Endangered

Sámi?

Impact of climate change and encroachment on Sámi

reindeer herding

Author: Mauro Plak S4472918

Figure 1: Autumn gathering in a forest reindeer Study: BA Archaeology
herding community in Sápmi (Israelsson et al., 2021)
Course: Science in Polar Areas II
LGX230B05.2022-2023.1

Lecturer: dr. M.J.J.E. (Maarten J J E) Loonen

Date: 17-1-2023

Word count: 3498

 Abstract
This paper researches the impacts of climate change and (cumulative) encroachments on the
traditional way of reindeer herding of the Sámi. It does so by looking at literature describing the
traditional way of herding reindeer and related subjects, papers which describe these impacts on
reindeer herding, but also by looking at a case study – which serves as an example for the negative
effects. The main findings are that these two external forces cause a lot of damage to their current
livelihood, be it from food scarcity, less land or the loss of knowledge. The Sámi are willing and able
to adapt to these situations however; they gather new knowledge and utilize it, but also pass it on to
the younger generations and future reindeer herders. Finally, this paper comes to the conclusion that
with the right help and knowledge, their current way of life might survive.

Table of content

1
s
1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................3
2. Reindeer Herding of the Sámi.........................................................................................................3
3. Climate Change, Encroachment and the Sámi................................................................................5
3.1. Influence of Climate Change...................................................................................................5
3.2. Influence of Encroachment.....................................................................................................5
3.3. Possible Adaptations and Solutions........................................................................................7
4. Discussion: Future of the Sámi.......................................................................................................8
5. Conclusion......................................................................................................................................9
Bibliography.........................................................................................................................................10

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 1. Introduction
The Artic has been inhabited by all sorts of peoples and cultures for thousands of years. They
mostly rely on subsistence activities like hunting, gathering and fishing. These cultures and territories
of Arctic Indigenous Peoples extend over 30 million square kilometers in seven countries and three
continents. In Fennoscandia, Arctic Indigenous Peoples include the Sámi in northern territories of
Finland, Sweden, Norway and Northwest Russia, an area also named Sápmi (Israelsson et al., 2021).
One can expect that with different peoples, cultures and mainly environments, these people also
developed different ways in which they exploit the environment for food, building materials and
more. One thing that does connect all of these Arctic peoples however, is their understanding of the
complexity of these ecosystems (loc. cit.). A good example of this is the way the Sámi herd and care
for their reindeer, but are also dependent on them (loc. cit.). In this way, there is a human-animal
based interdependency in the picture of a broader ecosystem.
Although resilience is almost a given with Arctic Indigenous peoples due to them being part of
these natural life cycles and the harsh environments they need to endure, rapidly changing
ecosystems are much harder to adapt to. The migration routes of animals, fish returns, pollination
and birthing success are affected by these transformations of seasonal conditions. Because of this,
Arctic indigenous peoples may lose their abilities to anticipate natural occurrences and thereby also
lose their connection to the ecosystem (Israelsson et al., 2021). Another particular concern to many
traditional pastoralists – one of which are the Sámi – are the multiple cumulative encroachments
(intrusion on a person’s territory and/or rights) by other land users (Axelsson-Linkowski et al. 2020,
481).
With these threats to their way of life, one can expect that the culture and identity of the Sámi
are under threat of climate change and increasing encroachment. The aim of this paper is to look into
reindeer herding done by the Sámi and how climate change and encroachments are threatening their
livelihood, but also their culture. Logically, the following research question is set up to be answered:
“What are the consequences of climate change and encroachment on the way of life of the Sámi?”.
The hypothesis of this paper is that “climate change and encroachment have an influence on their
livelihood and culture to such an extent that their traditional way of reindeer herding is in danger.”

2. Reindeer Herding of the Sámi

In 2018, the population of Sámi people was estimated at 50,000–70,000 in Norway, over 10,000
in Finland, 20,000–35,000 in Sweden and 2000 in Russia (Jaakkola 2018, 402). The traditional
subsistence activities of the Sámi include hunting, fishing, handicraft and reindeer herding. Sámi
reindeer herding is representative of a tightly intertwined human environmental system in which
indigenous people interact closely with an ecosystem which is highly important for their way of life.
As the reindeer are dependent on natural, low productivity pastures, the herds move over large
areas depending on the seasons (Axelsson-Linkowski 2020, 482).
Reindeer husbandry has been central to traditional indigenous Sami livelihoods and culture for
centuries (Axelsson-Linkowski et al. 2020, 481). Reindeer herding in cooperatives is based on Sámi
customs and practices and is organized in keeping with the siida system. A siida (in different Sámi
languages: cearru, siida, sita, kite) is traditionally defined as “an extended family or kin group
consisting of economically independent households. The herding success of a siida depends largely
on its level of consensus and its members' ability to exchange information and act on the knowledge
and insight gained by regular participation in the daily life of the household” (Ryyppo et al. 2011,
229).

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 Each Sámi reindeer herd reduces risk through principles similar to that of an insurance policy, in
which the basic foundation for a successful system of reindeer herding governance is the
understanding of diversity and cyclicality. Particularly under circumstances of climate change, these
principles hold a lot of importance. The knowledge of this cyclicality is considered to be the key
feature of both the natural environment and the herders’ response (Aslaksen et al. 2009, 419). This is
in contrast with the desired stability of modern agricultural production (loc. cit). However, the
abