George and Ira
Gershwin, George S. Kaufman, and Morrie Ryskind—won the Pulitzer prize
as the best play of the year, thus raising the status of the musical. In 1935,
Porgy and Bess, by the Gershwins and DuBose Heyward, was acclaimed
as an innovative operatic musical.
But the show that is generally looked upon as the turning point in
Figure 1-2. Poster for The Black Crook, the show that many consider to be the first
American musical.
(Courtesy of the Billy Rose Theatre Collection, the New York Public Library at Lincoln Center, Astor, Lenox, and
Tilden Foundations.)
Figure 1-3. The chorus of the Ziegfeld Follies of 1924.

THE MUSICAL 7
Figure 1-4. One of Ziegfeld’s biggest stars, Fanny Brice, playing the character of Baby
Snooks.
the American musical is the 1943 production of Oklahoma! by Rodgers

and Hammerstein. With music, song, dance, and book more closely inte¬
grated than in previous productions, this show set the pattern for many
musicals to follow: a strong book with songs and dances that advance
the plot or reveal character; many scenes divided into two acts; a large
cast of singers, dancers, and actors; solos, duets, and production numbers
carefully routined for maximum effect; a full orchestra; and spectacular
scenery, lighting, and costumes. A common plot was boy meets girl, boy
loses girl, and boy gets girl at the end of the show.
Other big hits of the 1940s were Carousel by Rodgers and Hammer¬
stein; Annie Get Your Gun by Irving Berlin and Herbert and Dorothy
Fields; Brigadoon by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe; Kiss Me, Kate
by Cole Porter and Samuel and Bella Spewack; and, the second winner
of a Pulitzer prize, South Pacific by Rodgers, Hammerstein, and Joshua
Logan.
The next decade brought Guys and Dolls by Frank Loesser, Jo Swer-
ling, and Abe Burrows; The King and I by Rodgers and Hammerstein; and
My Fair Lady by Lerner and Loewe. In 1957, West Side Story by Arthur
Laurents, Leonard Bernstein, and Stephen Sondheim, based on Jerome
Robbins's concept, brought to prominence the dance musical, a type that
featured spectacular dancing as a means to further the plot or delineate
character. In 1959, Gypsy, by Sondheim, Laurents, and Jule Styne, became
another big hit because of a strong book, great songs and dances, and Ethel
Merman at her best. In that same year, Rodgers and Hammerstein, with
Howard Lindsay and Russel Crouse, wrote The Sound of Music.
The 1960s saw many fine musicals, including Lerner and Loewe's
Camelot; How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (another
Pulitzer prizewinner) by Frank Loesser, Abe Burrows, Jack Weinstock, and
Willie Gilbert; Hello, Dolly! by Jerry Herman and Michael Stewart; Funny
Girl by Jule Styne, Bob Merrill, and Isobel Lennart; Fiddler on the Roof
by Jerry Bock, Sheldon Harnick, and Joseph Stein; Man of La Mancha by
Mitch Leigh, Joe Darion, and Dale Wasserman; Marne by Jerry Herman,
Jerome Lawrence, and Robert E. Lee; Cabaret by John Kander, Fred Ebb,
and Joe Masteroff; and 1116 by Sherman Edwards and Peter Stone.
In 1968, the popularity of Hair, by Galt MacDermot, Gerome Ragni,
and James Rado, brought attention to a new form, the rock musical
While the plot was minimal, the show made sharp political comments
about issues such as the Vietnam War. Simple scenery and properties
were carried on and removed as needed, actors changed costumes—and
roles—in full view of the audience, and the sound was amplified. The rock
music, the informal and spontaneous manner, and the first use of total
nudity by most of the cast of a Broadway musical made Hair appear
different. Other important rock musicals that followed during the 1970s
were Jesus Christ Superstar by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice,
Grease by Jim Jacobs and Warren Casey, and The Wiz by Charlie Smalls
and William F. Brown.
Starting in the 1970s, the collaboration of Stephen Sondheim and
producer-director Harold Prince brought us innovative productions like
Company (with George Furth); Follies (with James Goldman); A Little Night
THE MUSICAL 9
Music (with Hugh Wheeler); Pacific Overtures (with John Weidman); and
an operatic musical, Sweeney Todd (with Wheeler). James Lapine and
Sondheim collaborated in 1984 on Sunday in the Park with George, yet
another winner of the Pulitzer prize, and in 1987 on Into the Woods.
The emphasis in these musicals is on the concept—the idea or theme for
the show—and not on a “boy gets girl” plot or melodic, singable tunes.
Episodes serve to illustrate the concept. The songs, which often reveal the
Figure 1-5. Mandy Patinkin and Bernadette Peters in Sunday in the Park with George.
characters' deep feelings or comment on the action, were not written to

be popular successes outside of the show, although some like “Send in
the Clowns” have been big hits. Rather, they were tailored for specific
characters to sing in particular situations needed by the plot. The result
was sophisticated, intricate, witty shows, some akin to opera, that pointed
the musical in a new direction. Of course, some composers admired and
admitted the Sondheim influence; however, others preferred the more
traditional form of musical with simple plots and singable melodies.
Other important shows of the 1970s and 1980s were Applause by
Charles Strouse, Lee Adams, Betty Comden, and Adolph Green; Pippin
by Stephen Schwartz and Roger O. Hirson; Chicago by John Kander, Fred
Ebb, and Bob Fosse; A Chorus Line (another Pulitzer prizewinner) by
Michael Bennett, Marvin Hamlisch, Edward Kleban, James Kirkwood,
and Nicholas Dante; Annie by Strouse and Martin Charnin; an operatic
musical, Evita by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice; 42nd Street by
Harry Warren, Al Dubin, Michael Stewart, and Mark Bramble; Barnum
by Cy Coleman, Stewart, and Bramble; Dreamgirls by Henry Krieger and
Tom Eyen; Nine by Maury Yeston and Arthur Kopit; Cats, based on poems
by T. S. Eliot, with music by Lloyd Webber; My One and Only, with book
by Peter Stone and Timothy Mayer and music and lyrics from previous
shows by the Gershwins; La Cage aux Folles by Harvey Fierstein and Jerry
Herman; a revival of a 1937 London hit, Me and My Girl by L. Arthur Rose,
Douglas Furber, and Noel Gay; Les Miserables, an operatic dramatization
of Victor Hugo's novel by Alain Boublil and Claude-Michel Schonberg,
with lyrics by Herbert Kretzmer, adapted and directed by Trevor Nunn
and John Caird; and Starlight Express by Lloyd Webber and Richard
Stilgoe.
During the 1970s, the workshop method of writing musicals evolved.
This gives writers and composers the chance to develop their show work¬
ing with performers and rewrite. It also allows potential backers to see
singers, actors, and dancers doing the material. If the money for produc¬
tion is raised, then the show can be put into rehearsal. For example, in a
process that took well over a year, A Chorus Line went from workshops
to an off-Broadway production to a Broadway hit in 1975. It went on to
become the longest-running show on Broadway.
Some writers, composers, directors, and producers like workshops be¬
cause they give them time to develop the material in a situation that costs
much less than a Broadway production. With large musicals requiring mil¬
lions of dollars to produce, it seems sensible to create and experiment in
workshops first. However, there are those who do not enjoy working in a
group and prefer adhering to traditional ways.
One unfortunate result of Broadway’s high production costs has been
high ticket prices. Now, some theatregoers can no longer afford to attend
Broadway shows, and many who pay large sums for tickets expect to see
costly, elaborate productions. As the financial stakes get higher, producers
become hesitant about attempting expensive musicals and are quick to
close marginal shows that are not certain of success.
As of the 1980s, Broadway appears in danger of losing to London
its title of world leader of musical theatre. England’s comparatively low
THE MUSICAL 1 1
production costs and ticket prices make it a desirable location to try out a
show; then, if it is a London success, it may be brought to New York. British
composers, writers, and directors such as Andrew Lloyd Webber, Tim
Rice, and Trevor Nunn have come to the forefront by creating spectacular
hits like Evita, Cats, Les Miserables, and Starlight Express, all of which
were produced in London before Broadway. Whether this trend continues
depends on several factors, including the creativity of American writers
and composers and finding a solution to the problem of high production
costs and ticket prices.
The performers who work in musicals must be talented singers or
dancers or actors or comedians, and for some roles they must be all of
these. Some of the top stars of Broadway musicals have been George M.
Cohan, Al Jolson, Fanny Brice, Ed Wynn, W. C. Fields, Bert Williams, Ed¬
die Cantor, Bert Lahr, the Marx brothers, Victor Moore, Bobby Clark,
Gertrude Lawrence, Noel Coward, Beatrice Lillie, Ethel Merman, Mary
Martin, Danny Kaye, Ethel Waters, Alfred Drake, Nancy Walker, Carol
Channing, Robert Preston, Angela Lansbury, Barbra Streisand, Zero Mos-
tel, Julie Andrews, Gwen Verdon, Chita Rivera, Jerry Ohrbach, Liza Min¬
nelli, Joel Grey, Jim Dale, Ben Vereen, Tommy Tune, Bernadette Peters,
Mandy Patinkin, and Patti LuPone.
DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL PRODUCTION

Now let’s briefly consider how the technical elements of the musical
developed to what they are today.
The tradition of elaborate scenery for musicals goes back to the seven¬
teenth century in Italy when designers used imaginative wings, drops, and
borders—all beautifully painted in perspective—for the opera. Both then
and now, the main purpose of scene designing was to add excitement and
spectacle to the production. Today designers are also concerned with pro¬
viding a visual environment for each scene that will help the audience
understand the plot, characters, theme, style, and mood.
In order to go quickly from one scene to another, wing-drop-border
sets have proved to be immensely practical for proscenium stages with fly
lofts, which all Broadway theatres have. When a scene is finished, the drop
can be lifted to the flies by means of a rope and pulley system and another
drop can be lowered. Wings can be flown, turned, or pulled offstage to
disclose others for the next scene.
To accommodate set changes, musical writers have often alternated
scenes needing the full stage with scenes that can be done in a shallow
downstage area. While the downstage scene is being played in front of the
first set of wings and a drop, curtain, or traveler (this is called playing in
''one''), a full-stage set can be erected in back. For this reason, you will
find that large chorus numbers requiring the entire stage often alternate
with dialogue, solos, or duets that only need a shallow space.
Since the nineteenth century other devices have been used to facili¬
tate scene changes: revolving stages, wagons, treadmills, jackknife stages,
escalators, and elevators, some of which today may be operated by com-
puters. Sometimes a formal architectural unit set can be designed that

depicts several locales at the same time. Locations on a unit set may be
changed by bringing in small scenic pieces or properties to various places
onstage. Company, Grease, Chicago and other shows have utilized this kind
of set. Some musicals, such as Grease and Evita, have also made good use
of the multimedia approach, using film and slide projections.
The type of stage and equipment available have, of course, influenced
the designing of the scenery and the writing of the show. On Broadway
the word stage has almost always meant proscenium stage. (If you are not
familiar with different types of stages, see chapter six.) While the twentieth
century has seen a trend to get actors closer to audiences through the
use of arena, thrust, and environmental staging, these were not used
successfully for Broadway musicals until a 1974 revival of Candide by
Leonard Bernstein, Richard Wilbur, Hugh Wheeler, Stephen Sondheim,
and John Latouche. For the environmental staging used in this production,
the seats of the theatre were removed so that the performers could use
not only a stage but also ramps, runways, and small platforms set in the
middle of the auditorium. The audience sat on stools in the midst of the
action or on surrounding benches or bleacher seats. (See figure 1-6.)
The usual placement of the orchestra has been in a pit in front of or
Figure 1-6. An environmental theatre production of Candide at the Broadway Theatre in

1974.
THE MUSICAL 13
below the stage, but in A Chorus Line the pit was covered, in Chicago the
orchestra was onstage, in Candide the musicians were at the rear of the
auditorium, and in No Strings they played offstage and sometimes on.
Costumes add greatly to the spectacle of any musical, and through
the years producers (or actors) have made them as splendid as they could
afford. For example, for some English court masques of the seventeenth
century, Inigo Jones, the court architect, designed both elaborate scenery
and costly, sumptuous costumes. This tradition has continued to today;
most producers of big musicals, such as Barnum or Nine, spend large
sums for imaginative, theatrically effective costumes.
Before the nineteenth century, sunlight, candles, or oil lamps were the
usual ways to illuminate stages; then gaslight, limelight, and carbon arc
spotlighting came into use. The availability of electric lighting in the 1880s
gave theatres for the first time a light source that was easy to control.
Today every musical needs a lighting designer, many lighting instruments,
and a control board (which these days may be computerized), so that stage
lighting can be used to enhance the mood of scenes, emphasize soloists,
and, in general, help the audience to follow and understand the show.
Formerly, performers worked without microphones, but in recent
years there has been a greater use of them in musicals to amplify both
voices and instruments. Until this century, sound effects were made man¬
ually offstage; that is, the effect of rain was done backstage by rattling
dried peas or shot in a tin box and thunder was created by shaking a tin
sheet. Now, recordings of rain and thunder and hundreds of other sounds
can be purchased or created by a sound designer. While some effects may
still be done manually (such as a telephone bell or door buzzer), most are
now reproduced electronically. Today a sound designer is employed on
most musicals to handle amplification, recorded music and sound effects,
and the mixing of sounds.
EXERCISES
To increase your knowledge of musical theatre, research the following:
1. Compare the opera Carmen by Georges Bizet, Henri Meilhac, and Lu-
dovic Halevy with the musical West Side Story by Leonard Bernstein,
Stephen Sondheim, and Arthur Laurents. Your school or public library
should have the book or libretto of these works or recordings, films,
or videocassettes. Discuss the similarities and differences between the
two.
2. Make the same sort of comparison for the comic opera The Pirates of
Penzance by W.S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan and the operatic musical
Sweeney Todd by Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler.
3. Make another comparison of the operetta The Merry Widow by Franz
Lehar, Christopher Hassall, Milton Lazarus, and Forman Brown with the
musical A Little Night Music by Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler.
4. Investigate and describe the following old forms of musical theatre:
a. Ancient Greek productions in amphitheatres
b. English court masques
c. Minstrel shows
d. Vaudeville
e. Operettas
f. Ziegfeld Follies
5. Research the careers of the following famous writing teams:
a. George and Ira Gershwin
b. Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II
c. Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe
d. Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice
6. Stephen Sondheim is considered to be one of the chief innovators of
the contemporary theatre. Research his career.
2
ELEMENTS OF
A MUSICAL
BUZZ [a writer]: The play is actor-proof!

MARGO [an actress]: Actor-proof! If you knew the bits, the schtick, I have to
dredge out of the vaudeville trunk to give the illusion that something
amusing is going on. . . .
BUZZ: You empty-headed, conceited bass fiddle! You're just a body and a voice!
Don’t ever forget—I’m the brain!
—from Applause
To understand the musical, let’s look at what the bookwriter creates—the

book—and then the other elements of lyrics, score, and dances. In the next
chapter, the production elements will be considered.
BOOK
In creating a musical, the first element to be written is usually the book.
This contains the plot, characters, thoughts, dialogue, placement of songs
and dances, and some stage directions, all of which are described below.
After the lyrics of the songs are written by the lyricist, they are added to
the book; and the book and lyrics are typed and reproduced to make the
scripts for the show.
For operas, and sometimes for musicals, the text is termed the
libretto—which means “little book’’ in Italian—and the writer may be called
the librettist.
Plot
The plot or story line is the plan for the musical; that is, an outline of what
happens in the show. In formulating the plot, the bookwriter structures
the events to tell the story, delineate character, and express the theme
and other thoughts. He or she may also indicate where songs and dances
may occur for maximum effectiveness.
15
At the beginning of a typical plot, the writer will attempt to arouse the
audience's interest, set the mood and style, give any exposition that the
audience needs to understand the story, introduce the major characters,
and get the action started by presenting to a major character a problem
that disturbs the equilibrium. In the middle, which is the longest part of
the plot, there is usually a conflict between two or more leading characters
and the building of suspense with complications and surprises that lead
to a climax at the end of Act I. Normally, the writer tries to leave the
spectators “hanging” at the end of the first act to be sure that they return
for the second.
In Act II, which is almost always shorter than the first act, there is
another build with more suspense and surprises until the major climax
is reached. This is followed by a short, satisfying ending or resolution in
which the complications are settled.
To illustrate a musical plot, let’s look at Lerner and Loewe's My Fair
Lady. In the first scene, which takes place outside of a London opera
house, the writer gives exposition about the leading characters: Higgins
is a well-to-do professor who studies phonetics, Colonel Pickering is also
interested in languages, and Eliza is a poor flower girl who speaks with a
cockney dialect. During this scene, Higgins boasts that after six months of
work he could pass Eliza off as a duchess at a ball.
In the second scene, set in a tenement section of London, the audience
meets Eliza’s father, Doolittle, and learns more about her background.
Next, in Higgins's study, the action rises when Eliza enters to ask for
speech lessons and Pickering proposes a bet that Higgins cannot make
people believe she is a duchess in six months. As the lessons begin, Higgins
is thoughtless and insensitive to Eliza’s needs, and this attitude causes
a conflict that enlivens the scenes in which he is trying to teach her
Standard British speech and good manners. Will Higgins be able to deceive
aristocrats into thinking that a flower girl is a duchess? The suspense
builds, but at the end of Act I, the audience is left in doubt as Eliza is
waltzing at the ball with a speech expert, Karpathy, who may detect her
humble origins.
In the first scene of Act II in Higgins's study, the audience learns that
Eliza was successful, and the tension is abated—only to build again as the
conflict between Eliza and Higgins erupts into a bitter fight. (Part of this
scene may be found in chapter ten.) At a confrontation between the two
the next day at the home of Higgins's mother, Eliza informs him that she
will marry a young man, Freddy, and that she will not see Higgins again.
Later that day, Higgins makes the discovery that he has grown accustomed
to Eliza, and in the last scene, he reveals how unhappy he is at losing her.
The major climax is reached when Eliza returns, and in the very short
ending that follows the conflict is resolved as they are reconciled.
A musical plot typically includes a subplot that provides a contrast to
the main one. In My Fair Lady the subplot centers on Eliza’s father, Doolit¬
tle, a dustman, who because of Higgins receives a bequest of four thou¬
sand pounds a year. He is thereby thrust into middle-class respectability
and even marries his mistress.
While this sort of pattern of a simple, linear plot with subplot is found
ELEMENTS OF A MUSICAL 17
Figure 2-1. Rex Harrison as Henry Higgins and Julie Andrews as Eliza Doolittle in the
Broadway production of My Fair Lady.
in many musicals, some shows are quite different. If you look at the plot
of A Chorus Line or Company, two “concept musicals,” you will discover
that they do not fall into the common mold. Consider A Chorus Line:
At an audition for a Broadway musical, various dancers tell about their
lives in speech, song, and dance. Near the end, dancers are selected for
the show, and this announcement is followed by a big finale. This type of
construction may be called "episodic” or a "string of beads.” To understand
the latter term, think of a necklace. It has a thin string to hold the beads
together, just as a musical of this type has a thin plot line to hold the
episodes together.
Characters
The characters are the people in the musical who do the actions of the
plot, speak the dialogue, and perform the songs and dances. To create
"well-rounded” characters, the writer must know each character inti¬
mately: age, appearance, size, posture, movements, voice, dialect or accent,
personality, intellect, education, occupation, socioeconomic status, nation¬
ality, ethnic origins, religion, moral beliefs, politics, likes and dislikes, de¬
sires, motivations, and relationships. Also, the writer must decide whether
a character changes during the course of the musical or stays the same.
Consider how much Eliza grows during My Fair Lady: she develops from a
cockney flower girl into a refined lady. Higgins also changes as he comes
to realize how much he needs Eliza. Doolittle changes too, but the other
characters stay about the same from the beginning to the end of the plot.
Often the writer will have one or more protagonists (leading charac¬
ters) who want to achieve a goal. A protagonist is usually appealing and
likeable—a person that the audience can care about and empathize with.
Opposition to the protagonist may come from one or more antagonists or
society in general. After all, without an antagonist, the protagonist could
easily achieve the goal, and there would be no conflict, no suspense, and
no musical. Examples of protagonist-antagonist conflicts are King Arthur
and Mordred in Camelot, Dolly and Horace Vandergelder in Hello, Dolly!,
and Curly and Jud in Oklahoma!.
In addition to the protagonists and antagonists of the main plot, there
may be other characters in a subplot, friends and relatives of these people
in whom they can confide, comedians who are in the musical to get laughs,
and, of course, singers, dancers, and extras. Plotting the interaction of
these characters to maintain the audience’s interest is the goal of the
writer.
Thoughts
The thoughts of the book include the show’s theme (the main underlying
idea) or message. This may be implied or given directly to the audience in
dialogue, actions, songs, dances, or even in signs. For example, the theme
of West Side Story concerns the tragedy of prejudice. The song entitled "A
Boy Like That,” Lieutenant Schrank’s speeches (“. .. a room with half-breeds
in it....”), the rumble between the Jets and the Sharks, and the senseless
killing of Riff, Bernardo, and Tony—all exemplify the theme.
Tying in with the theme may be other important ideas; for instance,
in West Side Story, Tony and Maria look for a better life together as they
dance to "There’s a place for us,/Somewhere a place for us.” In a few
musicals, such as The Threepenny Opera by Kurt Weill and Bertolt Brecht,
signs may be displayed onstage to tell the audience the main ideas of the
scenes.
Dialogue
The words that comprise the spoken dialogue of the book are carefully
chosen by the writer to reveal the characters, plot, and thoughts. Each
word must be appropriate for the character, the situation, and the style
of the show. Because a musical must have time for songs, dances, and
music, the spoken dialogue is often cut to a minimum; consequently, words
cannot be wasted. Every speech must be understandable, concise, and
clear.
When a speech provides a lead-in to a song, the spoken passage
must progress logically and easily into the adjoining lyrics. Even though
different people may write the dialogue and the lyrics, their efforts must
blend so that the words of both sound as though they come from the same
character.
Placement of Songs and Dances

Since a musical number will usually provide the climax of a scene, its
correct placement is crucial to the success of the show. The bookwriter
may indicate where songs and dances may be, but these are likely to
be changed during the composing and songwriting period and during
rehearsals and previews. The bookwriter, lyricist, and composer, often in
consultation with the stage director, choreographer, and musical director,
consider where to place solos, duets, ensembles, choruses, and orchestral
passages for maximum effectiveness.
Stage Directions
In stage directions (which in a script are usually indented and/or put in
parentheses to distinguish them from the dialogue and lyrics), the book-
writer tells how he or she sees and hears the show. To guide the work
of those involved with interpreting the script, the author may give some
directions to performers and directors on characterizations, line interpre¬
tations, dialects or accents, makeup, movements, and stage business and
to designers on scenery, properties, costumes, lighting, and sound.
LYRICS
Most songs for musicals are written by two people, a composer and a
lyricist. As to which comes first, the music or the lyrics, that depends on
the preference of the team.
The technique in writing a song is similar to writing a plot. Words
cannot be wasted in the lyrics—every word should carry meaning, be
simple to sing, easy to understand, and right for the character. A song
should have a beginning that tells the listeners what the song is about and
gets them interested in the subject, a middle that expands on the idea, and
an ending that provides a satisfactory conclusion.
A song may or may not have a verse or lead-in to the chorus (also
called the refrain). Examine “The Heather on the Hill” in the scene from
Brigadoon in chapter ten. Tommy sings the verse and refrain. After some
dialogue, Fiona sings part of the chorus with Tommy joining her for a duet
on the last few lines. Sometimes a verse may come after a part or all of a
chorus. Look at "Wunderbar" in the scene from Kiss Me, Kate in chapter
ten. Fred and Lilli sing sixteen measures of the refrain before singing the
verse.
As for types of songs in musicals, there are many different ones with
various purposes. A common type is the ballad, which is usually romantic
and smooth-flowing. When Lancelot sings to Guenevere in Camelot "If
Ever I Would Leave You,” he is expressing his love for the lady in this
beautiful ballad. Another type is the rhythm song or jump tune, which is
generally faster with a strong beat, as in “Too Darn Hot” in Kiss Me, Kate.
There are narrative songs, such as Meg’s anecdote about what happened
on "My Mother's Weddin’ Day” in Brigadoon. Comedy songs are common,
like "The Lees of Old Virginia" from 1776 (which is in chapter ten) or “Gee,
Officer Krupke” from West Side Story. Patter songs, which involve singing
many words at a fast pace, are usually funny too. For examples, look at
the Gilbert and Sullivan excerpts from Ruddigore, H.M.S. Pinafore, and
Iolanthe in the exercises for chapter five. Dramatic songs are sometimes
used, such as the moving “Climb Ev’ry Mountain” from The Sound of
Music or “You’ll Never Walk Alone” from Carousel To fit the talents of
a particular star, special material is written like "Rose’s Turn” in Gypsy,
which was tailored for Ethel Merman.
A reprise is a repetition of an important song by the person who sang
it the first time or, sometimes, by a different character with the same
or different lyrics. For example, in the first scene of South Pacific, Emile
sings "Some Enchanted Evening.” In the seventh scene (a part of which
is in chapter ten), Emile and Nellie do a reprise; later, near the end of the
show, Nellie sings another short reprise of this song.
Songs can provide some of the exposition that an audience needs
to understand the story, such as "Another Op'nin', Another Show” at the
beginning of Kiss Me, Kate, which not only gives information but also helps
to set the mood and atmosphere of the musical. These are sometimes
called establishing numbers. Songs can also help to delineate character,
which "Perfectly Marvelous" does for Sally in the scene from Cabaret in
chapter ten. Songs can further the plot as in Camelot when the chorus and
a soloist sing “Guenevere,” in which they tell the audience how Lancelot
escaped, how Guenevere was put on trial and sentenced to burn at the
stake, and how Lancelot with an army rescued Guenevere. Songs may also
give a glimpse of the future, like “Something's Coming” from West Side
Story, and they can comment on the theme or other important ideas, as
does “Being Alive" from Company. A song can also function as a soliloquy
by allowing the audience to hear the innermost thoughts of a character
when that person is alone onstage. After others have left the room, Lilli in
Kiss Me, Kate sings "So in Love” and, thus, lets the audience know of her
love for Fred.
SCORE
The composer writes the score, which is the music of a show. The score
contains the overture, the entr’acte, and the music for songs, dances,
underscoring of dialogue and action, scene changes, and curtain calls.
The overture may be written especially by the composer for this
purpose, or an orchestrator may put together the overture from some of
the best numbers in the show. For example, the overture to South Pacific
contains parts of the songs "Bali Ha’i,” "There Is Nothin’ Like a Dame,"
"I’m in Love with a Wonderful Guy,” and "Some Enchanted Evening." If
done effectively, the overture can quiet the listeners, arouse their interest,
and put them into the right frame of mind to enjoy the show. However,
there has been a tendency in recent years to dispense with the overture,
as in Grease and Evita.
The entr’acte music, if there is such, usually repeats parts of Act I
songs. This music can call the spectators back to their seats after inter¬
mission and get them ready to enjoy the second act. The music for curtain
calls can remind the audience of the best songs in the show and send the
people home humming these tunes.
The music for songs is written for different pitch ranges. The highest
is sung by sopranos, the middle female range is called mezzo-soprano, and
the lowest female voice is a contralto or alto. The highest male voice is
a tenor, baritones are in the middle, and the lowest voices belong to the
basses. Songs for two, three, or more people may be sung in unison or they
may be divided into parts based on these pitch ranges. Two-, three-, and
four-part harmony (usually soprano, alto, tenor, and bass) are common,
but some songs may require six or more parts.
Songs may take various musical forms, but the most common one for
the chorus or refrain is termed the AABA. This means:
A = The initial statement of the melody.

A = A repetition of this melody.
B = A different melody, called the release or bridge.
A = A repetition of the first melody.
Songwriters are not bound by hard-and-fast rules, so you will find varia¬
tions of this pattern, such as ABAC (C indicates a melody that is different
from A or B), ABAB, or AABB. The number of measures in a chorus is
often thirty-two with eight measures in each of the four sections. If a con¬
ductor, therefore, asks you to begin with the second eight, he is talking
about the ninth measure; if he refers to the third eighth, he wants you to
start at the seventeenth measure; if he says the last eight, you should start
at the twenty-fifth measure. Sometimes, however, the number of mea¬
sures in a section may vary. Look at the refrain of "Wunderbar” in the
scene from Kiss Me, Kate in chapter ten. The refrain, which starts at mea¬
sure 54 and continues through measure 118, follows the AABA format
with sixteen measures in each of the four sections.
Underscoring of dialogue and action must reinforce the dramatic
situation by heightening the emotion and mood. During the last scene of
South Pacific, Emile’s two children and Nellie, who do not know whether
or not Emile has been killed in the war, are singing "Dites Moi" as Emile
enters behind them. When the three stop singing, Emile finishes the song.
The children rush to embrace their father, and they all sit down to eat.
Then, as Emile and Nellie look at each other and clasp hands, the music
swells, highlighting the moment that the lovers are reunited.
The music for scene changes (or sometimes costume changes) may
involve a bridge or segue, a crossover, or a throwaway song or dance. These
may be short or long depending on the difficulty involved in changing the
set. A bridge or segue may be new music, or it may be music from the
scene just ended blending into music to set the mood for the next scene.
A crossover involves performers moving across the stage in "one,” usually
in front of a downstage drop, while the scene change goes on upstage.
For example, in Camelot near the end of the first act, the audience sees a
corridor in the castle and knights parading with banners to the Grand Hall.
At the end of the parade, the corridor drop rises revealing the spectacular
Grand Hall set. A throwaway song or dance has the same purpose, which
is to hold the audience’s attention while a scene change takes place. An
example is the chorus number "I Sing of Love” from Kiss Me, Kate that
is done in front of a downstage curtain while a full-stage set is erected
behind the curtain. In recent years, however, advances in scenic practices
have speeded up scene changes so that such devices are no longer needed
as much.
Music specifically for dances is often arranged by a dance arranger
from music in the score. To do this, the arranger works closely with the
choreographer, the composer, and the musical director.
DANCES
Dance is a succession of harmonious and rhythmical movements or poses.
In every movement there are three factors to be considered: time, intensity,
and space. The time factor includes the tempo (or rate of speed) and dura¬
tion (or length of time) of the movement. Intensity, or force, pertains to the
amount of energy used. Space refers to the direction of the movement
(forward, back, diagonal, and so forth), the size or range (from large to
small), and the level (high to low) in which it occurs.
Dance numbers in musicals come in all sizes from solos and duets
to large production numbers. And all types of dancing are called for in
musicals: jazz, tap, ballet, pointe, modern, acrobatic, social, folk, period,
ethnic, ballroom, soft shoe, eccentric, exotic, break, and a mixture of these
that is sometimes called "show dance” or “stage dance.”
Dance is a universal art whose origins are unknown, but we do know
that dance was a part of the ancient Greek theatrical productions in the
fifth century BC and has often been a part of musical shows ever since.
An interest in social or folk dancing occurred in the Middle Ajges and
grew in the Renaissance. Today, popular social dances of the past, such
as the pavane, the galliard, and the minuet, may also be termed "period”
dances. Ethnic dances are a part of the traditions of a particular ethnic
group, such as the Irish jig or the Scottish Highland fling. In the twentieth
century, social or ballroom dancing has included the waltz, two-step, fox
trot, rhumba, tango, jitterbug, twist, frug, disco, and many others.
The ballet grew out of Italian and French social dancing of the six¬
teenth century and developed into a performance art. It is comprised of
traditional movements, positions, turns, and leaps that demand great skill,
agility, and many years of training. One form of ballet is dancing en pointe
(French for "on point”), which requires special toeshoes. From the begin¬
ning of opera, ballet was either a par t of the show or a special performance
at intermission, and it has continued to be an important part of modern
musicals, such as Oklahoma!, Carousel, and On Your Toes.
Figure 2-2. Dancers in the original Broadway production of Oklahoma!.

Tap dancing developed in the last century from folk dances such as
the clog, the Irish jig, and African dances. Using metal taps on the heels
and toes of shoes to accentuate complex foot movements, tap dancers
are still in demand for musicals like My One and Only and 42nd Street.
Similar to tap but done to slower music in shoes without taps is another
old favorite, the soft shoe dance.
In the twentieth century, an American revolt against the conventional,
formal movements of ballet resulted in modern dance, which has more
emphasis on natural, emotional, personal expression. Led by dancers like
Isadora Duncan, Martha Graham, and Hanya Holm, this type has also
contributed to dancing for musicals. Showing the influence of modern,
tap, ethnic, and ballet is jazz dance. Calling for relaxed legs and a flexible
spine and hips, it was first used to interpret the rhythms of jazz music but
is now done to other forms of popular music.
The word eccentric applies to a humorous form of jazz dancing that
may involve weird contortions of the body and an individual style, such
as Ray Bolger's in Where’s Charley? and in the movie of The Wizard of
Oz. As the loose-jointed straw scarecrow in the latter, his funny kicks and
rubbery legs won many laughs. Exotic refers to sensual, sexy dancing, such
as the strip tease numbers in Sugar Babies and Grind Acrobatic is a very
old form of dance in many countries, but "break” dancing, a blend
of acrobatic dance and mime that originated on urban streets, is a recent
addition to the list. A combination of some of the above, which may be
termed show or stage dance, is often used today in musicals. It is the
exciting, dynamic type of dance that Michael Bennett did for A Chorus
Line and Bob Fosse choreographed for Dancin ’.
In early musicals, dances were added with little reason other than to
display pretty girls in beautiful costumes in order to add entertainment
and spectacle to the show. Today dance not only adds variety, it is often
an important part of the plot and theme, as in A Chorus Line.
Dance can be narrative, as it is in The King and I when the dance
entitled "The Small House of Uncle Thomas” tells the story of Uncle Tom’s
Cabin, or it can be nonnarrative, as in Funny Girl’s "Downtown Rag.” The
latter is also a good example of another function of dance: a number that
is used to showcase the dancing talents of its performers.
Dance can reveal character as in Cabaret’s “Don’t Tell Mama,” a
song-and-dance number that helps to establish the character of Sally and
the other entertainers at the Kit Kat Klub. In Brigadoon, Harry Beaton’s
sword dance reveals his stern, sharp nature.
Dance can be a substitute for realistic action. In Man of La Mancha,
dance is used as Aldonza fights with the muleteers who beat and ravage
her. In West Side Story, instead of a naturalistic fight, the Jets and Sharks
show their antagonism through dance.
Dance can add comedy to a show as in the dance number that opens
Act II of South Pacific in which Nellie and some nurses, sailors, and marines
perform rather ineptly but humorously a dance for the “Thanksgiving
Follies."
Dance can enhance and enlarge almost any song number. Consider
two numbers from Funny Girl, "Cornet Man” and "Rat-Tat-Tat-Tat.” If
the performers only sang them, they would not be half as interesting. The
dancing, which recreates the style of show dancing in the early twentieth
century, contributes to the fun of these numbers.
Dance can help to establish the proper mood for a scene, such as the
wedding dance in Fiddler on the Roof, which shows the great happiness
of the celebrants. This contrasts sharply with the fright that occurs when
the constable and his men enter to begin their destruction.
Finally, dance can also help to get across to an audience a change
in characters, the passage of time, and shifting of places. In Gypsy, one
dance number shows Gypsy Rose Lee’s progress in stripping from her
first awkward routine in Wichita to later shows in Detroit, Philadelphia,
and, at last, the big time—Minsky's in New York.
EXERCISES
1. Read and analyze the book of a famous musical.
a. What happens in the beginning?
b. What happens in the middle?
c. What happens in the ending?
d. Is there a subplot?
e. Does this musical have a protagonist-antagonist conflict?
f. What is the theme?
2. What kinds of songs are in this musical?
a. Are there ballads?
b. Rhythm songs or jump tunes?
c. Narrative songs?
d. Comedy songs?
e. Patter songs?
f. Dramatic songs?
g. Special material?
h. A reprise?
3. Look at the score for this musical to determine the following:
a. Is there an overture?
b. Entr’acte music?
c. Is music used for underscoring dialogue and action?
d. Is music used to cover scene changes? Are there bridges or segues?
A crossover scene? A throwaway song or dance?
4. Is there dancing in the musical?
a. What types of dances are used? (Jazz? Tap? Ballet? Other kinds?)
b. Is there a dance that contributes meaning to the plot?
c. Is there; a dance that is narrative? Nonnarrative?
d. Is there a dance that reveals character?
e. Is there a dance that substitutes for realistic action?
f. Is there a dance that is funny?
g. Is there a dance that contributes to the mood of a scene?
h. Is there a dance that helps to communicate to an audience the
change in a character, the passing of time, or a shift in locale?
, *
3
PRODUCTION
OF A MUSICAL
PIANO PLAYER: Hi, Mr. Benedict! How’s the new musical in Philly?
HOWARD [a producer]: Lousy book, lousy score. Naturally everyone is blaming
the costumes.
—from Applause
A musical consists of just words and music on paper until a producer takes
an option on the show and starts the process of turning the book, lyrics,
and score into a production. If it is a new professional show, the book-
writer, lyricist, and composer will probably attend auditions, rehearsals,
and previews to offer their advice and make changes in the script and mu¬
sic. In addition to the authors, performers, and orchestra, the following are
the people most involved in creating a professional production: the pro¬
ducer, stage director, musical director/conductor, orchestrator, arrangers,
choreographer, designers of scenery, lighting, costumes, and sound, and
the stage manager. The work of these persons will be described in this
chapter.
If you are cast in a new, original amateur show, you will find more or
less the same staff as listed for professional productions. However, if the
musical has already been done professionally and your group is renting the
orchestrations, scores, scripts, and dialogue and vocal parts, there should
be no need for an orchestrator and arrangers. Also, the typical amateur
theatre usually lacks a general or company manager, a casting director,
and some of the other assistants listed below.
Most popular musicals can be produced by amateur organizations
after payment of royalty and rental fees to the company holding the
amateur production rights. To select a musical for amateur production,
you should consult the catalogs of the following companies, which handle
the most musicals in the United States:
Tams-Witmark Music Library, Inc.

560 Lexington Avenue
New York, NY 10022
27
Music Theatre International

810 Seventh Avenue
New York, NY 10019
Rodgers and Hammerstein

598 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10022
Samuel French, Inc.

45 West 25th Street
New York, NY 10010
When you are cast in a musical, either amateur or professional, you

will need to know who is responsible for what, and that is the reason for
providing in this chapter a brief description of each of the important po¬
sitions. While they are described separately below, it sometimes happens
that one person may hold two jobs, such as stage director and choreogra¬
pher or as the designer of both scenery and lighting.
Now let’s look at those involved in mounting and running the profes¬
sional production.
PRODUCER
The producer selects a show and takes an option on it. To do this, he or
she must pay money to the bookwriter, lyricist, and composer to have
the exclusive right to produce the show during a specified time period.
Then comes the task of raising the money for its production. Producing a
large musical today means that millions of dollars must be acquired before
going into rehearsal, and it is the producer’s job to persuade others that
investing in this production will be profitable. Because so much money
is needed, there are usually several people or organizations involved as
producers and many more as financial backers.
The producer organizes the business side of the production. This
person: is responsible for seeing that a budget is prepared and that all
stay within it; hires everyone who works on the show, which requires
dealing with various unions; rents rooms for auditions and rehearsals
and a theatre for performances; sees that salaries, bills, and taxes are
paid; keeps all financial records; arranges for publicity; forms additional
companies; pays the backers if the show is a success; and closes the
musical when it becomes unprofitable to keep it open. While the producer
is the top business person on the show and, as such, oversees everyone’s
work, he or she may or may not be involved in the artistic aspects of the
musical.
The producer may have various assistants, such as a general man¬
ager, company manager, press representative, casting director, lawyers,
accountants, and secretaries.
STAGE DIRECTOR
The stage director (usually called simply the director) is the creative head
of the show, the chief interpreter and coordinator of the production. The
PRODUCTION OF A MUSICAL 29
director must thoroughly analyze and understand the musical: the plot,
characters, theme and thoughts, dialogue, songs, dances, music, and style.
He or she must be able to arrive at a concept for the production—an idea
as to how this musical should look and sound in its final form—that brings
an added dimension to the show. Then the director must be able to com¬
municate this to the others involved in creating the production. Working
within the financial guidelines set by the producer, the director plans the
production with the bookwriter, lyricist, composer, choreographer, musi¬
cal director, and the various designers. Then the director must supervise
their work so that the result is a unified production.
At auditions, the director usually casts the show with the advice and
consent of the producer, bookwriter, lyricist, composer, musical director
(on singers), and choreographer (on dancers).
After casting, the first meeting of the entire company is normally a
discussion of the show, at which the dialogue is read and the music is
played. Then, the director schedules separate rehearsals so that he or she
can work on the acting, the musical director can rehearse the singing, and
the choreographer, the dancing. As soon as possible, though, the acting,
singing, and dancing must be put together by the director, whose aim is to
unify the production. The director customarily stages everything except
the dances, although he or she may seek the help of the choreographer in
planning the movement and gestures in some singing numbers. In chapter
seven, under “Rehearsing,” you will find a description of the types of
rehearsals conducted by the stage director: reading, blocking, developing,
polishing, technical, and dress.
The director's assistants are the stage managers and often an assistant
director and a rehearsal secretary. When the director leaves a show after
opening night, the stage manager is charged with keeping the production
as it was when the director was last present. However, the director must
see the show at least once every eight weeks and, if he or she (or the
producer) thinks it necessary, rehearse the performers.
MUSICAL DIRECTOR/CONDUCTOR
The musical director advises the staff and performers on all musical mat¬
ters. This person assists in casting the singers and securing an orches¬
tra, consults with the composer, lyricist, orchestrator, arrangers, stage
director, and choreographer on interpretations and tempos of the music,
and supervises all singing and orchestra rehearsals.
Usually the musical director is also the orchestra’s conductor and as
such is responsible for rehearsing the orchestra and conducting at per¬
formances. The latter involves cueing performers and musicians, setting
tempos of musical numbers, and controlling the loudness and softness of
the orchestra and singers, adhering as closely as possible to the interpre¬
tations that were decided upon during rehearsals.,
Members of the musical director/conductor s staff may include an
assistant, choral and vocal directors, an orchestra manager, and rehearsal
pianists.
ORCHESTRATOR AND ARRANGERS

Working closely with the composer and the musical director/conductor
are the orchestrator and the vocal and dance arrangers. The orchestrator,
after selecting the best keys for the music, arranges the orchestra music
and prepares a part for each instrument. The vocal arranger, in addition to
arranging music for the singers, may also rehearse choral groups, ensem¬
bles, and soloists while the dance arranger works with the choreographer
to arrange the dance music. Both the vocal and dance arrangers may also
be rehearsal pianists.
CHOREOGRAPHER
Before creating the dances, the choreographer must analyze the musical
and consult with the stage director, composer, bookwriter, lyricist, musical
director, and the designers to determine where dances are to be placed
in the show, the music, scenery, and costumes to be used, the dramatic
function of the dances, the space available, and the people in the number.
Lighting the dances is a major concern that requires close collaboration
between the choreographer and the lighting designer.
The choreographer conducts dance auditions and advises the director
on the casting of dancers. Working with the dance arranger, he or she
devises the dances, taking into consideration the concept of the stage
director, what happens in the plot before and after the dance, and the
capabilities of the dancers. The choreographer or an assistant teaches the
routines to everyone who dances in the show by demonstrating for the
dancers what is wanted and correcting their efforts. The choreographer
may also help with movement in singing numbers, if asked to do so by the
stage director.
Assistants may include an assistant choreographer, a dance director,
and a rehearsal pianist. After the show opens and the choreographer
leaves, the dance captain (a member of the chorus who is selected for
this extra duty by the choreographer) may call brush-up rehearsals for
the dancers as needed. Like the director, the choreographer must see a
performance every eight weeks and rehearse the dancers if necessary.
DESIGNERS OF SCENERY, LIGHTING,

COSTUMES, SOUND
After a careful analysis of the musical, the designers must consult together
and with the stage director, producer, choreographer, and musical director
to be sure that all have a common understanding of the artistic aspects
of the musical. Among matters for discussion are the theme and style
of the musical, the director's concept, the number and types of sets and
costumes needed, the time and place of each scene, the changes of mood,
the colors to be used, and the amount of money that may be spent. As
mentioned earlier, the stage director must oversee and approve the work
of the designers, so that the result will be a unified production. Each

designer may have one or more assistants.
The designer of scenery is responsible for providing an appropriate en¬
vironment for each scene that aids the audience in understanding the time
period, location, and the socioeconomic circumstances of the characters.
Major concerns are to design sets that evoke the proper mood for each
scene, furnish different levels, steps, and platforms for variety in staging,
and contribute to the style and spectacle of the show.
After doing any needed research, the set designer makes rough
sketches, floor plans, and perspective sketches or models, all of which
must be discussed with and approved by the stage director. The set de¬
signer then makes working drawings for the people who will do the con¬
struction and painting and sees that this work is done according to these
specifications. This designer is also responsible for “dressing” the sets with
suitable furniture, decorations, and other properties.
After the scenery is constructed and painted at a scenic studio, it is
delivered to the theatre where the designer supervises the placement and
shifting of the sets and props. After opening night, when the set designer
leaves the show, the stage manager, master carpenter, property master,
and their crews keep the scenery and properties in working order.
The designer of lighting also helps the audience to understand the
play by making visible what the spectators need to see. He or she can
help them know the time of day and weather conditions, add variety to
the stage picture, and provide special effects (such as a sunset or slide
projections). Other concerns are changing the lighting to suit the moods,
coordinating the lighting with the music, using lighting that enhances the
colors of the scenery and costumes, and directing the audience’s attention
to a soloist, a group, or whoever or whatever is supposed to be emphasized
in a scene.
The lighting designer sees to the acquisition of the equipment needed,
makes a light plot and an instrument schedule, and supervises the place¬
ment and focusing of the lighting instruments, the use of color filters, the
preparation of cue sheets, and the operation of the control board. After
the show opens this designer also departs, leaving a master electrician in
charge of the lighting crew.
The designer of costumes can help the audience to understand the
play by designing or purchasing ready-made garments that are appropri¬
ate for each character. Often clothes can establish the sex, age, personality,
occupation, or economic status of a character. Costumes can also help to
indicate the time, place, and mood of scenes and add greatly to the excite¬
ment, beauty, style, and spectacle of a production. This designer must be
certain that the costumes can be worn through the entrances of the set
and used with the furniture, steps, ramps, and platforms that are onstage;
that the colors of the costumes are compatible with the scenery and light¬
ing; and that the garments are comfortable for the performers to work in,
strong enough to withstand great stress and perspiration, and easy to get
on and off for fast changes.
Designing costumes may require research and the preparation of
numerous sketches to show to the director, producer, choreographer, and
others. The final color sketches with instructions and swatches of material
are then given to the costume house that will make the clothes. This
designer is also responsible for preparing a chart that shows what every
character will wear in each scene and for supervising the acquisition of
accessories, such as jewelry, parasols, and fans.
After the garments are made at the costume house, the costume
designer oversees the various fittings and a "dress parade,” at which
performers wear their costumes for the director and others to approve
so that problems can be corrected before dress rehearsals. When the
musical opens and the designer leaves, the costumes are in the care of
the wardrobe supervisor and the dressers.
Like the other designers, the designer of sound (also called the sound
engineer) is concerned with helping the audience to understand and appre¬
ciate the play. When a musical is performed in a large theatre or one with
poor acoustics, this designer must make audible what the audience needs
to hear. This designer handles the amplification of performers' voices and
musical instruments, the mixing of sounds, and the placement, control,
and safety of microphones and speakers. He or she is also responsible for
creating or obtaining recorded sound effects (such as traffic noises or an
explosion), recording music, preparing cue sheets, and operating the con¬
trol console, which is usually located somewhere in the house (i.e., the
audience area) so that the audio technician can tell immediately how the
sound is being perceived by the audience.
When the sound designer leaves after the opening, audio technicians
operate, maintain, and safeguard the equipment. They also make sure that
the sound from the stage is fed to the various locations in the theatre
where cue information is needed; these include the dressing rooms, green¬
room, and light control booth.
STAGE MANAGER
The stage manager is the stage director’s assistant at cast interviews, audi¬
tions, and rehearsals. He or she keeps an up-to-date list of addresses and
telephone numbers of the company, helps to plan the rehearsal sched¬
ule and makes sure that everyone concerned is aware of it, and posts or
makes announcements about such matters as fittings and photo sessions.
The stage manager, who sees that the regulations of the Actors’ Equity As¬
sociation are observed, is the disciplinarian, enforcing necessary rules of
conduct. He or she must also be certain that local fire, police, and city reg¬
ulations are observed. On a Broadway musical, the responsibilities of this
job are so numerous that there are at least two assistant stage managers.
For rehearsals, the stage manager marks the floor of rehearsal rooms
to correspond to the floor plans of sets, provides makeshift furniture and
properties, prompts, and keeps the promptbook up-to-date. When changes
are made in the show, the stage manager must notify those involved.
Eventually, he or she records in the promptbook all blocking and business;
cues for lights, sound, curtains, music, and movements of the sets and
properties; floor plans of sets; lighting, costume, and property plots; and
all other information needed to produce the show.
During technical rehearsals, the stage manager and assistants are

concerned with supervising the work of the various crews, organizing
quick set and property changes, and finalizing technical cues. At dress
rehearsals and performances, the stage manager is responsible for running
the show by seeing that performers are properly made up and costumed,
prompting, giving cues for the technical elements, and getting all to do
their work correctly at the right time. Backstage, the stage manager is the
boss.
Before a performance, the stage manager calls “Half hour, please,”
"Fifteen minutes, please,” "Five minutes, please,” and "Places, please.” If a
performer is not present at "half hour,” the stage manager must telephone
the absentee and start hastily to prepare the understudy or standby to go
on. The stage manager makes sure that the orchestra goes into the pit to
warm up and that the conductor enters just before starting time. During
intermissions, the stage manager calls “Five minutes, please,” and “Places,
please." The stage manager is also responsible for keeping an accurate
time record of the acts and intermissions.
After the musical opens and the director departs, the stage manager
gives notes on performances, calls rehearsals as needed to keep the show
as the director left it, and rehearses understudies, standbys, and replace¬
ments. The stage manager is also responsible for getting scenery, props,
lighting and sound equipment, and costumes repaired, cleaned, or replaced
as needed so that all production elements stay as they were at the opening
of the show.
EXERCISES
1. Interview a person who has held one of the following positions on an
amateur or professional musical production to find out what it takes to
be successful in this job.
a. Producer
b. Stage director
c. Musical director/conductor
d. Orchestrator or arranger
e. Choreographer
f. Designer of scenery, lighting, costumes, or sound
g. Stage manager
2. Research the careers of the following:
a. Producers: Harold Prince, Joseph Papp, David Merrick
b. Director-choreographers: Jerome Robbins, Michael Bennett, Bob
Fosse, Tommy Tune
c. Bookwriter-directors: George Abbott, Joshua Logan, Anthony New-
ley
d. Directors: Rouben Mamoulian, Tom O’Horgan, Trevor Nunn
e. Choreographers: George Balanchine, Agnes de Mille, Twyla Tharp
f. Musical directors: Jay Blackton, Harold Hastings, Lehman Engel
(Note the books written by Engel under Suggested Reading.)
'
4
MOVEMENT
EXERCISES
JOAN [an experienced performer]: You still wanna be a Broadway star?

RUBY [new to Broadway]: Oh, yes!
JOAN: (With grim seriousness) Well, Ruby, there’s only one way.
RUBY: How?
JOAN: Practice, kid, practice... 5, 6, 7, 8. (RUBY begins to tap)
—from Dames at Sea
The following movement exercises are designed to get you ready to per¬
form. You will find in this chapter exercises for relaxation, body alignment,
flexibility, balance, coordination, sense memory, emotional memory, imag¬
ination, rhythm, and observation. To practice them, you should wear ex¬
ercise clothes and either sneakers, ballet slippers, flat shoes, or no shoes.
You should do all of the exercises in this chapter and the next at least
once; and when you see the word repeat, use your own judgment as to
how many times you should do the exercise. Some may only have the
time or inclination to do it twice while others may find ten repetitions
to their liking. Your goal should be to develop control of your body and
voice so that they can respond effectively to the demands of a variety of
characters.
You should exercise every day. After you become familiar with all of
the exercises in this chapter and the next, devise your own routine for a
daily workout of thirty to forty minutes and a shorter warm-up to do prior
to an audition or performance.
For a daily workout, consider relaxation exercises 1, 3, 4, 7, and 8;
body alignment exercise 1; flexibility exercises 7, 8, and 9, balance and
coordination exercises 3, 4, 5, and 7; in chapter five, breathing exercises 6
and 7; phonation exercises 1, 3, 6, and 7; resonation exercises 1, 2, and 4,
articulation and pronunciation exercises 1, 2, 3, 10, and 11; variety exercise
6; and projection exercises 3 and 6.
For a shorter warm-up, try relaxation exercises 3 and 4; body align¬
ment exercise 1; flexibility exercises 8 and 9; balance and coordination
35
exercises 3, 5, and 7; breathing exercise 7; phonation exercises 3 and 6;

resonation exercises 1 and 2; articulation and pronunciation exercises 1,
2, and 11; and projection exercise 6.
In addition, all musical performers should study dancing. Even though
you consider yourself to be primarily an actor or singer, you need at least
two dance classes per week, especially in ballet, jazz, and tap. Almost
everyone in a musical cast is expected to be in large chorus numbers,
finales, and curtain calls that may demand some dancing, and you should
be able to do it.
RELAXATION
Performers must work from a relaxed body. If you are too tense while
performing, your body and voice will not respond appropriately to the
dialogue, songs, and dances. But being relaxed does not mean to be in a
state of collapse. You need a certain amount of tension in your body to
stand up, speak, sing, and dance. What you must avoid is excessive tension
that will inhibit your performance. As an actor, your goal is to be in control
of your voice and body at all times.
Exercises
Practice the following relaxation exercises:
1. Lie on your back on the floor with your heels on the floor and your
hands about a foot away from your sides. Try to feel relaxed in all
parts of your body; if any muscles feel tense, touch them or move them
until they relax. Imagine that you are lying in the grass on a beautiful
summer day and you have no cares or worries.
2. Still lying on your back, feeling relaxed, put one hand on the lower
ribs (at your side) and the other on your abdomen (at the waistline).
Focus your attention on your breathing. Do you feel the movement
around the midsection of your body as you inhale and exhale? Inhale
as you mentally count slowly to four, then slowly exhale to four counts.
Continue, thinking about the movement of the air into and out of your
body as you breathe.
3. Still lying on your back, consciously tense then relax various parts of
your body. Start with your face: tense all of the muscles of the face
to a slow count of four, then relax them by moving the jaw around,
moving the tongue, blinking and rolling the eyes, raising the eyebrows,
moving the lips from pucker to smile, and moving the head from side
to side. Repeat. Then tense and relax the following parts of your body:
the neck, shoulders, arms, torso, legs, feet, and the whole body. Repeat.
4. Sitting on the floor, cross your legs at the ankles and pull your ankles
toward you as far as possible. Rest your hands on your knees and bend
forward as far as you can. (See figure 4-1.) As you inhale to a slow
count of four, come up to a good seated posture. (See figure 4-2.) Then
relax and exhale as you bend forward again. Repeat. Vary this exercise
MOVEMENT EXERCISES 37
Figure 4-1. Relaxation exercise 4.

(Photo: Kimberly Harbour.)
by saying an elongated vowel sound as you go forward. Start with "ah,”

.1 u i t> a ft u >f j u tt
then oh, oo, ay, and ee.
5. Vary the preceding exercise by standing in an erect posture with your
feet about twelve inches apart and your arms relaxed at your sides.
When you bend forward from the hips, bend your knees slightly and
let your arms swing loosely near your toes. As you inhale to a slow count
of four, come up to an erect posture. Then relax and exhale as you bend
forward again. Repeat. Vary the exercise by saying an elongated "ah”
as you go forward, then “oh,” "oo,” "ay,” and "ee.”
6. Standing comfortably erect with feet apart, vigorously shake both
hands for twenty seconds. Then drop them to your sides, relax them,
and concentrate on the sensations within the hands. Do the same for
other parts of your body: your arms, shoulders, torso, one leg and foot,
then the other leg and foot.
7. Stand with feet apart and arms raised overhead touching your ears.
(See figure 4-3.) Swing your arms down in front, close to your sides,
and to the rear as you bend forward from the hips. (See figures 4-4 and
4-5.) Without stopping, immediately allow the arms to swing forward
and up to their starting position above your head as you return to an
upright position. Repeat. Your goal is to feel as relaxed as possible.
Figure 4-2. Relcixstion exercise 4.




8 With feet apart at shoulder width, bend over from the hips and swing
' your arms freely from right to left. (See figure 4-6.) Swaying rhythmi¬
cally gradually come up to an erect position. Now swinging your arms
at shoulder height, allow the momentum to turn your body right and
left as far as you can go without changing the position of your feet. (See
figure 4-7.) Gradually decrease the speed of the swings as you bend over
and return to the starting position.


9. Standing in a good posture with feet apart, jump slightly up and down.
Be sure to land on the balls of the feet first, then the heels as you
bend your knees. Try to feel as relaxed and loose as possible. Vary this
exercise by bouncing around the room.
BODY ALIGNMENT
The body alignment that you use in playing a role will depend on your
analysis of that person: one character’s head may jut forward, another
may have rounded shoulders, a third may have a stiff military bearing,
and so forth. The following description is designed to help you obtain a
good personal alignment so that you will be rid of bad habits and better
able to respond to the demands of a part, whatever they may be.
For proper alignment, start by giving yourself a good base from which
to work: stand with your feet about one foot apart (or the width of your
pelvis) with your toes pointed straight ahead. Your weight should be on
both feet and evenly distributed between the balls of your feet (from the
base of the big toe to the little toe) and the centers of your heels. The legs
should be straight; that is, the knees should be neither bent nor pulled
back so that the knee joints are locked. Look in a mirror or have another
person check to see that the knees are level and over the toes. Check also
to determine that the hips are level and that one hip is not higher than
the other. The pelvis should not stick out in back nor be tucked under.
The pelvis should be directly over your straight legs. To find a satisfactory
position for your shoulders, lift them up as high as possible—around your
chin—then rotate them to the back, and let them fall into a comfortable
position. Your shoulders should be level and free of tension, and your arms
should be relaxed as they hang at your sides with slightly bent elbows.
Now, jut your head forward as far as it will go, then backward; next, bring
your head forward to a position in which the back of your ears are over
the center of your shoulders. Now, imagine that there is a string attached
to the top of your head and that this string is pulling your head up so that
you are as tall as you can be. Make sure that the neck is free of tension,
that you are looking straight ahead, and that the chin is not pointed down
nor up but is parallel to the floor. (See figures 4-8 and 4-9.)
Exercises
Do the following exercises for good alignment:
1. Standing in the alignment described above, stretch toward the ceiling

with your hands. Go up on your toes and reach for the ceiling. Tense
the body and hold this position for a slow count of four, then relax
as you put your heels on the floor, slightly bend the knees, and bend
forward from the hips, hands swinging loosely near your toes. Slowly
come up to a good standing alignment. Then feeling as relaxed as you
can, walk around the room. Repeat.
2. Adapt your standing alignment to sitting. As you approach a chair, turn
in front of it so that the back of one leg can feel the chair. You will
not have to look back then to be sure the chair is there. As you sit, let
your legs do the work of lowering your torso to the chair, and keep the
torso, neck, and head comfortably erect. As you rise, again let the legs
do the work, and do not lean forward excessively.
Figure 4-8. Front view of standing alignment.

3. Walk around the room in a good alignment, then slowly allow your
posture to change to one appropriate for a character you are studying;
for example, Higgins or Eliza in My Fair Lady or Nick or Fanny in Funny
Girl (scenes with these characters may be found in chapter ten).
Figure 4-9. Side view of standing alignment.

FLEXIBILITY
To be a versatile performer who can play a wide range of parts, you must
work on the flexibility of your body and voice. In the "Variety” section in
chapter five, you will find exercises for developing a flexible voice. Below
are some exercises for a flexible body.
Exercises
To develop flexibility, practice the following:
1. Standing in a good posture, examine the flexibility of various parts

of the body. Start with the hands: move each finger in a circle, then
forward and backward and to the sides; move your hands in circles
from the wrists, then forward and backward and to the sides. Next
explore the movement that is possible with your arms: starting with
them out to your sides, bring them in to hug yourself, then out and in
and out again; then move them up until your hands touch overhead,
then down to your sides and up and down again; make large circles and
small circles with your arms, then make circles from the elbows. Next
examine the flexibility of your legs and feet, your torso, and your head.
When you come to the face, move your eyebrows, then your eyes, nose,
lips, tongue, and jaw.
2. Lying on your back on the floor, clasp one knee to your chest and hold
for four counts, then extend the leg and pull the leg as close to your
chest as possible and hold for four counts. Then do the exercise with
the other leg. Repeat.
3. Lying on your side on the floor, slowly raise the top leg as high as you
can and then lower it. Repeat. Then do the exercise on the other side.
4. Lying on your front on the floor, slowly raise one leg as far as you can
and then lower it. Repeat. Then do the exercise with the other leg.
5. Lying on your front on the floor, reach back with your hands and clasp
your feet. Try to raise your head, upper torso, and knees off the floor.
(See figure 4-10.) Hold for a count of four, then slowly return to the
starting position. Repeat.
6. Sitting on the floor with your legs straight before you, bend over, clasp
your feet, and bring your head as close to your knees as possible.
Repeat.
7. Standing with feet apart and arms stretched overhead, slowly bend
directly to one side, then up, then to the other side. Repeat.
8. Standing with feet apart and with arms stretched overhead, lunge
forward as far as you can on one leg. Gently stretch for a count of
four, and then return to the starting position. Lunge forward with the
other leg, stretch, and return. Repeat.
9. Standing with feet apart and arms stretched overhead, bend back as
far as you can, hold for a count of four, then return to the original
position. Bend forward until your hands touch or come as close to the
floor as is possible, hold, then return to the original position. Repeat.
Figure 4-10. Flexibility exercise 5.

BALANCE AND COORDINATION

Balance is a steadiness that results when all parts of your body are properly
adjusted to each other. Coordination is the harmonious functioning of the
various parts of your body for the most effective results. Dancers, actors,
and singers all need to work on these skills.
Exercises
Try the following to improve your balance and coordination:
1. Facing a partner, do the “mirror” exercise. One of you is the leader;

the other is the follower. Whatever movement the leader makes, the
follower should attempt to do it as though the follower is the leader’s
image in a mirror. After several minutes, change roles.
2. Vary the first “mirror” exercise by adding sounds that the follower must
copy as well as movements. No words are permitted—just vocal sounds,
such as grunts, groans, screams, and humming.
3. Standing on one foot, swing the other leg forward and backward,
kicking as high as you can. Reverse.
Figure 4-11. Balance and coordination exercise 4.

4. Standing erect on your left foot, raise your left arm; raise your right
foot in back, clasp this foot with your right hand, and bend forward
from the waist. Reverse. (See figure 4-11.)
5. Standing with arms overhead and heels together, go up on your toes,
then bend your knees to descend to a squatting position. Then, rise to
an erect position, staying on your toes. Repeat.
6. Standing in a good posture with feet apart, pat your head with your
right hand and rub your abdomen in a circle with your left hand.
Reverse.
7. Walk three steps and leap once; then walk two steps and leap twice.
Repeat this pattern.
8. Draw a twenty-foot line with chalk on the floor. Imagining that you
are a tightrope walker working at a great height in a circus tent, walk
across this line holding an imaginary umbrella for balance.
SENSE MEMORY, EMOTIONAL

MEMORY, IMAGINATION
One of the first steps in learning to be an actor is to learn about yourself.
What makes you what you are today? How have your environment and
heredity shaped you? Do you know yourself well enough to understand
why you do and say the things you do? For example, do you know why you
respond differently to various persons? Think: do you talk the same way
to your parents, brothers and sisters, spouse, teachers, and close friends?
If not, why not?
In order to analyze and understand dramatic characters and their atti¬
tudes toward each other, you must first be able to analyze and understand
yourself. One way is to work with your own memories, both sensory and
emotional, recalling and examining them to determine why you reacted
as you did in that situation. And when a character you are playing has
an experience similar to one that you have had, you can and you should
make use of your memory to give your acting a realistic honesty. (See the
sections on “Personalization” and "Emotional Scenes” in chapter seven.)
If, however, you have never had an experience like your character’s,
try using your imagination. Ask yourself what would you do if you were
this type of person in this situation. (See the section on "Imagination" in
chapter seven.)
Exercises
Do the following actions, basing them on your own sensory or emotional
memories, if possible. If you have never had an experience that is close
to the described exercise, thert use your imagination. You can do the
following as pantomimes, or speak if you feel motivated to do so.
1. Watch and listen to a band marching down a street.
2. Look at a beautiful sunset.
3. Pick your favorite flower. Examine it carefully: touch it, smell it, and
pin it on your clothes.
4. Lie in the sand on a beach, enjoying the sunshine; build a sand castle;
run into the ocean and have fun in the waves.
5. You are sleeping when someone throws a bucket of cold water on you.
6. You are sleeping in a tent when slowly you become aware that a
rattlesnake is nearby.
7. You are reading at a library in the wintertime when the heat is turned
off and the room becomes progressively colder.
8. You are reading at a library in the summertime when the air condi¬
tioning is turned off and the room becomes progressively hotter.
9. While reading in the library, you notice a bad odor that permeates the
room.
10. Visit a pet store to look at the cages of puppies and birds.
11. You are waiting for a bus on a hot summer day when it starts to rain.
12. You are waiting for a bus on a cold winter day when it starts to snow.
13. Drink some hot chocolate that burns your tongue.
14. Listen to a church bell ringing in the distance.
15. Smell and compare two bottles of perfume that you are considering
buying.
16. Examine the blades of two kitchen knives.
17. Taste and compare two soft drinks.
18. Examine closely two fabrics that you are thinking about buying: one
is velvet and the other is corduroy.
19. Burn your hand while cooking.
20. Eat your favorite dinner.
21. Listen as a fire alarm sounds in your building.
22. Watch a horror film.
23. Answer the telephone and listen as a relative bawls you out for some¬
thing you did not do.
24. Answer the telephone and listen as someone informs you that you have
won a thousand dollars in a contest.
25. Get dressed; you are happily preparing to meet the one you love.
26. Get dressed; you are furiously planning to leave your home forever.
27. Walking in a circle around the room, walk as you did on an occasion
when you were disappointed and disgusted with yourself. Base this on
your memory of an experience that you had.
28. Walk as you did one time when you were happy. Again, base this on a
true experience.
29. Walk as you did once when you were afraid that someone was follow¬
ing you.
30. Recreate times when you were embarrassed, surprised, worried, sad,
in love, and angry. These actions should be based on your memory of
experiences that happened to you at some time in your life. Mentally
reconstruct what happened and how you acted, then practice recreat¬
ing what you did.
RHYTHM
The word rhythm refers to the beat felt in music, speech, and movement—
the recurrent alternation of strong and weak elements and the rate or
tempo, which may vary from slow to fast. Your heart beats in certain
rhythms. You also walk and talk in rhythms, and these rhythms can change
frequently according to your thoughts, moods, and energy. Each character
you play will have different rhythms, and studying these is an important
part of finding a characterization.
Exercises
To help you understand rhythm, try the following exercises:
1. Listen to a song in \ time such as "You’ll Never Get Away from Me,”
which can be found at the end of the scene from Gypsy in chapter ten.
Clap four times to a measure as a pianist plays or you sing the music.
2. Now let’s switch to \ time. As you sing or a pianist plays "Wunderbar”
from the scene from Kiss Me, Kate in chapter ten, clap three times to a
measure. Note that during "Wunderbar” the stage directions stipulate
that Lilli and Fred waltz. This is one of the most common types of social
dances found in musicals, and it is done to ] time. If you have never
mastered this dance, begin now to learn it. After clapping three times
to a measure, stand up and step on each beat, three steps to a measure,
accenting the first step. When you are proficient at this, try stepping
about twelve inches to the left with your left foot, then step on the ball
of your right foot as you bring it close to the left one, then step on your
left foot again. (These three steps take one measure of music.) Now
reverse by stepping on your right foot about twelve inches to the right,
step on the ball of your left foot as you place it close to the right one,
then step on your right foot again. (These three steps take the second
measure of music.) If you can repeat this in time to the music, you are
ready to try waltzing with a partner. With his left hand a man should
hold the lady's right hand out to the side and place his right hand on
her back. She places her left hand on his right shoulder. When he steps
to the left, she steps to the right, and vice versa. When the two of you
can move easily together to the music, try turning as you waltz.
3. Imagine that you are a typewriter. How does the rhythm of a typewriter
differ from the rhythm of a clothes dryer? Demonstrate each one.
4. With one or two partners, make a cuckoo clock, a metronome, and
a flashing sign. Think about the differences in the rhythms of these
objects.
5. With four or more people, develop a car wash, a washing machine with
clothes in it, and a merry-go-round. How do the rhythms differ?
6. Observe a child of about five to ten. Then observe an elderly person
over seventy. How do the rhythms of the movements and speech of
these two people differ?
7. Observe a busy working person: a waiter, stenographer, or anyone
who is working at top speed. Then observe a person who is not in a
hurry: someone sitting on a park bench or waiting patiently. How do
the rhythms of the movements and speech of these people differ?
8. Consider what you did for exercises 23 through 30 in the previous
section of this chapter on "Sense Memory, Emotional Memory, and
Imagination.” Review your actions, thinking about how the rhythms
changed according to the emotions you were feeling.
OBSERVATION
To get ideas for a characterization, actors often study a person or an an¬
imal who is similar to their character in a significant way: age, temper¬
ament, personality, occupation, movements, infirmities, dialect or accent,
and the like. To do this well, you should work on your powers of obser¬
vation. What you observe may come in handy someday as you are trying
to add realistic details to a characterization. (See the section on "Observa¬
tion” in chapter seven.)
Exercises
Watch the following people (without their knowing it, if possible) and an¬
imals, paying close attention to small details. Note their posture; move¬
ments of head, arms, legs, hands, feet; balance and coordination; facial
expressions; clothing; speech or sounds; and how well they can see, hear,
and use the other senses. Try to get a good mental image of what you
observe. Then, at home, practice recreating what you saw and heard un¬
til you can do it realistically. When you present your observations before
other actors, your objective should be a faithful portrayal.
1. A child of three or younger.
2. A person who is at least ten years younger than you.
3. A person who is at least ten years older than you.
4. A person who is twenty to forty years older than you.
5. A very friendly person.
6. A hostile person.
7. An important, busy executive.
8. A retired person.
9. A person who is having an emotional experience: crying, laughing,
angry, or afraid.
10. A small animal, such as an insect.
11. A medium-sized animal, such as a dog, cat, or monkey.
12. A large animal, such as a horse, lion, or elephant.
'
5
VOCAL EXERCISES
HIGGINS: (Placing marbles in her mouth) Four . . . five ... six marbles. There we
are. (HE holds up a slip of paper) Now, I want you to read this and enunciate
each word just as if the marbles were not in your mouth. “With blackest
moss, the flower pots were thickly crusted, one and all.” Each word clear
as a bell. (HE gives her the paper)
ELIZA: (Unintelligibly) "With blackest moss, the flower pots” .... I swallowed
one!
HIGGINS: (Reassuringly) Oh, don’t worry. I have plenty more. Open your mouth.
—from My Fair Lady
In this chapter you will find exercises for your speaking and singing voice.
They comprise breathing, phonation, resonation, articulation, pronuncia¬
tion, variety, projection, phrasing, and pausing. Your goal should be a voice
that you can use without straining or tiring and a voice that is right for
the character. It should be easily heard and understood and have enough
variety to capture and hold the audience's attention.
In addition to studying dance, as mentioned in chapter four, musical
performers should learn how to sing because most roles demand some
singing ability.
BREATHING
All of your life you have been breathing without giving it much thought. It
is, of course, essential that you take oxygen into your body during inhala¬
tion and breathe out carbon dioxide and other waste products in order to
live; our breathing goes on automatically to provide these necessities. Now
you are asked to think about your breathing, so that you can develop a
quick, silent inhalation and a controlled exhalation.
First of all, let’s consider the location and action of the diaphragm.
This is a thin, dome-shaped layer of muscle and tendon that separates
the thorax (chest cavity) from the abdomen. It is attached to the sternum
(breastbone) in front, the lower ribs, and the spine in back; it moves up
and down as you breathe. (See figure 5-1.)
55
(Drawing by Kimberly Harbour.)
On inhalation, when the diaphragm descends and the ribs and rib
muscles move out and up, there is more room in the thoracic cavity than
previously. The air pressure in the lungs is lowered, and atmospheric pres¬
sure forces air to enter the body. When this happens, the air enters through
the nose or mouth, goes down the throat to the trachea (windpipe), then to
the bronchial tubes and finally the lungs. The lowering of the diaphragm
also causes pressure on visceral organs that results in a slight outward
movement of the abdomen.
In exhalation, just the reverse occurs: The abdomen moves in, the
diaphragm returns to a dome shape, the ribs and rib muscles move in and
down, and the air is squeezed out of the lungs. The air then travels to
the bronchial tubes, up the trachea, through the throat, and out through
the nose or mouth. Note that when you want to control your exhalations,
this can be done by contracting the abdominal muscles, which causes
them to move inward and affect the rising diaphragm. This is called
diaphragmatic-abdominal breath control.
Exercises
The following exercises will help you to become more conscious of what
happens in your body as you inhale and exhale. During all of these exer¬
cises, be sure to relax your neck and throat completely.
VOCAL EXERCISES 57
1. Lying on your back in a relaxed state, concentrate on feeling the move¬

ment of the air into and out of your body as you inhale and exhale.
2. Still lying on your back, put one hand on the lower ribs (at your side)
and the other on your abdomen (at the waistline). Do your hands go
out as you inhale? Do your hands come in as you exhale?
3. Still lying on your back, inhale quickly and silently, then blow the air
out through rounded lips. Do you feel a contraction of the abdominal
muscles as you exhale? When you are out of air, inhale. Do you feel
the expansion of the midsection on inhalation? On the next exhalation,
count out loud until you run out of air. (You speak or sing only on the
exhalation, never on the inhalation.)
4. Still lying on your back, inhale quickly and silently, then sing “ah” on
the exhalation until you are out of air. Vary this exercise by next singing
"oh,” then "oo,” “ay,” and “ee.” Avoid breathiness. Keep the tone steady;
when it becomes difficult to control the steadiness of the tone, stop
singing and inhale.
5. Stand in an erect but relaxed posture with feet about twelve inches
apart, and place one hand on the lower ribs at your side and the other
at the waistline in front. Open your mouth and pant as though you
were gasping for air. Do not let the shoulders rise and fall. The only
movement should be in the abdominal muscles and lower ribs which
push out on inhalation and come in on exhalation.
6. Keeping your hands in the same positions as for exercise 5, say "hah!”
several times loudly with force, inhaling before each word. Then say
loudly and vigorously, inhaling before each syllable, “hah! hoh! hoo!
hay! hee!” Repeat.
7. Repeat exercises 3 and 4 in a standing position. When inhaling, do not
make any sounds, and do not raise the shoulders. Try to keep the neck
and throat muscles relaxed, and do not waste air as you speak or sing.
8. Check up on how much air is escaping from your mouth as you speak
by holding a lighted candle or match about four inches away from your
lips as you count in a soft tone. Is too much air escaping when you say
"three,” "four,” "five,” "six,” and some of the other numbers? When you
run out of air, stop; and start from the beginning again in a loud voice,
trying to say the numbers without flickering the flame too much.
PHONATION
Phonation is the process of producing a vocal tone. This happens in the
larynx (voice box), which is located at the top of the trachea. On exhalation,
if you wish to speak or sing, the air coming up the trachea vibrates the
vocal folds of the larynx, thus creating sound waves.
Pitch is determined by the frequency of the sound waves: a low
frequency is heard as a low pitch and a high frequency as a high pitch.
Factors that influence the pitch of your voice are the length, weight,
elasticity, and tension of the vocal folds and the breath pressure striking
the larynx from below. Normally, a man s voice is lower in pitch than a
woman’s because his vocal folds are longer and heavier. When the vocal
folds become tense, the pitch rises, which is one reason for encouraging
you to relax the throat and neck muscles. How loudly or softly you speak
or sing is determined by the pressure of the air coming up the trachea.
When you increase the breath pressure on the vocal folds, you produce a
louder tone.
For good phonation, you need to have an open, relaxed throat and
a relaxed jaw, to avoid breathiness, and to learn to speak at your best
pitch level. To find the optimum pitch for your speaking voice, sing up
the scale from the lowest pitch that you can sing easily. Usually a person’s
optimum pitch is about three to five tones above your lowest, but this may
not always be true. It will take some experimentation by singing various
tones in the lower part of your register until you find the pitch at which
your voice seems to function best. Then try speaking at that pitch to see
if it is comfortable for you.
Exercises
Practice the following exercises for good phonation:
1. Sitting or standing in a good posture, stretch your arms and yawn.

Then, drop your head forward to your chest and slowly rotate your
head to one side, to the back, to the other side, and let it drop in front
again. Keep your eyes closed and try to feel relaxed in the throat, neck,
and face. Rotate the head again. Then with another big yawn, raise
your head to an erect position.
2. Turn your head to the left as far as possible and tense the neck
muscles as you stretch; then relax completely. Do the same to the right,
backward, and forward.
3. Yawn to give your throat an open, relaxed feeling, then sing "ah” on
a comfortable pitch until you are out of air. Avoid breathiness and
straining. Vary this exercise by singing "oh,” "oo,” "ay,” and "ee.”
4. Yawn, then sing “ah, oh, oo, ay, ee” on one breath, holding each syllable
for two counts.
5. With a relaxed jaw, yawn, then sing "mah” eight times on a comfortable
pitch at a medium rate of speed. Vary this exercise by singing eight
times each bah, dah, tah, gah, hah, jah, kah, lah, nah,
pah, quah, rah, sah, tah, vah, wah, yah, zah.
6. Yawn, then sing up the scale "do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti, do” on one breath;
breathe, then sing down the scale. Vary this exercise by singing "yah”
on each of the notes. Then use yoh, yoo, yay, and yee.
7. Instead of singing, yawn then speak "do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti, do” on one
breath going up the scale; breathe, then speak these syllables going
down the scale.
8. Yawn, then sing up the scale “do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti, do” starting with
a very soft tone and ending with a loud one. As you get louder, do not
allow the throat and neck muscles to become tense. Next, sing down
the scale starting with a loud tone and ending with a soft one.
VOCAL EXERCISES 59
9. Vary exercise 8 by singing up the scale using the above syllables, this
time starting with a loud tone and ending with a soft one. Then, sing
down the scale going from a soft tone to a loud one.
10. Count from one to ten on one pitch. Start softly and end with a loud
tone. As you get louder, resist the tendency to go up in pitch. Next,
count backwards from ten to one on one pitch going from a loud to a
soft tone.
RESONATION
Resonation is the process of amplifying and enriching the sound waves
that are created by the vibrating vocal folds. Resonation, which occurs
primarily in the throat, mouth, and nose and, to a lesser extent, in the
chest, adds strength to the tone and gives your voice its unique quality.
(See figure 5-2.)
For good resonance, you need a relaxed jaw, an open throat, and
effective use of the resonators. As an actor, you need sufficient flexibility
in your voice to vary the quality for different roles, sometimes even
using what are termed faults of resonance: nasality, denasality, stridency,
throatiness, and breathiness.
Figure 5-2. Some parts of the head and neck that are involved in speaking and singing.
(Drawing by Kimberly Harbour.)
Exercises
Work on these exercises to develop a good basic resonance:
1. Starting with your hands and knees on the floor, bend forward and
place the top of your head on the floor. (See figure 5-3.) Yawn, then
sing, holding each syllable for a count of two, "mee," ''may,” "mah,”
"moh,” “moo.'' Does the tone seem to be hitting against your front teeth?
If so, you are getting a “front placement’’ of your voice. Many singing
teachers encourage front placement as a means of getting good nasal
and oral resonance and keeping the tone from sounding too throaty.
Sit back on your heels and sing the same syllables, trying for a front
placement. Repeat in both positions.
2. Standing in an erect but relaxed posture, yawn to relax and open your
throat, then sing “mee” on each note while going up the scale for one
octave. Feel the front placement of the tone as the tone seems to be
hitting against the front teeth. Now sing “mah” on each note as you
come down the scale. Try to feel the same front placement on “mah”
as you had on "mee.” Vary this exercise using “may” and "moh,” "nee”
and nah, nay and noh.
3. Yawn, then glide up and down an octave singing one “mee" for all notes.
\ T ,i * • ■ tt i i) it n a i tt a tt a 1 it a it j
Vary this exercise using mah, may, moh, nee, nah, nay, and
tt i tt
noh.
Figure 5-3. Resonation exercise 1.

VOCAL EXERCISES 61
4. Yawn, then sing “ee” for four counts and then "ah” for four counts.
Get the same feeling of front placement on "ah” as you have on "ee.”
Repeat. Vary this exercise using "ee” and "oh,” "ee” and “oo,” and "ee”
l u tt
and aw.
5. Three consonant sounds, [m], [n], and [q] (as in me, need, and ring),
are resonated primarily in the nose. Normally the uvula (the end of the
soft palate) is against or almost against the back wall of the throat, but
when the three nasal consonants are spoken, the uvula comes away
from the wall permitting nasal resonance on these consonant sounds.
As for vowel sounds, it is debatable how much nasal resonance should
be used. You should train your ear so that you recognize what sounds
acceptable and what seems to be excessive nasal resonance. To feel
and hear the difference in resonance between a nasal consonant and
a vowel, yawn then sing "ing” for four counts and then "ah” for four
counts. Repeat. Then vary this exercise with "en” and "oh” and then
• ,i u >t i il tt
with em and aw.
6. The following faults of resonance should normally be avoided, although
ocassionally they may be utilized for a characterization.
a. Nasality involves too much nasal resonance on all sounds. This may
be caused by an inactive uvula or by holding the jaws together
tightly so that the sounds cannot come out of the mouth and must
go through the nose. Say the following sentence with nasality: “My
heavens, I can’t get him to do anything!” Now say the sentence
opening the jaw adequately with a good balance of mouth, nose,
and throat resonance.
b. Denasality involves too little nasal resonance. Shut off the nasal
cavity completely, as though your nose is stopped up with a bad
cold, and say this sentence with denasality: “I have a terrible cold,
and I'm going home to go to bed.” Now say the sentence with a
proper balance of mouth, nose, and throat resonance.
c. Stridency involves a loud, harsh, tense tone, which tends to be high in
pitch. Say this sentence with a strident quality, then relax the muscles
of the throat and neck before saying it again: "I can't understand why
you are doing this to me!”
d. Throatiness involves a gravelly tone that sounds as though it origi¬
nates in the throat and does not have enough front placement. The
pitch may be too low, and there may be too much tension in the
throat. (Do not confuse this term with hoarseness that comes as a
result of a medical problem such as a cold.) Say this sentence with a
throaty quality, then relax and use front placement when you repeat
it: "If you want to see me again, just call.”
e. Breathiness means that too much air is escaping when you speak.
Some sexy movie stars like Marilyn Monroe made a fortune out
of a breathy vocal quality, but for good projection from the stage
a more careful control of the air supply and better resonance are
desirable. Try this sentence with breathiness: "Be quiet—you don’t
know who's listening to us.” Now, say it again and do not permit an
excessive amount of air to escape.
7. As an exercise in using a full, resonant voice with a good balance of

throat, mouth, and nose resonance, work on the following lines from
Act I, Scene 1 of Camelot, which show the first meeting of Arthur and
Guenevere. (More of this scene may be found in chapter ten.)
(SHE turns dejectedly towards the foot of the tree. A branch cracks, and ARTHUR
drops to the floor. GUENEVERE, startled out of her wits, runs)
ARTHUR: A thousand pardons, Milady. Wait! Don’t run. (SHE stops in the corner
of the stage and looks at him coweringly) Please! I won’t harm you.
GUENEVERE: You lie! You'll leap at me and throw me to the ground.
ARTHUR: (Amazed, protesting) I won’t do any such thing. (HE takes a step
toward her. SHE takes a step backwards. HE stops)
GUENEVERE: Then you’ll twist my arm and tie me to a tree.
ARTHUR: But I won't.
GUENEVERE: Then you’ll sling me over your shoulder and carry me off.
ARTHUR: No, no, no! I swear it! By the Sword Excalibur! I swear I won’t touch
you.
GUENEVERE: (Hurt) Why not?
ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION

Articulation involves the distinctness of your speech. It depends upon
how well you move the articulators: the lips, tongue, teeth, jaws, hard
and soft palate, and for one sound (the h), the vocal folds. (See figure
5-2.) On the stage you must always speak distinctly enough so that the
audience can understand you, but other concerns with articulation should
be governed by the type of character you are playing. For example, one
character, perhaps a scholarly professor, might speak in an overly precise
way while an illiterate oaf might mumble his words. Onstage, however,
both must be understood by the audience in the back of the balcony.
Another consideration is how your character’s articulation may change
throughout a play, as he or she becomes better educated, tired, ill, drunk,
drugged, aged, or emotionally disturbed.
While articulation is concerned with producing sounds distinctly, pro¬
nunciation involves knowing the correct sounds and the right syllables to
emphasize for the dialect that you want to use. If in trying to use the Stan¬
dard American dialect, I say "Git me to the motel," instead of "Get me
to the mo-tef” I have made two errors of pronunciation: the vowel sound
in get and the accent in motel As with articulation, your pronunciation of
words onstage must be as the character would pronounce them.
In the Standard American dialect, there are fourteen vowel sounds
that can be placed in three groups depending upon whether the front,
middle, or back of the mouth is the most involved in their pronunciation.
In producing a vowel sound the mouth is open and the articulators do not
move. Note the underlined vowel sounds in the following words (the pho¬
netic symbol from the International Phonetic Alphabet for the underlined
sound is in brackets):
VOCAL EXERCISES 63
Front Middle Back

beet [i] Burt [a-] boot [u]
bit [i] bother [a-] bush [u]
bait [e] above [a] bone [o]
bet [e] butt [a] bawl [a]
bat [as] bar [a]
A diphthong is a blend of two vowel sounds in one syllable. In forming

the following six diphthongs, the articulators move from the position for
the first vowel to the position for the second:
by [ai] bay [ei]

boy [di] beau [ou]
bough[au] beauty [ju]
While vowels and diphthongs are open, uninterrupted sounds, conso¬

nant sounds are more obstructed. All vowels and diphthongs are voiced:
in other words, the vocal folds are vibrating as they are produced. Some
consonants are voiced, but some are voiceless.
The plosive consonants, which are made by stopping the air flow
briefly by the articulators and then releasing it with a slight “explosion,”
are the following:
Voiceless Voiced
pet [Pi bet [b]
too [t] do [d]
kind [k] go [g]
The following fricative consonants are made by forcing air through

two articulators:
Voiceless Voiced
fun [f] vote [v]
thin [0] than [6]
see [s] zoo [z]
shall M measure [3]
hat [h]
The following nasal consonants are all voiced and are made by divert¬
ing the air to the nose by lowering the uvula away from the wall of the
throat:
met [m]
net [n]
king [rj]
The following glides are produced as the articulators move from the
position for the glide to the following vowel or from a vowel to the glide
consonant. All glides are voiced:
last [1] yes [j]

ran [r] we [w]
The following are blends of a plosive and a fricative consonant:
Voiceless Voiced
church [tj] judge [dj]
The above are the sounds of the Standard American dialect, but a
character you are playing may not speak with this dialect and may use
other sounds. For example, a character who has a Bostonian dialect may
use, in saying ask, a vowel sound that is about halfway between [ae] and
[a] that is indicated in phonetics by [a].
A dialect is a variation of a language characteristic of a geographical
region or social class, examples of which are the American southern and
the London cockney dialects. There are many American dialects, but
Standard American is the most common. The British Isles also have a
variety of dialects, many of which appear in plays. Note how Eliza Doolittle
and her father in My Fair Lady speak in the London cockney dialect.
Then, during the show, Eliza is taught to speak Standard British (called in
England "RP” or "Received Pronunciation”).
The term accent may be used not only to indicate proper syllabic
stress in words but also a way of speaking that involves a carryover
of pronunciation, rhythm, and melodic characteristics from a person's
original language to a second language. For example, in The Most Happy
Fella, Tony, an Italian grape farmer in California, has an Italian accent
when he speaks English, which is indicated in the script by the use of
"omma” for "I am” and various other changes in the spelling of English
words. In Cabaret, when the German characters speak English, they should
have a German accent. In South Pacific, Emile should use a slight French
accent.
It is not within the scope of this book to undertake a study of dialects
and accents as there are many and each requires a great deal of work. A
good way to learn one is to listen to an individual who normally speaks
in that manner. In some cities a speech or acting coach who specializes
in dialects and accents may be available to help you. A third method is
to read a book that explains them and listen to the accompanying tapes.
(There are several of these listed under Suggested Reading.) Just reading
about them without listening to tapes is a poor fourth choice.
In studying dialects and accents, though, remember that not every¬
one speaks in the same manner, so consequently there is no one "right”
way to do a French accent or a Scottish dialect. Variables such as educa¬
tion, socioeconomic level, personality, occupation, environment, and other
factors affect the character's speech, so each dialect or accent that you
undertake should be acquired with your specific character in mind. Re¬
member, too, that it must never be done so authentically that an audience
cannot understand you.
VOCAL EXERCISES 65
Exercises
The following exercises are for articulation and pronunciation. While do¬
ing them, remember to keep your neck and throat relaxed at all times.
1. To exercise the articulators, stick out your tongue and move it rapidly
from side to side; try to touch your nose and your chin with your
tongue; move the lower jaw in a circle; open the mouth as wide as
possible; alternately pucker, protruding the lips, and smile broadly;
blow through closed lips, vibrating them.
2. Say the following sounds rapidly eight times each: "bee,” "dee,” "fee,"
gee, hee, kee, lee, mee, nee, pee, quee, ree, see, tee,
"vee,” "wee,” "yee,” “zee.” Take two of the syllables and repeat them
quickly four times each; for example, "bee-dee,” and "fee-gee.”
3. Vary exercise 2 by using the same beginning consonants with other
vowel sounds: "oh,” "oo,” and “ay.”
4. The following words have difficult sound combinations. Practice them
until you can articulate them distinctly.
abominably indubitably oaths
adapts lengths sects
anesthetists malingerer statistics
depths masts tasks
eighths months thwart
guests mouths twelfths
horror murderer widths
5. The next five exercises involve common words that are sometimes
mispronounced. If you are doubtful about your pronunciations of
these words, look them up in a dictionary. The first group concerns
words that may be mispronounced because people substitute other
sounds for the accepted ones of the Standard American dialect; for
example, some people say "git” instead of the preferred "get.” Keep in
mind, though, that if you are playing a character from certain areas of
the United States, you might want to use "git” instead of "get,” if that
is characteristic of the dialect of that region.
any hypnotize push

can’t iron slovenly
chasm just suave
color oil woman
fire orgy worship
get pantomime zoology
6. The following are words that are sometimes mispronounced because

people omit sounds that should be heard; for example, some people
say "bout” when they mean "about.”
about entertain possible

afraid gentlemen suspenders
almost government twenty
candidate kept violet
didn’t library wonderful
7. The following are words that are sometimes mispronounced because

people add sounds that should not be used; for example, some do not
realize that the b in subtle is silent and, therefore, pronounce the word
incorrectly.
across heir psalm
athlete mischievous salmon
christen once subtle
corps please sword
grievous preventive victuals
The following are words that are sometimes mispronounced because

people accent the wrong syllable; for example, some pronounce compa-
rable with the accent on the second syllable instead of the first, which
is preferred.
admirable device irreparable
ascertain genuine motel
comparable incomparable omnipotent
debate incongruous police
demonstrative infamous receipt
Detroit insurance superfluous
The following words may be mispronounced because people transpose

sounds; for example, in the word perspiration, it is incorrect to say the
first syllable as pre instead of per.
aggravate perform predicament
introduce perspiration relevant
larynx pharynx stubborn
10. It is said that in the fourth century BC in Greece, Demosthenes trained

to be an orator by shouting over the sounds of the ocean with his
mouth full of pebbles. In My Fair Lady Higgins has Eliza speak with
marbles in her mouth (see the excerpt at the beginning of this chapter).
Instead of pebbles or marbles, which could be dangerous, try biting
a pencil placed lengthwise between the front teeth. With your teeth
held apart by the pencil, work hard to articulate the tongue twisters
in exercise 11 or the excerpts in exercises 12 or 13. After this attempt,
remove the pencil and repeat the selections to see if your articulation
has improved. If not, try the pencil again.
11. Practice the following well-known tongue twisters until you can say
them rapidly with good articulation:
a. She shall sell sea shells on the seashore.
b. Around the rough and rugged rock the ragged rascal ran.
c. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
d. Better buy rubber baby-buggy bumpers.
e. Sixty-six sick chicks sat on six, slim, slick, slender saplings.
f. A big black bug bit a big black bear and made the big black bear
bleed.
g. The sixth sheik’s sixth sheep’s sick.
h. Linger longer, Lemuel Lister, lilting limitless lullabies.
VOCAL EXERCISES 67
12. A patter song by Gilbert and Sullivan is another excellent exercise for
articulation. Work on the following trio from Ruddigore until you can
say it distinctly at a fast pace. In this comic opera, it is sung by Robin,
Despard, and Margaret in Act II.
ROBIN: My eyes are fully open to my awful situation—
I shall go at once to Roderic and make him an oration.
I shall tell him I've recovered my forgotten moral senses,
And I don’t care twopence-halfpenny for any consequences.
Now I do not want to perish by the sword or by the dagger,
But a martyr may indulge a little pardonable swagger,
And a word or two of compliment my vanity would flatter,
But I’ve got to die to-morrow, so it really doesn’t matter!
DESPARD: So it really doesn’t matter—
MARGARET: So it really doesn’t matter—
ALL: So it really doesn’t matter, matter, matter, matter, matter!
MARGARET: If I were not a little mad and generally silly
I should give you my advice upon the subject, willy-nilly;
I should show you in a moment how to grapple with the question,
And you’d really be astonished at the force of my suggestion.
On the subject I shall write you a most valuable letter,
Full of excellent suggestions when I feel a little better,
But at present I’m afraid I am as mad as any hatter,
So I'll keep 'em to myself, for my opinion doesn’t matter!
DESPARD: Her opinion doesn’t matter—
ROBIN: Her opinion doesn’t matter—
ALL: Her opinion doesn’t matter, matter, matter, matter, matter!
DESPARD: If I had been so lucky as to have a steady brother

Who could talk to me as we are talking now to one another—
Who could give me good advice when he discovered I was erring
(Which is just the very favour which on you I am conferring),
My story would have made a rather interesting idyll,
And I might have lived and died a very decent indiwiddle,
This particularly rapid, unintelligible patter
Isn’t generally heard, and if it is it doesn’t matter!
ROBIN: If it is it doesn’t matter—
MARGARET: If it ain't it doesn’t matter—
ALL: If it is it doesn’t matter, matter, matter, matter, matter!
13 Another patter song is sung by Sir Joseph Porter, First Lord of the
Admiralty, in Act I of H.M.S. Pinafore by Gilbert and Sullivan. Practice
speaking the following at a fast rate with a distinct articulation;
When I was a lad I served a term

As office boy to an Attorney’s firm.
I cleaned the windows and I swept the floor,
And I polished up the handle of the big front door.
I polished up that handle so carefullee
That now I am the Ruler of the Queen's Navee!
As office boy I made such a mark

That they gave me the post of a junior clerk.
I served the writs with a smile so bland,
And I copied all the letters in a big round hand—
I copied all the letters in a hand so free,
In serving writs I made such a name
That an articled clerk I soon became;
I wore clean collars and a brand-new suit
For the pass examination at the Institute,
And that pass examination did so well for me,
That now I am the Ruler of the Queen’s Navee!
Of legal knowledge I acquired such a grip
That they took me into the partnership.
And that junior partnership, I ween,
Was the only ship that I ever had seen.
But that kind of ship so suited me,
I grew so rich that I was sent
By a pocket borough into Parliament.
I always voted at my party's call,
And I never thought of thinking for myself at all.
I thought so little, they rewarded me
By making me the Ruler of the Queen’s Navee!
Now landsmen all, whoever you may be,
If you want to rise to the top of the tree,
If your soul isn’t fettered to an office stool,
Be careful to be guided by this golden rule—
Stick close to your desks and never go to sea,
And you all may be Rulers of the Queen's Navee!
VARIETY
For good variation of your speaking voice, you need to be able to change
your rate, pitch, loudness, quality, articulation, and pronunciation accord¬
ing to the demands of your part.
The rate of your speech includes the speed with which you say sounds
and how long and how often you pause. The subject of pitch includes how
low or high you speak, your pitch inflections, and your pitch range, which
should be, in speaking, from one to two octaves. Loudness refers to the
volume of your voice; in other words, how loudly or softly you talk. Quality
is your voice's timbre, which varies according to your emotions, moods,
health, and the resonance in your voice. Articulation and pronunciation
were defined in the previous section of this chapter.
To be able to play a wide range of roles, performers must work on the
flexibility of their voices so that they will have adequate variation of the
VOCAL EXERCISES 69
elements enumerated above. These will change according to the following

factors:
• The age, personality, and health of the character you are playing (exam¬
ple: a young, vivacious, healthy person may use a faster rate, a louder
tone, a larger pitch range, and a more resonant quality than an old, quiet,
ill person).
• The region of the world from which your character comes (example: a
character from the South of the United States may speak more slowly
than someone from the North and use a southern dialect instead of
Standard American or a northern dialect).
• The type of musical it is (example: farces usually have a faster tempo
than a serious play).
• The emotions indicated (example: the expression of happiness normally
has a faster rate, a louder sound, a higher pitch, and a different quality
than sadness).
• The attitude of the character toward the other people in the scene (exam¬
ple: if angry, the actor may use a different rate, pitch, loudness, quality,
and articulation than if he or she is afraid of them).
• The meaning of the words or sentences (an actor should stress the
syllables and words that carry the meaning and give less emphasis to
the others; to stress a word or syllable an actor will probably use a
louder tone, a higher pitch, a slower rate, and, perhaps, more distinct
articulation on the syllables or words to be emphasized).
• The sensory images (the writer and lyricist may create word pictures
that appeal to the senses; performers must understand and be able to
visualize or feel them in their bodies before attempting to communicate
them to an audience).
• The subtext of a scene; that is, the underlying meaning of the words
(example: if a character is emotionally upset, although trying to hide it,
the underlying emotion may affect the rate, pitch, loudness, quality, and,
perhaps, articulation of the person's voice).
Exercises
The following are exercises to develop good vocal variation:
1. Read one of the following roles in four ways: first, in a monotone;
second, with limited pitch variety of only two or three tones; third,
with extreme variations of pitch; and fourth, as you would interpret
it if you were playing the part. The excerpt is from Act I of The Pirates
of Penzance by Gilbert and Sullivan, with Frederic, a pirate apprentice
of twenty-one, and Ruth, a pirate maid of middle age.
RUTH: Oh, take me with you! I cannot live if I am left behind.
FREDERIC: Ruth, I will be quite candid with you. You are very dear to me,
as you know, but I must be circumspect. You see, you are considerably
older than I. A lad of twenty-one usually looks for a wife of seventeen.
RUTH: A wife of seventeen! You will find me a wife of a thousand!

FREDERIC: No, but I shall find you a wife of forty-seven, and that is quite
enough.
2. For you to deliver every line of your part at the same rate of speed
can be very monotonous for your audience. Read the following at a
constant pace; then read it a second time with proper variation of rate,
pitch, loudness, and quality. The excerpt is from Act II, Scene 9 of a
ballad opera entitled The Beggar’s Opera by John Gay. The time is 1728;
the place is Newgate Prison, where Macheath, a notorious womanizer,
is incarcerated. He looks upon Lucy, the daughter of his custodian, as
someone who can help him to escape.
MACHEATH: The very first opportunity, my dear—have but patience—you shall

be my wife in whatever manner you please.
LUCY: Insinuating monster! And so you think I know nothing of the affair of
Miss Polly Peachum—I could tear thy eyes out!
MACHEATH: Sure, Lucy, you can't be such a fool as to be jealous of Polly!
LUCY: Are you not married to her, you brute, you?
MACHEATH: Married! Very good! The wench gives it out only to vex thee, and
to ruin me in thy good opinion. ’Tis true I go to the house; I chat with
the girl, I kiss her, I say a thousand things to her, as all gentlemen do,
that mean nothing, to divert myself; and now the silly jade hath set it
about that I am married to her, to let me know what she would be at.
3. Usually, the rate, pitch, and loudness rise and fall together according to
the emotional and intellectual content of the lines. For example, many
actors will build to a climax in a speech by increasing the pace and
rising in pitch and loudness; but some may find it effective to do the
opposite. Others may go up in pitch and loudness but decrease the
rate, or go down in pitch but use a loud tone. Practice various ways of
interpreting the end of King Arthur's soliloquy that concludes Act I of
Camelot. Arthur is debating what he should do about the growing love
between his wife Guenevere and Lancelot.
ARTHUR: Proposition: I’m a king, not a man. And a civilized king. Could it
possibly be civilized to destroy what I love? Could it possibly be civilized
to love myself above all? What of their pain and their torment? Did they
ask for this calamity? Can passion be selected? (His voice rising) Is there
any doubt of their devotion ... to me, or to our Table? (HE raises high
the sword, Excalibur, in his hand) By God, Excalibur, I shall be a King!
This is the time of King Arthur, and we reach for the stars! This is the
time of King Arthur, and violence is not strength and compassion is not
weakness. We are civilized! Resolved: We shall live through this together,
Excalibur: They, you and I! And God have mercy on us all. (The decision
made, HE becomes almost relaxed, almost at peace) They're waiting for
us at the table. (HE starts to walk off) Let’s not delay the celebration.
4. To see how stress contributes to the meaning of words, list some words
that change meaning according to which syllable is stressed. (Insult and
VOCAL EXERCISES 71
subject are two: as nouns they are accented on the first syllable; as verbs
they are stressed on the second.)
5. To consider how stress contributes to the meaning of a sentence,
take the first sentence of the excerpt from Camelot in exercise 3
above: “Proposition: I'm a king, not a man.” Actors will vary in their
interpretations—and there is no one "correct” way to read any line—but
many actors would stress the following underlined words and syllables:
“Proposition: I’m a king, not a man. "Keep in mind that there are various
degrees of stress, and not every syllable will receive the same amount; for
example, prop, I’m, and not will probably not receive as much emphasis
as si, king, and man, although they will get more than the other words
and syllables in the sentence. You should notice that our speech con¬
sists of stressed and unstressed syllables in various combinations. While
every syllable that you say onstage must be heard by the audience, ev¬
ery syllable should not receive equal stress. The meaning and emotional
content of the lines will determine which syllables and words should be
emphasized. Continue through the rest of the lines of Arthur’s speech
underlining the syllables and words that you believe should be stressed.
6. As an exercise in varying rate, pitch, loudness, and quality, speak the
following patter song that is sung by the Lord Chancellor in Act II of
Gilbert and Sullivan’s Iolanthe. Pay particular attention to the sensory
images in these lines. Get a picture in your mind’s eye before speaking.
When you’re lying awake with a dismal headache, and repose is
taboo'd by anxiety,
I conceive you may use any language you choose to indulge in,
without impropriety;
For your brain is on fire—the bedclothes conspire of usual slumber
to plunder you:
First your counterpane goes, and uncovers your toes, and your
sheet slips demurely from under you;
Then the blanketing tickles—you feel like mixed pickles—so terribly
sharp is the pricking,
And you’re hot and you’re cross, and you tumble and toss till there's
nothing twixt you and the ticking.
Then the bedclothes all creep to the ground in a heap, and you pick
’em all up in a tangle;
Next your pillow resigns and politely declines to remain at its usual
angle!
Well, you get some repose in the form of a doze, with hot eyeballs
and head ever aching,
But your slumbering teems with such horrible dreams that you’d
very much better be waking;
For you dream you are crossing the Channel, and tossing about in
a steamer from Harwich—
Which is something between a large bathing machine and a very
small second-class carriage—
And you're giving a treat (penny ice and cold meat) to a party of
friends and relations—
They're a ravenous horde—and they all came on board at Sloane

Square and South Kensington Stations.
And bound on that journey you find your attorney (who started
that morning from Devon);
He's a bit undersized, and you don't feel surprised when he tells
you he's only eleven.
Well, you're driving like mad with this singular lad (by the by, the
ship’s now a four-wheeler),
And you’re playing round games, and he calls you bad names when
you tell him that "ties pay the dealer”;
But this you can’t stand, so you throw up your hand, and you find
you’re as cold as an icicle.
In your shirt and your socks (the black silk with gold clocks),
crossing Salisbury Plain on a bicycle:
And he and the crew are on bicycles too—which they've somehow
or other invested in—
And he's telling the tars all the particulars of a company he's
interested in—
It’s a scheme of devices, to get at low prices all goods from cough
mixtures to cables
(Which tickled the sailors), by treating retailers as though they
were all vegetables—
You get a good spadesman to plant a small tradesman (first take
off his boots with a boot-tree),
And his legs will take root, and his fingers will shoot, and they'll
blossom and bud like a fruit-tree—
From the greengrocer tree you get grapes and green pea, cauli¬
flower, pineapple, and cranberries,
While the pastrycook plant cherry brandy will grant, apple puffs,
and three-corners, and Banburys—
The shares are a penny, and ever so many are taken by Rothschild
and Baring,
And just as a few are allotted to you, you awake with a shudder
despairing—
You’re a regular wreck, with a crick in your neck; and no wonder
you snore for your head’s on the floor, and you've needles and
pins from your soles to your shins; and your flesh is a-creep, for
your left leg's asleep, and you've cramp in your toes, and a fly on
your nose, and some fluff in your lung, and a feverish tongue,
and a thirst that’s intense, and a general sense that you haven't
been sleeping in clover;
But the darkness has passed, and it's daylight at last, and the night
has been long—ditto, ditto, my song—and thank goodness they’re
both of them over!
7. The subtext of the following excerpt from Act I, Scene 3 of Kiss Me,
Kate will affect Fred's interpretation of his lines. The situation is that
the flowers and card that Fred sent to his girlfriend, Lois Lane, have
been mistakenly delivered to his ex-wife, Lilli. She is about to read the
card, and he is frantically trying to retrieve it.
VOCAL EXERCISES 73
FRED: (Taking both her hands—aghast) You’re not going to read that now!...
Look, I’ll tell you what I wrote: "To Lilli, the only woman I’ve ever loved,
the only artist I’ve ever worshipped!” Now give me the card and you can
read it after the show!
LILLI: Oh, Fred, did you really mean that? (Rises, throws arms around FRED)
FRED: (Plenty nervous, tries to get card) With all my heart!
PROJECTION
Projection is the process of aiming or directing your voice to the rear of the
theatre on the assumption that if those in the back can understand you,
those sitting in front should also be able to. Good projection is the ability
to communicate to everyone in your audience, but it is not the same as
speaking loudly, because in acting you often have to project a soft tone or
even a whisper.
To project your voice well, you need breath control, resonance, dis¬
tinct articulation, and relaxed throat, jaw, and neck muscles. If you cannot
be heard when you speak to an audience, the cause may be:
• Poor breath control. Do you drop the ends of sentences? Sometimes
actors get into the habit of taking a breath and talking loudly at the
beginning of a sentence, but as they run out of air they become softer
and softer. You must control your exhalation (or find a place that you
can pause briefly to inhale) because all words must be audible. (See the
following section on "Phrasing and Pausing.”)
• A breathy or throaty quality.
• Poor articulation.
• Not opening your mouth wide enough. If your jaw muscles are tense,
you may not be opening the jaw far enough to let the sound out.
• Speaking at a pitch that is too low for you. This practice can give your
voice a muffled, inaudible quality.
• Not expending enough energy. It takes effort, vitality, and stamina to
perform in musicals. If you do not have this energy, you must build up
your health and endurance before trying to perform.
• Not estimating correctly the acoustics, the size of the theatre, or the
amount of noise in the audience. If you always rehearse in a small
room, you may forget that you need to project more in a large theatre,
especially if it has poor acoustics or noisy spectators.
Exercises
To improve your projection, try the following exercises:
1. With eyes closed and feeling as relaxed as possible, let the head fall
to your chest. Slowly raise the head to an upright position, letting the
lower jaw drop so that the mouth is open at least one inch. Vary this
by humming and then singing "mah” as the head is raised.
2. Massage the muscles of the jaw and neck until they feel relaxed. With
your hands gently move the lower jaw from side to side.
3. Yawn, then say, “Here I am!" as though speaking to someone close to

you, then to someone ten feet away, twenty feet away, thirty feet, and
fifty feet. While there will be a tendency to go up in pitch as you get
louder, try to hold the pitch down so that your voice does not become
unpleasantly high. Stay relaxed.
4. Ask a friend to go to the rear of a theatre or someplace (a hallway or

outside) where he or she can be about forty feet away, and then in a
whisper read one of the exercises in this book. If the person cannot
understand you, sharpen your articulation.
5. In Act II, Scene 6 of Camelot, Lancelot enters Guenevere's bedroom

quietly. They speak the following lines softly because they do not want
to be overheard; yet every word must be projected to all of the audience.
Station someone at the rear of a theatre to tell you if you can be
understood in this scene.
LANCELOT: (Hushed.; tremulously, fearfully) Jenny . . .? (GUENEVERE rises

quickly and looks at him in astonishment. HE goes to her) Jenny, I was
in the yard ... I couldn’t sleep ... I saw the light in your window ... I
knew you were alone ... I tried to stay away ... I tried, but I.. . Jenny,
I. . . (HE takes her in his arms and THEY embrace passionately. Suddenly
SHE withdraws in fear)
GUENEVERE: Did anyone see you?

LANCELOT: No one. The castle is dark. I was careful. Jenny, don’t be afraid.
GUENEVERE: But I am afraid.
LANCELOT: I swear we’re alone. No one saw me enter. Jenny, there’s nothing
to fear.
6. Speak the following chorus number from Act I of Iolanthe by Gilbert

and Sullivan with good projection, breath control, resonance, articula¬
tion, and variation. It is sung in this comic opera by a chorus of peers.
Loudly let the trumpet bray!
Tantantara!
Proudly bang the sounding brasses!
Tzing! Boom!
As upon its lordly way
This unique procession passes,
Tantantara! Tzing! Boom!
Bow, bow, ye lower middle classes!
Bow, bow, ye tradesmen, bow, ye masses!
Blow the trumpets, bang the brasses!
We are peers of highest station,
Paragons of legislation,
Pillars of the British nation!
VOCAL EXERCISES 75
PHRASING AND PAUSING

Phrasing is grouping words into thought-units or phrases. Each phrase has
one idea, which may consist of just one or two words or as many as you
can say on one breath. When you pause, though, you have ended a phrase.
Pausing may not only be used to indicate the end of a thought it may
also be done when a character is thinking, having difficulty expressing
ideas, reacting to what has been said, performing an action, or waiting
until the right moment to spring a punch line.
Both actors and singers must many times consciously figure out
where to pause in order to get across the meaning and emotions of the
lines or lyrics. Punctuation marks may be of help in this. You will often
pause at periods, question marks, exclamation points, semicolons, colons,
dashes, and sometimes at commas. But not always. In some cases, it may
sound more realistic to pass a mark of punctuation and then, perhaps,
pause where there is no mark.
While pausing, you can use that time to inhale because you should
never break into the middle of a thought just because you need air. You
must work on your breath control so that, if you need to, you can say or
sing a long phrase on one breath. Usually, however, if you find that you
are running out of air before the end of a phrase, you can locate a logical
place to take a quick breath so that you will have an adequate air supply
to make all words audible.
Pauses come in all lengths from very brief to lengthy and dramatic.
Some playwrights, notably Harold Pinter, are famous for indicating many
pauses in their scripts; other authors, however, leave it to the actors to
decide where to pause. If you listen to yourself and others talking in
real life, you will find we often pause while we formulate our ideas or
search for the words to express them. Seldom, while thinking, do we say
a long sentence without pausing somewhere. In acting, if you concentrate
on listening to the other performers and thinking the thoughts of your
character, this should result in a natural interpretation of the lines that
will give an audience the appearance that you are saying these words for
the first time.
Exercise
Look at the scene from Funny Girl in chapter ten and note the pauses and
hesitations indicated in that excerpt.
6
ACTING
TECHNIQUES
fanny BRICE: It’s coming too easy—that’s what’s got me scared! Where’s all the
suffering you’re supposed to do before you click? The hard knocks—the
setbacks that you’re supposed to learn from?
EDDIE: What about all those years on the road, when you were just a kid. Didn’t
you have enough hard knocks then?
FANNY: Aaaah—it got me out of school! And I still say this is too quick. I haven’t
suffered enough yet!
—from Funny Girl
No one can teach you how to act—you must teach yourself through
your experiences onstage, through watching the great performers in the
theatre, on television, and in films, through your reading, and through
exercises. Certainly the guidance of good directors and instructors can
be of great help to you, but actually, your success depends on your
willingness to work, your dedication, and your devotion to acting. Studying
and exercising your acting skills should never stop—these should continue
as long as you are performing.
What does it take to be a good actor? Intelligence, a flexible body and
voice, energy, stamina, sensitivity, imagination, creativity, and performing
skills that have been developed by your training and your experiences in
the theatre—these are some of the vital ingredients.
This chapter is concerned with providing a few of the essential ele¬
ments of your acting training. It will take up stage techniques, comedy
techniques, concentration, and improvisations.
STAGE TECHNIQUES
In this section are some of the fundamentals of acting: the names of
different types of stages, stage areas, and body positions, how to move
onstage, and how to handle special movement problems.
77
Types of Stages and Stage Areas

When directors block a show, they tell actors where to move on the stage,
and in doing so they use terms that you should know. On a proscenium
stage, which has an architectural arch that separates the audience from
the acting area, upstage is the area closest to the back wall while downstage
is the area nearest to the audience. (See figure 6-1.) If you stand in the
middle of a medium-sized proscenium stage, facing the audience, you are
in center stage (C). Up center (UC) is in back of you, and down center (DC)
is in front of you. Left stage is to the actor’s left, and right stage is to the
actor’s right; therefore, to your left, you have up left (UL), left (L), and
down left (DL). To your right, there is up right (UR), right (R), and down
right (DR). The nine areas are situated as follows:
(BACK WALL OF STAGE)
Up Right (UR) Up Center (UC) Up Left (UL)
Right (R) Center (C) Left (L)
Down Right (DR) Down Center (DC) Down Left (DL)
(AUDIENCE)
If you are working on a large proscenium stage, your director may

refer to fifteen areas, as follows:
(BACK WALL OF STAGE)
Up Right (UR) Up Right Center (URC) Up Center (UC) Up Left Center (ULC) Up Left (UL)
Right (R) Right Center (RC) Center (C) Left Center (LC) Left (L)
Down Right (DR) Down Right Center (DRC) Down Center (DC) Down Left Center (DLC) Down Left (DL)
(AUDIENCE)
When you are recording your director's instructions in your script,

you can use the abbreviations listed above. If you wish to write “cross to
down left” in your script, it is faster to write "X DL.” Other symbols you
may want to use are a downward arrow 1 for “sit” and an upward arrow
t for “rise.”
While the proscenium stage is the most common type in the United
States, there are other kinds of stages on which you may perform. The
arena stage (also known as theatre-in-the-round, circus staging, circle
staging, or central staging) has the audience on all sides of the playing
area, which may be a rectangle, a circle, or an oval. (See figure 6-2.) No
matter where you stand onstage, you will always have your back to some
members of the audience; consequently, directors may use a good deal
of movement in arena staging. In blocking, they may number the aisles
and direct actors in terms of the location of furniture, properties, or other
ACTING TECHNIQUES 79
Figure 6-1. Example of a proscenium stage.

(Courtesy of Museum of the City of New York.)
actors; for example, “enter from aisle three and cross to Jim at the desk.”
Others may liken the stage to a clock and divide it into twelve areas, with
the middle of the stage being a thirteenth. A director may tell actors to
"cross from three to six.”
The thrust (also called an apron, open, or platform stage) has a stage
that juts into the audience so that spectators sit on three sides of the acting
area. (See figure 6-3.) In back of the stage may be a wall or a stagehouse
through which people, scenery, and props may enter and exit.
Environmental theatre has a free-form space that is shared by actors
and audience who intermingle and interact. While this type of staging has
not been used much for musicals, it was used for a 1974 Broadway revival
of the musical Candide, as mentioned in chapter one. (See figure 1 -6.)
Since musicals are performed today more frequently on a proscenium
stage than any other kind, everything said about staging in the rest of this
book will pertain to this type of stage.
Figure 6-2. Example of an arena stage.
(Courtesy of the Arena Stage in Washington, D C. Photo: George de Vincent.)
Figure 6-3. Example of a thrust stage.

(Courtesy of the Stratford Festival, Ontario, Canada. Photo: David Cooper.)
80
Body Positions
If a director says to you, “Cross to down left and give me a one-quarter
right,’ he is directing you to move to a specific area of a proscenium stage
(described above) and take a particular body position. These positions are
as follows:
FULL FRONT. The actor is facing the audience. Normally when singing
a solo onstage, this is your position. (See figure 6-4.)
ONE-QUARTER LEFT. The actor turns to his left about half-way be¬
tween full front and profile. This is often the position you assume when
you are sharing a scene with another person, who will probably be in the
opposite one-quarter position. Most duets are sung in one-quarter or full
front. (See figure 6-5.)
PROFILE LEFT. The actor faces left with his profile (i.e., the right side of
his body) to the audience. Often a director will have two people in profile
left and profile right positions when they are having an argument. (See
figure 6-6.)
THREE-QUARTER LEFT. The actor turns to a position half-way be¬

tween the left profile and full back. (See figure 6-7.)
FULL BACK. The actor has his back to the audience. (See figure 6-8.)
THREE-QUARTER RIGHT. The actor is in a position half-way between
full back and the right profile positions. (See figure 6-7.)
PROFILE RIGHT. The actor faces right with his profile to the audience.
(See figure 6-6.)
ONE-QUARTER RIGHT. The actor is in a position half-way between
profile right and full front. (See figure 6-5.)
Movements and Stage Pictures

While movements and stage pictures are normally the director’s respon¬
sibility, all actors should have a basic knowledge about the following:
• If you are standing in a full front position and you are told to cross right,
you should start walking to your right with your right foot; if told to cross
left, begin with the left foot to walk to your left.
• If you are standing in a one-quarter position, your upstage foot will
probably be slightly in front of the downstage foot. When you start to
walk from this position, begin with the upstage foot.
• All movements onstage must be motivated. If you do not understand
why your director has asked you to move to a certain place, ask. The
director should be able to explain it to you. If by some chance you do
not get a satisfactory answer, you must create a reason for yourself.
Never move onstage without a purpose.
• If two actors are sharing a scene and both are equally important, you
will probably be in opposite one-quarter or profile positions. However, if
the director chooses to make one person more prominent because of a
Figure 6-4. Full front body positions.

Figure 6-5. One-quarter body positions.

Figure 6-6. Profile body positions.

Figure 6-7. Three-quarter body positions.

Figure 6-8. Full back body positions.

lengthy speech or important business, the director may tell this actor to
take the stage by assuming a one-quarter or full front position and direct
the other actor to give the stage by taking a three-quarter or full back.
Note that full front and one-quarter positions are usually much more
attention-getting than three-quarter or full back, although the latter can
be effective in certain situations.
• Upstaging is an unkind accusation in the theatre. This occurs when an
actor, who wants more attention from the audience, deliberately moves
upstage of another to a full front or one-quarter position and thereby
forces the other actor to turn to a three-quarter position to talk with this
person. No director should permit upstaging to occur.
• If two standing actors are sharing a scene and the director tells one to
cross the other, the person moving will normally pass in front of (that is,
downstage of) the stationary actor to the place specified by the director.
The nonmoving actor may then have to dress stage or counter (that is,
move slightly or change position in order to obtain again a balanced
stage picture).
• A speaking character will normally cross in front of other characters,
rather than behind them, in order to be heard and seen easily during
the cross.
• Usually, you will cross on your lines and be still when others are speak¬
ing. However, if a line must be emphasized, you may want to move
before or after delivering it, because moving on the line may lessen the
impact.
• When moving, do not stop in front of another character so that you
cover this person (unless there is some reason in the script for this).
• When blocking three or more actors, the director will often use triangu¬
lar arrangements with the dominant character at the apex.
• Unless there is some good reason in the script or you are directed to do
the following, avoid: Side-stepping or backing up onstage. Standing in
straight lines or semicircles with other actors. Looking down too much
while speaking. (Audiences like to watch faces, especially your eyes, so
don’t act to the floor—act to your fellow performers.)
Special Problems
Under this heading we will take up some violent actions, such as falling,
fainting, fighting, slapping, firing a gun, stabbing, strangling, and hair
pulling. All acts of violence must be carefully blocked and rehearsed so
that no one gets hurt, and no actor should be permitted to deviate from the
plans. Some nonviolent acts also need careful rehearsal, such as kissing,
kneeling, gesturing, handling props, eating, drinking, curtsying, bowing,
and delivering asides and soliloquies, so they too will be discussed in this
section.
FALLING AND FAINTING. The easiest and safest way to fall onstage is
to fall on your left or right side. First, get a mat to practice on; then remove
any eyeglasses and be sure that your pockets do not contain something
that will break or injure you. Remember to stay as relaxed as possible

and to take your time in falling—a fall usually does not have to be fast.
To fall to the left, put your weight on your right foot, bend your knees
and gently fall to the side of your left leg, hip, torso, and shoulder. Finally,
allow your head to touch the mat. Don’t fall on the kneecap, don't put
your hands out to break the fall as you might sprain a wrist (keep them
close to your body), don't bump your head, and don't let your feet bounce.
Most of the time you will want to land with your head downstage; if you
end up with your feet downstage, your position may look funny to the
audience. Of course, in playing a comedy scene, you can fall awkwardly
with feet bouncing and arms away from the body.
You must consider why you are falling and act accordingly. If you
are supposed to be struck or stabbed, you may want to grasp the wound,
stagger a step or two, and slowly fall. If furniture is nearby, you can use
it to break your descent. If you are supposed to faint, like, for example,
the females who pass out on seeing Conrad perform in Bye Bye Birdie, you
should relax the entire body and collapse to the floor or onto furniture.
Being shot is the hardest fall to do realistically. With this one, you may
react quickly as though you have received a tremendous blow of great
force that knocks you back and down.
FIGHTING. All fight scenes must be choreographed carefully and prac¬

ticed frequently. In rehearsal, the combatants must learn to trust the oth¬
ers and to establish eye contact before any punch is thrown to assure
each other that they are aware of what is about to happen. Also, rings and
eyeglasses should be removed by combatants before the fight begins.
In Kiss Me, Kate, the script calls for Katharine to hit Petruchio in the
stomach. A blow to the midsection may be concealed from the audience if
it is done from upstage with the victim, who has his back to the audience,
downstage of the hitter. She can start with a clenched fist, but immediately
before contact she may pull her punch or open her hand so that her palm
will make a sound when striking Petruchio, who reacts by grunting and
bending over.
A blow to the head may be done with a downstage hitter, who has his
back to the audience, covering the victim, who is upstage. The attacker's
blow should miss his opponent’s chin by about an inch. Bringing the hands
in to protect himself, the victim can supply the sound by quickly clapping
his hands together while groaning and jerking the head back and away.
A kick to the abdomen or groin can be done from upstage with the
downstage victim concealing the movement with his body. The receiver
puts his hands in front of him near his body. The kicker aims for the hands,
and the recipient reacts as though in great pain.
Armed combat varies according to the historical period and the type
of weapon used. Generally, if you must fight with a weapon onstage, your
director will provide an expert to choreograph the fight. If not, you will
have to research the subject yourself by consulting books on stage combat
in your library (there are several listed under Suggested Reading).
SLAPPING. When one character must slap another, as Katharine slaps

Petruchio in Kiss Me, Kate, the slapper should remove rings, relax the
striking hand, aim for the fleshy part of the cheek (avoiding the ear, eye,
and nose), and hit with relaxed fingers. At the same time the person slapped
turns his or her head away from the blow. Before striking another person,
the slapper should practice hitting his or her own face until the right
amount of force is determined.
FIRING A GUN. Never shoot a prop gun directly at anyone onstage or

at the audience; a gun loaded with a blank cartridge can discharge a wad
that may injure or even kill. No one should have access to a gun except the
actor firing it and the prop person responsible for it. Guns should never
be left lying on a prop table for anyone to pick up and play with. When
they are not in use, they should be locked up because they can and have
killed people.
If the script demands that you fire a gun at someone, as Chino in West
Side Story shoots Tony, aim upstage of the victim, who should be at least
eight feet away. Be sure, also, that technicians and performers backstage
have been warned to stay out of the line of firing. In this scene from
West Side Story and in other musicals, such as Annie Get Your Gun, the
performers may pretend to shoot onstage while a recording of gunshots
is played or a prop gun is fired offstage by the property master or stage
manager.
STABBING. Performers have also been killed by using real knives on¬
stage. Always use a prop knife that is made of rubber or that is collapsible.
In such musicals as West Side Story, Oklahoma!, and Carousel, the use of
knives must be carefully blocked and controlled.
The easiest way to conceal a stabbing is to have the victim downstage
of the stabber so that the receiver's body covers the movement. The
attacker can raise his hand with the knife (to show it to the audience)
and bring it down with force towards his opponent’s chest. Just before
reaching it, the assailant turns the knife under so that it is the back of his
hand that hits the victim, not the knife.
STRANGLING. The strangler places his hands on his opponent’s shoul¬

ders near the neck. The victim puts his hands over the strangler’s and
does all of the moving, groaning, and gasping. The assailant appears to be
applying pressure, but the victim is controlling the movement.
HAIR PULLING. The puller grabs the victim’s hair, but the latter holds
the assailant’s wrist. The victim may writhe and yell but is actually con¬
trolling the action.
KISSING. For a standing kiss, two actors should move close together as
though they were going to dance. If this is a serious, romantic scene, it is
important that their feet be close together because, if their feet are apart
and the actors lean in toward each other, their positions will look funny.
The man’s downstage arm can be around her waist with his upstage arm
around her back. Her downstage arm can be on his arm or shoulder with
her upstage arm around his neck. The man s head may be downstage of
the woman’s head as they tilt their heads to kiss. (Note the kisses in the
scenes from The Mikado, Kiss Me, Kate, and South Pacific in chapter ten.)
If kissing while sitting on a sofa, the woman may put her head on his
upstage shoulder as he bends to kiss her. Sometimes a hand to the face
or hair of the other is a nice touch that can be done by either the man or
woman.
In kissing a lady’s hand, the man should raise her hand gently to his
mouth, as he bends forward, and briefly touch the back of her hand with
his lips.
KNEELING. When kneeling onstage to a person, an actor will usually
put the downstage knee on the floor, because this makes it easier for the
kneeling character to cheat front so that his face may be seen and his
voice heard. When kneeling to pray, usually both knees are on the floor.
GESTURING AND HANDLING PROPS. Normally you should use the

upstage hand in gesturing and handling props so as to avoid covering
yourself. For instance, in using a telephone onstage, you should hold it in
your upstage hand with the mouthpiece below your mouth. The important
point is that you must be heard and seen.
EATING AND DRINKING. There are two things to remember about

eating and drinking onstage: do them as little as possible and time them so
that you will not have to speak with your mouth full. If drinks are served
in opaque containers, the audience will never know if you have drunk
the liquid or not. You must, of course, look as though you are eating and
drinking, while you are actually consuming small bites and sips.
If the script calls for an alcoholic beverage, the prop crew should
provide water, tea, gingerale, or fruit juice, changed, if necessary, by food
color to look like the intoxicating drink. As for food, don’t be surprised if
the prop crew substitutes easy-to-eat-and-prepare food for items that are
difficult to fix or swallow.
CURTSYING. A woman's curtsy has remained about the same for hun¬
dreds of years. The most common curtsy involves placing the ball of one
foot in back of the other, keeping the weight on both feet. She should bend
her knees while nodding her head or bending forward from the waist. (See
figure 6-9.) Another type of curtsy involves stepping back with one foot,
putting all of her weight on it as she bends the rear knee. She should point
the toe of the front foot as she bends forward. The depth of the curtsy
depends on whom she is greeting, with royalty receiving the deepest. Her
hands may rest on her dress, may be crossed over her breast, or may be
held out and back with palms turned to the front.
Maids of former years did “bob" curtsies as they entered or left rooms.
This involves a slight bending of the knees as she nods her head.
BOWING. Men’s bows have changed a great deal through the years, but
a stage bow that is good for all periods from the Middle Ages to the early
nineteenth century involves the man stepping back with the toes slightly
turned out on the rear foot. He should transfer his weight to the back leg
as he bends his rear knee. His front leg is straight. He may nod his head
or bend forward as he removes his hat and sweeps it to the rear or places
it over his heart. If he is not wearing a hat, he may put one hand over
his heart, or his hand (with the palm up) may be extended forward and
then down to the floor. (See figure 6-10.)
By the middle of the nineteenth century, a man usually put his heels
together with his toes slightly turned out and nodded or bowed from the
waist with his hands at his sides. This same bow serves as a male servant's
bow for all periods from the Middle Ages to the present. It may also be
used by both men and women for a bow at curtain call.
Figure 6-10. A bow.

ASIDES. Some musicals, especially older ones, may contain asides—

short remarks made by a character to the audience that other people
onstage are not supposed to hear. To deliver an aside, the actor may
simply turn toward the spectators from anywhere onstage or may move
downstage to get closer to the audience. Other actors may turn away,
freeze, or do some action so that they appear not to hear the aside. Then,
after the aside is finished, all return to their previous positions. (Look at
the aside used by Nanki-Poo in the excerpt from The Mikado in chapter
ten.)
SOLILOQUIES. A character who reveals his or her innermost thoughts

and feelings while alone onstage is delivering a soliloquy. In musicals, a
soliloquy may be spoken, or it may be sung. It may be directed to the
audience, in which case the performer may move closer to the spectators,
or it may be so reflective that it should appear as though the character is
thinking out loud. The latter type may be delivered from any part of the
stage while the performer looks toward or away from the audience. Each
soliloquy should be carefully analyzed for meaning in order to determine
the best way to handle it.
Exercises
1. To see if you understand the nine stage areas and the eight body
positions, move as follows:
a. Start in a one-quarter left at DL and cross to a one-quarter right at
DR.
b. From there, move to a three-quarter right at UR.
c. Next move to full front in DC.
d. From there, move to a three-quarter left at UL.
e. Next move to full back in UC.
f. Move now to profile right at R.
g. Next move to profile left at L.
h. End in full front at C.
2. Two actors should do the following movements:
a. Stand in one-quarter positions in C as though you are sharing a
scene. Actor A at the left should cross to R, and the other actor, B,
should then dress stage (or counter).
b. Actor A, now at R, should give the stage to Actor B who is in C, and B
should take the stage.
c. Actor A should now cross in front of Actor B to DL and end in a
profile left.
d. Actor B should cross and kneel to the right of A, who turns to B.
3. Using a floor mat for protection, practice the following as described in
this chapter:
a. Fainting.
b. Falling because you have been shot.
c. Falling because you tripped.
4. With another person, practice the following:
a. A blow to the midsection of the body.
b. A blow to the chin.
c. A kick to the abdomen.
d. Slapping.
e. Stabbing.
f. Strangling.
g. Hair pulling.
h. Standing kiss.
i. Seated kiss.
j. Kneeling and kissing a lady's hand.
k. Curtsies and bows.
5. Practice the following asides from Gilbert and Sullivan s The Pirates of
Penzance. In Act I, young Frederic is talking with Ruth, a middle-aged
woman, when a chorus of girls is heard in the distance.
FREDERIC: Surely I hear voices! Who has ventured to approach our all but
inaccessible lair? .. .
RUTH: {Aside) Confusion! it is the voice of young girls! If he should see them
I am lost.
FREDERICK: (Looking off) By all that’s marvellous, a bevy of beautiful maidens!
RUTH: {Aside) Lost! lost! lost!
6. In Act I of Gilbert and Sullivan's The Mikado, Ko-Ko, the Lord High
Executioner of Titipu, is left alone onstage and delivers the following
soliloquy:
KO-KO: This is simply appalling! I, who allowed myself to be respited at the last
moment, simply in order to benefit my native town, am now required
to die within a month, and that by a man whom I have loaded with
honours! Is this public gratitude?
COMEDY TECHNIQUES
Because many musicals are comedies, it is necessary for the musical per¬
former to understand some of the basic techniques for getting laughs.
Even in musicals that cannot be called comedies because of their serious
themes, such as Cabaret or Camelot, there may be some humorous char¬
acters and funny scenes, so studying comic techniques is a must for all
musical performers. It is not an easy matter, though. Most actors agree
that playing comedy is harder than acting serious plays, so let's look at
some of the problems.
Analyzing a Comedy
First, you should know what a comedy is: an entertaining play that has a
happy ending. Comedy is often based on surprise (the spectators expect
one thing to happen and laugh when something else occurs), exaggeration,
incongruity, or deviations from normality that provoke laughter. Both
Mame and Hello, Dolly!, for instance, derive much of their humor from
the unusual and amusing characters who are the protagonists, Mame and
Dolly.
Often, we can define a comedy more specifically as a satire (or comedy
of manners), farce (or situation comedy), or romantic comedy. When the
show attacks a subject through ridicule, it can be termed a satire. Guys
and Dolls is an example that presents a satirical portrayal of a group of
New York gamblers. A musical like A Funny Thing Happened on the Way
to the Forum, which places emphasis on wild, highly improbable physical
activity, may be labelled a farce. If the comedy is concerned primarily
with the humorous events that can happen when one or two couples are
in love, as in Annie Get Your Gun, it is generally called a romantic comedy.
You must figure out what type of comedy you are playing and remem¬
ber that there are wide differences among them. Slapstick farce needs a
physical approach; satires may need a more intellectual one; and come¬
dies that emphasize romance may need a more emotional approach. Ask
yourself where the humor, the fun, the wit lie in this musical and who or
what will get the laughs. Remember that in order for spectators to laugh,
they must understand the words, the situation, and the objectives of the
characters. If they do not comprehend these, they will not think the show
is funny.
Next, examine your character’s function in the comedy. Are you the
hero or heroine, villain or villainess, top comedian or comedienne, best
friend of one of the above, a funny servant, an eccentric person, or who
are you? Are you supposed to get laughs? If so, will the laughs come from
your overall characterization, from a funny voice, from witty lines, from
the machinations of the plot, from humorous movements or business, or
from bizarre props, costuming, makeup, or hairstyles? The answer may be
any or all of the above.
In analyzing a comic character, you may find that he or she is pre¬
occupied intensely with one idea. For example, Dolly wants to marry Ho¬
race Vandergelder and that influences her actions throughout Hello, Dolly!.
J. Pierrepont Finch in How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying
wants to be a top executive. Both characters are obsessed with their goals,
and both are funny characters.
Perhaps you are not the lead but have an interesting smaller role, such
as Funny Girl's Mrs. Brice or Mrs. Strakosh, who are humorous because
of their motherly advice, their butting into Fanny’s business, their unusual
vocal qualities, and their accents. Lina Lamont, the silent movie actress in
Singing’ in the Rain, gets laughs because of a high-pitched, strident, nasal
voice; and Hedy La Rue, the office siren in How to Succeed in Business,
can be played amusingly with a sexy, high-pitched, rather breathy voice.
Don’t overlook the possibility of creating a funny character by changing
the pitch, rate, loudness, quality, or dialect or accent of your voice.
Are the laughs in your musical coming from the lines? Are there
jokes? Mispronunciations? Extreme exaggerations? Incongruities? Sur¬
prises? Funny words, or words used in strange ways? Lines with double
meanings? Puns? Malapropisms? In Kiss Me, Kate, one gangster says, "The
minute a man signs an I.O.U. everything goes dark.” The second gangster
adds, "The doctors call it magnesia.” (In substituting magnesia for amne¬
sia, the gangster has used a malapropism, which is the use of an incorrect
word for one that is similar in sound.)
You must analyze the dialogue for the jokes and learn to recognize a
“straight line" or "feed line” that leads to a “punch line” or "laugh line.” In
the previous excerpt from Kiss Me, Kate, the first gangster has the straight
line and the second has the laugh line. Another example from Kiss Me,
Kate comes after an elder statesman, Harrison Howell, explains that he
has reached a certain distinction in Washington by having his own park
bench. Lois has the straight line when she asks, "One thing I’ve always
wanted to know—what do you do about the pigeons? Harrison s punch
line is "Duck, my dear. Just duck.”
Actors must know how to build to a laugh and to get it by topping
the straight line or by "undercutting.” The excerpt just given from Kiss
Me, Kate is an example of topping because Harrison will undoubtedly say
his line louder and at a higher pitch than the straight line. An instance of
undercutting may be found in a speech by King Pellinore in Camelot when

he is getting ready to depart from a garden party with his dog Horrid.
He builds to this laugh with "Come along, Horrid. What a glorious day!
There's even a hint of summer in the air. (Looks at the dog) Or is that
you?” If Pellinore builds during the first three sentences to a loud tone
and a higher pitch and if, after looking at the dog, he speaks quietly at a
lower pitch, he should get a laugh—especially if he sniffs and uses a facial
expression that indicates he has just smelled a bad odor.
Not all laugh lines should be punched out. Some can be almost thrown
away and still get a laugh. Take this exchange between Meg and Jeff in
Brigadoon: Meg is pursuing Jeff, who is resisting her advances. Sitting
down on a hard cot, Jeff says, "What’s under here—a rock garden?” Meg
replies, "My father used to sleep on it.” And Jeff (thinking that her father’s
first mistake was conceiving Meg) has a throw-away laugh line: "That was
his second mistake.” While the line itself may be taken at a lower level
of loudness and pitch than the feed line, Jeff will still want to point up
the word second because key words in laugh lines must be played up or
"pointed” in order to get a reaction.
Does the humor come from the plot? Many of the laughs in Promises,
Promises, for example, come from Chuck's lending the keys of his apart¬
ment to married executives who need a place to entertain girlfriends. This,
of course, leads to all sorts of amusing situations.
Does the humor depend on comic movements, business, facial expres¬
sions, or props? Mazeppa and Electra appear in just one scene in Gypsy
and Tessie Tura is in only two, yet these three strippers are well remem¬
bered. The laughs come from the gimmicks they employ in stripteasing, as
they explain in a memorable song, "You Gotta Get a Gimmick”: Mazeppa
strips while blowing a bugle; Electra wears electric bulbs on her body that
light as she bumps and grinds; and Tessie combines stripping with ballet
dancing. (See figure 6-11.)
Do the laughs come from unusual costuming, makeup, or hairstyles?
In Kiss Me, Kate, the two gangsters, who are trying to collect a debt from
the star of a Shakespearean play, put on such ill-fitting Elizabethan cos¬
tumes with droopy tights that the audience should laugh at their appear¬
ance.
Acting Comedy
No matter how stupid, foolish, or villainous your role is, you should like the
character, understand the person, and be sympathetic to his or her foibles.
Play up the eccentricities and exaggerations and have a good time while
you are doing this, but don’t be too obvious about trying to be funny—the
audience may not find this amusing. After all, the character usually is not
trying to be comic or is even aware that he or she is funny, so just play
the role and let the peculiarities of the character, lines, situations, props,
or costumes get the laughs.
Playing comedy involves being aware of your audience, listening to
them, waiting for them to respond, and letting them laugh. A good audi¬
ence reaction depends on the actors’ timing, setting up a joke, building,
springing the punch line at the right time, and holding for the laugh.
Figure 6-11. Chotzi Foley, Maria Karnilova, and Faith Dane as the three strippers in
Tiiden Foundations.)
How do you deliver a funny line? It varies according to the situation.

But often the comedic effect can be improved by turning the laugh line
out to the audience and playing it to the balcony. Key words must be
pointed up, and the words must be spoken clearly and distinctly. If the
listeners fail to hear or understand either the feed line or the laugh line,
they will not laugh. Sometimes a slight pause before the punch line will
help. And usually you will not cross on a punch line, as the movement may
distract the audience from listening to the words.
After the punch line, you wait for them to respond. If a big laugh
results, you freeze, unless your movement is causing them to continue to
laugh. After the laugh passes its peak and you think you can be heard,
speak your next line. If, however, the laugh never comes, quickly go on to
your next line.
Don’t laugh at your own joke, as the audience may not think it is funny
if you do. And do not interfere with another actor’s laugh by mugging,
moving on the punch line, or distracting the audience's attention in any
other way.
Playing farce requires a knowledge of physical comedy, sometimes
called "low comedy.” In this style we get into the old comedic devices
that have been used to make audiences laugh since the beginning of the
theatre. Here is a list of some that come up frequently in farce.
• The take or slow take: A slow, comic realization of what has been done
or said, usually played with the comedian looking out at the audience.
• The double take: Another delayed reaction to a line or situation. Usually
the comedian, who is looking at a person or situation, fails to find
anything unusual and looks away; then he realizes what he has seen
or heard, and quickly looks back.
• The burn or slow burn: Something bad happens to the comedian, but
at first he doesn’t react. Then, slowly, anger and fury build within him
until he violently lets out his pent-up feelings.
• The sight gag: This is visual humor as the laughs come from a funny
prop, costume, makeup, hairstyle, or movement.
• "Shtick”: A repeated bit of comic business, routine, or gimmick used by
a star performer.
• The running gag: Comic business that is repeated throughout a show.
• Deadpanning: Using an impassive manner with no facial expressions.
• Mugging: Using exaggerated facial expressions.
• Sudden changes in facial expression: Going quickly from happy to sad
or vice versa.
• Hitting with boards, slapsticks, umbrellas, or canes.
• Chases.
• Tnpping, slipping, and falling.
• Stepping on a nail or other sharp object.
• Getting fingers stuck on chewing gum, in a door, and elsewhere.
• Disguising as another character (often of the opposite sex).
• Chasing a hat by kicking it forward each time the comic bends over to
pick it up.
• Throwing and receiving a pie or cake in the face.
• A man's trousers or a woman’s skirt falling unexpectedly to the floor.
• A comic walking fast on his or her knees.
• Two, three, or more characters, lined up closely behind each other,
walking in unison across the stage.
• Two people tugging on a rope until one lets go and the other falls.
• While a character is trying to speak or sing to the audience, the comedian
stands in back making fun by mugging or imitating the person, who is
not aware that the comic is there.
• After taking a drink, the comic hears something shocking and squirts
water out of his mouth.
In playing all types of comedy, keep your energy level up. Overall, a
comedy will probably be faster and louder than a serious play, although
there will be many variations within any show. As with all other types
of acting, you must keep up the illusion that this is the first time you
have been in this situation. You must listen to the other actors, think, and
respond as though you have just had the thought that prompts you to say
these words.
Exercises
Read the book of a famous musical comedy and analyze it:
1. What type of comedy is it'3 Why do you give it this classification?
2. Choose a character that you might play, and answer these questions
about this person:
a. What is the character’s function in the comedy?
b. Is he or she obsessed with an idea?
3. Look for the following in your script, and give examples of those you
can find:
a. Unusual voices, dialects, or accents that are supposed to get laughs.
b. Jokes, mispronunciations, extreme exaggerations, incongruities, sur¬
prises, funny words or words used in strange ways, lines with double
meanings, puns, malapropisms.
c. A straight line that leads to a punch line.
d. Should the punch line in c. top or undercut the straight line?
4. Is the plot of the musical based on a funny situation?
5. Are comic movements, business, props, costuming, makeup, and
hairstyles called for?
6. Take a joke from your script and practice delivering it for maximum
effect. Are you pointing the key words? Are you saying the words
distinctly?
7. Practice a take, double take, and slow burn. If there are no lines in youi
script that you can use for this, look at the following excerpt from Kiss
Me, Kate. The situation is that Fred, a stage director, is instructing Lois,
a former nightclub singer, in how to act on the stage:
FRED: I realize, Lois, that in nightclub work you don t have to cheat
(Theatrical expression to cover actor’s appearing to play scene with an¬
other actor but actually aiming his lines out to the audience)
LOIS: (Interrupting) Oh, don’t you though?
FRED: You don’t have to cheat front, Miss Lane, but on stage when you re
playing scenes with other people, you do. This is your first show, and I
know it’s hard for you.
LOIS' (Almost baby-wise) Do you mean thus—(Of course SHE turns wrong) or
thus?
FRED: We’ll thus it later.
Before Fred says his last line, he could do a take, a double take, or a
slow burn. Try each one, or perhaps you can figure out a better way to
react.
8. Is there a sight gag indicated in your script?
9. Is there a running gag or any of the other comedic devices listed in this
section?
CONCENTRATION
Concentration is the process of gathering together your resources, your
powers, and your efforts in order to direct your energies to your charac¬
ter’s objective. When you are onstage playing a role, you must give your
entire concentration to that objective despite the many distractions that
may surround you. There may be performers and technicians standing in
the wings; there may be actors onstage who are not concentrating; there
may be people coughing in the audience—many things can keep you from
absorbing yourself in playing your part. But you must train yourself to
ignore these distractions and keep your mind focused on your perform¬
ing. Otherwise you may find yourself forgetting lines, blocking, a costume
change, a prop, or other things that will ruin your performance.
The great Russian director and teacher of acting, Constantin
Stanislavski (1863-1938), wrote about the necessity for concentration in
his fine books on acting (which are listed under Suggested Reading). By
concentration he did not mean that you should forget that you are per¬
forming for an audience; however, you should forget everything that in¬
terferes with your creativity onstage so that you can immerse yourself
in acting the part. (See the next chapter for more about the Stanislavski
System.)
Exercises
To improve your ability to concentrate, work on the following:
1. Sit still and concentrate on the sounds around you. Block everything
else out of your mind except the sounds and describe them.
2. Next, concentrate on odors. What can you smell at the moment?
3. Now, concentrate on your sense of touch. How do your clothes and
shoes feel? What else is touching you? The floor? Your chair? The air?
Describe these.
4. With your hands touch all of your outer garments from the soles of
your shoes on up. Describe the differences in texture.
5. Can you taste anything at the present? Describe it.
6. What can you see? Look around you for a minute, then test your
powers of observation by closing your eyes and trying to describe
accurately everything you saw.
7. Take a small object from your purse, briefcase, or wallet: a coin, a
pencil, a credit card, a picture, lipstick, comb, or something similar.
Give this article your full concentration for one minute, then put it
away and see if you can describe it accurately.
8. Next, make up a story about this object; for example, how this valuable
coin was lost by a coin collector and came into your possession. Use
your imagination; see what sort of adventurous tale you can create.
9. Give this article to another actor who will hide it in the room or on a
stage while you are not looking. Your objective is to find this object.
Give this search your full attention and concentration as others call
"cold,” “warm,” or "hot” to guide you. After you find it, leave the object
where it is. Now return to the place where you began this exercise, and
recreate as closely as you can what you were thinking and what you
did during your search.
10. Write a letter to someone you love. Do this sitting onstage or at the
front of the room before a group of other actors who will try to distract
you from writing. The group may not touch you, but they may come
near you, talk, whisper, or try to distract you in another way. Keep
concentrating on your letter writing.
11. Sitting or standing in front of a group of other actors, tell them about
the one to whom you were writing the letter. See this person in your
mind’s eye and describe him or her in detail. The group may provide
typical audience sounds (moving in the chair, whispering, coughing,
sneezing, a baby crying, and similar noises) to try to distract you.
IMPROVISATIONS
Improvisations are used by many acting teachers to develop actors abil¬
ities to listen, concentrate, think on their feet, imagine, and create. When
an improvisation requires the actor to recall a previous sensory or emo¬
tional experience, it may help the person to get in touch with feelings that
can be used later onstage.
Some directors use improvisations at auditions to test the imagination
and creativity of actors. While rehearsing a show, directors may use
improvisations to help actors understand what has happened offstage
before their entrances or what has occurred in incidents that are referred
to in the script but not shown onstage. When working with a scene that has
dialogue or a situation that is difficult to understand, directors may ask
actors to improvise the scene, playing it in their own words, to help them
comprehend the thoughts and emotions. Sometimes full-length plays and
musicals for public performances are partially developed through actors
improvisations, so this is an important skill for performers to develop.
In a class improvisation, actors are usually told who the characters
are or what the situation is or when or where the scene takes place or
why the incident occurs or how it happens. Ordinarily you are not given
all of this information so it is up to you to create what is not provided.
When more than one actor is involved, the participants are generally
given a few minutes to decide on the who, what, when, where, why, and
how. Then they are asked to present their improvisation, devising their
characterizations, dialogue, and actions extemporaneously.
The improvisation does not have to be long or funny, as some actors

believe. You should stick to the subject, listen to the others, react spon¬
taneously, and concentrate on staying in character and speaking as your
character would in this situation. If you think that you are not good at do¬
ing improvisations, you probably just need to do them more often. Actors
can usually improve their abilities to improvise by practicing.
Exercises
1. The following are improvisations for one person:
a. You are sleeping when a strange noise awakens and scares you.
b. You are reading in your room when a mouse runs across the floor.
c. In trying to drive at night in a fog, you almost have a bad accident.
d. It is your birthday, and you eagerly check the mailbox to discover
that no one has sent you a card or letter.
e. Because you drank too much at a party, you are now having difficulty
opening the door to your home and getting to bed.
f. You get a telephone call from your spouse telling you the marriage
is over.
g. You are trying to paint the walls of your apartment, but you are
having trouble with the roller, dripping paint on furniture, stepping
in the paint bucket, and so forth.
h. You return home to discover that you have been robbed.
i. You are trying to prepare an intimate dinner for two, but everything
goes wrong: you burn the meat, the cake falls, you put too much salt
on the broccoli, and so forth.
j. By accident you are locked in a bank vault overnight.
k. You are playing solitaire and watching television when you hear on
the news that you are wanted for murder.
2. The following improvisations are for two people:
a. One of you receives a telephone call that affects both of you.
b. A husband and wife are having breakfast the morning after he
embarrassed her at a party.
c. A shoplifter is caught and interrogated by a department store guard.
d. One of you wants something that the other one has.
e. An employer fires an employee who has been with the company for
thirty years.
f. A customer arrives at a garage sale and discovers that the seller was
a close college friend.
g. A lawyer advises a client who is accused of murder.
h. Two people are waiting to be interviewed for one job.
i. A customer returns a defective product to the manager of a store.
j. One of you wants a divorce from the other.
k. A grandparent tries to tell a grandchild what sort of profession the
young person should go into.
3. The following are group improvisations for three or more people:
a. One of you is a travel agent and the others arrive to book trips.
b. You are a group of college students travelling in a bus to see a
musical performance in a nearby city when the bus runs off the
road and into a creek.
c. You are members of a family who are waiting at the airport for a
relative to arrive from abroad whom you have never seen.
d. One of you is a talk show host and the others are celebrities invited
to be interviewed on television.
e. You are attending the twenty-fifth annual reunion of your college
class.
f. One of you is a steward or stewardess and the rest are passengers
on an airplane when you hit turbulence.
g. One of you sees a UFO, but the others do not see it.
h. One of you is the receptionist and the others are patients with various
ailments who are waiting to see a doctor.
i. You are a group of rock musicians travelling on a bus to your next
engagement. One of you has lost a large sum of money and suspects
everyone else on the bus.
j. You are a group of actors who are taking off your makeup and
getting dressed after a bad performance of Oklahoma!. You are all
tired, disgruntled, and inclined to blame everyone else for the poor
show.
k. You are elderly residents of a nursing home who are discussing the
illness of one of your friends.
7
PREPARING A
MUSICAL ROLE
EVE [an actress]: I couldn’t have done it without you.

BILL [a director]: (Surprised) Without me? Come on ... I stopped by and gave
you a five-minute pep talk before the curtain went up . . .
EVE: Something you said made the whole difference. Without it, I might have
been just plain embarrassing.
BILL: Really? What was that?
EVE: You said, "The one thing that makes an audience uncomfortable is to see
an actor pressing—sweating to make good.” You said, If you feel you re
losing them, don’t panic. Hold very still inside. Don’t go after them; make
them come to you.”
—from Applause
Bill gave Eve some good advice, and in this chapter well consider more
suggestions and ideas about how to prepare a part for a musical, starting
with how to analyze the script and role. Then, we shall take up rehearsing,
creating a character, and preparing songs and dances.
ANALYZING THE MUSICAL AND ROLE

First of all, read the script carefully to learn about the plot, characters,
thoughts, words, songs, and dances. A good analysis will provide the foun¬
dation you need for preparing your part.
Plot
Your director should discuss with the entire cast the following questions
plus his or her concept of the musical. Your individual study should focus
on how you can contribute to the director’s interpretation. Look in your
script for answers to the following:
105
• Where and when do the scenes take place?

• What is the plot all about?
• Is there a conflict? Between whom?
• Is there a subplot? Who is involved in it?
• Where are the minor and major climaxes?
• Is the musical a comedy, satire, farce, romantic comedy, drama, melo¬
drama, tragedy, fantasy, or something else?
• What is the style of the show? All musicals are presentational in style,
but some are more realistic than others: My Fair Lady, for example, is
more realistic than Stop the World—I Want to Get Off, which is highly
theatrical with no attempt at illusion. How realistic will your production
be?
Characters
Examine the characters, paying particular attention to the one you are
playing. You should know your character so well that you can write a
biography that covers the period from birth to the time of the show. For
information about your character, look at the following:
1. Your character’s first entrance to see if the writer provides a description

of this person.
2. Other stage directions for information about your character's move¬
ments, stage business, attitudes, thoughts, and feelings.
3. What other characters say about the person you are playing.
4. What your character says about him- or herself.
5. What actions he or she does during the play.
6. How your character changes during the play.
If the author does not provide everything you need to know about your
character, you must use your imagination and make some educated
guesses based on what is given to you by the bookwriter, so that you
can compile a complete biography.
You should also know the answers to the following:
• Who are the characters? How are they related?

• What is your character's function in the play? Is your character the
protagonist, antagonist, friend or relative of one of these, comedian,
member of the singing or dancing chorus, or what?
• What is your character's nationality? Ethnic origin? How has your char¬
acter been influenced by his or her family?
• What should your character look like? What is your character’s physical
appearance, age, weight, height, and color of hair?
• How would you describe your character's posture, movements, stage
business, and rhythm of movement and speech?
• What should your character’s speaking voice be like? What dialect or
accent do you need for this part?
PREPARING A MUSICAL ROLE
What are the intellectual characteristics and education of your charac¬

ter? Emotional characteristics? Personality? Social and economic status?
Occupation? Hobbies? Religion? Politics?
What kinds of costumes should you wear to play this character? Shoes?
Makeup? Hairstyles?
Does your character use any unusual props?
What is your character’s main objective or major goal for the entire
play? For example, in My Fair Lady Eliza’s major goal is to better herself.
What has happened to your character immediately before every scene
your character is in? To figure out your character's objective on entering,
you must know what has taken place earlier. To help actors determine
this, directors may ask them to improvise occurrences that are not in
the show but affect the characters’ attitudes, thinking, and feeling at
their entrances. In Eliza’s case, before Act I, Scene 1 opens, she has been
preparing her violets and selling them on the street.
What are your character's objectives and motivations for every scene
your character is in? In My Fair Lady, Eliza’s objective at the beginning
of the first scene of Act I is to sell flowers, and her motivation is her need
for money. To figure out an objective for your character, ask yourself,
" What do I want? And express the objective using a verb after "I want”;
for example, “I want to sell flowers.” For the motivation, ask yourself,
" Why do I want this?” The answer in Eliza’s case is: “I want to sell flowers
because I need money.”
What actions does your character do to achieve the objectives? The
actress playing Eliza should answer that her action in Scene 1 is to ask
people to buy flowers.
What obstacles prevent your character from achieving the objectives?
At the beginning of My Fair Lady, Eliza meets an obstacle: Freddy, a
well-to-do young man, who accidentally knocks her down and ruins her
violets. So how can she overcome this obstacle? Her objective is still to
sell flowers but now they are spoiled. Another obstacle occurs when a
bystander tells her that a "bloke” (Higgins) is recording every word she
says. When she hears this, her objective changes; it is now “I want to
defend myself.” Her motive? To stay out of jail. Her action is to get the
crowd to sympathize with her and help her. And so it goes throughout
the play. Eliza’s objectives, motives, and actions change according to the
obstacles and events.
What is your character’s attitude toward every other character with
whom he or she is involved? What is your character s emotional state?
What is he or she thinking? Analyze Eliza’s attitude when she enters in
Act I, Scene 1. She needs money, and she has come to sell her flowers to
the rich people who are leaving the opera house and waiting for taxis.
She is not afraid of these wealthy people—she knows that she has the
right to sell her flowers there—and when Freddy accidentally knocks
her down and ruins her flowers, she talks to his mother about paying
for them. The mother dismisses her without giving her money, so Eliza
asks Pickering to buy a flower. Emotionally, she is anxious (she wants
to sell some flowers) and angry (she was knocked down and her flowers
were stepped on). She is thinking that she must get someone to buy
these flowers or she will not make as much money for the night as she
should. After she realizes that a man is recording her words, these factors
change. Her attitude toward Higgins becomes fearful; emotionally, she
is terrified; she is thinking that she must defend herself. And so, her
attitudes, emotions, and thinking will change throughout the play with
each new event.
• Is your character different at the end of the play than at the beginning?
In what ways has your character changed? Eliza progresses during My
Fair Lady from a poor cockney street vendor to a self-assured, poised
young woman who is the match of her mentor, Higgins.
Thoughts
Your stage director should also discuss with the cast the ideas in the
musical. Investigate the following:
• What is the theme or message of the musical?

• What other major ideas are expressed?
• How are the ideas expressed? In dialogue, actions, songs, dances, or signs
on the stage?
Words
Examine the text; that is, the words of the dialogue and lyrics. If you don’t
know what a particular sentence means, look up the words in a dictionary.
Usually this will suffice, but not always, for the following reaons:
1. There may be several meanings listed for each word, and you may not
be able to figure out which meaning the author had in mind.
2. Some words or meanings may not be in standard dictionaries because
they are obsolete, archaic, colloquial, substandard, or foreign.
3. A meaning may not be listed in a dictionary because it is connotative,
which is an emotional, implied meaning that is suggested by the literal
meaning of the word. By using connotations, a character may show
his or her feelings or attitude. For example, when Higgins calls Eliza a
"squashed cabbage leaf,” he is revealing his emotions and point of view
towards this cockney girl.
To be sure that you understand the musical, ask yourself the following:
• Do you understand every word and sentence of the text? If not, research
them, or ask your director to explain them.
• Do you understand the sensory images (words that stimulate the senses)?
For instance, when Higgins orders Eliza not to "sit there crooning like a
bilious pigeon,” the writer’s words create visual and aural images in our
minds. Sensory images may appeal to our sense of sight, hearing, taste,
touch, or smell. To interpret these well, you must understand the image,
then see it in your mind’s eye or feel it within your body before saying
the words.
PREPARING A MUSICAL ROLE 109
• Do you understand the figures of speech, such as the simile (a compari¬

son that is often introduced by like or as), metaphor (a comparison that
is made when a word or phrase is used in place of another), and allusion
(a reference to a place, a person, or an event)? “Crooning like a bilious
pigeon” is an example of a simile, and in the following sentence, Hig¬
gins uses three metaphors followed by an allusion: "Yes, you squashed
cabbage leaf, you disgrace to the noble architecture of these columns,
you incarnate insult to the English language: I could pass you off as the
Queen of Sheba.”
• Do you understand the jokes in the script? The puns, malapropisms,
extreme exaggerations, and other comic devices? Do you have straight
lines or punch lines? (If so, read Comedy Techniques in chapter six.)
• Do you understand the subtext of your scenes? On your first examina¬
tion of the words in the script, the true meaning may not be immediately
apparent because a character may be saying one thing while he or she
actually has something else in mind. Sometimes the writer may describe
in a stage direction what the character is really thinking, but other times
the writer may not give the actor this help. In this situation, the stage
director should decide on the interpretation to be given the scene and
discuss it with the performers. Constantin Stanislavski wrote that spec¬
tators come to the theatre to hear the subtext—they can read the text
at home. In other words, the audience wants to see how the performers
interpret the text.
Songs and Dances

Next, pay particular attention to the songs and dances, analyzing the
dramatic or comic function of these numbers and their meanings. (See
chapter two for types of songs and dances.) Ask yourself the following:
• What kinds of singing and dancing numbers does my character do? With
whom?
• What type of accompaniment will there be? (Full pit orchestra, small
combo, two pianos, or what?)
• What ideas are expressed in these songs and dances?
• What is the function of each song or dance number you are in? Is it to
provide a climax to the scene? To add humor? To delineate character?
To reveal what a character is thinking or feeling? To demonstrate the
change in a character, the passing of time, or a shift in place? To progress
the plot? To give exposition? To set the mood of a scene? To tell a
story? To foretell the future? To state the theme or a main idea? Or
is it primarily to show off your talents?
REHEARSING
The rehearsal period for a musical is usually about four to ten weeks. In
summer theatres, however, rehearsals may be much more abbreviated,
sometimes as short as one week.
1 10 PERFORMING IN MUSICALS
If you sing, dance, and act in the show, you will be called to singing
rehearsals with the musical director, dancing rehearsals with the choreog¬
rapher, and acting rehearsals with the stage director. It is entirely possible
that you may rehearse parts of one scene, in which you sing, dance, and
act, on different days with various directors. So how do you cope with
the fragmentary nature of these rehearsals? You do this by keeping your
analysis of the show and your character firmly in mind. You know your
character's objectives, motivations, and actions for each scene, and these
should guide you through your different rehearsals whether you are act¬
ing, singing, or dancing. Also, when you are rehearsing at home, you can
practice them in the proper sequence to get used to the continuity of the
scene. Eventually, at least by the time of run-throughs, you will be per¬
mitted at rehearsal to put the three elements together as called for in the
script. At this point you can begin to concentrate on staying in character
throughout the show.
Remember that rehearsal is the place to experiment, to take chances,
to make mistakes, to try new and different interpretations. Do not be afraid
to fail! Not everything you try will work wonderfully, but your director,
choreographer, and musical director should be watching to correct you
if you err, to help you achieve a great performance, and, above all, to
encourage you.
Your stage director represents the audience. Most of the time he or
she sits in the theatre and tries to improve every element of the show
so that the audience will understand, believe, and appreciate it all. You
must listen carefully to your director because this person is looking at the
whole production—not just your role—and is trying to be sure that your
character fits into the total concept.
The following are the types of rehearsals you will have with the
stage director. (In chapter eight you will find more suggestions for proper
behavior at rehearsals and performances.)
Reading
The rehearsal process traditionally begins with one or more reading re¬
hearsals in which the stage director, producer, musical director, chore¬
ographer, stage manager, cast, and others assemble to read the dialogue,
listen to the music, and discuss the musical. If it is a new show, the book-
writer, composer, and lyricist may also be present. (See figure 7-1.) Sub¬
jects for discussion may be the director’s concept; the style; the theme
and thoughts; the structure and meaning of the plot; the objectives, mo¬
tivations, and actions of characters; character relationships; the text and
subtext of scenes; and plans for the songs, dances, scenery, costumes, light¬
ing, and sound.
Theatre Games and Improvisations

Some directors like to take time for theatre games to get the cast ac¬
quainted and to build trust among the performers. Sometimes improvisa¬
tions may be done, such as the following:
• Improvisations of what characters were doing immediately before each

scene. This may help actors to begin each scene with a clear objective in
mind and the right attitude, thoughts, and feelings. It may also promote
an appropriate response to the stage environment. For this, consider how
differently a character will react if he or she is very familiar with a place
or is entering it for the first time.
• Improvisations of events that are spoken of but are not shown onstage.
For example, in the scene from My Fair Lady in chapter ten, it is men¬
tioned that Higgins gave Eliza a ring in Brighton. That day might be the
subject of an improvisation that would give the actors a better idea of
their relationship.
Figure 7-1. Robert Goulet, Julie Andrews, Richard Burton, and other performers at a
reading rehearsal of Camelot.
Blocking
After discussing plans for the scenery and properties, the stage director
and performers block the show; that is, they decide on the major move¬
ments in the dialogue scenes and the songs, unless the latter are to be
staged by the choreographer. Some directors are more dictatorial about
blocking than others; some dictate every movement while others allow
the performers to move as they feel like it.
Many actors will at this point start to wear shoes to rehearsals that
are similar to those they will wear in the show, because they believe that
shoes are a good key to the character.
Developing
During developing rehearsals the director and performers work on char¬
acterization, line interpretations, learning lines, voice, dialect or accent, ar¬
ticulation, projection, stage business, and adjustment of the blocking. After
songs and dances have been choreographed and rehearsed, they will be
integrated with the dialogue.
Some rehearsal techniques that may be used are:
• Speaking out loud what Stanislavski called the "inner monologue,’’ which
is what your character is thinking and feeling. Your director may ask you
to say your character’s thoughts softly and then the line from the script
as you normally say it. Then, you keep alternating thoughts and lines
throughout the scene. This is a good way for the director to determine
if you do understand what the character is thinking and feeling.
• Reversing roles with your partner(s) to see if this brings you a deeper
understanding of the characters and the situation by letting you see the
problems from the point of view of the other(s).
• Playing opposite values. In other words, if your character is supposed to
hate someone, act as though you love that person. If your character is
angry, play the scene calmly. Because we vacillate in life in our feelings
toward others, this exercise can help you to explore the different facets
of your character’s emotions and keep you from playing on just one
level throughout a scene. What you do in this exercise may not be what
you decide to use for performances, but it may open up some choices
for you.
If you must wear a long skirt, hat, sword, cane, glasses, or other items
that may present problems in handling, it is customary to begin, as soon
as you have the script out of your hands, to use substitute garments and
props until the ones designed for performances are available. If you wear
glasses but your character does not, rehearse without them as soon as you
learn your lines.
Polishing
In polishing run-throughs, the director works on the tempo of scenes, the
pace of the show as a whole, concentration, ensemble playing, and the
“illusion of the first time." In a run-through, the show is not stopped unless
absolutely necessary; rather, the director, musical director, choreographer,
and stage manager take notes to give to the performers at the end of a
scene, an act, or the entire rehearsal.
Technical
Near the end of the rehearsal period, the scenery, props, lights, sound,
and curtains are added to the show. The emphasis in "tech" rehearsals
is on perfecting technical work and cues. Two other important events
may occur around this time: the dress parade, where performers put on
their finished costumes for the costume designer, director, and others to
approve, and the performers’ first rehearsal with the orchestra.
Dress
At dress rehearsals, costumes, makeup, and hairstyles are worn, and the
show is performed with full orchestral accompaniment and all technical
elements. Notes are given at the end of the rehearsal.
CREATING A CHARACTER
While doing your analysis of the musical and your role in it, you must
begin to plan your characterization. There are three principal ways to
prepare a characterization: you can approach the role "internally" or
"externally" or you can use a combination of the two.
Performers who prepare internally are sometimes known as emo¬
tional, intuitive, or representational actors. Working from the inside to
the out, emotional actors concentrate primarily on the character's inner
thoughts and feelings. One of the first to popularize this method was
Constantin Stanislavski, who founded the Moscow Art Theatre in 1898.
Through his books his system has spread throughout the world. In the
United States, different versions of the Stanislavski System are used, all
of which are usually referred to as "the Method.”
Stanislavski advocated a thorough analysis of the play and the char¬
acter to discover an inner as well as an outer truth. The goal is to reach
a state of creativity for acting truthfully. To achieve this, actors must de¬
velop their voices and bodies to be responsive to the demands of perform¬
ing, and they must be concerned with both inner preparation and valid
external physical actions.
While the Stanislavski System was developed for playing realistic and
naturalistic plays, it has been used successfully for other styles, including
presentational musicals. Stanislavski directed operas and was well aware
of the problems that musical performers face. Musical artists must not
only act with truth, they must also sing and dance truthfully. To this end,
the Stanislavski System can be very helpful to you.
Some performers, however, prefer to prepare externally. These peo¬
ple are sometimes called technical, presentational, or mechanical actors.
Working from the outside to the inside, technical actors pay more atten¬
tion to the outer manifestations of emotions and thoughts than to the
inner experience of them. They carefully analyze the part and decide on
the appropriate posture, movements, business, facial expressions, manner
of speaking, costumes, makeup, and hairstyles. Although they may not
consciously try to think the thoughts or feel the emotions, the planned ex¬
ternal actions may stimulate their inner feelings. The great English actor
Laurence Olivier once said that after he decided how to hold his mouth
for a particular part the rest of the characterization fell into place. Peter
Sellers commented that once he found the right voice for a character he
was working on, he then had the characterization he wanted.
Many actors, however, use the best ideas from both approaches, and
this is what I suggest that you do. Because inner emotional experiences
and their external expressions are invariably linked together, actors can
work from the inside to the outside or from the outside to the inside.
From your analysis of the musical and your role, you should have ideas
about the external and the internal characteristics of your part that will
provide the base from which you can work during the rehearsal period. As
you gather material through your research, observations, personalization,
imagination, and physicalizations, your first concept of the character will
probably change. It may change more after you explore further your
character's objectives, motivations, actions, obstacles, attitudes, emotions,
thoughts, and physical and vocal characterization. Also, working with your
director and fellow performers should provide additional insights.
Further Research
If you are in Camelot, your research may involve reading the source for
this musical, which is T. H. White’s novel, The Once and Future King;
if you are in My Fair Lady, you should read George Bernard Shaw’s play,
Pygmalion, on which this musical was based. The authors of these sources
may give you ideas and background material about the characters that
would never occur to you if you only studied the musicals.
Other information you may want to know is who wrote the musical,
when it was written, who starred in the first Broadway production, and
how it was received by the critics.
For someone playing Eliza in My Fair Lady, research may involve
discovering what a cockney dialect is or what life in London in 1912
was like. You may want to research costumes, shoes, hairstyles, manners,
bows, curtsies, and many other things to make you more familiar and
comfortable with the time period or place in which your musical is set.
Some reference books on manners and customs are given in Suggested
Reading.
If available, you may want to listen to a recording of the musical by
a Broadway cast or watch a videotape, film, or live performance. Some
directors may not want you to see or listen to another production for fear
it will stifle your creativity, but many directors will encourage you to do
so with the hope that it will give you ideas for playing the part.
Observation
Do you know someone who is similar to your character in age, personality,
occupation, or in some other significant way? If so, you may want to study
this person, without his or her knowing it, to get ideas you can use. Perhaps
you can discover something for stage business, such as how she handles a
handkerchief or how he keeps adjusting his glasses, or ideas for costumes,
makeup, hairstyling, posture, movements, dialect, accent, or manner of
speaking.
If you do not know someone to observe, consider going to a place
where a similar person might be. Actors playing detectives often go to
the local police force for help; those playing nurses may go to a hospital.
Sometimes you can even get ideas from watching animals—perhaps one
character might move like a cat and another like a monkey. Astute ob¬
servations can help you achieve a realism in your portrayal that may be
otherwise lacking.
Personalization
Stanislavski taught that you should “go from yourself” in creating a role.
You should use your own memories—both sensory and emotional—in
preparing to act any part. Think about the experiences that you have had
in life that are close to your character’s. Have you ever been as much
in love as Nellie and Emile are in South Pacific? Have you ever hated a
parent as Mordred hates Arthur in Camelot? Have you ever mourned the
death of a loved one as Maria does in West Side Story? If you have had a
comparable experience to one depicted for your character, make use of
it as you are preparing your role, it will help you achieve in your acting a
realistic, believable sincerity.
Imagination
Sometimes in preparing a part you cannot find the right person to observe,
there is no experience in your past life to assist you, and your research is of
no help. What should you do then? Stanislavski said to use the “magic if.”
Ask yourself what would you do IF you were this person in this situation.
In other words, use your imagination. Think about your character, taking
into consideration everything you know about the role, and then imagine
how this person would react when faced with this event. Try the “magic
if."
Physicalization
After you have a good idea of what your character should be like, your
next problem is to determine how you can make your audiences under¬
stand this person. This is done through physicalization (i.e., physical ex¬
pression) of psychological traits (e.g., shyness, boldness, vanity, insecurity)
and physical elements (e.g., a crippled leg, a stiff neck, a good body align¬
ment, a lisp). These traits affect the way you talk, walk, and stand, your
stage business, your facial expressions, your rhythm, and your manner to¬
ward other people. How are you going to communicate to an audience
the brashness of Mama Rose in Gypsy? Or the timidity of Motel when he
is in the presence of Tevye in Fiddler on the Roof? You do this through
the expressions of your voice and body. Get inside the character’s skin,
feel and think like this person, and your voice and body should make the
audience understand your role.
Vocal Characterization
In analyzing your character, you should have thought about how this
person speaks. Is the pitch range different from yours? The rate of talking?
The overall loudness level? The quality of the sound? The articulation? Is
your character’s dialect or accent different from yours? If so, study and
practice until you have your vocal characterization the way you want it.
As mentioned in chapter five, if you must learn a dialect or accent, try
to find someone who speaks this way to help you, go to a dialect coach,
or read about it in a dialect/accent book and listen to the accompanying
tapes. (See Suggested Reading for some titles.) After you become profi¬
cient in your vocal characterization, you must next determine if you can
be understood. Your director should help you with this because it is his
or her job to make sure that the meaning of the lines will be clear to the
audience.
If the director cannot hear or understand you, the trouble may be
that your dialect or accent is too strong, your articulation is not distinct
enough, or you are not projecting. If you find that your voice is becoming
tired or strained at rehearsals, you may be tensing the throat and neck
muscles too much. Review the exercises in chapter five.
Learning Your Role

After the dialogue scenes have been blocked by the stage director, you
should start to learn your lines. Some actors arrive at the first rehearsal
with their dialogue and songs memorized, but most wait until the move¬
ments of the acting scenes have been planned so that they can learn lines
and movements together.
As for songs, most stage directors prefer that they be rehearsed by the
musical director and committed to memory before blocking. For dances,
the choreographer will urge you to practice the routines and master them
as soon as possible.
Some actors can learn their parts easily during the repetitions at
rehearsals, but those who have large roles will have to spend hours outside
of rehearsals learning lines, movements, songs, and dances accurately.
Paraphrasing is not permitted in the professional theatre—you must say
the lines exactly as written—and directors of amateur productions should
also not permit any deviations.
As soon as possible you must try to act without your script and music
because you cannot begin to concentrate fully on acting the role until you
do.
Stage Business
This is the term for the small, detailed activities (not major movements)
that you do to communicate your characterization or your character’s
emotional state, like smoking a pipe, having a drink, swinging a cane, or
using a fan. The script or your director may stipulate certain motions, but
often the actor is expected to create his or her own business.
Today we hear much about “body language” and how our movements
can subtly communicate ideas to our viewers. When we are acting on¬
stage, we must be sure that our gestures, facial expressions, and other
movements are communicating the right ideas about our characters to
the audience.
Interacting with Fellow Performers

When you have the script out of your hands, you can begin to listen to
other actors, think about what you have heard, and respond. Is there true
communication among you, or are you just waiting to hear your cue and
then reciting your lines? Are you playing off your partners, or are you
anticipating what is supposed to happen and responding before the other
actors provide the stimulus for your reaction?
Please, get into character and keep your concentration on what your
character should be thinking and feeling at that moment. Don't let your
mind wander! Some of the best ideas you will get about line interpreta¬
tions, stage business, or characterization will probably come in rehearsal
when you are deeply absorbed in being the character and responding to
the others.
Acting has been likened to a game of catch. Your partner throws a
line to you; you think about it, react, and throw a line back. You give to
your fellow actor energy and sincerity; if you have a good partner, you
receive the same, and this interaction can suggest new insights into these
characters, new objectives, motivations, actions, tempos, and rhythms.
Tempo, or the rate of speed that you play a dialogue scene, is the
responsibility of all of those in it. The stage director may call for an overall
fast, medium, or slow rate, but there will, or course, be many variations
within any scene.
Ensemble playing, or group creativity, should be the goal of all per¬
formers in a production. To achieve this, actors must depend on and trust
each other to do the right thing. All must work together harmoniously to
present the best performance of which they are capable.
Speaking over Underscoring

There are many places in musicals where actors must speak over musical
underscoring. These involve careful timing of the words, business, and
movements so that they are done at exactly the right moment to fit with
the music. If you are not using a microphone, it may also require more
vocal projection in order to be heard over the accompaniment.
These parts of the show must be carefully blocked and rehearsed with
the conductor and the music. If the timing is exceptionally difficult, you
may want to record the accompaniment so that you can work at home
on coordinating your lines and movements with the music.
These sections are often transitions from the dialogue to a song or
dance, and you therefore have the added task of making these changes
seem logical. In many cases the emotions will build during the transition
to the point where the character must break into song or dance. This is
what happens in the scene from Act I, Scene 5 of Cabaret (which you will
find in chapter ten). Sally has lines to say through the first page of the
song “Perfectly Marvelous” that must build and be carefully timed so that
she is ready to sing as soon as she has finished speaking. If she talks too
quickly, she will have an awkward pause until the singing cue comes. If
she speaks too slowly, the accompanists will have to wait for her.
When actors do sing, they must do so in character with the same
dialect or accent that is used in speaking. You cannot sound like one
person while speaking and another while singing.
Emotional Scenes
To act an emotional scene (crying, laughing, hating, loving, fearing, and the
like) try working from the inside to the outside. To play a scene in which
your character cries, for example, you may start with thinking about what
has happened to make this character feel so sad. This should lead to the
physical response of crying.
As mentioned previously, some actors achieve the inner emotion by re¬
membering their own similar experiences and using these as a springboard
to feeling the character’s emotions. In other words, you may remember
an occasion when you were unhappy and cried, and this memory may
help you to understand the character and the emotion. (See the emotional
memory exercises in chapter four.)
If you find it difficult to play an emotional scene by working from
the inside to the outside, take the technical approach and work from
the outside to the inside. Start by doing the movements associated with the
emotion. If your character is supposed to be angry, look and sound like
angry people you have observed: scowl, speak sharply, tense your muscles,
and walk belligerently. If your character is sad, breathe erratically, sniffle,
cry, and wipe away tears. You may find that if you do the physical motions,
the inner feeling may thereby be triggered.
Remember, however, if you have to sing during an emotional scene,
you cannot become so aroused emotionally that your breathing is affected
adversely. Singing in emotional situations requires that you prepare tech¬
nically, showing the outer manifestations of the emotion, as you have ob¬
served them in yourself or in others.
Playing Heroes and Villains

If you are cast as a leading sympathetic character, the audience must get
to like you, care about what happens to you, and worry about you if you
get into difficulties. As Eliza in My Fair Lady or King Arthur in Camelot,

you are playing this type of character, and it is your responsibility to create
the charisma, appeal, and attractiveness of the role.
On the other hand, some of the most interesting parts are villains. As
Mordred in Camelot or Eve in Applause, you are definitely an unsympa¬
thetic character. But even though the audience is supposed to hate the
character, you as the actor must get to know the character, understand
him or her, and figure out the reasons why the person does such evil
things. Remember that villains do not consider themselves bad; they can
always justify their actions. Villains like themselves, so you, the actor, must
like your character.
Acting in the Chorus

If you are playing a chorus role, you too must find your characterization.
Unfortunately for chorus members, writers rarely give as much informa¬
tion about chorus parts as they do for the larger roles. Therefore, you may
be on your own to decide on your characterization, objectives, actions, at¬
titudes, stage business, and other important points discussed above. If you
cannot determine these, ask your stage director to help you.
Stanislavski once said that "there are no small parts, there are only
small actors.” Remember that everyone onstage is important and that just
one person who is out of character can ruin a scene. If you have been
given the chance to play a chorus part, give it thought, time, and energy. It
deserves no less than your best effort. Another quotation from Stanislavski
says it all: “Today Hamlet, tomorrow an extra, but even as an extra you
must become an artist.”
Illusion of the First Time

At each rehearsal and performance you as an actor must strive to forget
that you are hearing and saying lines that have been written in a script by
an author—lines that you have rehearsed, perhaps, for weeks. You must
believe that this is the first time you have been in this situation because
it is the first time for your character. So listen to the others, think about
what they are saying as your character should, and respond as though you
just got this idea that causes you to say and do what the script stipulates.
And at every rehearsal and performance, you must go through the same
process: listen, think, and respond.
PREPARING SONGS
In preparing songs for a show, you will work with the musical direc¬
tor, composer (if available), conductor, choral and vocal directors, and
rehearsal pianists on the singing and with the stage director and chore¬
ographer on the movement and dancing in the numbers. To start this
process, begin with your own analysis.
Analysis
Before singing a note, you should analyze for each song the character and
the situation; you should understand what has happened in the plot and
why the authors have inserted a song at this particular place in the show.
What is the function of this number? (See the questions earlier in this
chapter under "Analyzing the Musical and Role.”)
What happens immediately before the song? Does the song grow out
of the mood of the preceding dialogue? Does the emotion grow within you
during the dialogue to the point where you must sing to express yourself?
For instance, in Act I, Scene 2 of Brigadoon (part of which is in chapter
ten), Tommy is becoming interested in Fiona, and this develops easily into
his singing "The Heather on the Hill.”
Analyze the structure of the song. Songs, like plots, are often con¬
structed to start slowly and then build to a big climax. There are many
examples of this, but one of the best is "Rose’s Turn” in Gypsy, which
builds not only to a song climax but also to the climax of the show.
There are, of course, other types of construction. Consider a short
reprise that Rose sings earlier in Gypsy after Herbie has left her. She sings
just a few lines of "Small World” as she is in a daze, thinking about her
situation. The song is like a soliloquy, in which a character shares thoughts
and feelings with the audience while alone onstage.
Is the song a funny one that should get laughs, such as “Matchmaker,
Matchmaker” from Fiddler on the Roof? (This may also be found in
chapter ten.) Does the song lead in to a dance number, like Margo’s
"But Alive” in Applause? Is the song broken off by important plot action?
In Camelot Guenevere sings almost eight lines of "I Loved You Once in
Silence” when she is stopped by Lancelot's embrace.
You should next analyze the lyrics. What do they mean? Do you
understand all of the words? Is there a subtext? What is your character’s
objective in singing this song? What motivates your character? What
action should your character take to reach the objective? What is your
character’s attitude toward the others onstage? What emotions should
your character be feeling as you sing this song? What is your character
thinking?
Learning Your Songs

The first rehearsals that you have with the musical director and rehearsal
pianist will probably involve learning the music accurately until you can
sing your songs easily. At this time you may want to record the piano
accompaniment so that you can study and rehearse them at home.
As you sing the lyrics, be certain that you are saying the words dis¬
tinctly enough to be understood by the audience. Some voice teachers
seemingly work on acquiring a good tone in singing vowels while dimin¬
ishing the importance of consonants, but if the listeners hear only vowel
sounds, they will not understand you and will quickly lose interest. It is
vital that you learn to articulate all sounds clearly. When Hodel sings the
words "Make me a match” in the song “Matchmaker, Matchmaker” (see
chapter ten), she must not omit consonants. If she sings "May e a ma,”
the audience will not understand her. She should put a k sound on the
end of make and an m at the beginning of me. For match, she should sing
the initial consonant and vowel (ma) for almost the full number of beats
indicated in the music, then quickly add the final consonants of tch. The
purpose of sustaining the vowel sound is to open the mouth as much as
possible to let the sound out.
For the same reason, you will want to exercise care in singing diph¬
thongs. As mentioned in chapter five, diphthongs are two vowel sounds
blended together, such as [ai] in the word my, [au] in vow, and [oi] in
toy. Because the first vowel of a diphthong is more open that the second
vowel, you will want to give the first vowel more importance and quickly
sing the second vowel. For example, the diphthong [ai] in my is composed
of an ah sound and an ee sound. In singing my, you will want to sing mah
for almost the full length of time indicated by the note and then quickly
add the ee sound.
Dialects and accents may present problems. When Maria sings in West
Side Story, she should use the slight Puerto Rican accent that she has while
speaking. Eliza and her father in My Fair Lady should both use a cockney
dialect when they speak and sing “Wouldn’t It Be Loverly? and "With a
Little Bit of Luck.” Any dialect or accent, however, cannot be so authentic
that the listeners cannot understand you. Your first consideration should
be that the audience comprehends the words and the meaning of the song.
Personalization, Observation, Imagination

Next, work on interpreting the lyrics. Try personalizing; that is, relate the
lyrics to your own life. Have you had any experiences that are similar to
those expressed in the song? If so, how did you feel at that time? Look at a
part of “I Have a Love,” a song that Maria sings to her friend Anita about
her love for Tony in West Side Story. The lyrics are:
I have a love, and it’s all that I have.

Right or wrong, what else can I do?
I love him; I’m his,
And everything he is
I am, too.
I have a love, and it's all that I need,
Right or wrong, and he needs me too.
Have you ever felt this way? Can you recreate how you felt? If you have
not had any experiences in your life to help you, you will have to rely
on your observations or your imagination. Try Stanislavski’s “magic if”;
ask yourself, "What would I do if I were this person in this particular
situation?”
Physicalization
Try saying the lyrics as a long speech or soliloquy. You know who the
character is, the situation, the mood, the character s attitude toward others
present, and the ideas and emotions of the words. As you recite the lyrics,
physicalize your character’s traits, thoughts, mood, and feelings; that is,
express them in physical motions. Let your body respond to the meanings
of the words and the imagery. But here is a warning: don’t act out every
sentence literally, and don't get into the habit of pointing to yourself on
the word I. It is probably a good idea to avoid pointing on all pronouns: I,
she, he, we, you, and the rest.
Remember that you must get your entire body involved in singing a
song. You don’t sing only from the neck up—you sing with the whole body.
From the feet to the head, every part of your body should be working.
Forget about such things as "I don't know what to do with my hands”
or "I don’t know how to stand.” Give yourself a good base from which to
work; start with your feet twelve to eighteen inches apart and your weight
equally divided. Then, concentrate on the thoughts and emotions of your
song. The words should inspire images in your mind's eye and your body
should move spontaneously in reaction to the words and music.
Phrasing
Melodies are divided into musical phrases, and these must be con¬
sidered in planning where to breathe. Phrasing may be according to the
demands of the music or the lyrics, but when you pause—for effect or to
breathe—you have ended a phrase (a thought-unit). Normally, you do not
want to pause in the middle of a word or phrase to inhale, because if you
do the meaning will not be clear. Proper phrasing helps to get the sense
of the song over to the audience. Obviously, though, you cannot sing in¬
definitely without pausing (you do have to take air into your body), so the
object is to breathe where you will not harm the meaning or the melody.
As mentioned earlier in chapter five, some marks of punctuation are
helpful in determining phrases: you will often pause at a period, question
mark, exclamation point, semicolon, colon, and a dash. A comma may or
may not indicate the end of a phrase. Probably you will want to pause
about every two to four bars, but the exact placement of pauses must be
decided on the basis of the musical structure and the sense of the words.
In phrasing the above excerpt from "I Have a Love,” you might decide
that you want to breathe at the period in the first line, but some singers
do not breathe until the comma in the second line. Then they repeat this
phrasing in the last two lines of the excerpt, so that the phrasing is as
follows (the asterisk indicates the end of a phrase):
I have a love, and it’s all that I have.

Right or wrong,* what else can I do?*
I love him;* I’m his,*
And everything he is*
I am, too.*
I have a love, and it's all that I need,
Right or wrong,* and he needs me too.*
You may not agree with this phrasing, and that's all right. You should try
various possibilities to see what is the most effective phrasing for you.
A lot depends on your breath control. If you cannot sing many words
on one breath, you will have to find more logical places to pause for
breathing, because you must not let the sound die out before the end
of a thought-group and you must never gasp for air.
Singers sometimes take tape recorders to rehearsals to record their
singing. Then they listen objectively for faults, including poor phrasing.
Another way to learn phrasing is to listen to the experts. If the song or
the entire musical is on record, film, or videotape, you may get ideas for
phrasing and interpretation by hearing it.
For help and guidance in determining phrasing, tempos, interpretation,
articulation, and singing the notes as they are written, consult your singing
teacher, musical director, vocal director, or rehearsal pianist.
"Talking" a Song
As Henry Higgins in the original 1956 production of Lerner and Loewe’s
My Fair Lady, Rex Harrison spoke many of the lyrics in such songs as
“Why Can't the English.” Other actors who are not trained singers have
also used this style that involves partially speaking and partially singing
a song. While talking to music, the performer adheres to the rhythm and
varies the pitches to suggest the melody of the music but actually sings
only a few lines or words.
In 1960, while writing Camelot, Lerner and Loewe again called for
this type of rendition for parts of Arthur's solos. This role was written
for Richard Burton, another fine actor who was not noted for his singing
ability but for his outstanding speaking voice and articulation. Look at the
musical notes for the first four words of the song “Camelot” in chapter
ten. These x-shaped note heads indicate that the words should be spoken
with approximate pitches.
Those of you who are not trained singers should keep this in mind
because you may wish to select a song for auditions that will permit
you to speak many of the lines and thus avoid having to sing difficult
passages. If you do, remember that your speaking voice, articulation, and
stage presence must be excellent.
"Belting" a Song
Many singers feel that they have two registers: a “head” voice or higher
register and a “chest” voice or lower register. When you use your chest
voice in a forceful style, this is called belting. Ethel Merman was well
known as a belter, and songs written for her like "Everything’s Coming
Up Roses” in Gypsy demand this power and punch. Nell Carter belted in
Ain't Misbehavin; and when Jennifer Holliday sang “And I Am Telling You
I’m Not Going” in Dreamgirls, she was acclaimed for her ability to belt a
song.
If you want to develop this style, you should work with a vocal teacher
or coach who will see that you do not injure your voice by straining and
tensing the throat muscles. You must be careful because belting, which
can cause you to raise your chest tones to a high pitch, can damage your
voice.
Movement, "Air," and "Rideout"

After you have memorized the song, the stage director or the choreog¬
rapher should stage the number. This may involve anything from your
staying in one place for the whole song with very little movement to your
doing a great deal of dancing over the entire stage. Let's examine two num¬
bers in Funny Girl, both sung by Fanny. In the solo “The Music That Makes
Me Dance,” the script calls for Fanny to be alone in a spotlight and does
not suggest any movement, although the actress will undoubtedly make
use of her body, arms, and face to express emotions. In "Rat-Tat-Tat-Tat,”
Fanny and the chorus sing and dance in an elaborate full-stage production
number.
What should you do during a rest, which is sometimes termed air?
Air is the time when the accompanists are playing but the singer is silent.
Look again at the song “Camelot" in chapter ten, and notice the rests
indicated for the singer. After the line "July and August cannot be too
hot,” there are six beats of air before Arthur sings again; and after “In
Camelot," there are twelve beats. The stage director or choreographer
should help the performer decide what he is thinking, feeling, and doing
during the singing and pauses. Perhaps after "hot," Guenevere starts to
walk away and Arthur uses the pause to move in front of her to stop her.
Perhaps after “In Camelot,” he can escort her across the stage to point out
a beautiful view. These actions must, of course, be logical and appropriate
for the lyrics and the scene.
Another decision to be made by the person staging the scene is how to
handle the rideout. The rideout is the ending of the song; it includes the last
syllable sung by the performer(s) and the following music. Note the ending
of "Camelot.” The rideout includes measures 129-132. If Arthur has been
singing to Guenevere in measures 119-124 and has, perhaps, his left hand
on her right arm, at measure 125 he might turn forward, extend his right
hand forward and sweep it to the right slowly on measures 125-128. Then,
suddenly and forcefully at measure 129, he might raise his right hand to
above his head on the syllable lot and leave it there until the music is
finished.
Whatever movement is involved, you will probably want to sing to the
audience as much as possible. When you turn away from your listeners,
you run the risk of not being heard, unless you wear a microphone. You
also may lose their attention because they like to watch faces, especially
your eyes. If you are singing a duet, you will probably be directed to sing
in a full front or one-quarter position. Profile positions should not be used
for very long because audiences cannot see enough of your face.
As you move or dance during the song, the movement will often
become greater near the end as you are going toward the climax. Consider
Gypsy’s "All I Need Is the Girl.” Sung by Tulsa and danced by him and
Louise, this number builds to a big finish. Now note the following section
about conserving your energy so that you have enough for the close.
Energy and Communication

To sell a song to an audience, you must be dynamic and energetic and
have a great desire to communicate with your listeners. It takes stamina
to work in a musical. For that reason, performers must stay healthy. This
cannot be stressed too much. You cannot do your best if you are ill or tired,
so it is imperative that you take care of yourself by eating and drinking
sensibly, getting enough sleep, and exercising regularly.
In addition, you must also learn how to conserve your strength during
a show. Since many songs begin slowly and then build to an exciting climax
at the end that takes a lot of energy, it is wise not to expend too much
too soon. Remember that the big finish is coming, and you have got to
pace yourself so that you will have the endurance and the power to get
through the ending.
In singing a solo, play to the people; give them everything you have and
be aware of their response. The feedback from the audience can inspire
you to new heights, or it can force you to make certain changes to try to
recapture their attention. If you should lose the interest of your audience,
some directors will advise you to work harder, while others may take
the opposite view and say do less, hoping that the change will attract the
viewers.
Changing from Piano to

Orchestral Accompaniment
Usually near the end of the rehearsal period, performers are called to
work with the orchestra, and this will probably be your first opportunity
to hear the complete score and the orchestration. Normally this rehearsal
involves watching the orchestra rehearse, singing the songs, listening to
the dance music or perhaps doing the dances (if there is enough space),
and speaking the dialogue that has musical underscoring. Because this
rehearsal is primarily to coordinate the orchestra with the performers,
scenes of dialogue may not be rehearsed.
Making the transition from piano to orchestral accompaniment can
be exciting and stimulating if the performers have been well prepared for
this change by the musical director and rehearsal pianist. If not, it can be
a long, difficult, and frustrating experience. A particular stumbling block
for singers may be finding their starting pitches when the cue is provided
by the orchestra instead of a piano.
Using a Microphone
Working in a large theatre or one with poor acoustics may require the use
of microphones. In many productions today, performers wear wireless
body mikes. In a few musicals, such as Grease and I'm Getting My Act
Together and Taking It on the Road, performers may sing into hand-held
microphones. Floor, overhead, and standing mikes may also be used.
If you are to wear a wireless body mike, the sound designer should
show you how to conceal the transmitter in your costume or tape it to your
body in a place that will not show. The microphone is generally clipped
to your clothing close to the throat. The microphone may be hidden from
the view of the audience, but it should not be covered.
If, while you sing, you are to hold a microphone, either wired or
wireless, the sound designer should tell you how close to your mouth
you should place the mike and whether you need to vary this distance
according to the loudness and softness of your voice. Be sure to hold
the mike low enough so that the audience can see your facial expressions,
and handle the mike properly so that it will not distract from your singing.
Don’t swing it around, strike it against something, or drop it!
If you are to walk while singing, maneuvering the cord efficiently will
also take some practice. You will probably want to have the mike in one
hand while you hold the wire loosely in the other hand so that you can
move it as needed. You must, of course, be aware of where the cord is so
that you don’t trip on it.
The sound designer should also give any needed instructions for the
use of floor, overhead, and standing mikes. He or she will undoubtedly
point out that microphones are delicate instruments that must be handled
carefully, that dust, sweat, and saliva must be kept away from them, and
that no one should ever blow into a microphone to test it.
Watching the Conductor

The conductor and the orchestra are an important part of any musical
number, and you must coordinate your efforts with theirs. While singing
onstage, performers need good peripheral vision. You must watch your
conductor much of the time, but you cannot let the audience know you
are doing this. You have to be aware of the tempo set by the conductor
and other signals this person may give you, yet appear to be completely in
character, absorbed in singing your song and projecting it to the audience.
PREPARING DANCES
When you dance in a musical, you will work closely with the choreogra¬
pher and his or her assistants. The choreographer will create the dances,
deciding for each number the dance steps, combinations, and arrange¬
ments of performers to suit the music, the space involved, the purpose of
the dance, and the people who must be in it.
Most of the time in the professional theatre, the choreographer will
work with accomplished dancers who can learn a routine quickly. From
an early age professional dancers are trained in ballet, modern, jazz, tap,
and other types. Most dancers continue studying while they are dancing
professionally. The result is that today's professional dancers are amaz¬
ing and versatile athletes. In shows like A Chorus Line and Dancin' the
physically strenuous dances surprise and astound audiences.
In the amateur theatre, however, the choreographer will often have to
work with untrained people. The choreographer’s job then is to get them
to move as well as possible. Often, in this case, the choreographer will build
dances around movements that most people can do, such as walking, run¬
ning, turning, skipping, kicking, social dancing, cheerleading or majorette
steps, aerobic exercising, and the like. Movements to accompany songs
may involve such motions as swaying, walking, turning, kicking, kneeling,
arm and hand gestures, and easy dance steps. While these movements
may be simple enough for those without dance training to do, those with
dance training will do them better; if you aspire to work professionally in
musicals, dance training is a must.
Normally, dances are taught by the choreographer or an assistant
who demonstrates the steps. Then, while the choreographer corrects and
helps, makes changes, and adjusts the groupings, the dancers repeat the
steps until the desired effect is reached. However, even though your
dancing is carefully controlled by the choreographer, you should do some
individual work in analyzing the character, situation, and the dances you
are in.
Analysis
When you dance in a musical, you are a specific character who is dancing
for a particular purpose. This is different from being in a dance recital or
concert where in some numbers you may not assume a characterization.
To analyze a musical part, ask yourself the questions at the beginning of
this chapter under ‘Analyzing the Musical and Role. Be sure you know
the following:
• What is your role in the musical? What sort of a character are you?
• What has happened in the plot immediately before each dance you are
in?
• What is the meaning and function of each dance? Does it tell a story?
Or is it nonnarrative? Does it carry the plot forward? Is it a substitute
for realistic action? Is it supposed to be funny? Does it establish the
mood of a scene? Does it show the personality of a character or a
change in character? Does it indicate the passing of time or a change in
locale? Does it enhance a song? Does it give a visual interpretation of
the accompanying music?
• What is your character's objective during each dance? Motivation? Ac¬
tion? Is there an obstacle to achieving this objective?
• What emotions is your character feeling? What is your character think¬
ing?
• What kind of dance is involved? Jazz, ballet, tap, modern, folk, or some
other type?
• Do you dance solo or with others? If the latter, what is your character’s
relationship to the others and attitude toward them?
• What will the set and costumes be like? The lighting? Props? How much
space will you have for the dance? What kind of shoes will you wear, or
will you be barefoot? Hairstyle? Makeup?
Now let’s take a dancing part and analyze the first dance this character
does. Imagine that you are playing in West Side Story the role of Riff, who
is described as the intelligent, driving, but slightly whacky leader of the

Jets. His friends are Tony, the Jets, and their girls; his enemies are the
Sharks, their girls, Lieutenant Schrank, and Officer Krupke. Riff’s first
dance is in the prologue, which is a condensation of the growing rivalry
between two teenage gangs, the Sharks, who are Puerto Ricans, and the
Jets, who are of other American backgrounds.
The prologue begins with the Jets in control of an area (a street, an
alleyway, and a brick wall) on the West Side of New York City. At first, only
Bernardo, the Sharks' leader, enters, but the Jets get rid of him. Bernardo
returns with other Sharks, but they too are driven off. Then, mild warfare
between the two gangs erupts leading to an all-out free-for-all that is
stopped by Krupke and Schrank.
The function of this dance is to give exposition, showing how the
enmity between the Jets and the Sharks developed over a period of time.
This dance tells a story, advancing the plot; it is a substitute for realistic
action; it establishes the mood of the musical; and it shows the personalities
of many of the boys in the two gangs.
Riff’s objective in the prologue is to beat the Sharks and protect his
friends, the Jets. His motivation is that he wants the Jets to control this
area. His actions are to fight and outwit his enemies. The obstacles to
be overcome are the Sharks, who also want this territory. Riff's attitude
toward the Sharks is hatred, which dominates his thinking and feeling.
The kind of dance involved is basically jazz, but it is a dance strongly
rooted in realistic movements because this dance substitutes for realistic
action. This dance, which involves all of the Jets and the Sharks (about
twenty male dancers), shows the enmity between the two gangs.
The street set, with a workable brick wall, should allow as much space
as possible for the twenty to dance. The only prop indicated in the script
is a flour sack, but choreographers may introduce other props, perhaps
weapons such as a chain, a stick, or a piece of pipe. The clothes should
be what typical teenage gangs of New York City might wear including
sneakers and jackets that give the name of their gang (Jets or Sharks).
The script indicates that the boys should have sideburns and long hair.
Observation, Personalization,
Imagination, Physicalization
Dancers have as much need as actors and singers to observe, personalize,
imagine, and physicalize. Please see the preceding sections in this chapter
on these skills.
To continue with the example of Riff, suppose you were cast in
this role and you had nothing in your background to help you work
out the characterization needed for Riff. You might get some usable
ideas by observing members of an urban teenage group from a poor
section of a city. Or, if you do have experiences with gangs to draw upon,
use personalization: try to remember your own sensory and emotional
experiences that are similar to Riff’s, think about how you acted and felt
in those circumstances, and incorporate these feelings into your dancing.
With either observation or personalization, you will want to use also your
imagination to flesh out the characterization.
For dancers, physicalization involves getting across to an audience

the thoughts, feelings, and the physical and psychological traits of the
character through dance movements. If you were playing Riff, how would
you move to tell the audience that Riff is a bright, street-smart, aggressive
leader who hates the Sharks?
Dance Rehearsals and Performances

If your only function in a musical is to dance, you will work primarily
with the choreographer, his or her assistants, the rehearsal pianist, and
dance arranger until the dances have been learned and polished. Then the
dances will be integrated into the show, and you will rehearse with the
stage director, musical director, and other performers present.
Normally you will be accompanied by the rehearsal pianist or a
recording of the accompaniment until late in the rehearsal period, when
you will rehearse with the orchestra for the first time. As with singers, the
change from piano to orchestral accompaniment can be stimulating or
frustrating, depending upon how well your choreographer and rehearsal
pianist have prepared you for this change. There should be no difficulties
so long as the choreographer and conductor agree on tempos, but these
are often matters of dispute.
During the final week of rehearsals, you will wear your costumes,
makeup, wigs, and hairstyles for the first time, and this too can be an
exciting experience. Now you will find out where your difficult costume
changes are and how to make them quickly.
Like everyone else in the musical, you face the problem of keeping
your performance fresh. Although you may have done your routines
hundreds of times, remember that this is the first time these spectators
have seen you dance in this musical and you have an obligation to give
them a good show.
Dancer-Singer-Actor
For some musical roles, such as Riff in West Side Story, you must be not
only an expert dancer but also a singer and actor. If you are cast in a
role in which you do all three, you will rehearse your dances with the
choreographer, your songs with the musical and vocal directors, and your
dialogue with the stage director.
Some stars who started as dancers who have success! ully learned
to do it all are Gwen Verdon, Chita Rivera, Ann Reinking, Ben Vereen,
and Tommy Tune, to mention only a few. If you are a trained dancer
who aspires to do more in musicals than just dance, you too must study
singing and acting. At both the amateur and professional levels, you are
more likely to be cast if you can do all three well.
EXERCISES
1 As mentioned in this chapter under “Rehearsing,” you should know
what your character has been doing before an entrance so that you
can begin with the right attitude, thoughts, emotions, and response to
the stage environment. As an exercise, look at the scene from Company

in chapter ten and improvise what Sarah, Robert, or Harry was doing
for five minutes before this excerpt begins.
2. You must respond to the stage environment as your character would.
While you rehearse without scenery, furniture, stage lighting, or sound
effects, you must be able to imagine these and react to them appropri¬
ately. As an exercise, look at the scene from Funny Girl in chapter ten,
and improvise what Nick did when he entered this private dining room
for the first time. The excerpt shows Fanny's entrance and her reac¬
tion. Disregarding the actual lines of the scene, improvise her response
to the room.
3. Improvising events that are spoken about but are not shown onstage is a
good way for actors to understand what happened during that incident.
In the scene from Grease in chapter ten, Patty refers to Danny’s being
at her house one night. If you are playing Patty or Danny, you should
know what took place; as an exercise, improvise what Patty and Danny
did that evening.
4. Select one of the scenes in chapter ten that has a role you would like
to play. Find a partner or partners to act the scene with you, and
then follow the suggestions given in this chapter for preparing a part.
In doing scenes, performers are usually their own director, musical
director, and choreographer. Normally, scenes are presented without
scenery, stage lighting, sound effects, or stage makeup, but some props
and suitable clothes, shoes, and hairstyle can help you feel like the
character. If your scene has a song, you will also need an accompanist
and a piano. For more information about how to do a scene, look at
the instructions that precede the scenes in chapter ten. Note especially
the tenth suggestion on experimenting in rehearsal: Try improvising the
events that occurred immediately before your scene and any incidents
that may be talked about but are not shown onstage; also, try speaking
the inner monologue, reversing roles, and playing opposite values.
5. Select a solo from a musical to perform before others. If suitable, you
may use a song from chapter ten.
a. Analyze the song. Find out what happened in the plot immediately
before the song. What is the meaning and function of the number?
What kind of person is your character? What is your character's
objective in singing? What motivates your character to sing? What
action should your character take to obtain the objective? What
is your character’s attitude toward everyone else onstage? What is
your character thinking and feeling during this song?
b. In rehearsal, recite the lyrics of the song as though it were a soliloquy
or speech from a play. Do you understand what all of the words
mean? Have you ever had similar sensory or emotional experiences?
c. Physicalize the traits, thoughts, and emotions of your character as
you recite the lyrics. Can you picture the images in your mind’s eye?
d. Rehearse with an accompanist as you work on articulation, phrasing,
interpretation, tempo, movements, energy, and communication.
e. While you will probably not have scenery, furniture, or stage lighting
for your performance, imagine what these should be like; and do

wear clothes, shoes, and a hairstyle that are similar to what your
character might wear.
6. If you are a dancer, work with an accompanist to plan a solo dance
for a musical, and present it before others. Choreograph it yourself, or
work with a choreographer. If an accompanist is not available, you may
use recorded show music.
a. Find out what sort of character does this dance, what has happened
in the plot immediately before this dance, and the meaning and
function of the number. Is the dance narrative or nonnarrative?
b. What is your character's objective, motivation, and action? What is
your character's attitude toward others in the scene? What is your
character thinking and feeling while dancing?
c. While you will probably not have any scenery or stage lighting when
you perform your dance, determine from analyzing the script how
much space is available for your dance and what the stage and
lighting should be like.
d. When you perform your dance, use a hairstyle, clothes, and shoes
that are similar to what your character should wear.
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8
BEHAVIOR AT
REHEARSALS AND
PERFORMANCES
BILL [a director]: Star, I have a few notes for you. (SHE droops) Absolute perfec¬
tion! . . . (SHE glows and goes to him) Except you lost your biggest laugh in
Act Two, dope, by moving on your own line, and—
—from Applause
Usually, at the beginning of the rehearsal period, singing, dancing, and act¬
ing rehearsals are held separately until the dialogue has been blocked and
learned, the songs have been staged, and the dances have been chore¬
ographed. Then the acting, singing, and dancing are put together. After
that, the technical elements and the orchestra are added, dress rehearsals
are held, and the show is on. (For a description of the different types of
rehearsals, see chapter seven.)
Normally, a Broadway musical will either have an out-of-town tryout
in cities like Boston and Philadelphia or preview performances in New
York. Because of the great expense of taking a show on the road, previews
are the usual choice today. Previews give the producers, writers, lyricists,
composers, directors, performers, and designers an opportunity to perfect
the show by presenting it before audiences for a week or more before the
announced opening. On opening night, though, the critics arrive, and then
their reviews are broadcast or published. If the reviews are favorable,
the show will usually run; if unfavorable, it will probably close almost
immediately, and then everyone must seek work elsewhere.
When you go to rehearsals and performances, you will be expected to
know how to behave, so this chapter has some common sense rules thal
performers should follow.
REHEARSALS
The following suggestions pertain to both amateur and professional per¬
formers. First of all, you should prepare for rehearsals. At home, you
133
should study and rehearse your lines, blocking, songs, and dances, pay¬
ing particular attention to the notes and directions that have been given to
you. Unless you know that there will be an extensive warm-up at rehearsal,
warm up physically and vocally at home. Then, always arrive early, and
spend the time until the rehearsal starts warming up or studying your role.
If you must be late for or be absent from a rehearsal, notify the one
you have been told to contact in this situation (probably the stage manager
or the person holding the rehearsal) as far in advance as possible. If you
wish to invite a friend to watch a rehearsal or if you want to leave a
rehearsal before it is finished, ask the stage manager for permission.
Listen carefully to your directors and stage managers. Always take
your script, music, and a pencil (with an eraser) to every rehearsal, in¬
cluding dress rehearsals, and record in your material or in a notebook all
blocking and directions given to you. You must write down these instruc¬
tions, your own ideas, and times of rehearsals and other appointments—do
not rely on your memory. If you are using rented material that must be
returned at the end of performances, write lightly so that you can erase all
of your marks before giving the books back. Some notes and announce¬
ments that pertain to you may be placed on the callboard, so remember
to check often the place where calls, messages, and the company rules are
posted.
Obey your director's, stage manager's, or the theatre’s rules with
regard to smoking, eating, and drinking. In general, do not smoke, eat,
or drink unless others are, and if you do, put your rubbish in a trash
can. Be careful where you put out your cigarette—never stamp it out on
a stage floor. Don't chew gum during rehearsals, unless your character
is supposed to chew it. (An exception to this may be made for singers
who want to use gum, a cough drop, lozenge, or mint to keep their throats
moist during long rehearsals.) Never take an intoxicating drink, marijuana,
tranquilizers, or other drugs before or while you are working. If you are
under a doctor’s orders to take medication, discuss with your doctor how
you can avoid having the medicine affect your work in the show, and
notify the stage manager of your medical problem.
Never be late for an entrance. When offstage, wait quietly for your
next appearance. If it is a short wait, stay in character and think about
your next scene—don’t distract yourself and others by talking. If it is a
long wait, put the time to good use by practicing your lines, songs, or
dances—if you can get far enough away from the rehearsal so that you
will not disturb those who are rehearsing. Before doing so, however, let
the stage manager know where you will be in case you are needed. If you
would like to go into the house to watch part of a run-through or dress
rehearsal, ask the stage manager first if this is permitted.
Never direct your fellow performers. If you have a problem with
another performer, ask the stage director or stage manager to solve it if it
involves acting, the choreographer if it is about dancing, and the musical
director if it concerns singing.
Dress appropriately for rehearsals: wear clothes and shoes that will
permit you to move as your character should. As noted in chapter seven, if
BEHAVIOR AT REHEARSALS AND PERFORMANCES 135
you have difficult costumes to wear or props to handle, you should devise
some substitutes until the ones to be used in performances are available.
For example, rehearsal pictures of Cats show the performers in rehearsal
clothing with "tails” attached so that they could get used to them before
the actual costumes arrived.
Think about your costumes and makeup before dress rehearsals. If
you are expected to supply any item of costuming, be sure that you
understand exactly what it is. In a Broadway production, all parts of
the costume, including shoes, hairpieces, beards, and wigs, are provided
and kept clean by the wardrobe staff. The producer must also supply all
unusual makeup. Performers, however, are expected to furnish and apply
their own ordinary, conventional makeup, so it is essential that all actors,
singers, and dancers study and practice the art of stage makeup. If you
are doubtful about what kind of makeup to do, ask your stage manager
or director. (Under Suggested Reading, you will find the titles of several
books on stage makeup.)
Think about your hairstyle(s) before dress rehearsals. On Broadway,
a performer may not be required to cut or change the style or color of
hair unless this is agreed to at the time of signing the contract. In these
cases, the producer must pay for the expense of this change, its upkeep
during the run of the show, and the return to the hair’s original color at the
close. If you do not know what kind of hairstyle is wanted, ask your stage
manager or director. If it is a difficult one, the producer should arrange
for an expert to style it for performances.
Don't bring valuables, such as money, a watch, or jewelry, to the
theatre and leave them in an unlocked dressing room during rehearsals
or performances as they may be stolen. If you must bring them to the
theatre, give them to the stage manager who will put them in a safe place
until the rehearsal or performance is over.
Check your props before rehearsals or performances begin to be sure
that they are there, but leave them on a prop table until they are needed
onstage. After using them in the show, return them to the prop table or to
the person who has been designated to receive them.
Check your costumes before a dress rehearsal or performance begins.
Be sure you are ready for any fast changes. If you need a dresser, ask
the wardrobe supervisor for help. You will often have to share dressing
facilities, so it is necessary that you be considerate of others by cleaning up
your makeup and hanging up your clothes and costumes. If your costumes
become soiled, ask the wardrobe supervisor about getting them cleaned.
Personal cleanliness is a necessity as you must work in close contact with
other performers, staff, and crews.
Don’t get in the way of the stage and prop crews when they are trying
to change the set. If you do not know where to wait during a scene change,
ask your stage manager.
Cooperate with your producer, director, choreographer, musical di¬
rector, stage manager, and other members of the staff. If you want to be
cast again, show them what a good, reliable performer you are. Be con¬
siderate of others, and stay cheerful and healthy.
PERFORMANCES
By requirement of Actors' Equity Association, professional actors must be
at the theatre no later than a half hour before a performance, perform
their services to the best of their abilities, care properly for their costumes
and props, respect the property of the production and the theatre, and
abide by all reasonable rules and regulations of the producer that are not
in conflict with Equity's rules.
Conscientious professionals sign in well before the half-hour deadline
in order to take time with their makeup and hairstyle, to dress, and to
warm up physically and mentally.
In a professional production, if a performer is late for the "half hour”
call or appears unable to perform because of intoxication or a similar
cause, the producer may replace the person for that performance or may
dismiss the performer. In such cases, Actors' Equity Association has a
precise and detailed procedure to follow.
As for amateur performers, from time to time they often need to be
reminded of some common sense suggestions such as the following:
Eating before performances is a personal matter, but many actors
prefer not to eat or drink anything for several hours before going onstage.
Be careful especially of drinking carbonated beverages because they may
make you belch onstage. Also, stay away from nuts, popcorn, and other
foods that may stick in your throat. As for smoking, theatres have definite
regulations about where you may smoke, so before you light up, be sure
to ask where the smoking areas are.
In the amateur theatre, the call for performers is usually forty-five
minutes or one hour before performance time, but you may want to arrive
earlier if you have a difficult makeup or you need to do an extensive
warm-up. Be sure to check in as soon as you arrive at the theatre so that
the stage manager will know you are there. The directors and/or stage
manager may hold a meeting with the cast before the performance to
stimulate the performers, give them notes, or do a group warm-up.
Keep your stage makeup and hairstyle(s) exactly as they were when
they were approved by the stage director at dress rehearsals. Don't change
them unless you get permission from the stage manager to do so.
Refrain from all contact with the audience after you are in costume
or stage makeup. Don't go through the lobby or halls where the audience
can see you before the show, at intermission, or after the show. Discourage
friends from trying to come backstage before the show or at intermission.
Tell them where you will meet them after the performance.
Treat your costumes with care. If one should become torn or dam¬
aged, see the wardrobe supervisor immediately. Watch how and where
you sit in a costume (in some companies you may be asked not to sit in
certain garments), and be careful not to lose any parts of your outfit, such
as gloves, handkerchief, or stockings.
Handle props carefully. While backstage, never play with the props or
eat prop food. If a prop should become damaged, report it to the property
master.
BEHAVIOR AT REHEARSALS AND PERFORMANCES 137
Once the house is open and the audience is entering the theatre, you
must be quiet backstage. During performances you must be very quiet in
the wings and in the areas near the stage.
Don’t stand in the wings of the stage to watch the show; go to the
wings shortly before your entrance. While there, stay out of the way of
those who are trying to get offstage (stage exits must remain open), and be
sure that the audience cannot see you. If you can observe people sitting in
the theatre, they can see you. Spend the time until your entrance thinking
about your character and your character's objective, motivation, and
action; don’t ruin your concentration—and that of others—by talking.
During performances, keep your blocking, stage business, line inter¬
pretations, songs, and dances as they were on opening night. If you have
an idea for improving these, discuss it with the stage manager, but don’t
make any changes without the stage manager’s approval. Directors who
return to check up on musicals several weeks after the opening are often
appalled at the number of "improvements” that have crept into the show.
Usually, performers are told to cut them out.
While onstage, if anything unusual happens (an actor misses an en¬
trance, a prop is not in its place, and the like), stay in character and adapt
to the changed circumstances. If you must ad-lib, do so in character until
such time as you can return to the dialogue of the script.
If a prop or part of a costume inadvertently falls to the floor, pick it
up if you are nearby. A dropped article will attract and hold an audience s
attention until somebody removes it.
If the line preceding one of your lines gets a big laugh, wait until
the laugh is almost out before delivering your next line. (See "Comedy
Techniques” in chapter six.)
If you forget your dialogue or lyrics, it is better to ad-lib than to wait
to be prompted. If you make a mistake onstage (such as forgetting your
lines), don’t worry about the error during the show or it will affect the rest
of your performance. Keep your concentration on what you are doing at
the moment. Then, after the performance is over, review what happened
so that it will never occur again.
Avoid “in-jokes” (jokes that the performers understand but the audi¬
ence does not). Performers in long runs may develop such jokes as a way
to combat boredom, but if they are concentrating on staying in character
and doing the best work of which they are capable, they should not get
bored.
.
■
9
PREPARING A
MUSICAL AUDITION
FANNY BRICE: Listen, Mr. Keeney, I’ve had a lot of experience—honest! I’ve been
on the stage since I was ten! Amateur contests, Gottliebs’ Southern Rep-
professional companies! Last season I doubled six parts! I played a daughter
and her own father. How do you like that—a sixty-year-old Indian chief! So
why don’t you give me a chance? Maybe you don’t like me in the chorus.
Why don't you let me audition for that specialty tomorrow? Huh?
—from Funny Girl
To get a role in a musical, you must audition. This is true of college,

community, summer, regional, off-Broadway, and Broadway productions.
Only rarely does it happen that someone is given a role without an audi¬
tion, and that someone is usually a well-known performer whose work is
highly respected.
Auditions may take place in a theatre, rehearsal room, classroom,
studio, or office. They may be tryouts for a specific musical or general
auditions for several future productions; and they may be for acting,
singing, or dancing roles or a combination of these. In this chapter you
will find suggestions for all of these plus ideas for interviews, photographs,
resume, and where to find notices of auditions.
First of all, let’s look at some general suggestions that pertain to most
kinds of auditions.
ALL TYPES OF AUDITIONS

If auditioning frightens you, it will not be consoling to learn that this feeling
will probably never disappear completely; however, with experience it
usually lessens. Therefore, my first suggestion is to audition as often as
possible, always performing as well as you can. Even if you are not cast,
you have nothing to be sorry about if you have done your best, because
you will have learned from the audition experience.
139
Since many musical roles today demand singing, acting, and dancing,
my second suggestion is to study all three and be prepared to audition for
all of them.
My third suggestion is to get acquainted with the stage director,
producer, bookwriter, composer, lyricist, musical director, choreographer,
casting director, stage manager, star of the show, or whoever is casting the
musical. It is a recognized fact that directors would rather cast someone
they know and like than an unknown; however, if you are an unknown,
there are certain things you can do to improve your chances. Consider the
following.
Before the Audition

Start early to think about what the audition will probably be like, and plan
to cope with it in order to make the best possible impression. Analyze and
rehearse your material until you know it thoroughly. If you can arrange
it, have your audition videotaped so that you can see exactly how you
look and sound. View this tape objectively and analytically. What are your
weaknesses? How can you improve?
In addition to videotaping, practice your audition before several
friends. Ask them to give you criticism. If there is a time limit for your
audition, have them time your work to make sure you are within the lim¬
its. You may want to repeat this mock audition several times to be sure
that you will not fold under pressure. The better prepared you are, the
less chance there is that fright will adversely affect your audition.
YOUR CLOTHES. For an acting or singing audition, dress to suit the

character you are most interested in playing—within reason and within the
limits of your own wardrobe. If you have been unable to look at a script
and do not know the characters, if you are interested in many characters,
or if you are auditioning for a period piece (period means a show that
does not use contemporary dress), wear nice-looking, comfortable, clean
clothing that flatters you and reveals your personality. Dress as you would
if you were going to a business interview for an office job. Look the best
you can but not overdressed or weird, unless that describes the part you
want.
Usually you will want to wear clothes that do not attract attention to
themselves so that the auditioners will give you their full attention and
not your garments. However, if you are going to a large audition, where
several hundreds may be trying out, you may want to wear something that
will distinguish you from the crowd, such as a flower in your lapel, a bright
scarf, a hat, or an unusual belt. If you are called back to a second audition,
wear the same clothes and hairstyle so that you have a better chance of
being remembered. One young actress wore a bright red sweater to an
audition at which about eight hundred were competing for parts. Later at
callbacks and interviews, to which she wore the same sweater, she found
that directors remembered “the girl in the red sweater,” and she credited
this sweater with helping her get a role.
Women: Usually you should select a dress, blouse or sweater and
skirt, or suit that shows your legs—unless you have bad-looking ones or
the character you want to play would wear pants or jeans.
PREPARING A MUSICAL AUDITION 141
Men: Wear a jacket and slacks (or suit) and a shirt with or without
a tie. In warm temperatures and in less formal situations, such as college
and community auditions, you may want to omit the jacket and dress
more casually. In cold weather you may prefer turtleneck, pullover, or
cardigan sweaters.
Men and women: Don’t wear anything that is uncomfortable or re¬
strictive of your movements. Be especially careful about wearing a hat,
headscarf, or sweat band that may conceal your face or hamper head or
facial movements. Select shoes that fit well, look good, and are easy to
move in without clomping.
If you think that you will have to do a dance audition immediately
after an acting or singing audition, you should either bring dancewear
that you can change into quickly or devise one outfit for all auditions. For
example, women may wear a skirt over a leotard and tights for an acting
or singing audition and then remove the skirt for the dance audition; men
can do the same with jeans or slacks over their dance clothes.
For a dance audition, you will want to wear flattering dancewear and
bring suitable shoes (jazz, sneakers, oxfords, character, ballet, pointe, tap,
acrobatic, or modern) for the types of dancing in the show.
YOUR MAKEUP AND HAIRSTYLE. Women: You should make up
judiciously to flatter your best features. If you are auditioning onstage
in a theatre, you can wear more makeup than if you are trying out in
a small room; but don’t look overly made up or bizarre unless you are
auditioning for that type of character.
Both men and women should dress their hair in a way that is appro¬
priate for the character they are most interested in. If you do not know
anything about the characters or are interested in several of them, be sure
that your hair is clean and attractively styled and that it will not cover your
face as you try out.
WARMING UP. Before going to the audition take the time to loosen up
vocally and physically. Do some of the exercises from chapters four and
five, and rehearse your songs again.
At the Audition
Plan to arrive before the announced time of starting (or your appointment)
so that you will have a few minutes to compose yourself and check
your appearance. Take with you a pen, because you may have to fill out
an information card or sheet, and your photo, resume, and portfolio of
pictures in case you are asked for them. (See the section on “Photographs
and Resume” in this chapter.)
Listen carefully to announcements about the casting and the musical.
Observe the whole situation: What is the procedure? Flow are the audi-
tioners responding to those trying out? Where is the best lighting for you
to stand in for your audition? Becoming familiar with the whole situation
may help to alleviate any stage fright you may be feeling.
If you have the chance to watch the auditions, see what you can learn
from them. Some may be bad, but others may be excellent. Stay as long as
you can, and come back to other auditions if you are allowed to. Appear
very interested in being in the production, and be courteous, cooperative,

and kind to everyone.
STAGE FRIGHT. If nervousness is a problem for you, remember that
almost all of us have stage fright at auditions to some degree, largely
because we are afraid we will not do well. The best way to deal with
fright is to be well prepared. The worst way is to take a sedative, alcohol,
or some other substance that will slow down your reflexes and make you
less alert. You don't need these ''crutches”; you can handle stage fright
without them.
Talk yourself out of being nervous: tell yourself that everyone is
feeling this way, that you know what you are doing, and that you will do
it well. Convince yourself that being excited is good and that you will give
a better audition because it will make you more energetic and dynamic.
Get your mind off the situation by forcing yourself to concentrate on
something else, for example, your breathing or the tension in your body.
Breathe in while you mentally count slowly to four, hold your breath as
you count again to four, then breathe out to a slow count of four. If you
feel tense in the throat or neck, massage these muscles with your hands.
Drop your head forward, then move it slowly with your eyes closed to the
left, back, right, and let it drop in front again, trying to feel as relaxed as
possible. Yawn as you bring your head up to a good posture. Consciously
tense and relax various muscles of the body, and do other relaxation
exercises from chapters four and five.
YOU'RE ON! When your name is called to audition, walk to the desig¬
nated place with poise and stand in the best light. You will project more
confidence to your spectators if you can give a friendly smile and hold
your head up in a good alignment. Looking down nervously will tell your
auditioners that you are unsure and unprepared.
Remember that as soon as you are in sight of the auditioners your au¬
dition has begun, because they are evaluating your appearance, demeanor,
clothes, walk, posture, and state of tension before you have opened your
mouth. If you are asked questions, answer graciously with humor (if pos¬
sible) and good eye contact. If you give an introduction to your selection,
say this directly to your viewers. But once you begin to perform your ma¬
terial, avoid watching them to see how they are reacting. It will make them
uncomfortable if you stare at them for the whole time. Instead, if you are
supposed to be talking or singing to one or more people, look over the
heads of your spectators and play to imaginary characters behind your
viewers at the back of the room or theatre.
While auditioning, try to stay relaxed, and don’t allow yourself to think
about how well or badly you are doing. If you make a mistake, don’t worry
about it. Concentrate on staying in character and going on as well as you
can.
After the audition, the way you leave the stage or room will also
contribute to the impression you make on your viewers. Remember that
the audition is not over until you are out of their vision.
IMPROVISATIONS. Some directors like to use improvisations as part of
an audition. If you are asked to do one, listen carefully to the instructions,
get into character, and let your imagination go. If you find improvising
difficult, you need to practice this skill. Most actors find that it becomes
easier with experience, so work at it. See the section on “Improvisations”
in chapter six.
ACTING-SINGING-DANCE AUDITIONS. If you are being considered
for an acting or a singing or a dancing role, the chances are that you will be
asked to demonstrate that you can do the other two. Actors and dancers
should be prepared to sing at least sixteen bars of two different songs.
Singers and actors will probably have to show that they can dance or at
least move well; and any dancers and singers who are being considered
for a speaking part will have to read a scene or two from the script. As
mentioned earlier, your best bet is to be prepared to audition for all three.
AUDITION ON VIDEOTAPE. In some situations, you may be asked to
submit an acting, singing, or dance audition on videotape. If so, get pro¬
fessional help to record your audition; be certain that the lighting, camera
work, and sound are of top quality. Follow the instructions carefully about
length and types of material. If there are no instructions, prepare contrast¬
ing pieces that total five to ten minutes.
Now let’s consider suggestions for different types of auditions that
you may attend.
SPECIFIC AUDITIONS FOR ACTORS

Auditions for an acting role in a specific musical usually consist of reading
one or more scenes from the script either by yourself, with other actors,
or with someone on the production staff such as the stage manager.
Evaluating your work will be the director, casting director, or others from
the staff. To do your best, think about the following.
Before the Audition

The producer, director, casting director, or an agent may be able to lend
you a script for a few days. If it is a published work, your public library may
have a copy. If you can get hold of a script, study it carefully. Analyze the
plot and the characters you are interested in, and practice major speeches
of those roles. Unless you are instructed otherwise, you do not need to
memorize anything, but for an important audition many actors will study
the script to the point where they know many of the lines.
If you are told ahead of time which scene will be used for your
audition, give it special attention. Ask yourself:
• Where and when does the scene take place?
• What has happened to your character immediately before his or her
first line?
• What is your character’s objective, motivation, and action in this scene?
• What is your character’s attitude toward others in the scene?
• What is your character feeling and thinking?
At the Audition
Even though you have studied the whole script, you will sometimes not
know the scene you are to read at the audition until you get there; then
you must hastily determine the answers to the above five questions. If you
have been unable to read the script, the best idea is to inquire if you may
have time to read through the scene. Usually you will be given at least
a few minutes to glance at it and make a few decisions about it. If you
don't understand the scene, ask some questions—if this is possible and
appropriate.
If you are told to read the copy cold, with no chance to look at it,
be gracious, project a positive attitude, and do the best you can. If you
cannot quickly figure out a characterization, let them know what you are
like. Project vitality, enthusiasm, energy, and your voice. The ability to
read cold can be improved with practice, so it is something that all actors
should work on.
Stand in a good body alignment unless this would be unsuitable
because the character should have a poor one. Your posture, movements,
gestures, and facial expressions should be appropriate for the character.
If the scene demands action, you may indicate it within reason. If chairs
are provided, you may sit, rise, and walk around, but all movement should
have a purpose. Don't let your nervous excitement cause you to wander
aimlessly about the stage or room.
When reading from the script, hold it high enough so that your head is
upright, unless you are playing a character whose head is always bent over.
You will get your best voice quality if your neck and head are relaxed and
in a good alignment. Do not, however, hold your script so high that your
face is concealed; let the auditioners see your eyes and facial expressions
and hear your voice. Project your voice for the size of the theatre or room
so that the listeners can hear and understand you. Use a vocal quality and
dialect or accent that is suitable for the character with adequate variety
of loudness, rate, and pitch.
Get away from the script as much as possible. Develop the ability to
see a phrase, think the thoughts your character should be thinking, and
look up as you speak. If you find that you lose your place easily, mark it
with a finger so that you can spot the next phrase quickly as you repeat the
process: look at a phrase, think, and communicate it. At first, you may be
able to see only a few words at a time, but with practice you should be able
to increase the number of words that you can handle. This is a technique
used by television newscasters, public speakers, and oral interpreters. It is
also a useful technique for actors at auditions because it gets your eyes
away from the script as you say the words.
If you are reading alone, look over the heads of your listeners as you
speak. If you are reading with the stage manager or one or more actors,
listen to them, look at them when this is appropriate, or look away to think.
Communicate with them, and react to them as your character should.
GENERAL AUDITIONS FOR ACTORS

The following suggestions cover general auditions at which you may be
auditioning for more than one director, for a season of several musicals,
for an agent, or to enter an acting school or university theatre department.

You, therefore, are not trying for one specific musical or part. Sometimes a
general audition is held to select those who will be given a specific audition.
For a general audition, you are usually asked to prepare one or two
monologues with a one- to five-minute time limit. The usual meaning
attached to the word monologue is a dramatic sketch performed by one
actor. For audition purposes, this normally means an excerpt from a
musical or play in which a character talks to one or more other characters,
addresses the audience, or delivers a soliloquy.
Sometimes for a general audition you may be asked to do a short
scene from a musical or play with a partner of your choice. In this case,
select a good actor to work with; a poor partner will make the scene bad
and make you look bad. To prepare a scene, follow the suggestions in
chapters seven and ten. It is much more common, though, to do mono¬
logues rather than a two-person scene at general auditions, so the rest of
this section pertains to preparing and presenting monologues.
Before the Audition

Many actors think that finding the right monologues is the hardest part of
a general audition because it takes a lot of time and reading to select good
material. Start early to find it so that you will have at least two weeks to
rehearse and learn it before the tryouts.
YOUR MATERIAL. Your goal is to find selections that you like and
understand, that show off your abilities and versatility, and that are right
for your age and physical appearance.
You should choose excerpts from less common plays and musicals
because directors and agents are tired of hearing the well-known ones.
If you are permitted only one monologue, select a contemporary one
in a realistic style (unless the instructions stipulate otherwise). If you
may do two selections, get contrast in the roles; for example, take one
from a drama and the other from a comedy, or one from a modern
and another from an old play. The characters should be different in
personality, temperament, intellect, emotions, and rhythm to show your
range as an actor.
If you cannot find in a musical or play one speech of the desired length
to use as a monologue, you can join together several short speeches of one
character. Sometimes you will have to do some editing or rewriting so that
the joined speeches make sense. You can pause briefly and react as though
another character has spoken to you, but do not pause too long.
If you can only do one monologue, you should probably do a selec¬
tion that requires Standard American speech and avoid other dialects and
accents. The reason is that more American musicals and plays use Stan¬
dard American than any other; if you do an excerpt that needs another
dialect, such as southern or Brooklyn, the directors may think that you
cannot speak Standard American.
Try to find a monologue that will permit you to begin energetically to
attract the auditioners’ attention; but, in general, avoid the big climactic
moments of a play that call for a lot of yelling.
Usually at general auditions a chair will be available for your use, but
don't count on it. Get a selection that you can do standing if no chair is
there.
ANALYSIS AND REHEARSAL. Read and analyze the entire work. You
cannot do justice to an excerpt if you do not know and understand the
whole script. Be sure to figure out where and when the scene takes place
and what has happened immediately before your monologue so that you
can begin with the right objective, motivation, and action in mind and
appropriate attitude, thoughts, and feelings.
Project your voice so that your auditioners will hear and understand
every word you say. Use an appropriate vocal quality for the character
and good variety of loudness, rate, and pitch. Don't let stage fright make
you rush your material. Use the posture, gestures, and movements that
your character should use. And do move when you have a purpose for
moving! Use as much of the lighted area as you need.
At the Audition
Be certain your name is known to the people doing the casting. If this is a
large audition, you may have to say your name and a number both at the
beginning and at the end of your audition. State them loudly and clearly.
Don't give a lengthy introduction to your material. At the most, state,
with good eye contact to your auditioners, the title of the play and name
of the character; but when you are under a severe time limitation, you
don’t need any introduction.
Where you look during a monologue depends on the type you are
doing. If you are addressing one or more imaginary characters, place these
people either downstage of you or behind your auditioners at the back of
the room or theatre. The latter will let you focus on a spot that is over
the heads of your listeners. If you are addressing the audience, let your
eyes sweep the room; but don’t make your auditioners uncomfortable by
watching them for reactions. If you are delivering a soliloquy, probably
some lines should be said reflectively as though you are speaking your
thoughts aloud and others as though you are talking to the audience. A
careful analysis of your material is needed to determine where to look.
In performing two monologues, take just a moment after the first one
to get your mind focused on the second. You may want to lower your
eyes or head until you are in character.
SINGING AUDITIONS
Usually at both general and specific auditions for singers, you are asked to
sing one song of your choice. If you do well, you may be given the chance
to perform immediately a second song of a different type, or you may be
requested to prepare a particular song for a later audition. The following
are some suggestions for these situations.
Before the Audition

Even though the announcement of auditions may say to prepare one song,
you should get ready at least two different types of songs of about one
PREPARING A MUSICAL AUDITION
to three minutes each and rehearse them until you can do them properly
and easily.
YOUR SONGS. Select songs you do well that are reasonably similar
in style to the musical you are auditioning for. Your two choices should,
however, be different in mood and tempo to show off your versatility. The
standard combination is an up-tempo number, like “Always True to You
in My Fashion” from Kiss Me, Kate, and a ballad, such as "Almost Like
Being in Love” from Brigadoon. If you can "belt,” you may prepare one
number of this type and another to show off your head voice.
Many students want to know, "Should I sing something from the show
I’m auditioning for?” Unless you have been asked to do this, most experts
say no. The reason is that, if you do not do the number as the director
envisions it, the director may think that you cannot be taught to do it as
he or she wants it. For the same reason, if the composer and lyricist are
present, do not sing anything by them.
If the roles and ranges are publicized, select songs from different
musicals that have about the same range and are sung by characters that
are similar to the part you are interested in. If you are not aiming for one
particular role, select songs that allow you to project your personality.
In either case, start early to prepare your audition so that you will have
sufficient time to rehearse it.
Try to find songs that others will not be singing at the audition. Avoid
the current hits, but choose songs that will display the best aspects of your
voice at the beginning. The reason is that sometimes you will be told to
stop after only a few bars.
Do not use a patter song, but if you tend to get very nervous at
auditions, select songs with moderately fast tempos.
Some songs, such as "The Heather on the Hill” from Brigadoon, can be
sung by either sex. Other songs, like "I'm in Love with a Wonderful Guy"
from South Pacific, are supposed to be sung by a woman while some, such
as “There Is Nothing Like a Dame,” also from South Pacific, were written
for men to sing. Be sure that the lyrics are appropriate for you.
YOUR MUSIC. Get the sheet music for your selections, and rehearse
with a pianist or coach. If the songs are not in a good key for you, you
will have to transpose them or get a copyist or other musician to do this.
Never hand music to an accompanist and ask him or her to transpose it
on the spot. If a stranger plays for you at an audition, you must be sure
that the music is legible and that any special instructions, such as changes
in tempo, repeats, and cuts, are clearly indicated.
Keep the music sheets clean and flat—do not fold or wrinkle them. If
the music is on thin pages that fall off the piano rack easily, you should
devise some way to help the accompanist keep them on the piano. If the
music is on only one side of the paper, you can tape the sheets onto
cardboard or tape them together (tape the right edge of page one to the
left side of page two, the right edge of page two to the left edge of page
three, and so on). When you finish, your two to five taped-together sheets
should stay on the piano rack, and the accompanist should be able to read
them easily without having to turn pages. If the pianist must use music
in a book or music that you have put into a loose-leaf notebook, make
certain that the pages will lie flat and can be turned easily.
ANALYSIS AND REHEARSAL. Be sure you are singing the notes cor¬
rectly and articulating the lyrics distinctly. The auditioners must under¬
stand every word you say. Remember, though, that you must go beyond
this: you must interpret the song and act it as though you are a char¬
acter in a musical production singing to a large audience. Those of you
who suffer from stage fright while singing as yourself may find that your
nervousness may be less if you concentrate on getting into the role and
thinking and feeling like the character.
If your character is singing to someone, as in "You’ll Never Get Away
From Me" from Gypsy, imagine that this person is standing at the back of
the room or theatre, and play to this character. If singing a number that in
a show would be directed to the audience, such as "Let Me Entertain You”
from Gypsy, let your gaze roam about the theatre or room as it would in
a production. But avoid singing directly to your auditioners for very long.
Don’t plan to stand in back of the accompanist to read the music
over his or her shoulders. And don’t hold the music or lyrics in your
hands—you must memorize your material. Don't decide to sit down during
your audition because a chair may not be available. And don’t close your
eyes too much while you sing because your eyes are an important way to
communicate your feelings to an audience.
Start in a good body alignment with your weight on both feet placed
about a foot to a foot and a half apart. As you sing, get involved in the
song and let it excite you. Your gestures should flow naturally and your
movements should appear spontaneous. If, however, you find it difficult
to gesture naturally, consider holding a prop, such as a hat, cane, scarf,
shawl, handkerchief, or some object you are singing about. If a prop is
out of the question, you can let your hands hang relaxed at your sides for
a while or clasp them lightly in front of you at your waist. If you wear a
jacket, you can put one hand in the pocket and the other at your side or at
your waist. But your goal should be to forget about your body and focus
on the meaning of the lyrics. Then you may be able to move spontaneously
in response to the music and words.
You should plan to move during any passages where the accompanist
is playing but you do not sing (termed "air"), in order to hold your audi¬
tioners' attention until you sing again. You can walk downstage or to left
or right stage, staying in lighted areas, of course. You must also decide on
your posture for your final note: where should your hands and arms be
during the rideout (the music used for your last word and the following
music)? Are your arms rising above your head or to shoulder height? Or
have they been up in the air on the previous line and are coming down
on the rideout? There are numerous possibilities for the final pose: two
arms up in the air or out to the side or down at your sides; one arm up
in the air and the other down; fists clenched or hands opened; head back
or bent over; a bow or a curtsy. Whatever you decide, make the ending
special; it’s the last thing they hear and see, and it may be the way they
remember you.
YOUR ACCOMPANIMENT. Find out if an accompanist will be pro¬

vided at the audition; if not, get your rehearsal pianist to go with you or
use a tape recording of instrumental music with no singing on it. Don’t
sing without accompaniment unless specifically requested to do so. Gen¬

erally, it is not a good idea to plan to accompany yourself on piano or
guitar because auditioners will want to see how you move while singing.
At the Audition
When you hand your music to an accompanist provided by the show,
explain where to start and stop, the tempo, and any special instructions.
Then go to the best lighted part of the stage or room. When you and your
auditioners are ready, nod to the pianist to begin.
When you retrieve your music from the accompanist, remember to
thank this person; aside from considerations of politeness, he or she may
have a say about casting. Also, thank the others from the show who are
present.
DANCE AUDITIONS
It has been noted that dancers are the most overworked and underpaid
people of the theatre. Broadway's chorus dancers—called gypsies—work
the longest hours with the least recognition, and careers are notoriously
short. But if you still want to be a dancer, here are a few suggestions for
coping with both general and specific auditions.
Before the Audition

Usually you do not have to prepare a routine in advance since normally
the choreographer or an assistant will teach all dancers at the audition a
combination that you will perform in small groups or alone. Occasionally,
though, you may be asked to do a short dance of your own. If so, devise a
routine ahead of time that shows off your abilities in the type(s) of dance
they need for the show. Plan for your own musical accompaniment: If an
accompanist will be provided, bring your sheet music; if not, bring your
own pianist or a tape recording and player.
If you pass the dance audition, you will probably be asked to sing
sixteen bars of a song, so go to the audition prepared to do at least two
different types of songs. If singing makes you nervous, select songs with
a medium fast tempo, move while you sing, and concentrate on being a
character in a show who is energetically selling the song. (See "Preparing
Songs” in chapter seven.)
Before going to any dance audition, warm up at home or in a dance
class. Warm up again immediately before the tryout. There may be no
place for this, but you must make a place whether it be in the wings,
hallway, or rest room. Dancing without warming up, particularly while
under stress at an audition, can result in injuries.
At the Audition
While auditioning, project an energetic, dynamic personality. Most show
dancing is highly presentational, and choreographers generally look for
dancers who can "fill the stage” with their energy.
When appropriate, smile. Do not audibly count the beats. And if you
forget the steps, do something—don't stop. At a group audition, don’t try
to copy someone else's style. Concentrate on doing the routine to the best
of your ability.
INTERVIEWS
There are times when an agent or a director, casting director, or other
member of a production’s staff will want to interview you to see if you
should be given the chance to audition or just to find out more about
you before deciding on casting. Professionally, if you are a member of
Actors’ Equity Association, you may attend specially scheduled interviews
for principal roles. If you are selected to audition, you will then be given
a specific time to return to try out.
While interviews can be stressful, the best strategy is to try to relax,
be friendly, confident, cheerful, and talk about whatever is suggested by
the interviewer. You are almost certain to be asked to give a summary
of what you have done in the theatre, so be sure you have a good an¬
swer ready. Look at the interviewer, and communicate with that person
clearly, concisely, and courteously. At the end, remember to thank those
conducting the interview, the receptionist, doorkeeper, and others. You
never know who may have input into casting.
PHOTOGRAPHS AND RESUME

If auditioning professionally (and many times at nonprofessional audi¬
tions), you will need to submit an eight-by-ten-inch black-and-white photo¬
graph in glossy, semimatte, or matte finish. Good pictures are a necessity.
You must have a flattering headshot that looks like you and conveys the
image you want to project; it should be reasonably recent.
To the back of the picture, you should attach (with tape, paste, or sta¬
ples) a one-page typed resume cut down to the size of the photograph. To
prepare your resume, select from figure 9-1 the items that pertain to you
(for example, if you do not belong to a union, omit “Union Affiliations’’),
and arrange them attractively on the page. You must include a telephone
number at which you can be reached, but you should be careful to whom
you give your home telephone and address. It is wise to use only your
agent’s telephone and address. If you do not have an agent, list only an
answering service or a phone with an answering machine. If you have a
post office box or a business address at which you can receive mail, you
may want to list this as your mailing address, but usually you should not
give your home address.
In addition to the picture to accompany your resume, you should
acquire photographs of yourself in other poses that indicate your abilities
to play different types of roles and pictures of you in various theatrical
productions. Arrange these in a portfolio with your favorable reviews, in
case an interviewer asks to see your “book.”
YOUR NAME
Union Affiliations: (If any.)

Agent: (If you have one.) Height:
Agent’s phone: (If you don’t have an Weight:

agent, give your answering service or
phone with an answering machine.) Color of hair:
Agent’s address: (If you don’t have an Color of eyes:

agent, you should probably not list an
address.)
Vocal range: Soprano, tenor, etc. If you
can belt, add the word belt.)
Dance skills: (List types you do well.)
Theatre experience: (Include acting, singing, and dance experience for this and
the next two items. Put your best credits first, listing name of show, role, and
where you performed it.)
Film:
Television:
Commercials: (If you have done these, put list available on request but don t go
into detail here.)
Training: (List teachers, if well known.)
Special talents: (Languages, dialects, accents you do well; other musical skills,
such as pianist or guitarist; athletic abilities; circus skills; and the like.)
Awards: (If applicable.)
Figure 9-1. Resume form.

If you are sending your picture and resume by mail to ask for an
interview or audition, you will need to write a cover letter that is typed
on attractive stationery. Take time to compose a short, interesting letter
that mentions the names of any mutual friends and states your request
succinctly.
After an audition or interview, you should follow up by writing a note
to thank the person for his or her consideration. Postcard-sized photos of
you that include your name and telephone are handy to send to important
people to tell them what you are doing and remind them of what you can
do.
NOTICES OF AUDITIONS
Where do you learn the time and place of auditions? If you are in New
York or Los Angeles, you should watch the theatrical trade papers as
well as the theatre pages of newspapers. The trade papers in New York
are Back Stage and Show Business; in Los Angeles, Drama-Logue, The
Hollywood Reporter, and Hollywood Variety. In addition, Variety is sold
in most cities and can be found in many libraries. Theatrical agents also
receive information about auditions, and dance studios often post notices
of dance auditions. Members of Actors’ Equity Association may look at
announcements in the offices of the union, but anyone may visit the office
of the Theatre Communications Group in New York to find out about
auditions for regional theatres. Knowing other performers is a help too,
because a lot of casting news is spread by word-of-mouth.
Outside of New York and Los Angeles, the theatre sections of news¬
papers, Variety, and the local offices of the Actors’ Equity Association are
your best sources of information. Another way is to call or write the the¬
atrical organizations with which you would like to perform. You may send
your picture and resume and ask to be notified about their next auditions.
Be sure to enclose a stamped, self-addressed envelope for a reply.
The Theatre Communications Group can provide you with a list of
regional theatres for a small fee. From the Actors’ Equity Association you
can obtain the names of Equity-approved theatrical agents, but a more
complete list of agents, plus casting directors and other information, may
be found in Ross Reports Television, which is a monthly publication of
Television Index, Inc., in New York. The yellow pages of phone books may
also contain a list of theatrical agents in the area covered by that book.
In addition, Lawrence S. Epstein’s A Guide to Theatre in America, which
your public library should have, provides lists of agents, producers, and
theatres that produce their own shows.
EXERCISES
1. Following the suggestions in this chapter, prepare for a general acting
audition by finding two one-minute monologues from musicals or plays.
Rehearse the material; then present it before others at a mock audition.
2. Prepare a one-minute singing audition, following the guidelines in this

chapter. Rehearse the song with an accompanist or with taped instru¬
mental music, and perform it before others for their criticism.
3. Prepare a one-minute dance audition using piano accompaniment or
taped music. Choreograph and rehearse your routine; then present it at
a mock audition.
'
'
■ .
10
SCENES FROM
MUSICALS FOR
REHEARSAL
JULIAN [a producer-director]: Best? That’s not good enough! I want better than
your best, I want sheer, unadulterated brilliance!
—from 42nd Street
In this chapter you will find sixteen short excerpts from famous musicals
for you to study, rehearse, and use to demonstrate your unadulterated
brilliance.” The following is a brief summary of the suggestions given in
chapter seven for preparing your role:
1. Read the entire script and answer the questions under "Analyzing the
Musical and Role” in chapter seven. Examine your character's main
objective for the whole show and the objectives, motivations, and
actions for your scene. Determine your character's thoughts, feelings,
and attitudes toward others in the excerpt, and study the meanings of
the words of the text.
2. Research the musical to give yourself a good background for working
on this part. Find out about the bookwriter, lyricist, and composer, the
source, the New York production, and the times and places depicted
in the show.
3. Observe people who are similar to your character in age, personality,
occupation, or in some significant way; then, at home, recreate what
you saw. Did you obtain any ideas for your character from these
observations?
4. Personalize the character by examining your own sensory and emo¬
tional experiences that are similar to your character s. Do these help
you to understand why the character behaves as she or he does?
5 Use your imagination to flesh out the details of your characterization.
Try Stanislavski's "magic if”; ask yourself, "What would I do if I were
this person in this situation?
155
6. With your partner(s), plan the blocking of your scene; then, learn your
lines and movements together.
7. Prepare externally for your character by working on your voice, pos¬
ture, stage business, and movements. Are you trying to physicalize the
psychological and physical traits of your character? How would you
describe the rhythm of the character in movement and speech?
8. Pay particular attention to your vocal characterization. Are you using
the right dialect or accent? Should the pitch range, rate of speaking,
overall loudness level, quality of tone, articulation, or rhythm be dif¬
ferent from your usual way of speaking? Can you be heard and under¬
stood? Do you have an appropriate variation of pitch, rate, loudness,
and quality?
9. Prepare internally by trying to think the thoughts and feel the emotions
of the character as you rehearse and perform. Listen to your partner(s),
think about what they say, and respond to them.
10. Experiment in rehearsal. Be sure that you and your partner(s) know
what the stage, scenery, properties, lighting, and sound should be like
even though you may be working in a bare room with just a couple of
chairs and no sound effects. Imagine your environment and respond to
it as your character would. Do an improvisation of what has happened
to your character immediately before your scene starts, and consider
how these happenings affect your attitude, thoughts, and feelings at the
beginning of the excerpt. Try improvising events that are spoken of in
your scene but are not shown onstage, and experiment with speaking
the inner monologue, reversing roles with your partner(s), and playing
opposite values. (See “Rehearsing” in chapter seven.)
Ten of the following scenes have songs and music. While only a few
call for dancing, all need coordinated movement. In addition to the above
suggestions, if you sing and dance in your scene, you should also do the
following:
1. As you recite the lyrics of the song, physicalize the traits, thoughts, and
emotions.
2. Work with an accompanist on articulation, phrasing, interpretation,
tempo, energy, and communication of the song.
3. Consult with your partner(s) about the movements or dancing needed
during the song.
For scenework, you do not need a director, musical director, choreog¬

rapher, scenery, stage lighting, sound effects, or stage makeup. If there is
a song in your scene, you will need an accompanist and a piano. For some
scenes you may need a few chairs and a table. Hand props (such as the
jewelry, ring, and slippers in the scene from My Fair Lady) should be used
if they are easy to obtain. If any unavailable props are called for in a scene,
you can pantomime handling them or use substitute props. Wear cloth¬
ing, shoes, and a hairstyle that are similar to what your character might
wear, and use or do not use eyeglasses according to what your character
would do.
SCENES FROM MUSICALS FOR REHEARSAL 157
SCENE FOR THREE MEN FROM

ACT n OF IOLANTHE (1882) BY W. S.
GILBERT AND ARTHUR SULLIVAN
CHARACTERS: The Lord Chancellor

Earl of Mountararat
Earl Tolloller
SETTING: The palace yard at Westminster. Westminster Hall is left and a clock
tower is upstage.
Time: Night.
SITUATION: All three of the gentlemen in this scene are attracted to Phyllis, a
beautiful ward of the Lord Chancellor. But the Lord Chancellor feels that
he cannot apply to himself for permission to marry her. After singing about
his unrequited love for Phyllis, he has fallen exhausted onto a seat as
Mountararat and Tolloller enter. They have decided that their friendship
with each other is more important than feuding over Phyllis, so in this
scene they convince the Lord Chancellor that he may, indeed, approach
himself for permission to marry Phyllis.
COMMENTS: The Lord Chancellor is described as a kindly old gentleman, and
all three are depicted as rich and plain. Mountararat and Tolloller may
be dressed in appropriate peers’ clothing: swallow-tail coat, knee breeches,
stockings, long robe, and coronet. The Lord Chancellor wears his official
robe.
PUBLISHED Texts: Gilbert, W. S., and Arthur Sullivan. The Complete Plays of
Gilbert and Sullivan. New York: The Modern Library, 1936.
Gilbert, W. S. The Savoy Operas. 2 vols. London: Oxford University Press, 1962.
(LORDS MOUNTARARAT and TOLLOLLER come forward)

LORD MOUNTARARAT: I am much distressed to see your Lordship in this condition.
LORD CHANCELLOR: Ah, my Lords, it is seldom that a Lord Chancellor has reason
to envy the position of another, but I am free to confess that I would rather
be two Earls engaged to Phyllis than any other half-dozen noblemen upon
the face of the globe.
LORD TOLLOLLER: (Without enthusiasm) Yes. It s an enviable position when you re
the only one.
LORD MOUNTARARAT: Oh yes, no doubt—most enviable. At the same time, seeing
you thus, we naturally say to ourselves, "This is very sad. His Lordship is
constitutionally as blithe as a bird—he trills upon the bench like a thing of
song and gladness. His series of judgments in F sharp minor, given andante
in six-eight time, are among the most remarkable effects ever produced
in a Court of Chancery. He is, perhaps, the only living instance of a judge
whose decrees have received the honour of a double encore. How can we
bring ourselves to do that which will deprive the Court of Chancery of one
of its most attractive features?”
LORD CHANCELLOR: I feel the force of your remarks, but I am here in two
capacities, and they clash, my Lord, they clash! I deeply grieve to say that in
declining to entertain my last application to myself, I presumed to address
myself in terms which render it impossible for me ever to apply to myself

again. It was a most painful scene, my Lord—most painful!
LORD TOLLOLLER: This is what it is to have two capacities! Let us be thankful that
we are persons of no capacity whatever.
LORD MOUNTARARAT: Come, come. Remember you are a very just and kindly old
gentleman, and you need have no hesitation in approaching yourself, so
that you do so respectfully and with a proper show of deference.
LORD CHANCELLOR: Do you really think so?
LORD MOUNTARARAT: I do.
LORD CHANCELLOR: Well, I will nerve myself to another effort, and, if that fails, I
resign myself to my fate!
( Trio—LORD CHANCELLOR, LORDS MOUNTARARAT and TOLLOLLER)
LORD MOUNTARARAT:
If you go in
You’re sure to win—
Yours will be the charming maidie:
Be your law
The ancient saw,
“Faint heart never won fair lady!”
ALL:
Faint heart never won fair lady!
Every journey has an end—
When at the worst affairs will mend—
Dark the dawn when day is nigh—
Hustle your horse and don't say die!
LORD TOLLOLLER:
He who shies
At such a prize
Is not worth a maravedi,
Be so kind
To bear in mind—
ALL:
While the sun shines make your hay—
Where a will is, there’s a way—
Beard the lion in his lair—
None but the brave deserve the fair!
LORD CHANCELLOR:
I’ll take heart
And make a start—
Though I fear the prospect’s shady—
Much I’d spend
To gain my end—
ALL:
Nothing venture, nothing win—
Blood is thick, but water’s thin—
In for a penny, in for a pound—
It’s Love that makes the world go round!
(Dance, and exeunt arm-in-arm together)
HE WHO SHIES AT SUCH A PRIZE

Words by W. S. Gilbert (From Iolanthe) Music by Arthur Sullivan
In mododi Valzer J-.76
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(Dance, and exeunt arm-in-arm together.)
SCENE FOR ONE MAN, ONE WOMAN

FROM ACT I OF THE MIKADO (1885) BY
W. S. GILBERT AND ARTHUR SULLIVAN
CHARACTERS: Nanki-Poo, son of the Mikado of Japan

Yum-Yum, ward of Ko-Ko, Lord High Executioner of Titipu
SETTING: Courtyard of Ko-Ko’s official residence in Titipu, Japan.
TIME: The morning of the day when Yum-Yum is to marry Ko-Ko.
SITUATION: A year earlier Nanki-Poo, disguised as a wandering minstrel, met and
fell in love with Yum-Yum, but because she was engaged to her guardian
Ko-Ko, Nanki-Poo left town in despair. However, when he heard that Ko-Ko
was condemned to death for flirting, he hurried back hoping to marry
Yum-Yum but found that Ko-Ko had been given a reprieve and made the
Lord High Executioner.
COMMENTS: Both Yum-Yum and Nanki-Poo—who is still disguised in this scene
as a minstrel—are good-looking, young, and in love. While their manners,
costumes, and hairstyles may suggest those of Japan in the late nineteenth
century, the diction and spirit of this scene is that of British comic opera.
PUBLISHED Texts: Gilbert, W. S., and Arthur Sullivan. The Complete Plays of
Gilbert and Sullivan. New York: The Modern Library, 1936.
Gilbert, W. S. The Savoy Operas. 2 vols. London: Oxford University Press, 1962.
(Enter NANKI-POO)
NANKI-POO: Yum-Yum, at last we are alone! I have sought you night and day for
three weeks, in the belief that your guardian was beheaded, and I find that
you are about to be married to him this afternoon!
YUM-YUM: Alas, yes!
NANKI-POO: But you do not love him?
YUM-YUM: Alas, no!
NANKI-POO: Modified rapture! But why do you not refuse him?
YUM-YUM: What good would that do? He s my guardian, and he wouldn t let me
marry you!
NANKI-POO: But I would wait until you were of age!
YUM-YUM: You forget that in Japan girls do not arrive at years of discretion until
they are fifty.
NANKI-POO: True; from seventeen to forty-nine are considered years of indiscre¬
tion.
YUM-YUM: Besides—a wandering minstrel, who plays a wind instrument outside
tea-houses, is hardly a fitting husband for the ward of a Lord High Execu¬
tioner.
NANKI-POO: Bul-(Aside) Shall I tell her? Yes! She will not betray me! (Aloud)
What if it should prove that, after all, I am no musician?
YUM-YUM: There! I was certain of it, directly I heard you play!
NANKI-POO: What if it should prove that I am no other than the son of his Majesty
the Mikado?
YUM-YUM: The son of the Mikado! But why is your Highness disguised? And what
has your Highness done? And will your Highness promise never to do it
again?
NANKI-POO: Some years ago I had the misfortune to captivate Katisha, an elderly
lady of my father’s Court. She misconstrued my customary affability into
expressions of affection, and claimed me in marriage, under my father’s
law. My father, the Lucius Junius Brutus of his race, ordered me to marry
her within a week, or perish ignominiously on the scaffold. That night I
fled his Court, and, assuming the disguise of a Second Trombone, I joined
the band in which you found me when I had the happiness of seeing you!
(.Approaching her)
YUM-YUM: (Retreating) If you please, I think you Highness had better not come
too near. The laws against flirting are excessively severe.
NANKI-POO: But we are quite alone, and nobody can see us.
YUM-YUM: Still, that doesn’t make it right. To flirt is capital.
NANKI-POO: It is capital!
YUM-YUM: And we must obey the law.
NANKI-POO: Deuce take the law!
YUM-YUM: I wish it would, but it won’t!
NANKI-POO: If it were not for that, how happy we might be!
YUM-YUM: Happy indeed!
NANKI-POO: If it were not for the law, we should now be sitting side by side, like
that. (Sits by her)
YUM-YUM: Instead of being obliged to sit half a mile off, like that. (Crosses and
sits at other side of stage)
NANKI-POO: We should be gazing into each other’s eyes, like that. (Gazing at her
sentimentally)
YUM-YUM: Breathing sighs of unutterable love—like that. (Sighing and gazing
lovingly at him)
NANKI-POO: With our arms round each other's waists, like that. (Embracing her)
YUM-YUM: Yes, if it wasn’t for the law.
NANKI-POO: If it wasn’t for the law.
YUM-YUM: As it is, of course we couldn’t do anything of the kind.
NANKI-POO: Not for worlds!
YUM-YUM: Being engaged to Ko-Ko, you know!
NANKI-POO: Being engaged to Ko-Ko!
(Duet—YUM-YUM and NANKI-POO)
NANKI-POO:
Were you not to Ko-Ko plighted,
I would say in tender tone,
“Loved one, let us be united—
Let us be each other’s own!”
I would merge all rank and station,
Worldly sneers are nought to us,
And, to mark my admiration,
I would kiss you fondly thus—
(Kisses her)
BOTH:
I | would kiss (you f fondly thus—(Kiss)
He/ \ me /
YUM-YUM:
But as I’m engaged to Ko-Ko,
To embrace you thus, con fuoco,
Would distinctly be no gioco,
And for that I should get toco—
BOTH:
Toco, toco, toco, toco!
NANKI-POO:
So, in spite of all temptation,
Such a theme I’ll not discuss,
And on no consideration
Will I kiss you fondly thus—
(Kissing her)
Let me make it clear to you,
This is what I’ll never do!
This, oh, this, oh, this, oh, this—
(Kissing her)
TOGETHER:
This, oh, this, etc.
(Exeunt in opposite directions)
WERE YOU NOT TO KO-KO PLIGHTED

Words by W. S. Gilbert (From The Mikado) Music by Arthur Sullivan
Andante, non troppo lento J; 96

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SCENE FOR ONE MAN, ONE WOMAN FROM

ACT I, SCENE 2 OF BRIGADOON (1947) BY
ALAN JAY LERNER AND FREDERICK LOEWE
Characters: Tommy Albright

Fiona MacLaren
Setting: MacConnachy Square in the Scottish village of Brigadoon. A fair is in
progress in this Highland town that has the look of an eighteenth-century
community. Booths and carts are onstage with some chairs and benches.
TIME: About 9 A.M. of a day in May.
SITUATION: Tommy and his friend, Jeff, both Americans, have come to Scotland
to hunt game and have wandered into this village that is not on their map.
(Later in Scene 5 they will discover that two hundred years ago a man asked
God to make Brigadoon vanish into the mist and return just as it was for
one day every hundred years.) Tommy has met Fiona and has been invited
to the wedding supper for her sister and Charlie to be held that evening.
By the beginning of the following excerpt, most of the townspeople have
departed, leaving only a few who are quietly shopping upstage. Tommy’s
first line refers to Charlie, who has just exited.
COMMENTS: Tommy, from Georgia, is about thirty, virile looking with an attrac¬
tive, sensitive face. He is dressed in tweeds. Fiona, about twenty-two, is at¬
tractive, bright, frank, and direct. She is in simple Scottish peasant garb.
This is a good scene for two actors to use to practice the American southern
and Scottish dialects.
PUBLISHED Texts: Lerner, Alan Jay, and Frederick Loewe. Brigadoon. New York:
Coward-McCann, Inc., 1947.
Richards, Stanley (ed). Ten Great Musicals of the American Theatre. Radnor,
PA: Chilton Book Company, 1973.
TOMMY: (Smiling) He’s a nice kid.

FIONA: Aye. He is that.
TOMMY: It’s wonderfully refreshing to see a fellow so enthusiastic about getting
married.
FIONA: Is it so unusual?
TOMMY: I think it is. Look at me. I’m not bubbling over like Charlie. And next
month I’m facing the minister.
FIONA: Ye’re gettin’ married?
TOMMY: Yes.
FIONA: Oh!
TOMMY: Oh—what?
FIONA: I’m very surprised. Somehow ye dinna look like the sort of lad who would
want to settle down.
TOMMY: I didn’t say that. I just said I was getting married.
FIONA: If ye feel that way, why are ye?
TOMMY: Because the girl wants to.
FIONA: Is that reason enough?

TOMMY: Sure. I don’t know how it is in the Highlands, but in my neighborhood
if you’ve been going with a woman for a while and she decides she wants
to get married, you’d better agree right away and save yourself a lot of
trouble.
FIONA: Why?
TOMMY: Because if you don’t, she’ll either torment you so you’ll marry her for
relief, or she'll be so sweet about it you’ll feel guilty and your conscience
will make you do it.
FIONA: I mus’ say it dinna sound like ye love her very much.
TOMMY: It doesn’t, does it?

FIONA: An’ it also sounds like a very peculiar land ye come from.
TOMMY: Well, believe me, lass, this isn’t the usual hamlet off the highway either.
What was that business about Charlie and the man who postponed the
miracle?
FIONA: Oh, that. (Thinks a moment) I’m sorry. I canna say.
TOMMY: But you said you’d tell me later.
FIONA: I know. But I canna say.
TOMMY: That’s fine. You know, if I hang around this town very long I’ll probably
discover that everybody in it is slightly nutty. Is that possible?
FIONA: I canna say.
TOMMY: Why not?
FIONA: I dinna know what “nutty” means.
TOMMY: It means slightly insane.
FIONA: (Turning on him suddenly) Well, then I can assure ye we’re all far from
insane. We’re a most blessed group of people. An’ I never realize how
fortunate we are until I meet someone from the outside—I mean, a stranger
to Brigadoon. I dinna know anythin’ about ye, but from the little ye’ve said
I’m quite certain that everythin’ ye think I think differently about, an’ I’m
also quite certain that what I think is much more . . . (She begins to calm
down)... well.. . pleasant. An’ now I'm sorry I said all that, but ye angered
me when ye called us insane.
TOMMY: (Quite surprised and a bit sheepish at the outburst) Hey, you dont like
me very much, do you?
FIONA: That’s the odd part. I like ye very much. I jus’ dinna like anythin’ ye say.
TOMMY: (After a moment) Fiona . . .
FIONA: Aye?
TOMMY: If I stuck around here today, would you take me to the wedding this
evening?
FIONA: Why do ye suddenly want to go?
TOMMY: (Imitating her) I canna say.
FIONA: Well, I’ll take ye. An’ I'll be highly pleased ye 11 be there.
TOMMY: You will? Why?
FIONA: Because of what I jus’ told ye. I like ye very much.
TOMMY: (Amused and a little bewildered) That's right. You did say that, didn’t
you?
FIONA: Now I'll show ye some place where ye can lie down an' rest.
TOMMY: What are you going to do?
FIONA: Gather some heather for the weddin.’
TOMMY: Where do you do that?
FIONA: On the hill—where the heather is.
TOMMY: May I go with you?
FIONA: No. I’ll do it much faster alone.
TOMMY: (Coming close to her) I won’t bother you. Really. Maybe I’m the one
who’s slightly nutty, but. . .
(FIONA walks away from him. The music begins.)
TOMMY: (Sings “The Heather On The Hill’’)

Can’t we two go walkin’ together,
Out beyond the valley of trees,
Out where there’s a hillside of heather
Curtseyin’ gently in the breeze?
That’s what I’d like to do:
See the heather—but with you.
The mist of May is in the gloamin’,
And all the clouds are holdin’ still,
So take my hand and let’s go roamin’
Through the heather on the hill.
The mornin’ dew is blinkin’ yonder;
There's lazy music in the rill;
And all I want to do is wander
There may be other days as rich and rare.
There may be other springs as full and fair.
But they won’t be the same—they'll come and go;
For this I know:
That when the mist is in the gloamin’,
And all the clouds are holdin' still,
If you’re not there I won’t go roamin’
Through the heather on the hill;
The heather on the hill.
(The music continues under)
FIONA: (A little disconcerted) Ye see. Ye can say nice things when ye want to.
TOMMY: It almost sounded like I was making love to you, didn’t it?
FIONA: Oh! There’s a difference between makin’ love an’ jus’ bein’ sentimental
because ye’re tired.
TOMMY: Is that what I’m being—sentimental because I’m tired?
FIONA: I believe so. But 'tis very agreeable.
(Sings)
The mist of May is in the gloamin’,
An’ all the clouds are holdin' still,
So take my hand and we’ll go roamin’

The mornin’ dew is blinkin’ yonder;
There’s lazy music in the rill;
An’ 'tis a lovely time to wander
There may be other days as rich an’ rare.
There may be other springs as full an’ fair.
But they won't be the same—they’ll come an’ go.
TOMMY and FIONA:
For this I know:
That when the mist is in the gloamin’,
And all the clouds are holdin’ still,
If you’re not there I won't go roamin’
Through the heather on the hill;
The heather on the hill.
(The music stops and TOMMY and FIONA stand looking at each other)
THE HEATHER ON THE HILL

Words by Alan Jay Lerner (From Brigadoon) Music by Frederick Loewe
Cue: TOMMY: May I go with you?
FIONA: No. I ll do it much faster alone. (The music begins)

TOMMY: I won’t bother you. Really. Maybe I'm the one who’s slightly nutty, but.
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SCENE 3 OF KISS ME, KATE (1948) BY COLE
PORTER AND SAMUEL AND BELLA SPEWACK
Characters: Lilli Vanessi

Fred Graham
SETTING: Two dressing rooms at the Ford Theatre in Baltimore. Fred’s room at
the right is drab and sparsely furnished. Lilli’s room at the left is elaborately
decorated. The following excerpt takes place in her room.
TIME: Thirty minutes before the opening of a musical version of Shakespeare's
The Taming of the Shrew in which Fred and Lilli star.
SITUATION: Divorced from Fred for one year, Lilli has become engaged to a
presidential advisor, Harrison Howell Rehearsals for the Shrew have not
been pleasant as the two stars have been fighting.
COMMENTS: Fred is a writer, director, and actor. His former wife, Lilli, is a motion
picture star who is returning to the stage for this production. They are both
in dressing gowns as they are getting ready for opening night. During this
scene, Fred and Lilli waltz to “Wunderbar." If you cannot waltz, look at the
instructions in chapter four under rhythm exercise 2.
PUBLISHED Texts: Spewack, Samuel and Bella, and Cole Porter. Kiss Me, Kate.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1953.
Richards, Stanley (ed.). Ten Great Musicals of the American Theatre. Radnor,
(LILLI displays resplendent ring for FRED’s benefit)

FRED: I see it! I see it! What is it? The Hope Diamond or Aly Khan’s emerald?
LILLI: Did I show you the star sapphire Harrison sent me? It was his mother’s
engagement ring.
FRED: His mother must have worn it on her big toe.
LILLI: (Beaming pridefully) And now it’s mine! (Sits on couch)
FRED: Congratulations!
LILLI: Do you know what day this is, Fred? Our anniversary, and you forgot.
FRED: What anniversary?
LILLI: (Sweetly) The first anniversary of our divorce.
FRED: If you must know, I was thinking of sending you a cactus. But, no money.
I know you’re rolling in it.
LILLI: Every night before I go to bed, that’s exactly what I do. Roll in my money.
Wonderful for the hips. (She pats one and moves to sit at dressing table)
FRED: (Bitterly) Hollywood—swimming pool—avocado ranches. While I—I put
every penny I could scrape, borrow, or steal into my Cyrano in Paris. My
magnum opus! But I was a huge success.
LILLI: (Looking into mirror) And you closed on Saturday? Four glorious perfor¬
mances!
FRED: I’ll have you know, there was a general strike!
LILLI: (With mock sympathy and looking right at FRED) Oh, you couldn’t have
been that bad!
FRED: Same old Lilli! (Picks up photo on dresser) Who’s this little monster?
Harrison Howell?
LILLI: That's you at the age of two—bottoms up!
FRED: Cute little fellow. Mind if I keep it?
LILLI: No. And you can have this, too. (Holding up cork and rising)
FRED: What’s this? A cork?
LILLI: Our first bottle of champagne.
FRED: Our wedding breakfast?
LILLI: Yes, in my apartment.
FRED: You mean that one room of yours over the Armenian bakery?
LILLI: You’re a fine one to complain. You didn't even have a room.
FRED: Why do you think I married you? (Sits on couch)
LILLI: (Thinking back) That was the season we played the Barter Theatre in
Virginia and they gave you a ham.
FRED: (Stung) Well, we lived on that all winter, you forget!
LILLI: You forget I got a job reading tea leaves in a Gypsy tea room opposite
Macy’s. (Sits on couch beside him)
FRED: And you forget / demonstrated shaving soap in Woolworth’s.
LILLI: (Suddenly remembering) That’s right. That’s how I spent my honeymoon—
at Woolworth’s. Watching you shave.
FRED: We weren’t married then?
LILLI: (Nodding) Oh yes, dear, we were. Mother was coming to stay with us. It was
right after we dosed on the road in a little British makeshift of a Viennese
operetta that for some reason was laid in Switzerland. But the costumes
were Dutch.
FRED: And so were those salaries. I could have sworn it was right after that flop
revival of the Prince of Potsdam Yes, I was understudying the lead. I was
the youngest understudy in the business.
LILLI: No, dear. We were both in the chorus. (Music starts) There was a waltz in
it. Remember? Something about a bar. (She starts to hum)
FRED: (Rises) Ja! Madame, you are ravishing tonight . . . You have made me the
happiest of men.
LILLI: (Rising, goes to FRED) Your Highness. (Both suddenly remember and speak)
FRED: Wunderbar!
LILLI: Wunderbar!
FRED and LILLI: (Sing “Wunderbar")
SHE: Wunderbar.
HE: Wunderbar.
SHE: There’s our fav’rite star above.
HE: What a bright-shining star!
BOTH: Like our love, it’s wunderbar!
(FRED, back of lounge. LILLI sits on lounge)
(Verse)
HE: Gazing down on the Jungfrau

SHE: From our secret chalet for two,
HE: Let us drink, Liebchen mein,

SHE: In the moonlight benign,
BOTH: To the joy of our dream come true.
(Refrain)
BOTH: Wunderbar, wunderbar!
(He takes her hand)
HE: What a perfect night for love,
SHE: Here am I, here you are, (Rises)
HE: Why, it’s truly wunderbar!
HE: We're alone and hand in glove,
SHE: Not a cloud near or far,
HE: Why, it's more than wunderbar!
SHE: Say you care, dear,
HE: For you madly.
SHE: Say you long, dear,
HE: For your kiss.
SHE: Do you swear, dear? (Turns and takes his hand)
HE: Darling, gladly,
SHE: Life’s divine, dear,
HE: And you’re mine, dear!
(Embrace)
HE: There’s our fav’rite star above,
SHE: What a bright-shining star!
BOTH: Like our love, it’s wunderbar!
(They waltz a bit)
HE: And you’re mine, dear!
(Embrace)
(Sway)
HE: There’s our fav'rite star above,
BOTH: What a bright-shining star!
Like our love, it’s wunderbar!
(They kiss at end of song)
WUNDERBAR
(From Kiss Me, Kate) Words and Music by Cole Porter
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SCENE FOR ONE MAN, ONE WOMAN

FROM ACT I, SCENE 7 OF SOUTH PACIFIC
(1949) BY RICHARD RODGERS, OSCAR
HAMMERSTEIN II, AND JOSHUA LOGAN
Characters: Ensign Nellie Forbush

Emile de Becque
SETTING: A beach on an island in the South Pacific where some sailors have
erected a makeshift shower.
TIME: A day during World War II.
SITUATION: In the first scene, Emile told Nellie that he had left France twenty-
five years ago because he had killed a man. Later, she was asked by her
commanding officer to spy on Emile so that the U.S. Navy could learn more
about him; but by this scene she has decided to break off with him and has
sung “I’m Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair’’ to her friends as
she washed her hair onstage. While drying her hair, she became aware of
Emile’s presence and went back into the shower to put a jersey over her wet
shorts and halter. As the following begins, she comes out, carrying a towel,
and says “Hello’’as though she is surprised to find Emile there. Her friends
have just exited to leave them alone.
COMMENTS: Nellie, an optimistic, vivacious young lady from Little Rock, Arkansas,
is a Navy nurse who is stationed on this island. Emile, who owns a nearby
plantation, is a charming, middle-aged man, with a slight French accent.
PUBLISHED Texts: Rodgers, Richard, Oscar Hammerstein II, and Joshua Logan.
South Pacific. New York: Random House, 1949.
Rodgers, Richard, and Oscar Hammerstein II. Six Plays by Rodgers and
Hammerstein. New York: Random House, 1963.
NELLIE: Hello!
EMILE: Hello. . . . That song ... is it a new American song?
NELLIE: It’s an American type song. We were kind of putting in our own words.
(Looking around) Where is everybody?
EMILE: It is strange with your American songs. In all of them one is either desirous
to get rid of one’s lover, or one weeps for a man one cannot have.
NELLIE: That’s right.
EMILE: I like a song that says: “I love you and you love me . . . And isn-t that
fine?”
NELLIE: (Not very bright at the moment) Yes . . . thats fine.
EMILE: I left a note for you at the hospital. It was to ask you to my home for
dinner next Friday.
NELLIE: Well, I don’t think I’ll be able to come, Emile, I
EMILE: I have asked all my friends. The planters colony.
NELLIE: (Determined to wash him out of her hair) A big party. Well then, if I can’t
come, you won’t miss me.
EMILE- But it is for you. It is for my friends to meet you and—more important—
for you to meet them; to give you an idea of what your life would be like
here. I want you to know more about me . . . how I live and think—
NELLIE: (Suddenly remembering her promise to “spy on him”) More about you?
EMILE: Yes. You know very little about me.
NELLIE: That’s right! (Getting down to business) Would you sit down? (EMILE sits.
NELLIE paces like a cross-examiner) Do you think about politics much . . .
And if so what do you think about politics?
EMILE: Do you mean my political philosophy?
NELLIE: I think that’s what I mean.
EMILE: Well, to begin with, I believe in the free life—in freedom for everyone.
NELLIE: (Eagerly) Like in the Declaration of Independence?
EMILE: C’est ga. All men are created equal, isn’t it?
NELLIE: Emile! You really believe that?
EMILE: Yes.
NELLIE: (With great relief) Well, thank goodness!
EMILE: It is why I am here . . . Why I killed a man.
NELLIE: (Brought back to her mission) Oh, yes. I meant to ask you about that
too ... I don't want you to think I'm prying into your private life, asking a
lot of questions. But... I always think it’s interesting why a person . . . kills
another person.
(EMILE smiles understandingly.)
EMILE: Of course, Nellie. That has worried you. (He turns away to compose his
story. Then he begins by stating what he considers the explanation and
excuse for the whole thing) When I was a boy, I carried my heart in my
hand_So ... when this man came to our town—though my father said he
was good—I thought he was bad. (With a shrug and a smile) I was young ...
He attracted all the mean and cruel people to him. Soon he was running
our town! He could do anything—take anything ... I did not like that. I was
young. (NELLIE nods, understanding) I stood up in the public square and
made a speech. I called upon everyone to stand with me against this man.
NELLIE: What did they do?
EMILE: (Letting his hands fall helplessly to his side) They walked away!
NELLIE: Why?
EMILE: Because they saw him standing behind me. I turned, and he said to me, “I
am going to kill you now.” We fought. I was never so strong. I knocked him
to the ground. And when he fell, his head struck a stone and . . . (He turns
away and lets NELLIE imagine the rest) I ran to the waterfront and joined a
cargo boat. I didn’t even know where it was going. I stepped off that boat
into another world ... (He looks around him, loving all he sees) where I am
now ... and where I want to stay. (He turns to NELLIE and impulsively steps
toward her, deep sincerity and anxiety in his voice) Nellie, will you marry
me? ... There are so few days in our life, Nellie. The time I have with you
now is precious to me . . . Have you been thinking?
NELLIE: I have been thinking.
(Singing, thoughtful, considering)
Born on the opposite side of the sea,
We are as different as people can be,
EMILE: It’s true.
NELLIE:
And yet you want to marry me. . . .
EMILE: I do.
NELLIE:
I’ve known you a few short weeks and yet
Somehow you’ve made my heart forget
All other men I have ever met
But you . . . but you . . .
EMILE: (Sings)
Some enchanted evening
You may see a stranger,
You may see a stranger
Across a crowded room,
And somehow you know,
You know even then
That somewhere you’ll see her
Again and again. . . .
NELLIE:
Who can explain it?
Who can tell you why?
EMILE:
Fools give you reasons,
Wise men never try . . .
Some enchanted evening,
When you find your true love,
When you feel her call you
Across a crowded room,
Then fly to her side
And make her your own,
Or all through your life you may dream all alone!
NELLIE: (Clinging to him)
Once you have found him
Never let him go.
EMILE: Once you have found her
Never let her go.
(They kiss)
Will you come next Friday?
NELLIE: (Somewhere, from out of the ether, she hears her voice murmur an
inarticulate but automatic assent) Uh-huh.
(EMILE kisses her again and leaves)

Intro to: SOME ENCHANTED EVENING

Lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II (From South Pacific) Music by Richard Rodgers
Cue: EMILE: . and where I want to stay."
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Reprise: SOME ENCHANTED EVENING

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ACT H, SCENE 1 OF MY FAIR LADY {1956) BY
ALAN JAY LERNER AND FREDERICK LOEWE
Characters: Henry Higgins

Eliza Doolittle
SETTING: Higgins’s study in London, England. It has a sofa, easy chair, desk, stool,
recording apparatus, and a staircase at one side that leads up to a landing.
TIME: 3 AM., following a ball; 1912.
SITUATION: After months of training, Higgins and Colonel Pickering have taken
Eliza, a poor flower girl, to a ball and passed her off as a duchess. Things
have gone well, and Higgins is elated, though sleepy. Eliza, however, is glum
COMMENTS: Higgins is a vital, energetic man of forty or so, who is outspoken,
but likeable. Eliza is about nineteen, a spirited girl from an impoverished
section of London who hcs been taught by Higgins to speak and act like an
upper-class lady. In this scene, they have just returned from the ball and are
still dressed in evening clothes. The dialect used by both is Standard British.
PUBLISHED Text: Lerner, Alan Jay, and Frederick Loewe. My Fair Lady. New
York: Coward-McCann, Inc., 1956.
HIGGINS: Goodnight, Pickering. Oh, Mrs. Pearce! (But she is gone) Oh damn, I
meant to tell her I wanted coffee in the morning instead of tea. Leave a
little note for her, Eliza, will you? {He looks around the room) What the
devil have I done with my slippers? {The slippers are by the desk. ELIZA tries
to control herself, but no longer can. She hurls them at him with all her
force)
ELIZA: There are your slippers! And there! Take your slippers, and may you never
have a day's luck with them!
HIGGINS: {Astounded) What on earth? {He comes to her) Whats the matter? Is
anything wrong?
ELIZA: {Seething) Nothing wrong—with you. Ive won your bet for you, haven t
I? That’s enough for you. I don’t matter, I suppose?
HIGGINS: You won my bet! You! Presumptuous insect. / won it! What did you
throw those slippers at me for?
ELIZA: Because I wanted to smash your face. I d like to kill you, you selfish brute.
Why didn’t you leave me where you picked me out of—in the gutter? You
thank God it’s all over, and that now you can throw me back again there,
do you?
HIGGINS: {Looking at her in cool wonder) So the creature is nervous, after all?
(ELIZA gives a suffocated scream of fury and instinctively darts her nails in
his face. HIGGINS catches her wrists) Ah! Claws in you, you cat! How dare
you show your temper to me? {He throws her roughly onto the sofa) Sit
down and be quiet.
ELIZA: {Crushed by superior strength and weight) What s to become of me?
What’s to become of me?
HIGGINS: How the devil do I know what s to become of you? What does it matter
what becomes of you?
ELIZA: You don’t care. I know you don’t care. You wouldn’t care if I was dead.
I’m nothing to you—not so much as them slippers.
HIGGINS: (Thundering) Those slippers.
ELIZA: (With bitter submission) Those slippers. I didn’t think it made any differ¬
ence now.
(A pause. ELIZA hopeless and crushed, HIGGINS a little uneasy)
HIGGINS: (In his loftiest manner) Why have you suddenly begun going on like
this? May I ask whether you complain of your treatment here?
ELIZA: No.
HIGGINS: Has anybody behaved badly to you? Colonel Pickering? Mrs. Pearce?
ELIZA: No.
HIGGINS: You don’t pretend that I have treated you badly?
ELIZA: No.
HIGGINS: I'm glad to hear it. (He moderates his tone) Perhaps you’re tired after
the strain of the day? (He picks up a box of chocolates) Have a chocolate?
ELIZA: No. (Recollecting her manners) Thank you.
HIGGINS: (Good-humored again) I suppose it was natural for you to be anxious,
but it’s all over now. (He pats her kindly on the shoulder. She writhes)
There’s nothing more to worry about.
ELIZA: No, nothing more for you to worry about. Oh God, I wish I was dead.
HIGGINS: (In sincere surprise) Why, in Heaven’s name, why? Listen to me, Eliza.
All this irritation is purely subjective.
ELIZA: I don’t understand. I’m too ignorant.
HIGGINS: It’s only imagination. Nobody’s hurting you. Nothing’s wrong. You go to
bed like a good girl, and sleep it off. Have a little cry and say your prayers;
that will make you comfortable.
ELIZA: I heard your prayers. "Thank God it’s all over!”
HIGGINS: (Impatiently) Well, don’t you thank God it's all over? Now you are free
and can do what you like.
ELIZA: (Pulling herself together in desperation) What am I fit for? What have you
left me fit for? Where am I to go? What am I to do? What’s to become of
me?
HIGGINS: (Enlightened, but not at all impressed) Oh, that’s what’s worrying you, is
it? (Condescending to a trivial subject out of pure kindness) Oh, I shouldn’t
bother about that if I were you. I should imagine you won’t have much
difficulty in settling yourself somewhere or other—though I hadn’t quite
realized you were going away. You might marry, you know. You see, Eliza,
all men are not confirmed old bachelors like me and the Colonel. Most men
are the marrying sort, poor devils. And you’re not bad-looking. It’s quite a
pleasure to look at you at times. (He looks at her) Not now, of course. You've
been crying and look like the very devil; but when you’re all right and quite
yourself, you’re what I should call attractive. Come, you go to bed and have
a good night’s rest; and then get up and look at yourself in the glass; and
you won’t feel so cheap. (Peering into the box of chocolates, in search of a
creamy one. In the process, a genial afterthought occurs to him) I daresay
my mother could find some chap or other who would do very well.
ELIZA: We were above that in Covent Garden.

HIGGINS: What do you mean?
ELIZA: I sold flowers. I didn't sell myself. Now you’ve made a lady of me, I’m not
fit to sell anything else.
HIGGINS: Tosh, Eliza, don’t insult human relations by dragging all that cant about
buying and selling into it. (Not finding a creamy one, he puts the chocolates
down) You needn’t marry the fellow if you don’t want to.
ELIZA: What else am I to do?
HIGGINS: Oh, lots of things. What about that old idea of a florist’s shop? Pickering
could set you up in one. He’s lots of money. (Chuckling) He’ll have to pay
for all those togs you've been wearing; and that, with the hire of the jewelry,
will make a big hole in two hundred pounds. Oh, come! You'll be all right.
I must clear off to bed; I’m devilish sleepy. By the way, I was looking for
something. What was it?
ELIZA: Your slippers.
HIGGINS: Yes, of course. You shied them at me.
(He picks them up and is starting for the stairs when she rises and
speaks to him)
ELIZA: Before you go, sir—

HIGGINS: (Stopping, surprised at her calling him “sir”) Eh?
ELIZA: Do my clothes belong to me or to Colonel Pickering?
HIGGINS: (Coming back to her as if her question were the very climax of unrea¬
son) What the devil use would they be to Pickering? Why need you start
bothering about that in the middle of the night?
ELIZA: I want to know what I may take away with me. I don t want to be accused
of stealing.
HIGGINS: (Deeply wounded) Stealing? You shouldnt have said that, Eliza. That
shows a want of feeling.
ELIZA: I’m sorry. I’m only a common, ignorant girl; and in my station, I have to
be careful. There can’t be any feelings between the like of you and the like
of me. Please will you tell me what belongs to me and what doesn’t?
HIGGINS: (Very sulky) You may take the whole damned houseful if you like.
Except the jewels. They’re hired. Will that satisfy you? (He turns on his
heels and is about to go in extreme dudgeon)
ELIZA: (Drinking in his emotion like nectar and nagging him to provoke a further
supply) Stop, please! (She takes off jewels) Will you take these to your room
and keep them safe? I don’t want to run the risk of their being missing.
HIGGINS: (Furious) Hand them over!
(She gives him the jewels, he crams them into his pocket, unconsciously
decorating himself with the protruding ends of the chains)
If these belonged to me instead of the jeweler, I’d ram them down your
ungrateful throat.
ELIZA: (Taking a ring off) This ring isn t the jeweler s; it s the one you bought me
in Brighton. I don't want it now. (He throws the ring violently across the
room and turns on her so threateningly that she crouches with her hands
over her face, and exclaims) Don t you hit me.
HIGGINS: Hit you! You infamous creature, how dare you accuse me of such a
thing? It is you who have hit me. You have wounded me to the heart.
ELIZA: (Thrilling with hidden joy) I’m glad. I’ve got a little of my own back,
anyhow.
HIGGINS: (With dignity, in his finest professional style) You have caused me to
lose my temper, a thing that has hardly ever happened to me before. I
prefer to say nothing more tonight. I am going to bed. (He starts up the
stairs)
ELIZA: (Pertly) You’d better leave your own note for Mrs. Pearce about the coffee,
for it won’t be done by me!
HIGGINS: (Stopping about halfway up the stairs) Damn Mrs. Pearce! And damn
the coffee! And damn you! And damn my own folly in having lavished my
hard-earned knowledge and the treasure of my regard and intimacy on a
heartless guttersnipe! (He marches up the stairs with impressive decorum
and spoils it by tripping on the top step. He successfully recovers but while
looking to see if she noticed his awkwardness, he runs into the table and
inadvertently turns on the machine. Guttural vowel sounds come pouring
through the speaker. He turns it off violently and with a slam of the door,
disappears.)
(ELIZA runs to the ring on the floor and picks it up)


ACT I, SCENE 7 OF GYPSY (1959) BY JULE STYNE,
STEPHEN SONDHEIM, AND ARTHUR LAURENTS
Characters: Rose
Herbie
Waitress (no lines)
SETTING: A section of a gaudy Chinese restaurant in New York.
TIME: Evening; in the early 1930s.
SITUATION: Rose, the mother of Louise and June, has managed her daughters’
vaudeville career since they were very young. Tomorrow they are going to
audition for Mr. Grantziger at the Palace Theatre, and Rose has just sent
the girls back to the hotel to get their beauty sleep. Like the girls, Rose is
wearing a coat made from hotel blankets.
COMMENTS: Rose is an aggressive stage mother who is determined that June will
be a star. Their agent, Herbie, is a nice, sensible man who loves Rose and
wants to marry her. They are both middle-aged.
PUBLISHED Texts: Laurents, Arthur, Jule Styne, and Stephen Sondheim. Gypsy.
New York: Random House, 1960.
Richards, Stanley (ed.). Ten Great Musicals of the American Theatre. Radnor,
ROSE: I’ll cold-cream their faces and be right back.

HERBIE: The hotel is two doors away! Honestly, you behave as though those
girls—Rose! (This because she is collecting silverware and is about to put it
in her bag)
ROSE: We need new silverware. (Stops, then puts down the silver. Quietly) Herbie,
how long is it going to take you to get used to me?
HERBIE: How long did it take me to get used to those coats?
ROSE: What’s the matter with them? They’re real stylish! Louise is very talented
with a needle. Herbie, as the good Lord says: an eye for an eye, a tooth for
a tooth—(On this, she sweeps the silver into her bag) And it serves them
right for overcharging. (Starts to go. HERBIE hands her a knife, which she
also takes. But then she stops and returns) They can skip the cold cream
for one night. (Automatically, he gets up and helps her off with her coat.
ROSE, admiringly) All this time we’ve been together, and you still stand up
for me!
HERBIE: It’s instead of standing up to you.
ROSE: O.K., you say we’re never alone. I wanted to have dinner tonight, just the
two of us, but what was I going to do with the girls? They’re babies.
HERBIE: Rose, no matter how you dress ’em, no matter how you smother em,
they’re big girls. They’re almost young women—
ROSE: They’re not and they never will be!
HERBIE: I’m embarrassed in front of them! When are you going to marry me,
Rose?
ROSE: Don’t forget to take our scrapbooks to Mr. Grantziger's tomorrow.
HERBIE: When are you going to quit stalling?

ROSE: We got to show him proof that we headlined on the Orpheum.
HERBIE: Rose—
ROSE: All right: so it was a long time ago.
HERBIE: (Gets up) Rose, if I walk out, you’ll be stuck with the check! (ROSE pulb
HERBIE back into the chair) Honey, don't you know there's a depression?
ROSE: Of course I know! I read Variety.

HERBIE: Don’t you know what it’s doing to vaudeville? Don’t you know what the
talkies are doing to vaudeville? Don’t you know I love you?
ROSE: You think I’d be unfaithful to my husbands if you didn’t? But I have to
think of my girls and their happiness.
HERBIE: Louise is very happy being the front end of a cow!
ROSE: It’s better than being the rear end! Anyway, she loves animals.
HERBIE: She and June should both be in school—
ROSE: And be just like other girls; cook and clean and sit and die! (To a passing
waitress, sweetly) Honey, could I have a spoon to stir my tea? .. . Herbie, I
promised June I’d make her a star and I will. I promised I’d get her on the
Pantages Circuit and I did. I promised I’d get her on the Orpheum Circuit
and I did.
HERBIE: I did! And you promised me that after I did, you’d marry me.
ROSE: I promised her she'd headline on Broadway and—
HERBIE: Didn’t you hear what I said?
ROSE: Yes, but I’m ignoring it. (To the waitress, for the spoon) Thanks, honey.
Herbie, it isn’t very polite for a gentleman to remind a lady that she welched.
There was no date on that promise—
HERBIE: ROSE, STOP HANDING ME—
ROSE: Your stomach! (Quickly handing him a pill) Herbie, why don’t you get
angry outside, instead of letting it settle in your stomach?
HERBIE: I’m afraid.
ROSE: Of me?
HERBIE: Of me.
ROSE: What do you mean?
HERBIE: If I ever let loose, it'll end with me picking up and walking.
ROSE: Only around the block.
HERBIE: No.
ROSE: Don’t say that. (Sings)
You’ll never get away from me.
You can climb the tallest tree,
I’ll be there somehow.
True, you could say, "Hey, here’s your hat,"
But a little thing like that
Couldn’t stop me now.
I couldn’t get away from you
Even if you told me to,
So go on and try!
Just try,
And you’re gonna see
How you’re gonna not at all get away from me!
HERBIE: What is it? What do you want? There are better agents.
ROSE: Not for me.

HERBIE: And even weaker men.
ROSE: Not for me.

HERBIE: Then what?
ROSE: You. Oh, Herbie, just help me like you been helping. Just let me get June’s
name up in lights so big, they’ll last my whole life.
HERBIE: Rose, what you expect—
ROSE: I’ll get! And after I get it, I promise I’ll marry you. (herbie moves away from
the table) I even promise to keep my promise. (Silence) Please, Herbie. I
don’t want to upset anything before the audition tomorrow. Including your
stomach.
HERBIE: (Singing)
Rose, I love you,
But don’t count your chickens.
ROSE: (Singing)
Come dance with me.
HERBIE:
I warn you
That I’m no Boy Scout.
ROSE:
Relax a while—come dance with me.
HERBIE:
So don’t think
That I’m easy pickin’s—
ROSE:
The music’s so nice—
HERBIE:
Rose!
’Cause I just may
Some day
Pick up and pack out.
ROSE:
Oh no, you won’t,
No, not a chance.
No arguments,
Shut up and dance.
You’ll never get away from me,
You can climb the tallest tree—
I’ll be there somehow!
True, you could say, "Hey, here’s your hat,”
But a little thing like that
Couldn't stop me now.
BOTH:
I couldn’t get away from you
Even if I wanted to—
ROSE:
Well, go on and try!
Just try—
HERBIE:
Ah, Rose—
ROSE:
And you’re gonna see—
HERBIE:
Ah, Rose—
ROSE:
How you’re gonna not at all
Get away from me!
(The lights fade)
YOU'LL NEVER GET AWAY FROM ME

Words by Stephen Sondheim (From Gypsy) Music by Jule Styne
Cue,: ROSE: Your stomach!
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ACT I, SCENE 1 OF CAMELOT { 1960) BY ALAN
JAY LERNER AND FREDERICK LOEWE
Characters: Arthur
Guenevere
SETTING: A hilltop near the castle at Camelot. There is a large tree onstage in
which Arthur is hiding.
Time: Afternoon, a long time ago when King Arthur was a young man.
Situation: A royal marriage between Arthur and Guenevere has been arranged
to bring peace to their people, and Arthur has nervously been waiting in the
tree for her to arrive. Guenevere has entered fearfully, running away from
the welcoming party, and has just sung “The Simple Joys of Maidenhood "
COMMENTS: Guenevere is very young and beautiful; she is wearing a flaming red
cloak. Arthur is a boyish young man in his mid-twenties.
Published Texts: Lerner, Alan Jay, and Frederick Loewe. Camelot. New York:
Random House, 1961.
Richards, Stanley (ed). Great Musicals of the American Theatre Vol 2. Rad¬
nor, PA: Chilton Book Company, 1976.
(She turns dejectedly towards the foot of the tree. A branch cracks, and
ARTHUR drops to the floor. GUENEVERE, startled out of her wits, runs)
ARTHUR: A thousand pardons, Milady. Wait! Don’t run. (She stops in the comer
of the stage and looks at him coweringly) Please! I won’t harm you.
GUENEVERE: You lie! You’ll leap at me and throw me to the ground.
ARTHUR: {Amazed, protesting) I won't do any such thing. {He takes a step toward
her. She takes a step backwards. He stops)
GUENEVERE: Then you’ll twist my arm and tie me to a tree.
ARTHUR: But I won’t.
GUENEVERE: Then you’ll sling me over your shoulder and carry me off.
ARTHUR: No, no, no! I swear it! By the Sword Excalibur! I swear I won’t touch
you.
GUENEVERE: {Hurt) Why not? {Sudden rage) How dare you insult me in this
fashion. Do my looks repel you?
ARTHUR: No. You’re beautiful.
GUENEVERE: Well, then? We're alone. I'm completely defenseless. What kind of a
cad are you? Apologize at once.
ARTHUR: {At once) I apologize. I’m not certain what I’ve done, but from the depths
of my heart, I apologize.
GUENEVERE: {With sudden wisdom) Ah! I think I know. You heard me praying.
ARTHUR: I couldn’t help it, Milady. You prayed rather loudly.
GUENEVERE: And you know who I am.
ARTHUR: You're Guenevere.
GUENEVERE: Yes, of course. You’re afraid because I may be your Queen. That
accounts for your respectful, polite, despicable behavior.
SCENES FROM MUSICALS FOR REHEARSAL
Figure 10-1. Richard Burton as Arthur and Julie Andrews as Guenevere in Camelot.
ARTHUR: Milady, I would never harm you for any reason. And as for what to do
with you, I’m at a loss. I know you are to be Queen and I should escort
you back to your carriage. At the same time, you’re a maiden in genuine
distress. It’s chivalry versus country. I can’t quite determine which call to
obey.
GUENEVERE: (Looking off toward the foot of the hill) You’d better decide quickly.
They’ll soon reach the carriage and discover I’m gone. Then all of Camelot
will be searching for me. At least that will be exciting. Unless of course
everyone in Camelot is like you and they all go home to deliberate.
ARTHUR: (Thrown off balance, enamored, captivated, and overcome by a great

sense of inadequacy) Oh, why isn’t Merlyn here! He usually senses when I
need him and appears. Why does he fail me now?
GUENEVERE: Who?
ARTHUR: Merlyn. My teacher. He would know immediately what to do. I’m not
accomplished at thinking, so I have Merlyn do it for me. He’s the wisest
man alive. He lives backwards.
GUENEVERE: I beg your pardon?
ARTHUR: He lives backwards. He doesn't age. He youthens. He can remember
the future so he can tell you what you’ll be doing in it. Do you understand?
(She comes toward him. He never takes his eyes off her, as the wonder of
her comes nearer)
GUENEVERE: (Now at ease) Of course I don't understand. But if you mean he’s
some sort of fortune-teller, I'd give a year in Paradise to know mine. I can
never return to my own castle, and I absolutely refuse to go on to that one.
ARTHUR: (Sadly) You refuse to go on—ever?
GUENEVERE: Ever. My only choice is ... Don’t stare. It's rude. Who are you?
ARTHUR: (After a thought) Actually, they call me Wart.
GUENEVERE: Wart? What a ridiculous name. Are you sure you heard them prop¬
erly?
ARTHUR: It's a nickname. It was given to me when I was a boy.
GUENEVERE: You’re rather sweet, in spite of your name. And I didn't think I'd
like anyone in Camelot. Imagine riding seven hours in a carriage on the
verge of hysteria, then seeing that horrible castle rising in the distance, and
running away; then having a man plop from a tree like an overripe apple ...
You must admit for my first day away from home it’s quite a plateful. If
only I were not alone. Wart, why don’t you ... Is it really Wart?
ARTHUR: Yes.
GUENEVERE: Wart, why don’t you run away with me? (She is enchanted by the
notion)
ARTHUR: I? Run away with you?
GUENEVERE: Of course. As my protector. Naturally, I would be brutalized by
strangers. I expect that. But it would be dreadful if there were no one to
rescue me. Think of it! We can travel the world. France, Scotland, Spain ...
ARTHUR: What a dream you spin, and how easily I could be caught up in it. But
I can’t Milady. To serve as your protector would satisfy the prayers of the
most fanatic cavalier alive. But I must decline.
GUENEVERE: (Angrily) You force me to stay?
ARTHUR: Not at all.
GUENEVERE: But you know you’re the only one I know in Camelot. Whom else
can I turn to?
ARTHUR: Milady, if you persist in escaping, I’ll find someone trustworthy and
brave to accompany you.
GUENEVERE: Then do so immediately. There's not much time.
ARTHUR: Oh, do look around you, Milady. Reconsider. Camelot is unique. We
have an enchanted forest where the Fairy Queen, Morgan Le Fey, lives in
an invisible castle. Most unusual. We have a talking owl named Archimedes.

Highly original. We have unicorns with silver feet. The rarest kind. And we
have far and away the most equitable climate in all the world. Ordained by
decree! Extremely uncommon.
GUENEVERE: Oh, come now.
ARTHUR: (Sings)
It’s true! It’s true! The crown has made it clear:
The climate must be perfect all the year.
A law was made a distant moon ago here,
July and August cannot be too hot;
And there’s a legal limit to the snow here
In Camelot.
The winter is forbidden till December,
And exits March the second on the dot.
By order summer lingers through September
In Camelot.
Camelot! Camelot!
I know it sounds a bit bizarre;
But in Camelot, Camelot
That's how conditions are.
The rain may never fall till after sundown.
By eight the morning fog must disappear.
In short, there’s simply not
A more congenial spot
For happ’ly-ever-aftering than here
In Camelot.
GUENEVERE: (Sarcastically) And I suppose the autumn leaves fall in neat little
piles.
ARTHUR: Oh, no, Milady. They blow away completely. At night, of course.
GUENEVERE: Of course.
(She moves away from him, as if to leave. He leaps after her and blocks her way)
ARTHUR: (Sings)
Camelot! Camelot!
I know it gives a person pause
But in Camelot, Camelot
Those are the legal laws.
The snow may never slush upon the hillside.
By nine p.m. the moonlight must appear.
In short, there’s simply not
A more congenial spot
For happ'ly-ever-aftering than here
In Camelot.
CAMELOT
Words by Alan Jay Lerner (From Camelot) Music by Frederick Loewe
Cue: ARTHUR: Ordained by decree!
...Extremely uncommon.
GUENEVERE: Ob, come now.
Moderato
ARTHUR:
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SCENES FROM MUSICALS FOR REHEARSAL 23 1

ACT II, SCENE 2 OF HOW TO SUCCEED
IN BUSINESS WITHOUT REALLY TRYING
(1961) BY FRANK LOESSER, ABE BURROWS,
JACK WEINSTOCK, WILLIE GILBERT
Characters: Finch
Rosemary
SETTING: Finch's office in the Park Avenue, New York, office building of World
Wide Wicket Company, Inc.
Time: Shortly after Finch has become vice president in charge of advertising.
SITUATION: Finch has risen rapidly in the company through the advice found in
a book that is titled the same as this musical Now he needs a brilliant
advertising idea, A rival, Bud, has deliberately planted with Finch the idea
of the firm's sponsoring a TV give-away program called the World Wide
Wicket Treasure Hunt, although Bud knows that the boss does not like the
concept. Bud has just left, and Finch is thinking about it and looking at a
script for the show when his secretary, Rosemary, enters. Because Finch was
not paying any attention to her, she has earlier written a letter of resignation,
but she has now changed her mind
COMMENTS: Finch is a young man who is consumed with ambition to rise in
the company. He started as a window washer and is now a vice president.
Rosemary, a sweet, tolerant girl, is in love with him.
Published Text: None. In manuscript only.
FINCH: (Left alone, looks at manuscript carefully, X above desk) Treasure hunt.
Could be. A thousand dollar bond. This thing needs some kind of a new
twist. (ROSEMARY enters L)
ROSEMARY: Ponty, I’m back. I changed my mind.
FINCH: (Still lost in thought) Oh, Miss Pilkington.
ROSEMARY: (XR to desk) I don’t blame you for being cold to me. But I did change
my mind.
FINCH: (X back above desk, still preoccupied with manuscript) About what?
ROSEMARY: About what I said in the letter.
FINCH: What letter?
ROSEMARY: My letter of resignation.
FINCH: Your resignation from what?
ROSEMARY: The Girl Scouts of America.
FINCH: Oh.
ROSEMARY: Don’t you understand? (SHE picks up the letter of resignation from
desk, shows it to him, slams it down, then XL by settee) I've quit, resigned,
left you forever!
FINCH: Why are you doing that?
ROSEMARY: (Yelling) Because I was hurt, humiliated, ignored, upset!
FINCH: (Startled) Who did that to you?
ROSEMARY: You.
FINCH: Me. It couldn’t have been me. I haven't said ten words to you all week.
(ROSEMARY stares at him) True?
ROSEMARY: True. (SHE sits on settee)
FINCH: Good. Now listen, Miss Pilkington . ..
ROSEMARY: Must you call me that? Can’t you call me Rosemary?
FINCH: No. And I want you to call me Mr. Finch, until you’re Mrs. Finch.
ROSEMARY: (Dreamy smile) Am I really going to be Mrs. Finch?
FINCH: (XL below desk to her) Oh come on. I thought that was all settled.
ROSEMARY: I keep thinking maybe you forgot.
FINCH: Well I haven’t. You’re going to be Mrs. Finch because we’re going to be
married. Now, may we discuss some serious matters?
ROSEMARY: Oh, sure.
FINCH: Miss Pilkington, I have something I want you to hear. (XR above desk) I
have finally come up with a new idea for a television program. I’m thinking
of railing it the World Wide Wicket Treasure Hunt. (X to C) The prize
would be a thousand-dollar bond. Do you think that's enough? (ROSEMARY
looks at him raptly, doesn’t answer. to her) Maybe we ought to
FINCH XL
make that twenty-five thousand dollars. Listen carefully, Rosemary. (X to
C) What would you say if we gave away a hundred thousand dollars? (SHE
doesn't answer. HE X to her) Two hundred thousand?
ROSEMARY: I don’t care if you give away the whole company. I love you.
FINCH: (Stares at her, then looks front with a happy smile on his face) Say that
again.
ROSEMARY: I love you.
FINCH: No, before that.
ROSEMARY: (Puzzled) I said I don’t care if you give away the whole company.
FINCH: (XR) That’s it! We’ll give away the company. What a prize! Oh, I don’t
mean the whole company. (XR below desk) I mean stock in the company.
Nobody could resist that these days. I've got to have time to work this out.
I’ve got to speak to Mr. Biggley. (HE picks up phone, rosemary rises, X to
him) He’s got to give me a postponement. (Hangs up) No, I’ll go see him.
ROSEMARY: Good luck, Mr. Finch.
FINCH: Thank you, Miss Pilkington. (HE starts off L)
ROSEMARY: Say . . . (HE stops and looks at her) What about taking me to lunch?
Nobody has to see us.
FINCH: (Reprovingly) Miss Pilkington.
ROSEMARY: (With a smile) I'm sorry, Mr. Finch.
(HE exits L)
Copyright 1961 by the Frank Loesser Literary and Musical Trust.
Used by permission.

ACT I, SCENE 13 OF FUNNY GIRL (1964) BY JULE
STYNE, BOB MERRILL, AND ISOBEL LENNART
Characters: Fanny Brice

Nick Arnstein
SETTING: A private dining room in Baltimore with a small table, set for two, in
front of a fireplace. There is also a red velvet chaise lounge.
TIME: Evening: around World War I.
SITUATION: Ten months earlier Fanny and Nick were together at an opening night
party, but he has not tried to see her since then. She is now on the road
starring in Baltimore in the Ziegfeld Follies, and she is angry because of
his negligence. Nick has checked the table, put a blue marble egg on it, and
poured sherry before Fanny enters.
Comments: Fanny, who is a star comic and singer with the Ziegfeld Follies, is
very attracted to Nick. He is a suave, handsome gambler and investor who
is equally interested in her. She should use a slight Yiddish accent.
Published Text: Styne, Jule, Bob Merrill, and Isobel Lennart. Funny Girl. New
York: Random House, 1964.
(FANNY enters—stops for a beat, then, snaps open her fan)

NICK; May I take your wrap? (SHE X!s D in front of him, turns her back to him
and HE helps her off with her cape. As SHE turns toward him, HE looks at
her, beautifully attired in a blue dress) That color is wonderful with your
eyes—
FANNY: Just my right eye. I hate what it does to the left. (X!s R above chaise,
noticing it for the first time. Feels the material far R) Tell me are you
planning to make advances?
NICK; (Xing D C) I wasn't planning but it does seem possible.
FANNY: Before dinner or after dinner?
NICK; (Smiling) You look beautiful. (X's U L and places her cape on chair L of
table)
FANNY: (Sitting on chaise) You don’t have to make leading lady dialogue for
me—I’m a comic.
NICK; Onstage.
FANNY: That’s where I live—onstage.
NICK; (Xing R to her and sits to her L) Then you’re missing too much.
FANNY: You can’t have everything. (Snaps open fan, rises andX's U L to table)
NICK; (Turning toward her) Of course you can—if you insist on it.
FANNY: (Picking up blue marble egg from table) Hey—somebody laid a blue
marble egg on the table.
NICK; I did. (Rises, X'xU to FANNY) I got that in Europe—ages ago. (Taking egg
from her) It’s one of my favorite things—so I thought you might like it.
(Hands it back to her)
FANNY: (Looks at him—then back at table) A blue marble egg—(Places it back on

table) white roses—You went to a lot of trouble even though I told you I
might not show up.
NICK: I hoped you would! Just as I hope you like very dry sherry—(X s R to table)
FANNY: I wouldn’t know dry from wet. I never got past 3B—remember? (As
NICK pours sherry, SHE sits L, Xing legs quickly, first one way, then the
other—trying to find a suitable pose. As nick returns with two glasses of
sherry, SHE snaps to a position of dignity, sniffing the white roses. Sensing
this activity, HE stops for a beat, X s L to table, handing her a glass. HE sits
across from her; THEY clink glasses in a silent toast and THEY drink. SHE
gulps entire drink in one shot and places glass on table as NICK sips his.
After a second sip, HE places his glass gently on table)
NICK: Too bad you never made 4B—that’s where they teach wine-tasting, (fanny
getting sick from gulping sherry, quickly fans herself, trying to recover
her composure as NICK rises, X’s to above table) I remember you very
well, Fanny. Inquisitive—interested in everything—so full of life you made
everyone else look like a sleepwalker. All the things you’re trying not to be
right now—
FANNY: I used to impress very easily—you were my first top hat. But I've met
lots of you since then. I’m a little older, you know—
NICK: Funny—you seem so much younger. About eight, I’d say. A bad-tempered
eight—determined not to enjoy anything! Why? What are you angry about?
FANNY: (Rising; X's R above chaise. Innocently) Who’s angry? I'm sorry if Im—
disappointing you in some way, but what did you expect? That you could
come waltzing into my life after ten months, say, I have a week before I
go to Europe”—
(Sits)
and have me fall into your arms?
NICK: (Xing D) Why don’t you answer the question? Why are you so angry?
FANNY: (With mounting anger) I'm NOT ANGRY! And why don t you answer the
question?! You think I should be flattered because this time your train isn’t
leaving tomorrow morning. This time, you have a week to kill? Well, I m
not a kid at Keeney’s any more! You’re not slumming any more!
NICK: (Xing D C) I never was—and you know it!
FANNY: Don’t holler at me!
NICK: I’m not hollering—you are.
FANNY: That’s different—I'm a natural hollered Anyway, I answered your silly
question.
NICK: (Xing L and sitting next to her) No you didn t, my love. Because you got
angry the minute you saw me—before I said a word. And that surprised
me—because I lit up like a Christmas tree when I heard you were here.
FANNY: (With self-derision) Just at the thought of great big wonderful me, huh?
NICK: Don’t make fun of yourself, Fanny—you don t have to. (fanny pulb herself
up) Yes—it was at the thought of you. And I didn't think of it as a week to
kill. I thought of it as a week to share.
FANNY: (After a beat, looking out front) Why didn’t you turn up at my last two
opening nights?
NICK: I was there.
FANNY: (Turning to him) Why didn’t you come backstage?
NICK: Because you scare me to death. I meet a lot of people and I forget them
as easily as I meet them—but I can’t forget you.
FANNY: (After a beat) Maybe we should—uhh—order now.
NICK: Certainly. (HE rises, starts to X U, stops, looks back at her) If you’re sure
you want to stay.
FANNY: Well, I—I might as well have dinner.
NICK: Very sensible. (Walks to door, rings buzzer)
SCENE FOR THREE WOMEN FROM

ACT I, SCENE 1 OF FIDDLER ON THE
ROOF (1964) BY JOSEPH STEIN, JERRY
BOCK, AND SHELDON HARNICK
CHARACTERS: Tzeitel, oldest daughter of Tevye and Golde

Hodel, the second oldest daughter
Chava, the third oldest daughter
SETTING: The kitchen of Tevye’s house in Anatevka, a village in Russia.
TIME: 1905, on the eve of the revolutionary period; just before the Sabbath.
SITUATION: Tzeitel is nineteen and is admired by a poor tailor, Motel, and a rich
butcher, Lazar Wolf. The matchmaker, Yente, has just talked with Golde
about Tzeitel's prospects. On exiting, Golde has directed Tzeitel to finish
washing the floor.
COMMENTS: The three girls are young and attractive, but the family is poor so
there is no money for dowries. Tzeitel is interested in Motel Hodel likes
the rabbi’s son, and Chava reads a lot. They are dressed in Russian peasant
clothes of the period, and they have buckets and mops or scrub brushes with
which they wash the floor as they talk and sing.
PUBLISHED Texts: Stein, Joseph, Jerry Bock, and Sheldon Harnick. Fiddler on the
Roof. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1964.
(HODEL and CHAVA enter with wash mop and bucket)

HODEL: I wonder if Yente found a husband for you?
TZEITEL: I'm not anxious for Yente to find me a husband.
CHAVA: (Teasing) Not unless it’s Motel, the tailor.
TZEITEL: I didn’t ask you.
HODEL: Tzeitel, you're the oldest. They have to make a match for you before they
can make one for me.
CHAVA: And then after her, one for me.
HODEL: So if Yente brings—
TZEITEL: Oh, Yente! Yente!
HODEL: Well, somebody has to arrange the matches. Young people can't decide
these things for themselves.
CHAVA: She might bring someone wonderful—
HODEL: Someone interesting—
CHAVA: And well off—
HODEL: And important—(Sings “Matchmaker, Matchmaker")
Matchmaker, Matchmaker,
Make me a match,
Find me a find.
Catch me a catch.
Look through your book
And make me a perfect match.
CHAVA:
I’ll bring the veil,
You bring the groom,
Slender and pale.
Bring me a ring for I'm longing to be
The envy of all I see.
HODEL:
For Papa,
Make him a scholar.
CHAVA:
For Mama,
Make him rich as a king.
CHAVA and HODEL:
For me, well,
I wouldn’t holler
If he were as handsome as anything.
Make me a match,
Find me a find,
Catch me a catch.
Night after night in the dark I’m alone,
So find me a match
Of my own.
TZEITEL: Since when are you interested in a match, Chava? I thought you just
had your eye on your books. (HODEL chuckles) And you have your eye on
the rabbi's son.
HODEL: Why not? We only have one rabbi and he only has one son. Why shouldn't
I want the best?
TZEITEL: Because you’re a girl from a poor family. So whatever Yente brings,
you’ll take. Right? Of course right. (Sings)
Hodel, oh Hodel,
Have I made a match for you!
He's handsome, he's young!
All right, he’s sixty-two,
But he’s a nice man, a good catch—true? True.
I promise you’ll be happy.
And even if you’re not,
There’s more to life than that—
Don't ask me what.
Chava, I found him.
Will you be a lucky bride!
He’s handsome, he’s tall—
That is, from side to side.
But he’s a nice man, a good catch—right? Right.
You heard he has a temper.
He’ll beat you every night,
But only when he's sober,
So you’re all right.
Did you think you’d get a prince?

Well, I do the best I can.
With no dowry, no money, no family background
Be glad you got a man.
CHAVA:
You know that I’m
Still very young.
Please, take your time.
HODEL:
Up to this minute
I misunderstood
That I could get stuck for good.
CHAVA and HODEL:
Dear Yente,
See that he’s gentle.
Remember,
You were also a bride.
It's not that
I’m sentimental.
CHAVA, HODEL, and TZEITEL:
It's just that I’m terrified!
Plan me no plans,
I’m in no rush.
Maybe I’ve learned
Playing with matches
A girl can get burned.
So,
Bring me no ring,
Groom me no groom,
Find me no find,
Catch me no catch,
Unless he's a matchless match.
MATCHMAKER, MATCHMAKER
Words by Sheldon Harnick (From Fiddler on the Roof) Music by Jerry Bock
cue: TZEITEL: Oh, Yente — Yente —
cue to continue: m
Allegro - In 1 HODE L: Someone interesting —
CHAVA: And well-off- HODEL:
mm HODEL: And important! w

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All rights administered by Hudson Bay Music, Inc.
All rights reserved. Used by permission.
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SCENE FOR THREE WOMEN FROM ACT U,

SCENE 2 OF MAME (1966) BY JERRY HERMAN,
JEROME LAWRENCE, AND ROBERT E. LEE
Characters: Mame Dennis Burnside

Vera Charles
Agnes Gooch
Ito, Marne’s servant (no lines)
SETTING: The living room of Marne's elegant Beekman Place apartment in New
York City. Because Mame has been away, the furniture is covered, and
packing boxes are in the room.
Time: Late 1930s; six months after Marne’s husband was killed by falling off an
Alp during their honeymoon trip.
SITUATION: On arriving home, Mame finds that her friends have brought a dicta¬
phone, typewriter, and Agnes Gooch, a former nanny who is now a secre¬
tary, so that Mame can write her memoirs. Vera and Mame have celebrated
their reconciliation by singing ‘Bosom Buddies ” and getting slightly drunk.
At the end of the song, they have fallen onto the sofa as Agnes enters from
the kitchen with a bottle of Dr. Pepper.
COMMENTS: Mame, an optimistic, energetic, vital lady of middle years, is fashion¬
ably dressed in white. About the same age is Vera, a sophisticated stage star,
who is in mourning black. Agnes, who wears oxfords, glasses, and a form¬
less, frumpy dress and slip, is a dowdy, naive, unmarried woman who is
awed and fascinated by the two older ladies.
PUBLISHED Text: Lawrence, Jerome, Robert E. Lee, and Jerry Herman. Mame.
New York: Random House, 1967.
MAME: Vera, it's amazing. When I think of all the same men we dated, and still
remained so inseparable.
VERA: Mame! I never dated the same man you did.
MAME: How about Carlo, that sexy Argentinian with all those shoulders?
VERA: (Indignant) Carlo! I never dated Carlo. I married him, I never dated him.
(AGNES, fascinated by the conversation, giggles. They both turn and look at her)
AGNES: Oh, excuse me. But listening to you ladies makes me all goose-pimply.
Y'see, I never had one.
VERA: Never had one what?
AGNES: A date. With a member of the opposite-you-know-what. (MAME and VERA
look at each other; then each takes another long drink, simultaneously. Then
they get an inspiration and get up. AGNES is baffled as the two women circle
her) Mrs. Burnside, is anything wrong?
MAME: Agnes, you’re coming out!
AGNES: (Clutching the side of her dress) Where?
VERA: (Taking off AGNES' glasses) Why, Gooch, you have lovely eyes. Take those
glasses off and leave them off forever.
AGNES: But, Miss Charles, I can’t see anything out of my right eye.
VERA: Who can? Look out of your left one!
MAME: (Pointing to AGNES' shoes) What do you call those things?
AGNES: Orthopedic oxfords.

MAME: Kick ’em off. (Baffled, AGNES complies, mame pulls her dress tight) My
goodness, Agnes—you do have a bust. Where have you been hiding it all
these years? (AGNES breaks away, cowering behind the couch) All your
clothes off, Agnes.
AGNES: Mrs. Burnside! There’s a man in the house.
MAME: Don’t be a goose, Agnes. Get these clothes off and keep them off. (MAME
and VERA peel off AGNES' clothes; she stands trembling in a shapeless slip.
mame calls) Ito! Come in here. We’ve got some work to do.
(ITO scurries in from the kitchen)

AGNES: I don’t have a very clear picture of what’s going on.
VERA: When we’re through with you, honey, men will be breaking down your
door.
AGNES: What about my virtue?
MAME: Virtue! There’s nothing wrong with a harmless smooch.
AGNES: Oh, just the idea of it makes me so nervous, I could die.
MAME: Have a date first—then die. (MAME hands her a drink) This’ll calm you
down.
AGNES: But spirits do the most terrible things to me. I’m not the same girl.
MAME: What’s wrong with that?
AGNES: (Turning to VERA, the bibing expert) Will it mix with Dr. Pepper?
VERA: (Emphatically) He’ll love it.
(AGNES drinks it down in one gulp. MAME pummels her face)
MAME: We really should do something about her complexion. For God’s sake,
Agnes, close your pores. Ito, go upstairs. Drag out that sexy gown I sent
from Paris. And get all my cosmetics: face creams, eyebrow pencils, lipstick.
VERA: And a chisel.
(ITO, giggling, races up the stairs)
MAME: (Striking a pose) Tonight, Agnes, you can be the Queen of Rumania!
(AGNES tries to imitate the regal pose but im¬
mediately gives up, a coward to the core)
AGNES: Mrs. Burnside, I think I know what you’re suggesting I do—and I just
don’t think I can do anything so—suggestive.
MAME: Agnes, where’s your spine? Here you’ve been living in the same house
with me all these years, and you don’t understand what I believe in. LIVE!
That’s what I believe.
AGNES: Live?
MAME: Yes! Life is a banquet, and most poor sons-of-bitches are starving to death!
Live!
(ITO, at the head of the stairs, giggles, waving a pair of silk
stockings like two banners)
AGNES: Live?
VERA: Live!
MAME, AGNES and VERA: LIVE!
(AGNES races up the stairs, intoxicated by the idea)
MAME: We’re the greatest team since Romulus and Remus.

ACT I, SCENE 5 OF CABARET (1966) BY JOE
MASTEROFF, FRED EBB, AND JOHN KANDER
Characters: Clifford Bradshaw

Sally Bowles
Taxi man (no lines)
SETTING: Cliff’s room in an apartment in Berlin, Germany. It has a single bed, a
table, two chairs, washstand, and armoire.
TIME: Daytime; January 1, 1930.
SITUATION: cliff, an American, and Ernst, a German, have met on the train to
Berlin where Ernst, by putting his briefcase with Cliff’s bags, has succeeded
in getting it past a Customs officer without being inspected. Ernst has
explained to Cliff that he did this because his case contained more gifts from
Paris than were permitted Later, Cliff meets Sally, an English entertainer at
the Kit Kat Klub. Although involved with a man named Max, she is attracted
to Cliff, and the next day she arrives at his lodgings with the intent of moving
in. His landlady, who agrees to this, for more rent, and Ernst have just left
the room.
COMMENTS: cliff, who is in his late twenties, is an intelligent, nice-looking writer
from Pennsylvania who gives English lessons to earn a living. Sally, a rather
pretty and sophisticated English nightclub singer in her early twenties, is
wearing a fur coat and green fingernails.
PUBLISHED Texts: Masteroff, Joe, Fred Ebb, and John Kander. Cabaret. New York.
Random House, 1967.
Richards, Stanley (ed.) Great Musicals of the American Theatre. Vol 2. Rad¬
nor, PA: Chilton Book Company, 1976.
(SALLY, still in her fur coat, collapses onto the bed)
CLIFF: Sally, now what’s this all about?

SALLY: Did you guess I was terrified?
CLIFF: Were you?
SALLY: What if you’d—thrown me out? Can you imagine how that would feel-
being thrown out twice in one day?
CLIFF: You mean—Max . .. ?
SALLY- Dear Max. And you know whose fault it was? (She points at CLIFF) If you
hadn't come to the Kit Kat Klub-and been so dreadfuUy attractive-and
recited poetry—(She suddenly sits up) You know what I’d love? A spot of
gin.
CLIFF: Gin?
SALLY: You’ve got some? I mean—I think one must.
CLIFF: No, I don’t have any ...
SALLY: Oh, well, Prairie Oysters, then.
CLIFF: Prairie Oysters?
SALLY: I practically live on them. It’s just a raw egg whooshed around in some
Worcestershire sauce. It’s heaven for a hangover.
CLIFF: I haven't got a hangover, (sally takes eggs, salt, pepper and Worcestershire
sauce out of her coat pocket. CLIFF watches her) That’s quite a coat.
SALLY: It should be. It cost me all I had. Little did I dream how soon I’d be
unemployed.
CLIFF: What about your job at the Klub?
SALLY: Well, that’s rather complicated. You see, one of the owners of the Klub
CLIFF. Dear Max?
SALLY: You’re divinely intuitive! I do hope I’m not going to fall madly in love
with you. Are you in the theatre in any way? (cliff shakes his head) Then
you re safe more or less. Though I do believe a woman can’t be a truly
great actress till she s had several passionate affairs—and had her heart
broken (Manufacturing the Prairie Oysters, sally breaks the eggs on this
line) I should have let Ernst pay my cab fare. He’s got all that money from
Paris.
CLIFF: From Paris?
SALLY: He smuggles it in for some political party.
CLIFF: Ernst is in politics?
SALLY: You didn’t know? He goes to Paris about once a month and brings back
pots of money.
CLIFF: He has to smuggle it in?
SALLY: It s terribly dangerous. But Ernst is so resourceful. He’s discovered the
Customs people almost never open the bags of non-Germans. So, just before
the border, he finds some innocent-looking Englishman—or American
(She completes the Prairie Oysters)
CLIFF: It’s hard to imagine an American that gullible.
(sally hands him his drink. She toasts)
SALLY: Hals and beinbruch. It means neck and leg break. It’s supposed to stop it
happening. Though I doubt it does.
CLIFF: (Toasting) Look—it’s about time we—
SALLY: Drink!
(SALLY drinks her Prairie Oyster. Then CLIFF sips his)
cliff. It s amazing! You know what this tastes like? Peppermint!

SALLY: Oh well, it s your toothbrush glass. I should have rinsed it. (SALLY wan¬
ders over to the writing table. She picks up a book) This is your novel! (She
opens it) It’s in German! (She looks at the cover) Mein Kampf?
CLIFF: It s not my novel. I thought I should know something about German
politics.
SALLY: Why? You’re an American! You know, I’ve never known a novelist. Will
I be allowed to watch you work? I promise to be incredibly quiet
CLIFF: I don’t think I can write with someone else—on the premises.
SALLY: But Im hardly noticeable—really. (Imploring) I’ll go out when you're

writing—take long invigorating walks!
CLIFF: In the middle of the night? And there's another thing: I’m not a prude. At
least, I don t think I m a prude. No—no—I’ve got work to do. I could never
explain this arrangement. It's too peculiar.
SALLY: Peculiar? No, not in the least!

(Spoken, but the music is playing)
I think people are people. I really do, Cliff, don’t you?
I don’t think they should be made to apologize for anything they do.
For example, if I paint my fingernails green—
And it happens I do paint them green—
Well, if someone should ask me why,
I think it’s pretty.
I think it’s pretty, that’s what I reply.
So, if anyone should ask about you and me one day,
You have two alternatives:
You can either say: "Yes, it's true we're living in
delicious sin,”
Or you can simply tell them the truth, and say . .
(SALLY sings)
I met this perfectly marvelous girl
In this perfectly wonderful place
As I lifted a glass to the start of a marvelous year.
Before you knew it she called on the phone, inviting.
Next moment I was no longer alone,
But sat reciting some perfectly beautiful verse
In my charming American style.
How I dazzled her senses was truly no less than a crime.
Now I’ve this perfectly marvelous girl
In my perfectly beautiful room,
And we’re living together and having a marvelous time.
CLIFF: Sally, I’m afraid it wouldn’t work. You’re much too distracting.
SALLY: Distracting? No, inspiring! (She sings)
She tells me perfectly marvelous tales
Of her thrilling scandalous life
Which I’ll probably use as a chapter or two in my book.
And since my stay in Berlin was to force
Creation,
What luck to fall on a fabulous source
Of stimulation.
And perfectly marvelous too
Is her perfect agreement to be
Just as still as a mouse when I’m giving my novel a whirl.
Yes, I've a highly agreeable life
In my perfectly beautiful room,
With my nearly invisible,
Perfectly marvelous girl.
(There is a noise at the door) Oh, it’s the taxi man! (The door bursts open, and
there is the taxi man with a mountain of luggage) Hello, taxi man. Just put them
anywhere. I’ll unpack later. (CLIFF, a little dazed, points to all the baggage) Things do
accumulate. I'll throw most of it away—tomorrow! I promise! (CLIFF helps the taxi
man bring in the bags. SALLY starts counting the pieces) One—two—three—four-
five— (She gives up) There’s really not much point in counting. I never remember
how many there're supposed to be. (7o CLIFF) Can you let me have three marks?
That includes the tip. (cliff hands her a bill) Thank you. (sally hands the bill
to the taxi man, who tips his cap and exits. There is a pause) So quite seriously,
Cliff—please may I stay?
CLIFF: Sally, I can’t afford—
SALLY: Only for a day or two—please?
CLIFF: (Singing)
I met this truly remarkable girl
In this really incredible town,
And she s skillfully managed to talk her way into my room.
SALLY: Oh, Cliff!
CLIFF:
I have a terrible feeling I’ve said a dumb thing;

Besides, I’ve only got one narrow bed.
SALLY:
We’ll think of something.
CLIFF:
And now this wild, unpredictable girl
SALLY:
And this perfectly beautiful man
BOTH:
Will be living together and having a marvelous time.
(They are in each other's arms as the lights fade)

PERFECTLY MARVELOUS
Lyrics by Fred Ebb (From Cabaret) Music by John Kander
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SCENE FOR THREE MEN FROM

SCENE 2 OF 1776 (1969) BY
SHERMAN EDWARDS AND PETER STONE
Characters: John Adams

Benjamin Franklin
Richard Henry Lee
SETTING: The Mall in Philadelphia. A bench is onstage.
TIME: A day in May, 1776.
SITUATION: John Adams is disturbed because the Continental Congress is doing
nothing about declaring its independence from Great Britain. He seeks the
help of Benjamin Franklin, who is seated on the bench.
COMMENTS: Adams, a representative from Massachusetts to Congress, is an ener¬
getic egotist of forty-one, short, blunt, and impatient. Franklin, a calm, wise,
seventy-year-old diplomat, is one of Pennsylvania’s delegates. Lee, a Virginia
representative, is a tall, vibrant, aristocratic individual of forty-five.
Published Texts: Stone, Peter, and Sherman Edwards. 1776. New York: The
Viking Press, 1970.
Richards, Stanley (ecL). Ten Great Musicals of the American Theatre. Radnor,
JOHN: Franklin! You heard what I suffered in there?

FRANKLIN: Heard? Of course I heard—along with the rest of Philadelphia. Lord,
your voice is piercing, John!
JOHN: I wish to heaven my arguments were. By God, Franklin, when will they
make up their minds? With one hand they can raise an army, dispatch
one of their own to lead it, and cheer the news from Bunker's Hill—while
with the other they wave the olive branch, begging the King for a happy
and permanent reconciliation. Why damn it, Fat George has declared us in
rebellion—why in bloody hell can’t they?
FRANKLIN: John, really! You talk as if independence were the rule! It’s never been
done before! No colony has ever broken from the parent stem in the history
of the world!
JOHN: Dammit, Franklin, you make us sound treasonous!
FRANKLIN: Do I? (Thinking) Treason—"Treason is a charge invented by winners
as an excuse for hanging the losers.”
JOHN: I have more to do than stand here listening to you quote yourself.
FRANKLIN: No, that was a new one!

JOHN: Dammit, Franklin, we’re at war!
frankt in To defend ourselves, nothing more. We expressed our displeasure, the
English moved against us, and we, in turn, have resisted. Now our fellow
Congressmen want to effect a reconciliation before it becomes a wai.
JOHN: Reconciliation, my ass! The people want independence!
FRANKLIN: The people have read Mr. Paine’s Common Sense. I doubt the
Congress has. {He studies him) John, why don’t you give it up? Nobody
listens to you—you're obnoxious and disliked.
JOHN: I m not promoting John Adams, I’m promoting independence.

FRANKLIN: Evidently they cannot help connecting the two.
JOHN: (Suspicious) What are you suggesting?
FRANKLIN: Let someone else in Congress propose.
JOHN: Never! (franklin shrugs) Who did you have in mind?
FRANKLIN: I don’t know. I really haven’t given it much thought. (RICHARD HENRY
LEE, a tall, loose-jointed Virginia aristocrat of forty-five, enters)
LEE: You sent for me, Benjamin?
JOHN: (Looking at lee, then at FRANKLIN) Never!!
LEE: Halloo, Johnny.
JOHN: {Nodding) Richard.
FRANKLIN: Richard, John and I need some advice.
LEE: If it’s mine t’give, it's yours, y’know that.
FRANKLIN: Thank you, Richard. As you know, the cause that we support has
come to a complete standstill. Now, why do you suppose that is?
LEE: Simple! Johnny, here, is obnoxious and disliked.
FRANKLIN: Yes, that's true. What’s the solution, I wonder?
LEE: {It’s obvious) Get someone else in Congress to propose—
FRANKLIN: Richard, that's brilliant! Wasn’t that brilliant, John?
JOHN: {Dully) Brilliant.
FRANKLIN: Yes. Now the question remains—who can it be? The man we need
must belong to a delegation publicly committed to support independence,
and at the present time only Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Delaware
have declared our way.
LEE: And Virginia, Benjy—don’t forget Virginia.
FRANKLIN: Oh, I haven t, Richard—how could I? But strictly speaking, while Vir¬
ginia’s views on independence are well known, your legislature in Williams¬
burg has never formally authorized its delegation here in Congress to sup¬
port the cause. Of course, if we could think of a Virginian with enough
influence to go down there and persuade the House of Burgesses—
LEE: Damn me if I haven’t thought of someone!
FRANKLIN and ADAMS: {Together) Who?
LEE: Me!
FRANKLIN: Why didn’t I think of that!
LEE: I’ll leave tonight—why, hell, right now, if y’like! I’ll stop off at Stratford
just long enough to refresh the missus, and then straight to the matter.
Virginia, the land that gave us our glorious Commander-in-Chief—{A short
drum roll)—George Washington, will now give the continent its proposal on
independence! And when Virginia proposes, the South is bound to follow,
and where the South goes the Middle Colonies go! Gentlemen, a salute! To
Virginia, the Mother of American Independence!
JOHN: Incredible! We're free, and he hasn’t even left yet! {To LEE) What makes
you so sure you can do it?
{Music begins)
LEE: Hah!! (Singing)

My name is Richard Henry Lee!
Virginia is my home.
My name is Richard Henry Lee!
Virginia is my home,
And may my horses turn to glue
If I can’t deliver up to you
A resolution—on independency!
For I am F.F.V.
The First Family
In the Sovereign Colony of Virginia.
The F.F.V.
The Oldest Family
In the oldest colony in America!
And may the British burn my land
If I can’t deliver to your hand
Y'see it’s—
Here a Lee
There a Lee
Everywhere a Lee, a Lee!
FRANKLIN and LEE: (Alternating)
Social—
LEE!
Political—
LEE!
Financial—
LEE!
Natural—
LEE!
Eternal—
LEE!
External—
LEE!
Fraternal—
LEE!
Eternal—
LEE!
(Together)
The F.F.V.,
The First Family
In the Sovereign Colony of Virginia!
LEE:
And may my wife refuse my bed
If I can’t deliver (as I said)
JOHN: (Speaking) Spoken modest-Lee. God help us!
FRANKLIN: He will, John! He will!
LEE: (Singing)
They say that God in Heaven
Is everybody’s God.
FRANKLIN:
Amen!
LEE:
I’ll admit that God in Heaven
Is everybody’s God.
But I tell y’, John, with pride,
God leans a little on the side
Of the Lees! The Lees of old Virginia!
Y'see it’s
Here a Lee, there a Lee
Everywhere a Lee—a Lee!
FRANKLIN and LEE:
Here a Lee, there a Lee
Everywhere a Lee—
LEE:
Look out! There’s
Arthur Lee!
“Bobby" Lee! ... an’
General "Lighthorse” Harry Lee!
Jesse Lee!
Willie Lee!
FRANKLIN:
And Richard H.—
LEE:
That’s me!!
And may my blood stop running blue
If I can’t deliver up to you
(He begins strutting, a military cakewalk)
Yes sir, by God, it’s
Here a Lee!
There a Lee!
Come on, boys, join in with me!
(They do, JOHN reluctantly)
Here a Lee! There a Lee!
FRANKLIN: (Speaking) When do y'leave?
LEE: (Singing)
Immediate-Lee/
FRANKLIN: (Speaking) When will you return?
LEE: (Singing)
Short- Lee!
And I’ll come back
T riumphant- Lee!
FRANKLIN and JOHN:

Ev'rywhere a Lee! A Lee!
LEE:
Forrr-warrr . . .
Ho-ooo!
(LEE struts off. FRANKLIN and JOHN follow him almost as far as the wings,
then drop out and return, breathless but relieved)
JOHN: (Speaking) That was the most revolting display I ever witnessed.
FRANKLIN: They’re a warm-blooded people, Virginians!
JOHN: Not him, Franklin—you! You and your infernal obsession for deviousness!
If you’d come right out and asked him straight, he’d’ve been gone a half
hour ago!
FRANKLIN: Cheer up, John. At this very moment our cause is again riding high—
sitting straight in the saddle and in full gallop for Virginia!
THE LEES OF OLD VIRGINIA

Broadway Production by Stuart Ostrow (From 1776) Music and Lyrics by Sherman Edwards
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SCENE FOR TWO MEN, ONE WOMAN FROM

ACT I, SCENE 2 OF COMPANY (1970) BY
STEPHEN SONDHEIM AND GEORGE FURTH
Characters: Robert
Sarah
Harry
SETTING: Sarah and Harry's chic living room on the ground floor of a garden
apartment.
TIME: After dinner.
SITUATION: The three have just finished dinner and are now having coffee.
COMMENTS: Sarah and Harry are a middle-aged married couple. They are very
fond of Robert, a good-looking but thin bachelor of thirty-five.
PUBLISHED Texts: Furth, George, and Stephen Sondheim. Company. New York:
Random House, 1970.
SARAH: (Pouring coffee) There's cinnamon in the coffee, Robert... The odd taste
is cinnamon. Sugar and cream?
ROBERT: Both. May I have lots of both?
SARAH: Of course you may.
HARRY: Do you want some brandy in it, Robert? Or do you just want some
brandy?
ROBERT: You having some?
SARAH: We don’t drink, but you have some, you darling. Go ahead.
HARRY: Or do you want a real drink? We have anything you want.
ROBERT: Well, Harry, if you don’t mind, could I have some bourbon?
HARRY: Right. {He goes to the bar and begins the elaborate preparation of
ROBERTS drink)
SARAH: Sweetheart!
HARRY: Okay, darling.
ROBERT: (As HARRY gets the bourbon) Are you both on the wagon? Sarah? You’re
not on the wagon?
SARAH: Goodness, Robert, all the questions! Or do you just collect trivia like some
old quiz kid? We spend half of our lives with you and now you notice
Harry’s on the wagon?
HARRY: A year and a half.
SARAH: No, love. Just a year.
HARRY: It was a year in February. It's a year and a half now.
SARAH: I know for a fact next month it will be a year.
HARRY; And a half.

SARAH: One year. Count it, one! Harry got arrested for being drunk, and quit out
of some kind of humiliation.
HARRY: I quit to see if I could is actually what happened. C’mon, I must have
told you about all that.
ROBERT: Never. You never mentioned it or I never would have brought you the
bourbon. How were you arrested?
SARAH: Another question! Here, why don’t you have one of these brownies you
brought?
HARRY: I was in California on business and I really got soused one night and
these guys drove me back to my hotel, but instead of going in, I walked
down to the corner to get something to eat to sober up. {He has poured the
bourbon into Robert’s glass, and sniffs it longingly)
SARAH: {Interrupting) You said it was three blocks away.
HARRY: No, just the corner.
SARAH: {In a stage whisper to ROBERT) Three blocks away.
HARRY. Anyway, this patrol car stopped me and said, "You're drunk.” I said,
"Drunk? I’m clobbered.” He said, "I'm taking you in.” "Take me to my hotel,
for God’s sake,” I said. “It’s just on the comer.” {He cracks the ice and adds
the soda)
SARAH: Three blocks away.
(ROBERT moves to the bar and reaches for his drink, but is stopped by harry,
who indicates that the lemon peel has not yet been added)
HARRY: Anyway, they mugged me and booked me for being drunk. Unbelievable.
California is a police state, though. And then, Robert, the very next time
I was out there, I got arrested all over again—drunk driving. I only had
wine—
SARAH: Only five bottles ...
HARRY: And I insisted on taking a drunk test. I flunked it by one point. {He adds
lemon peel to the drink with a flourish)
SARAH: And that is when you quit, precious. He always thinks it was the first
arrest, but it was the second. We never told you that? Curious, I thought
Harry had told everybody.
HARRY: {His gaze fixed on Robert’s drink) Anyway, I quit to see if I really had a
drinking problem, and I don’t.
SARAH: Just a problem drinking
(ROBERT finally takes the drink from harry, breaking Harry’s “trance”)
ROBERT: Do you miss it?
SARAH: See how you talk in questions! Harry, do you miss it?
HARRY: No. No, I really don’t.
SARAH: {Loud whisper to ROBERT) Yes. Yes, he really does. {Full voice, and a wave
to HARRY) Hi, darling.
HARRY: Anyway, I stopped. Haven’t had a drink since.
SARAH: Whoops.
HARRY: What’s whoops? I haven’t had a drink since.
SARAH: {She sings this)
At Evelyn and George’s wedding.
HARRY: A toast, for God’s sake. Sorry, Robert, you must have noticed how
staggering falling-down drunk I got on one swallow of champagne.
SARAH: I never said you got drunk, but you did have the champagne.
HARRY: A swallow. One swallow.
SARAH: And it was gone. An elephant’s swallow.
ROBERT: I’d like to ask for another bourbon, but I’m terrified.
(HARRY grabs the glass and runs back to the bar)
SARAH: Darling Robert, put a nipple on the bottle for all we care. Don t you want
a brownie?
ROBERT: God, no. I’ll bust.
SARAH: Bust? You bust! You skinny thing. Just look at you. Bones. You’re skin
and bones. I bet when you get on a scale it goes the other way—minus.
ROBERT: Well, thank you, Sarah. I am touched and honored. And I think I was
just insulted.
SARAH: (Takes a brownie from the box) Oh, Robert, I was praying that you d eat
just one so I could watch.
ROBERT: Sarah! Is it possible you’ve become a food voyeur?
SARAH: Mexican food. What I crave without cease is Mexican food. With all the
Tabasco sauce in the world.
HARRY: (With his back to SARAH, but knowing what she's up to) Don’t eat that
brownie!
SARAH: I’m not. I’m just smelling it. Oh, Robert, you eat one!
ROBERT: Not with bourbon. (Takes his second drink) Thank you, Harry.
(HARRY looks upset, as he hasn't the lemon nor his other “extras )
SARAH: And chocolate. I'd kill for chocolate. Or a baked potato with sour cream
and chives. Doesn’t that just make you writhe? Or hot sourdough bread
and all the butter there is.
HARRY: Chili.
SARAH: Oh, chili, dear God, yes, chili!
HARRY: Manicotti.
SARAH: Manicotti. One teaspoon of manicotti.
HARRY: Sara Lee cake.
SARAH: Sara Lee cake! Sara Lee is the most phenomenal woman since Mary
Baker Eddy.
HARRY: How about sweet and sour shrimp?
SARAH: How about sweet and sour pork?

(She pretends to pass out by falling behind the sofa, but ROBERT has seen
her stick a brownie in her mouth on the way down. She eats it, hidden from
their sight behind the sofa. ROBERT watches this, and turns in time to see
HARRY stealing one swallow of bourbon)
ROBERT: (Crosses to the sofa and calls to the hidden SARAH) I get the impression
you guys are on diets.
HARRY: Not me. Sarah.
SARAH: (Rises and crosses from behind the sofa, still chewing) Look at these
pants. You can put your fist in there. That’s how much weight I’ve lost.
HARRY: She always does that. Look, I can put my fist in my pants too, you know.
She thinks I buy that.
SARAH: Darling, I’ve lost eight pounds already.

HARRY: It s the magazines, Robert. Did you ever look at any of those women’s
magazines? Pages and pages of cakes and pies and roasts and potatoes. I
bet Sarah subscnbes to about forty magazines. It’s a sickness. We’re up to
our ass in magazines.
SARAH: I read them all.
HARRY: Don’t.
SARAH: Do.
HARRY: Look at this, Robert. Wrestling. She even subscribes to a magazine on
wrestling.
SARAH: Karate, not wrestling. It’s karate.
HARRY: Wouldn’t you like to see it? All those fat broads in her gym learning
karate. What wouldn’t you give to see that?
SARAH: Strangely enough, darling, I’m terribly good at it.
ROBERT: How long have you been studying it?
SARAH: (To ROBERT, in a mock-scolding tone) Who asked that question? Oh
Robert! Seven months.
HARRY: Show us some karate.
SARAH: No. Robert, would you like some more coffee, love? You, Harry?
HARRY: No. I want some karate. I want to see how my money is being wasted
SARAH: No.
ROBERT: Do one thing.
SARAH: No.
ROBERT: (Flirtatiously) Come on, Sarah, I really would give anything to see you
do just one. I bet you are excellent. Hey, I'll be your partner.
SARAH: (Responding girlishly) No. Oh, Harry, this is embarrassing.
HARRY: Aw, come on.
SARAH: My God—all right.
HARRY: Hooray!
SARAH: One throw!
HARRY: Hooray!
SARAH: Harry, do you want to stand there?
HARRY: Where?
SARAH: There.
HARRY: All right. I’m standing here. Now what?
(SARAH, With intense concentration, goes into her karate preparation ritual
hdd!)16 Wlth kneebend3’ deeP~hreathing, grunts and a variety of chops and
SARAH: Okay. Now just come at me.

HARRY: Okay.
(He does, and she lets out a piercing samurai sound, “Hyieeeee, "flipping him
spread-eagle to the floor. SARAH does a Japanese bow to HARRY, and does a
feminine tiptoe dance to the sofa, where she lies majestically and adorably
looking at her fingernails)
ROBERT: Fantastic. That’s hysterical.

HARRY: (Gets up and moves away, doing some sort of twist to loosen his back
from the impact of the fall) Actually, I could have prevented that.
SARAH: How?
HARRY: By blocking it.
SARAH: No, that can’t be blocked.
HARRY: It certainly can. I just didn’t do it.
SARAH: Anyway, Robert, that can’t be blocked.
HARRY: Let's do it again.
SARAH: All right, darling. (She is the sweet killer, arranging herself)
HARRY: I’ll come at you again.
SARAH: Okay. {He goes at her. She attempts the same thing and he blocks it by
lifting her and putting her over his shoulder. Taken by surprise, SARAH
quickly reworks the movement in her mind and comes up with her mistake)
Oh, I see. Put me down. Okay, do it again.
{He does it again and she overcomes his block, throwing him again. She
then gives a karate scream and jumps on top of him, pinning him down.)
SCENE FOR ONE MAN, TWO WOMEN

FROM ACT I, SCENE 6 OF GREASE (1972)
BY JIM JACOBS AND WARREN CASEY
Characters: Sandy Dumbrowski

Danny Zuko
Patty Simcox
Setting: Rydell High School
Time: Late 1950s, soon after the beginning of the school year.
Situation: Sandy, who is new to Rydell High School, is surprised to find that
Danny, whom she met and was attracted to last summer, is also a student
here. As the scene begins, she is practicing for the cheerleaders’ tryouts, to
which she has been invited by Patty. The Band-Aid on her ear is the result
of a girl’s piercing her ear for earrings.
COMMENTS: Danny is the leader of his gang, a well-built, nice-looking, confident
boy with a cool charm. Sandy is cute, wholesome, and naive. Patty is a
cheerleader who is attractive and athletic, but rather catty.
Published Texts: Jacobs, Jim, and Walter Casey. Grease. New York: Winter
House Ltd, 1972.
Richards, Stanley (ed). Great Rock Musicals. New York: Stein and Day, 1979.
(SANDY runs on with pom-poms, dressed in a green baggy gymsuit. SHE does a
Rydell cheer)
SANDY:
Do a split, give a yell,
Throw a fit for old Rydell.
Way to go, green and brown,
Turn the foe upside down.
(SANDY does awkward split. DANNY enters)
DANNY: Hiya, Sandy.
(SANDY gives him a look and turns her head so that DANNY sees the Band-Aid
on her ear)
Hey, what happened to your ear?
SANDY: Huh? (SHE covers her ear with her hand, answers coldly) Oh, nothing.
Just an accident.
DANNY: Hey, look, uh, I hope you’re not bugged about that first day at school. I
mean, couldn’t ya tell I was glad to see ya?
SANDY: Well, you could’ve been a little nicer to me in front of your friends.
DANNY: Are you kidding? Hey, you don’t know those guys. They just see ya talkin’
to a chick and right away they think she puts . . . well, you know what I
mean.
SANDY: I m not sure. It looked to me like maybe you had a new girlfriend or
something.
DANNY: Are you kiddin’! Listen, if it was up to me, I’d never even look at any
other chick but you. (sandy blushes) Hey, tell ya what. We’re throwin’ a
party in the park tonight for Frenchy. She’s gonna quit school before she
Figure 10-2. Grease, as produced at Marshall University. Scene designer: Bruce Green¬
wood.
(Photo: Rick Haye.)
flunks again and go to Beauty School. Howdja like to make it on down

there with me?
SANDY: I’d really like to, but I’m not so sure those girls want me around anymore.
DANNY: Listen, Sandy. Nobody’s gonna start gettin salty with ya when Im
around. Uh-uhh!
SANDY: All right, Danny, as long as you’re with me. Let s not let anyone come
between us again, okay?
PATTY: (Rushing onstage with two batons and wearing cheerleader outfit) Hiiiii-
iiiii, Danny! Oh, don’t let me interrupt. (Gives SANDY baton) Here, why don t
you twirl this for a while. (Taking DANNY aside) I’ve been dying to tell you
something. You know what I found out after you left my house the other
night? My mother thinks you’re cute. (To sandy) He’s such a lady-killer.
SANDY: Isn’t he, though! (Out of corner of mouth, to DANNY) What were you doing
at her house?
DANNY: Ah, I was just copying down some homework.
PATTY: Come on, Sandy, let’s practice.
SANDY: Yeah, let's! I'm just dying to make a good impression on all those cute
lettermen.
DANNY: Oh, that’s why you’re wearing that thing—gettin’ ready to show off your
skivvies to a bunch of homy jocks?
SANDY: Don't tell me you’re jealous, Danny.
DANNY: What? Of that buncha meatheads! Don’t make me laugh. Ha! Ha!
SANDY: Just because they can do something you can’t do?
DANNY: Yeah, sure, right.
SANDY: Okay, what have you ever done?
DANNY^ ( To PATTY, twirling baton) Stop that! (Thinking a moment) I won a Hully
Gully contest at the "Teen Talent” record hop.
SANDY: Aaahh, you don't even know what I’m talking about.
DANNY: Whattaya mean, look, I could run circles around those jerks.
SANDY: But you’d rather spend your time copying other people’s homework.
DANNY: Listen, the next time they have tryouts for any of those teams I’ll show
you what I can do.
PATTY: Oh, what a lucky coincidence! The track team’s having tryouts tomorrow.
DANNY: (Panic) Huh? Okay, I'll be there.
SANDY: Big talk.
DANNY: You think so, huh? Hey, Patty, when'dja say those tryouts were?
PATTY: Tomorrow, tenth period, on the football field.
DANNY: Good, I’ll be there. You’re gonna come watch me, aren’t you?
PATTY: Oooohh, I can’t wait!
DANNY: Solid. 111 see ya there, sexy. (Exits)
PATTY: Toodles! (.Elated, turns to SANDY) Ooohh, I’m so excited, aren't you?
SANDY: Come on, let's practice.
SUGGESTED
READING
MUSICAL THEATRE
Balk, H. Wesley. The Complete Singer-Actor. 2d ed. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, 1985.
_. Performing Power. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985.
Bordman, Gerald. American Musical Revue. New York: Oxford University Press,
1985.
_. American Musical Theatre. Expanded ed. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1986.
-. American Operetta. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981.
Cohen, Selma Jeanne (ed.). Dance as a Theatre Art. New York: Dodd, Mead &
Company, 1974.
Craig, David. On Performing. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1987.
_. On Singing On Stage. New York: Schirmer Books, 1978.
Engel, Lehman. American Musical Theatre. Rev. ed. New York: The Macmillan
Company, 1975.
_. Getting the Show On. New York: Schirmer Books, 1983.
_. The Making of a Musical New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1977.
_. Planning and Producing the Musical Show. Rev. ed. New York: Crown
Publishers, Inc., 1966.
Ewen, David. Complete Book of the American Musical Theater. New York: Henry
Holt and Company, 1958.
_ The Story of Americas Musical Theatre. Philadelphia: Chilton Book Co.,
Frankel, Aaron. Writing the Broadway Musical New York: Drama Book Specialists
(Publishers), 1977. , , ,
Green, Stanley. Encyclopaedia of the American Musical Theatre. New York: Dodd,
Mead & Co., Inc., 1976. _ ino..
_ The World of Musical Comedy. 4th ed. New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1984.
Jacob, Ellen. Dancing: A Guide for the Dancer You Can Be. Reading, MA: Addison-
Wesley Publishing Co., 1981.
Kislan, Richard. Hoofing on Broadway. New York: Prentice-Hall Press, 1987.
_’ The Musical Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1980.
Kosarin, Oscar. The Singing Actor. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1983.
Laufe, Abe. Broadway's Greatest Musicab. Rev. ed. New York: Funk & Wagnalls,
Inc., 1973.
291
Laughlin, Haller, and Randy Wheeler. Producing the Musical Westport, CT: Green¬
wood Press, 1984.
Lerner, Alan Jay. The Musical Theatre. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company
1986.
Litvinoff, Valentina. The Use of Stanislavsky Within Modern Dance. New York:
American Dance Guild, Inc., 1972.
Lucha-Burns, Carol. Musical Notes. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986.
Mates, Julian. America's Musical Stage. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985.
Minton, Sandra. Modern Dance: Body and Mind Englewood, CO: Morton Publish¬
ing Company, 1984.
Mordden, Ethan. Broadway Babies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.
Richards, Stanley (ed.). Great Musicals of the American Theatre. Vol. 2. Radnor,
-. Great Rock Musicals. New York: Stein and Day/Publishers, 1979.
-. Ten Great Musicals of the American Theatre. Radnor, PA: Chilton Book
Company, 1973.
Rodgers, Richard, and Oscar Hammerstein II. Six Plays by Rodgers and Hammer-
stein. New York: Random House, 1963.
Schmidt, Jan. Basics of Singing. New York: Schirmer Books, 1984.
Smith, Cecil, and Glenn Litton. Musical Comedy in America. Rev. ed. New York:
Theatre Arts Books, 1981.
Stanislavski, Constantin, and Pavel Rumyantsev. Stanislavski on Opera. Tr. and
ed. by Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1975.
Stearns, Marshall and Jean. Jazz Dance. New York: Schirmer Books, 1968.
Tumbusch, Tom. Complete Production Guide to Modern Musical Theatre. The
Theatre Student Series. New York: Richards Rosen Press, Inc., 1969.
-. Guide to Broadway Musical Theatre. The Theatre Student Series. New York:
Richards Rosen Press, Inc., 1972.
ACTING
Albright, Hardie, and Arnita Albright. Acting: The Creative Process. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1980.
Benedetti, Robert L. The Actor at Work. 3d ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
Inc., 1981.
Cohen, Robert. Acting Professionally. Palo Alto, CA: National Press Books, 1972.
Crawford, Jerry L. Acting in Person and in Style. 3d ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C.
Brown Company Publishing, 1983.
Franklin, Miriam A. Rehearsal 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
1972.
Glenn, Stanley L. The Complete Actor. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1977.
Hagen, Uta. Respect for Acting. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1973.
Kahan, Stanley. Introduction to Acting. 2d ed. Newton, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.,
1985.
King, Nancy R. A Movement Approach to Acting. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1981.
-. Theatre Movement: The Actor and His Space. New York: Drama Book
Specialists (Publishers), 1972.
Markus, Tom. The Professional Actor: From Audition to Performance. New York:
Drama Book Specialists (Publishers), 1979.
Moore, Sonia. The Stanislavski System. 2d rev. ed. New York: Penguin Books
1984.
SUGGESTED READING 293
Nahas, Rebecca. Your Acting Career. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1976.
Novak, Elaine Adams. Styles of Acting. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1985.
Penrod, James. Movement for the Performing Artist. Palo Alto, CA: National Press
Books, 1974.
Rockwood, Jerome. The Craftsmen of Dionysus. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman
and Company, 1966.
Seyler, Athene, and Stephen Haggard. The Craft of Comedy. New York: Theatre
Arts Books, 1957.
Spolin, Viola. Improvisation for the Theatre. Evanston, IL: Northwestern Univer¬
sity Press, 1963.
Stanislavski, Constantin. An Actor Prepares. Tr. by Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood.
New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1936.
-. Building a Character. Tr. by Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. New York:
Theatre Arts Books, 1949.
-. Creating a Role. Tr. by Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. New York: Theatre
Arts Books, 1961.
_. My Life in Art. Tr. by J. J. Robbins. New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1924.
AUDITIONING
Epstein, Lawrence S. A Guide to Theatre in America. New York: Macmillan Pub¬
lishing Company, 1985.
Henry, Mari Lyn, and Lynne Rogers. How to Be a Working Actor. New York: M.
Evans and Company, Inc., 1986.
Hunt, Gordon. How to Audition: A Casting Director’s Guide for Actors. New York:
Dramatist's Publishing Co., 1977.
Oliver, Donald. How to Audition for the Musical Theatre. New York: Drama Book
Publishers, 1985.
Shurtleff, Michael. Audition: Everything an Actor Needs to Know to Get the Part.
New York: Walker and Company, 1978.
Silver, Fred. Auditioning for the Musical Theatre. New York: Newmarket Press,
1985.
VOICE AND DIALECTS

Anderson, Virgil A. Training the Speaking Voice. 3d ed. New York: Oxford Um-
versity Press, 1977.
Blunt, Jerry. Stage Dialects. San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1967.
(With tapes.)
_. More Stage Dialects. New York: Harper & Row, 1980. (With tapes.)
Hill, Harry, with Robert Barton. A Voice for the Theatre. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1985. . ...
Linklater, Kristin. Freeing the Natural Voice. New York: Drama Book Specialists
(Publishers), 1976. _
Machlin, Evangeline. Dialects for the Stage: A Manual and Two Cassette Tapes.
New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1975.
_. Speech for the Stage. Rev. ed. New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1980.
Stem, David Alan. Acting with an Accent. Los Angeles: Dialect Accent Specialists,
Inc., 1979. (With tapes.)
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

Oxenford, Lyn. Playing Period Plays. London: J. Garnet Miller Ltd., 1958.
Russell, Douglas A. Period Style for the Theatre. Boston: Allyn and Bacon Inc
1980.
STAGE FIGHTING
Gordon, Gilbert. Stage Fights. New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1973.
Hobbs, William. Stage Combat. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1981.
Katz, Albert M. Stage Violence. The Theatre Student Series. New York: Richards
Rosen Press, Inc., 1976.
Kezer, Claude D. Principles of Stage Combat. Schulenburg, TX: I. E. Clark, Inc.,
1983.
Martinez, J. D. Combat Mime. Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers, 1982.
STAGE MAKEUP
Corson, Richard. Stage Makeup. 7th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc
1986.
Smith, C. Ray (ed.). The Theatre Crafts Book of Make-up, Masks and Wigs. Em-
maus, PA: Rodale Press, 1974.
Terry, Ellen and Lynne Anderson. Make-up and Masks. The Theatre Student
Series. New York: Richards Rosen Press, Inc., 1971.
Westmore, Michael. The Art of Theatrical Makeup for Stage and Screen. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973.
GLOSSARY OF
THEATRICAL TERMS
Above Upstage or away from the audience; to move above someone or a prop¬
erty is to move upstage of that person or prop.
Ad-lib To improvise words and actions.
Air The places in a song where singers do not sing but music is played.
Apron The part of the stage that is downstage of the front curtain.
Aria An operatic solo.
Aside A short remark made by a character to the audience that other people
onstage are not supposed to hear.
Backdrop (or drop) A large sheet of painted canvas or muslin that hangs at the
back of a set.
Backstage The areas behind the stage set, including the dressing rooms.
Balance (1) An aesthetically pleasing integration of performers, set, properties,
and lighting on a stage. (2) A person's steadiness that results when all parts
of the body are properly adjusted to each other.
Bar (1) In music, one bar is one measure. (2) (often spelled barre) A handrail
used by dancers in exercising.
Below Downstage or toward the audience; to move below someone or a property
is to move downstage of that person or prop.
Belt To sing in a forceful manner using the chest voice.
Bit part A small role.
Blackout A sudden darkening of the stage; used in many musicals at the ends
of scenes.
Block To plan the movements of performers.
Border A drapery or short drop hanging across the stage above the acting area
to mask the fly loft and overhead lights.
Box office The place where tickets are sold for admission to performances.
Box set A realistic representation of a room with three walls and often a ceiling.
Breakaway A costume or prop that is especially constructed to come apart easily
onstage and to be assembled quickly for the next performance.
Bridge (1) See release. (2) See segue.
Build To increase the loudness, rate of speed, and energy of a line, speech, scene,
or song in order to reach a climax.
295
Burn (or slow burn) A slow, comic realization that something bad has happened;
the disgust and anger builds within the comedian until he or she explodes in
rage.
Business See stage business.
Call (1) Announcement to performers or crews that they are needed for a
rehearsal or performance. (2) Warning to performers to get ready for an
entrance.
Callboard The place backstage in a theatre where company rules, announce¬
ments, notes, and messages are posted.
Cheat To move slightly to improve the stage picture or to turn more toward the
audience for better audibility.
Chorus (1) A group of people who sing and/or dance. (2) (also called the refrain)
The main part of a song, often having thirty-two measures.
Closed turn A turn made away from the audience, so that the spectators see the
back of the actor.
Combo A small combination of instrumentalists who usually play piano, bass,
percussion, and, perhaps, another instrument or two.
Counter (or dress stage) A small movement made by an actor to better the stage
picture after a cross by another performer.
Cover (1) To stand accidentally in front of someone so that the audience cannot
see that person. (2) To deceive an audience by concealing an action, such as a
stabbing.
Cross (sometimes abbr. X) To move from one place to another on a stage.
Cue The signal for performers and technicians to speak, enter, turn on lights,
play a tape, and so forth.
Curtain call Bowing and receiving the audience’s applause at the end of the
show or, sometimes in opera, at the end of an act.
Cyclorama (abbr. eye, pronounced “sike”) A curved curtain, drop, or wall often
painted to look like the sky and used at the rear and sides of the stage.
Deadpan An impassive, matter-of-fact manner with no facial expressions.
Double (1) To play more than one role in a production. (2) One who resembles a
member of the cast and takes his or her place in scenes needing special skills.
Double take A delayed reaction to a line or situation after an initial failure to
see anything unusual.
Dress rehearsal A final rehearsal in which costumes, makeup, and hairstyles are
worn to make the rehearsal as close to a performance as possible.
Dress stage See counter.
Drop See backdrop.
Elevator stage Stage in which sections of the floor may be raised or lowered to
change scenery.
Ensemble A group of singers, dancers, actors, or musicians.
Entr’acte (1) The orchestral opening to the second act of a musical. (2) A dance,
musical number, or interlude performed between the acts of a play.
Entrance (1) Entering the stage. (2) An opening in the set that is used for entering.
Exit (1) Leaving the stage. (2) An opening in the set that is used for leaving.
Extra (or walk-on) A person who is onstage to provide atmosphere and back¬
ground and who may speak only with a group.
Feed line See straight line.
GLOSSARY OF THEATRICAL TERMS 297
Flat A wooden frame covered with canvas or muslin that is painted and used
as part of a set.
Floor plan (or ground plan) A line drawing of a stage set as seen from above; it
shows the placement on the stage floor of the scenic elements, such as walls,
doors, windows, fireplaces, platforms, steps, furniture, and other set props.
Fly loft (or flies) The space above the stage from which scenery and lights may
hang.
Focal point The place onstage of greatest interest to the audience at that mo¬
ment.
Focus (1) To look at someone or something. (2) To adjust the beam size of a
spotlight.
Follow spotlight A lighting instrument operated in the back of the house by an
electrician who moves it to follow the movements of one or more performers.
Freeze To stop all movement.
Give stage To permit another actor to have the dominant position.
Greenroom A traditional backstage waiting lounge and reception room for per¬
formers.
Ground plan See floor plan.
Heads up! A warning to those onstage that something is falling or being lowered
from the flies and that everyone should look up to determine if he or she is
in danger of being hit.
Heavy The role of a villain.
House (1) The places where the audience is seated, the lobby, and other areas
in front of the stage curtain. (2) The audience.
Ingenue The role of a young girl.
In one In a wing and drop setting, it is the area that is downstage of the first set
of wings and drop.
Jackknife stage Large wagon that, when it is facing the audience, is permanently
pivoted at one corner (usually a downstage corner in the right or left wing
area) and is swung on and offstage in a motion resembling the opening and
closing of a jackknife.
Juvenile The role of a young man.
Kill (1) To lose the effectiveness of a line, action, or stage effect. (2) To eliminate
something, such as a light.
Laugh line See punch line.
Libretto (Italian word meaning "little book”) The text of an opera or musical.
Malapropism The use of an incorrect word that sounds similar to the intended
word.
Measure A group of notes indicated on a musical staff between vertical bar lines.
Monologue A long speech by one character.
Move in (or on) To move toward the center of the stage.
Move out (or off) To move away from the center of the stage.
Mug To use exaggerated facial expressions.
Open turn A turn made toward the audience so that the spectators see the front
of the actor.
Open up To turn toward the audience.
Orchestra (1) A group of musicians who perform together. (2) The main floor of
a theatre.
Orchestra pit See pit.

Out front The auditorium, lobby, and other public areas.
Overplay To exaggerate or use more force than is needed.
Overture The orchestral beginning of a musical, opera, or play.
Pantomime To perform an action in character without speaking words, although
sounds may be uttered.
Pas de deux A dance for two people.
Phrase (1) A thought-group of words. (2) A small part, typically two to four
measures, of a melody. (3) A small series of dance movements.
Pick up To speed up or shorten the time between a cue and the next line.
Pit (or orchestra pit) The area between the stage and the front row of seats where
the orchestra usually plays.
Plant To emphasize a line or a prop because of its later importance to the plot.
Pointe (or point) A position in ballet in which dancers wearing toeshoes dance
on the tips of their toes.
Point up (or play up) To make a line or action more emphatic.
Practical Any onstage prop, light, or piece of scenery that can be used by
performers and is not just decorative; for example, a table lamp that can
be turned on or a window that can be opened.
Pratfall A fall on the buttocks.
Promptbook A copy of the script in which all information is recorded that is
essential for the production of the show.
Prompter Person who holds the promptbook offstage during rehearsals and
performances and provides lines to forgetful performers.
Property (or prop) An article or object that is carried by performers (such as a
cane, sword, or fan) or is used on the set (such as a piece of furniture, pillow,
picture, or drapery).
Proscenium The permanent architectural arch that separates the stage from the
audience.
Punch line (or laugh line) A line that should get a laugh from the audience.
Ramp A sloping walkway that rises gradually from one level to another.
Recitative Operatic dialogue that is sung in a way that suggests the inflections
of speech.
Refrain (or chorus) The main part of a song, often having thirty-two measures.
Release (or bridge) In an AABA format for a song, the release is the B section;
it has a different melody than the A section.
Reprise The repetition of a song or part of a song.
Revolve A circular platform that can be turned to change sets; it may be per¬
manently built into the stage or mounted temporarily on the floor.
Revolving stage A stage that has a revolve.
Rideout The end of a song, including the singer’s last syllable and the following
music.
Ring down Close the front curtain.
Ring up Open the front curtain.
Running gag Comic business that is repeated throughout a show.
Run-through A rehearsal in which a scene, act, or entire show is played without
interruption.
GLOSSARY OF THEATRICAL TERMS 299
Scrim A curtain, drop, or set made of net or gauze that is opaque when lighted
from the front but becomes transparent when lighted from behind.
Script The dialogue, lyrics, and stage directions of a musical or play.
Segue (pronounced "seg-way”) (also termed bridge) Transition from one musical
number to another.
Share To have two or more performers equally dominant onstage.
Shtick (also spelled shtik or schtick) A repeated bit of comic business, routine,
or gimmick used by a star performer.
Sides Half sheets of paper that have one character’s speaking lines and lyrics
with cues and stage directions.
Sight gag Visual humor from a funny prop, costume, makeup, hairstyle, or
movement.
Sight lines Imaginary lines from the seats at the sides of the house and the top
of the balcony to the stage to determine what parts of the acting area will be
visible to audience members sitting in those seats.
Slapstick (from a device made of two slats that makes a loud noise when used
by a performer to strike someone) Comedy that stresses horseplay and wild
physical buffoonery.
Soliloquy The revelation of thoughts and feelings by a character when alone
onstage.
Spectacle The visual elements of a stage production (the scenery, properties,
lighting, costumes, makeup, movements, and dancing) and, by extension,
those productions in which the visual elements are predominant.
Spike To mark the stage floor with chalk or tape to indicate the position of
furniture, properties, or scenery so that they will be placed correctly during
scene shifts.
S.R.O. A sign meaning “Standing Room Only” that is displayed at the box office
when all seats have been sold for a performance.
Stage business Not a major movement, but a smaller activity, such as smoking
a cigarette, playing with eyeglasses, or sewing, that helps to establish charac¬
terization or mood.
Stage convention A departure from reality that audiences accept, such as a
character breaking into song accompanied by an orchestra.
Stage picture The arrangement on a stage of performers and the visual produc¬
tion elements (scenery, properties, lighting, and costumes).
Standby A well-known performer who is prepared to substitute for a star in case
of an emergency; unlike an understudy, the standby does not appear in the
musical at other times.
Steal (1) To "steal a scene” is to take attention away from the performer(s) who
should receive it. (2) To move without attracting the audience s attention.
Straight line (or feed line) A line that sets up a punch line so it will get a laugh.
Straight man (or woman) One who delivers straight lines to a comic.
Strike To remove a prop or a light or to dismantle a set.
Style A distinctive manner of expression in the writing, designing, or performing,
the characteristics of a show that make it different from others.
Subtext (literally, under the text) The underlying meaning of a scene.
Swing A singer and/or dancer who is prepared to substitute for chorus members
who are unable to perform.
Take (or slow take) A slow, comic realization of what has been done or said.
Take stage To assume the dominant position onstage.
Teaser Curtain hung from a batten to adjust the height of the proscenium
opening.
Technical rehearsal A rehearsal for perfecting the technical elements of the
show, such as the scene and property shifts, lighting, sound, and special
effects.
Tempo The rate of speed used in performing a scene, song, dance, or musical
number.
Text The words of the dialogue and lyrics.
Throw away To underplay a line.
Timing Selecting the right moment to say a line or do an action for maximum
effectiveness.
Top To speak with a louder tone and higher pitch than the previous line.
Tormentors Flats or drapes at the sides of the proscenium arch that may be
used to alter the width of the stage opening.
Trap An opening in the stage floor through which performers, properties, or
scenery may enter or leave the stage.
Traveler A horizontally-drawn curtain.
Turn in To turn toward center stage.
Turn out To turn toward the sides of the stage.
Undercut To speak with a softer tone and lower pitch than the previous line.
Underplay To use a softer tone and a more casual manner than has been used
previously.
Understudy A performer in the show who studies another role and is prepared
to substitute in case of an emergency.
Unit set A neutral type of stage setting to which scenic pieces and properties can
be added to suggest different locations.
Up-tempo song A fast-moving song.
Verse The lyrics and music leading to the chorus of a song.
Wagons (or rolling platforms) Platforms of different sizes on casters that can be
rolled on and offstage with scenery and performers to change the sets.
Walk-on See extra.
Wings (1) The offstage space at the sides of the stage. (2) Flats or drapes used
at the sides of the stage to mask the offstage areas.
INDEX
Accents: Balance, 35, 48-49, 295
foreign, 19, 64, 95, 99, 106, 112, 115-16, 118, Ballad, 20, 25, 147
121, 144-45, 151, 156, 197, 234 Ballad opera, 5, 70
syllabic stress, 62, 64, 66, 70-71 Ballet, 22-25, 36, 126-27
Acting auditions, 139-46, 152 Beggar's Opera, The, 5, 70
Acting comedy, 96-100 Behavior, 133-37
Actions: Belting, 123, 147, 295
characters, 18, 106-107, 110, 114, 117, 119-20, Bernstein, Leonard, 8, 12-13
127, 130-31, 137, 143, 146, 155 Black Crook, The, 5-6
dance substitutes for, 24-25, 128 Blocking, 112, 116, 133-34, 137, 156, 295
reveal thoughts, 18, 108 Bock, Jerry, 8, 237, 240
Air, 124, 148, 295 Body alignment, 35, 44-46, 142, 144, 148
Allusion, 109 Body positions, 77, 81-87, 93, 124
Analysis: Book, 15-19, 27, 99
characters, 18, 95, 105-108, 110, 113-16, 127, Bookwriter, 3, 15-19, 27, 29-30, 33, 106, 110, 133,
130-31, 143, 146, 155 140, 155
comedy, 94-96 Bows, 87, 90-93, 114
dances, 109, 127-28, 131 Break dancing, 22, 24
dialogue, 95-96, 108-109, 155 Breath control, 56-57, 73-75, 122-23
figures of speech, 109 Breathiness, 58-59, 61
musical and role, 105-109 Breathing, 35-36, 55-57, 73-75, 118, 122-23, 142
plot, 15-18, 96, 105-106, 110, 140, 143, 146, 155 Brice, Fanny, 5, 7, 11, 77, 124, 139, 234-36
songs, 109, 119-20, 130, 148 Bridge, 21-22, 25, 295, 298, 299
subtext, 109 Brigadoon, 3, 8, 20, 24, 96, 120, 147, 174-85
text, 95-96, 108-109, 155 scene, 174-85
thoughts, 18, 108 song "The Heather on the Hill,” 20, 120, 147,
words, 95-96, 108-109, 155 178-85
Ancient Greek theatre, 4, 22 Burlesque, 1, 3, 5
Antagonist, 18, 106 Burrows, Abe, 8, 232
Applause, 15, 27, 105, 119-20, 133 Business (see Stage business)
Arena stage, 12, 78-80
Arrangers, 3, 22, 27, 29-30, 33, 129 Cabaret, 8, 20, 24, 64, 94, 118, 255-68
Articulation, 35, 55, 62-69, 73-74, 112, 116, 120- scene, 255-68
21, 123, 130, 156 song "Perfectly Marvelous,” 20, 118, 259-68
Aside, 87, 92-94 Camelot, 8, 18, 20, 22, 62, 70-71, 74, 94, 96, 114-
Attitude, 69, 106-108, 111, 114, 119-20, 127-31, 15, 119-20, 123-24, 220-31
143, 146, 155-56 scene, 220-31
Auditions: song "Camelot,” 123-24, 224-31
acting, 139-46, 152 Candide, 12
all types, 139-43 Casey, Warren, 8, 288
clothes for, 140-42 Casting director, 28, 140, 143, 150
dance, 29-30, 149-50, 153 Characterization:
focus during, 142, 144, 146 analysis, 105-108, 110, 113-16, 127, 130-31,
general, 144-46, 152 143, 146, 155
improvisations, 101, 142-43 attitude, 69, 106-108, 111, 114, 119-20, 127-31,
interviews, 150-52 143, 146, 155-56
makeup and hairstyle at, 141 chorus, 119
monologues, 145-46, 152 concentration, 100, 117, 134, 137
notices of, 139 development, 112
photographs, 150, 152 external preparation, 113-14, 118, 156
rehearsal for, 140, 146-48 imagination, 115, 121, 128, 155
resume, 150-52 improvisations, 111, 130, 142-43, 156
singing, 29, 146-49, 153 interacting, 117
specific, 143-44, 146 internal preparation, 113-14, 118, 156
stage fright, 141-42, 146 learning your role, 116
301
Characterization (Continued) Dialogue, 18-19, 108, 112, 116, 118, 120, 125, 129
movements, 114-16, 144, 156 133, 137
objectives, motivations, actions, 107, 110-11 Diaphragm, 55-57
114, 117, 119-20, 127-28, 130-31, 137, 143, Diaphragmatic-abdominal breath control, 56-57
146, 155 73-75
observation, 115, 121, 128, 155 Diphthongs, 63, 121
obstacle, 107, 114, 127-28 Director (see Stage director)
personalization, 115, 121, 128, 155 Double take, 98-99
physicalization, 115-16, 121-22, 128-30, 156 Drama, 1,3, 106
response to stage environment, 111, 130, 156 Dramatic songs, 20, 25
stage business, 106, 116 Dress parade, 32, 113
stage directions, 19, 106 Dress rehearsals, 113, 133, 135-36, 296
voice, 106, 112-16, 146, 156 Drinking:
Characters: offstage, 134, 136
analysis, 18, 95, 105-108, 110, 113-16, 127, onstage, 87, 90
130-31, 143, 146, 155
comic, 94-96, 99 Eating:
change in, 109 offstage, 134, 136
delineation, 20, 24-25, 109, 117 onstage, 87, 90
Choreographer, 3, 19, 22-25, 27, 29-30, 33, 110, Ebb, Fred, 8, 10, 255, 259
112-13, 116, 119, 124, 126-31, 134-35, 140 Eccentric dance, 22, 24
Chorus: Edwards, Sherman, 8, 269, 274
part of song, 20, 74, 296 Emotional memory, 50-51, 101, 118, 128, 130, 155
singing and/or dancing, 106, 119, 124, 149, 296 Emotions:
Chorus Line, A, 2, 10, 17, 24, 126 characters, 106-109, 111-14, 116-18, 120-22
Clothes for auditions, 140-42 124, 127-31, 143, 145-46, 148, 155-56
Comedic devices, 98-100 dances, 127-29, 131
Comedy, 3, 94-100, 106 songs, 109, 118, 120-22, 124, 130, 148
Comedy dance, 24-25 voice and, 69, 118
Comedy song, 20, 25 Energy, 73, 117, 119, 124-25, 130, 144-45, 149,
Comedy techniques, 94-100 156
Comic opera, 1, 5, 157, 167 English pantomime, 4-5
Commedia dell'arte, 4 Ensemble playing, 112, 117
Communication, 117, 125, 130, 144, 156 Entr’acte music, 21, 25, 296
Company, 3, 8, 12, 17, 20, 130 Environmental staging, 12-13, 79
scene, 283-87 Establishing number, 20
Composer, 3, 19, 21-22, 27, 29-30, 110, 119, 133 Ethnic dance, 22, 24
140, 147, 155 Exercises:
Concentration, 75, 100-102, 112, 117, 137, 142 analyzing a musical, 25
Conductor, 3, 27, 29, 33, 118-19, 126, 129 articulation and pronunciation, 65-68
Connotation, 108 balance, 48
Consonants, 63-64, 120-21 body alignment, 44-46
Coordination, 35, 48-49 breathing, 55-57
Costume designer, 3, 27, 30-32, 113 comedy techniques, 99-100
Costumes, 13, 19, 31-32, 96, 99, 107, 110, 113-15 concentration, 100-101
127-31, 135-37 coordination, 48
Creativity, 100-101, 113-14, 117 emotional memory, 50-51
Crossover, 22, 25 flexibility, 47
Curtsies, 87, 90-91, 93, 114 imagination, 50-51
improvisations, 102-103, 129-30
Dafne, 4 observation, 53
Dames at Sea, 35 phonation, 57-59
Dance auditions, 29-30, 149-50, 153 phrasing and pausing, 75
Dance captain, 30 preparing acting scene, 130
Dance musical, 8 preparing auditions, 52-53
Dances, 18-19, 22-25, 105, 108-10, 112, 116 preparing dance, 131
118-20, 124, 126-29, 131, 133-34, 137, 143, preparing song, 130-31
149-50, 153, 156 projection, 73-74
preparing, 126-29, 131, 156 relaxation, 36-43
types, 22-25 researching forms of musical theatre and
Deadpanning, 98 writers, 13-14
Denasality, 59, 61 researching musical positions, 33
Designers: resonation, 59-62
costumes, 3, 13, 19, 27, 30-32, 113, 133 rhythm, 51-52
lighting, 3, 13, 19, 27, 30-31, 133 sense memory, 50-51
scenery, 3, 11-12, 19, 27, 30-31, 133 stage techniques, 93-94
sound, 3, 13, 19, 27, 30, 32, 125-26, 133 variety, 69-73
Developing rehearsals, 112 Exotic dance, 22, 24
Dialects, 19, 62-64, 69, 95, 99, 106, 112, 114-16 External preparation, 113-14, 118, 156
118, 121, 144-45, 151, 156, 174, 205 Extravaganza, 5
INDEX 303
Facial expressions, 87, 96, 98, 114, 116-17, 144 Kander, John, 8, 10, 255, 259
Fainting, 87-88, 93 Kissing, 87, 89-90, 93
Falling, 87-88, 93 Kiss Me, Kate, 3, 8, 20-22, 52, 72, 88-89, 95-96,
Fantasy, 3, 106 99, 147, 186-96
Farce, 3, 69, 94, 98, 106 scene, 186-96
Feed line, 95, 97, 296, 299 song "Wunderbar,” 20-21, 52, 189-96
Feelings (see Emotions) Kneeling, 87, 90, 93
Fiddler on the Roof, 3, 8, 25, 116, 120, 237-52
scene, 237-52 Laugh line, 95-97
song “Matchmaker, Matchmaker,” 120, 240-52 Laurents, Arthur, 8, 13, 209
Fighting, 87-88, 93 Lawrence, Jerome, 8, 253
Figures of speech, 109 Learning role, 112, 116, 120, 156
Firing a gun, 87, 89 Lee, Robert E., 8, 253
Flexibility, 35, 47-48, 59, 68, 77 "Lees of Old Virginia, The,” 20, 274-82
Fly lofts, 11, 297 Lennart, Isobel, 8, 234
42nd Street, 1-3, 10, 24, 155 Lerner, Alan Jay, 8, 14, 123, 174, 178, 205, 220,
Funny Girl 3, 8, 24, 75, 77, 95, 124, 130, 139, 224
234-36 Libretto, 15, 297
scene, 234-36 Lighting, 13, 19, 31, 110, 113, 127, 130-31
Furth, George, 8, 283 Lighting designer, 3, 13, 19, 27, 30—31
Line interpretations, 19, 75, 108-10, 112, 117-18,
Games, 110 137
Gershwin, George, 5, 10, 14 Listening, 75, 119, 144, 156
Gershwin, Ira, 5, 10, 14 Loesser, Frank, 8, 232-33
Gestures, 87, 90, 117, 144, 146, 1>48 Loewe, Frederick, 8, 14, 123, 174, 178, 205, 220,
Gilbert, Willie, 8, 232 224
Gilbert, W.S., 5, 13, 20, 67, 69, 71, 74, 93-94, 157, Logan, Joshua, 8, 33, 197
160, 167, 170 Loudness of voice, 68-72, 95, 116, 144, 146, 156
Grease, 8, 12, 21, 125, 130, 288-90 Low comedy, 98
scene, 288-90 Lyricist, 3, 15, 19-20, 27, 29-30, 110, 133, 140,
Greek theatre, 4, 22 147, 155
Gypsy, 8, 20, 25, 52, 96-97, 116, 120, 123-24, 148 Lyrics, 15, 19-20, 27, 75, 108, 120-24, 130, 137,
scene, 209-19 148, 156
song "You'll Never Get Away From Me,” 52,
148, 213-19 "Magic if,” 115, 121, 155
Makeup, 19, 96, 99, 107, 113-15, 127, 129-30,
135-36, 141
Hair pulling, 87-89, 93
Malapropism, 95, 99, 109, 297
Hairstyles, 107, 113-15, 127-31, 135-36, 141, 156
Mame, 8, 94, 253-54
Hammerstein, Oscar, 5, 8, 14, 197, 200
scene, 253-54
Harnick, Sheldon, 8, 237, 240
Masque, 4, 13
"Heather on the Hill, The,” 20, 120, 147, 178-85
Masteroff, Joe, 8, 255
Herman, Jerry, 8, 10, 253
"Matchmaker, Matchmaker," 120, 240-52
Heroes, 118-19
Melodrama, 3, 106
"He Who Shies at Such a Prize,” 160-66
Merrill, Bob, 8, 234
H.M.S. Pinafore, 5, 20, 67
Message, 18, 108
How to Succeed in Business Without Really
Metaphor, 109
Trying, 8, 95, 232-33
"Method, the,” 113
scene, 232-33
Microphone, 13, 117, 124-26
Mikado, The, 5, 89, 92, 94, 167-73
Illusion of first time, 75, 99, 113, 119 scene, 167-73
Imagination, 50-51, 77, 101, 106, 114-15, 121, song "Were You Not to Ko-Ko Plighted,”
128, 130, 143, 155 170-73
Improvisations, 101-103, 110-11, 130, 142-43, Minstrel show, 5, 14
156 Modern dance, 22, 24, 126-27
Inner monologue, 112, 130, 156 Monologues, 145—46, 152
Interacting, 117 Motivations:
Intermezzo, 4 characters, 107, 110, 114, 117, 120, 127-28,
Internal preparation, 113-14, 118, 156 130-31, 137, 143, 146, 155
Interpretation, 19, 75, 108-110, 112, 117-18, 123, movements, 81
130, 156 Movements, 19, 35-53, 77, 81, 87-94, 96-99, 106,
Interviews, 139, 150 112, 114-19, 124, 126-30, 144, 146, 148-49,
lolanthe, 5, 20, 71, 74, 157-66 156
scene, 157-66 Mugging, 98
song "He Who Shies at Such a Prize,” 160-66 Musical:
analysis, 105-109
Jacobs, Jim, 8, 28^ characteristics, 3-4
Jazz dance, 22, 24-25, 36, 126-28 comedy, 1, 3, 94-100
Jokes, 95-99, 109 definition, 1-2
Jump tune, 20, 25 development, 4-13
Musical (Continued) Producer, 3, 27-29, 33, 110, 133, 135, 140, 143
drama, 1,3 Projection, 35, 55, 73-74, 112, 116-17, 126, 144
operatic, 1-2, 5, 10 146
rock, 1, 8 Pronunciation, 35, 55, 62-68
sources, 3 Properties, 19, 31, 96, 99, 107, 112-13, 127-28
workshop method of writing, 10 130, 135-37, 148, 156, 298
Musical director, 3, 19, 22, 27, 29-30, 33, 110 Proscenium stage, 12, 78-79, 298
113, 116, 119-20, 123, 125, 129-30, 134-35, Protagonist, 18, 106
140 Punch line, 95-97, 109, 298
Music halls, 5 Puns, 95, 99, 109
My Fair Lady, 3, 8, 16-18, 55, 64, 66, 106-108
111, 114, 119, 121, 123, 156, 205-208 Quality of voice, 59, 68-73, 95, 116, 144, 146, 156
scene, 205-208
Rate of voice, 68-72, 95, 116-17, 144, 146, 156
Narrative dance, 24, 25, 127, 131 Reading rehearsal, 110-11
Narrative song, 20, 25 Realistic style, 3, 106, 113
Nasality, 59, 61 Rehearsal pianist, 3, 29-30, 119-20, 123, 125, 129
Nonnarrative dance, 24, 25, 127, 131 Rehearsals:
Notices of auditions, 139 auditions, 29, 140, 146-48
Nunn, Trevor, 10-11, 33 behavior, 133-35
blocking, 29, 112, 116, 133-34, 137, 156
Objectives of characters, 107, 110-11, 114 117 dance, 129, 131, 156
119-20, 127-28, 130-31, 137, 143, 146, 155’ developing, 29, 112
Observation, 52-53, 100, 114-15, 121, 128, 155 dress, 29, 113, 133, 135-36
Obstacles, 107, 114, 127-28 experimental, 111-12, 129-30, 156
Oklahoma!, 8, 23, 89
games and improvisations, 110-11, 129-30, 156
Opera, 1-5, 23, 113 illusion of first time, 119
Operatic musical, 1-2, 5, 10 interacting with fellow performers, 117, 156
Operetta, 1, 5, 14 learning role, 116, 156
Optimum pitch, 58 musical, 109-13
Orchestra, 3, 12-13, 33, 109, 113, 125-26, 129 orchestra, 113, 125-26, 129
133, 297 polishing, 29, 112
Orchestrator, 3, 27, 29, 33 reading, 29, 110-11
Ostrow, Stuart, 274 scenes, 129-30, 155-56
Overture, 21, 25 singing, 120, 123, 125-26, 130-31, 156
technical, 29, 113, 133
Patter songs, 20, 25, 67-68, 71-72, 147 Relaxation, 35, 36-43, 57-58, 73, 142
Pausing, 55, 75, 122-24 Release, 21, 298
"Perfectly Marvelous," 20, 118, 259-68 Representational style, 3, 106, 113
Performances: Reprise, 20, 25, 120, 298
behavior, 135-37 Research, 114, 155
dance, 129-30 Resonation, 35, 55, 59-62, 73-74
illusion of first time, 119 Response to stage environment, 111, 130, 156
preview, 133 Resume, 139, 141, 150-52
watching conductor, 126 Reversing roles, 112, 130, 156
Personalization, 50-51, 114-15, 121, 128, 155 Revue, 1-5
Phonation, 35, 55, 57-59 Rhythm, 51-52, 106, 116-17, 123, 145, 156
Photographs, 139, 141, 150, 152 Rhythm song, 20, 25
Phrasing, 55, 75, 122-23, 130, 144, 156 Rice, Tim, 8, 10—11, 14
Physicalization, 114-15, 121-22, 128, 130, 156 Rideout, 124, 148, 298
Pirates of Penzance, The, 5, 13, 69-70, 93-94 Rock musical, 1, 8
Pitch of voice, 68-72, 73, 95, 116, 123, 144, 146 Rodgers, Richard, 5, 8, 14, 197, 200
156 Roman mime, 4
Placement of songs and dances, 19 Roman pantomime, 4
Playing opposite values, 112, 130, 156 Romantic comedy, 3, 94, 106
Plot, 15-18, 20, 24, 96, 99, 105-106, 110, 120 Ruddigore, 20, 67
127-28, 130-31, 143 Running gag, 98, 100, 298
Polishing rehearsals, 112 Run-through, 110, 113, 298
Popular opera, 1-2
Porter, Cole, 5, 8, 186, 189 Satire, 3, 94, 106
Posture, 44-46, 106, 114-15, 142, 144, 146, 148 Scenery, 11-12, 19, 31, 110, 112-13, 127, 130-31
156 Scenery designer, 3, 11-12, 19, 27, 30—31
Preparation: Scenes:
auditions, 139-53 Brigadoon, 174-85
dances, 126-29, 131, 156 Cabaret, 255-68
scenes, 130, 155-56 Camelot, 220-31
songs, 119-26, 130-31, 156 Company, 283-87
Presentational style, 3, 106, 113 Fiddler on the Roof, 237-52
Prince, Harold, 8, 33 Funny Girl, 234-36
INDEX 305
Scenes (Continued) Stabbing, 87, 89, 93

Grease, 288-90 Stage areas, 77-78, 93
Gypsy, 209-19 Stage business, 19, 96, 99, 106, 112, 114-17, 119,
How to Succeed in Business Without Really 137, 156, 299
Trying, 232-33 Stage conventions, 3, 299
Iolanthe, 157-66 Stage dance, 22, 24
Kiss Me, Kate, 186-96 Stage directions, 19, 106, 109
Marne, 253-54 Stage director:
Mikado, The, 167-73 assistants, 29, 32-33
My Fair Lady, 205-208 auditions, 140, 143-45, 147
preparing, 130, 155-56 concept, 29-30, 105, 110
1776, 269-82 duties, 28-29
South Pacific, 197-204 games and improvisations, 107, 110-11
Score, 21-22, 27, 125 integrating dances, 129
Segue, 22, 25, 299 interviews, 150
Sense memory, 50-51, 101, 128, 130, 155 part of team, 3, 27
Sensory images, 69, 71, 108, 122, 130 performances, 136-37
Sets, 11-12, 19,31, 110, 112-13, 127, 130-31, 156 placement of songs and dances, 19
unit, 12, 300 previews, 133
wing-drop-border, 11 rehearsals, 105-13, 133-35
1776, 3, 8, 20 staging songs, 116-24
scene, 269-82 Stage manager, 27, 29, 31-33, 110, 113, 134-37,
song "The Lees of Old Virginia," 20, 274-82 140, 143-44
Show dance, 22, 24, 149 Stage picture, 81, 87, 299
Shtick, 98, 299 Stages, 12, 77-80, 156
Sight gag, 98, 100, 299 arena, 12, 78-80
Signs, 18, 108 environmental, 12, 79
Simile, 109 proscenium, 12, 78-79
Singing auditions, 29, 146-49, 153 thrust, 12, 79-80
Slapping, 87-89, 93 Stage techniques, 77-94
Slow burn, 98-99 Stanislavski, Constantin, 100, 109, 112-13, 115,
Slow take, 98 119, 121, 155
Soliloquy, 87, 92-94, 120-21, 130, 146, 299 Stein, Joseph, 8, 237
"Some Enchanted Evening,” 20, 200-204 Stone, Peter, 8, 10, 269
Sondheim, Stephen, 8-10, 12-14, 209, 213, 283 Straight line, 95, 97, 109, 299
Songs, 18-21, 105, 108-110, 112, 116, 118-27, Strangling, 87, 89, 93
129-31, 133-34, 137, 143, 146-49, 153, 156 Stress, 62, 64, 66, 69-71
"Camelot” (from Camelot), 123-24, 224-31 Stridency, 59, 61
"Heather on the Hill, The,” (from Brigadoon), Style, 3, 106, 110, 113, 123, 150, 299
20, 120, 147, 178-85 Styne, Jule, 8, 209, 213, 234
"He Who Shies at Such a Prize” (from Subtext, 69, 72, 109-10, 120, 299
Iolanthe), 160-66 Sullivan, Arthur, 5, 13, 20, 67, 69, 71, 74, 93-94,
"Lees of Old Virginia, The” (from 1776), 20, 157, 160, 167, 170
274-82 Sunday in the Park with George, 3, 9
"Matchmaker, Matchmaker” (from Fiddler on
the Roof), 120, 240-52 Take, 98-99, 300
"Perfectly Marvelous" (from Cabaret), 20, 118, Talking a song, 123
259-68' Tap dance, 22, 24-25, 36, 126-27
preparing, 119-26, 130-31, 156 Technical preparation, 113-14, 118
"Some Enchanted Evening” (from South Technical rehearsals, 113, 133, 300
Pacific), 20, 200-204 Tempo, 112, 117, 123, 126, 129-30, 156, 300
transition to, 118 Text, 108-10, 155, 300
types, 20 Theatre games, 110
"Were You Not to Ko-Ko Plighted" (from The Theme, 18, 20, 24, 105, 108-110
Mikado), 170-73 Thoughts:
"Wunderbar” (from Kiss Me, Kate), 20, 21, 52, characters, 75, 106-109, 111-14, 116-20, 143-
189-96 44, 146, 148, 155-56
"You’ll Never Get Away From Me” (from dances, 127-29, 131
Gypsy), 52, 148, 213-19 message, 18, 108
Sound, 13, 19, 32, 110, 113, 130 songs, 122, 130, 148
Sound designer, 3, 13, 19, 27, 30, 32, 125-26 theme and major ideas, 18, 20, 24, 105, 108-10
South Pacific, 8, 20, 21-22, 24, 64, 89, 115, 147, Throatiness, 59, 61, 73
197-204 Throwaway number, 22, 25
scene, 197-204 Thrust stage, 12, 79-80
song "Some Enchanted Evening," 20, 200-204 Tragedy, 3, 106
Special material, 20, 25
Spectacle, 5, 299 Underscoring, 21-22, 25, 117, 125
Spewack, Bella, 8, 186 Upstaging, 87
Spewack, Samuel, 8, 186 Up-tempo number, 147, 300
306 INDEX
Variety of voice, 35, 55, 59, 68, 74, 144, 146, 156 variety, 68-73, 146, 156
Variety show, 1, 5 Vowels, 62-64, 120-21
Vaudeville, 1, 5, 14
Videotaping audition, 140, 143
Waltz, 52, 186
Villains, 118-19 Warming up, 134, 136, 141
Violent actions, 87-89
Webber, Andrew Lloyd, 8, 10-11, 14
Vitality, 73, 144 Weinstock, Jack, 8, 232
Voice:
"Were You Not to Ko-Ko Plighted,” 170-73
articulation and pronunciation, 62-68, 73, 156
West Side Story, 1, 3, 8, 13, 18, 20, 24, 89, 115,
breath control, 56-57, 73-75, 122-23
121-22, 127-29
breathing, 55-57
Words, 69, 75, 95, 105, 108-109, 117-18, 120-22,
characterization, 106, 112-16, 146, 156
130, 144, 148, 155
loudness, 68-71, 144, 146, 156
Workshops, 10
phonation, 57-59
Writer (see Book writer)
phrasing and pausing, 75
"Wunderbar," 20-21, 52, 189-96
pitch, 68-71, 73, 144, 146, 156
projection, 73-74, 144, 156
quality, 68-69, 71, 95, 144, 156 "You’ll Never Get Away From Me,” 52, 148,
rate, 68-71, 144, 146, 156 213-19
resonation, 59-62
stress, 69-71 Ziegfeld Follies, 5-7, 14
332CCM2
20
GGS
PS 7230

Performing in Musicals - Novak, Elaine Adams

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Novak, Elaine Adams.

ELAINE ADAMS NOVAK

NICQLET COLLEGE LRC

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or

Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 87-20669

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Novak, Elaine Adams.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS vii 5. VOCAL EXERCISES 55

This book is for beginning performers in musicals—for the actors, singers,

Grateful acknowledgment is made to my daughter, Deborah Novak, and

In the above excerpt from 42nd Street, which is a satire on Broadway

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MUSICAL

• Performers in musicals must often be multitalented as they may have to

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSICAL

and specialty acts in addition to pantomime. Another type of entertainment

Figure 1-3. The chorus of the Ziegfeld Follies of 1924.

the American musical is the 1943 production of Oklahoma! by Rodgers

characters' deep feelings or comment on the action, were not written to

DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL PRODUCTION

puters. Sometimes a formal architectural unit set can be designed that

Figure 1-6. An environmental theatre production of Candide at the Broadway Theatre in

BUZZ [a writer]: The play is actor-proof!

To understand the musical, let’s look at what the bookwriter creates—the

Placement of Songs and Dances

A = The initial statement of the melody.

Figure 2-2. Dancers in the original Broadway production of Oklahoma!.

Tams-Witmark Music Library, Inc.

Music Theatre International

Rodgers and Hammerstein

Samuel French, Inc.

When you are cast in a musical, either amateur or professional, you

ORCHESTRATOR AND ARRANGERS

DESIGNERS OF SCENERY, LIGHTING,

of the designers, so that the result will be a unified production. Each

During technical rehearsals, the stage manager and assistants are

JOAN [an experienced performer]: You still wanna be a Broadway star?

exercises 3, 5, and 7; breathing exercise 7; phonation exercises 3 and 6;

Figure 4-1. Relaxation exercise 4.

by saying an elongated vowel sound as you go forward. Start with "ah,”

Figure 4-2. Relcixstion exercise 4.

Figure 4-3. Relaxation exercise 7.

Figure 4-4. Relaxation exercise 7.

Figure 4-5. Relaxation exercise 7.

Figure 4-6. Relaxation exercise 8.

Figure 4-7. Relaxation exercise 8.

1. Standing in the alignment described above, stretch toward the ceiling

Figure 4-8. Front view of standing alignment.

Figure 4-9. Side view of standing alignment.

1. Standing in a good posture, examine the flexibility of various parts

Figure 4-10. Flexibility exercise 5.

BALANCE AND COORDINATION

1. Facing a partner, do the “mirror” exercise. One of you is the leader;

Figure 4-11. Balance and coordination exercise 4.

SENSE MEMORY, EMOTIONAL

(Drawing by Kimberly Harbour.)

1. Lying on your back in a relaxed state, concentrate on feeling the move¬

1. Sitting or standing in a good posture, stretch your arms and yawn.

Figure 5-3. Resonation exercise 1.

7. As an exercise in using a full, resonant voice with a good balance of

ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION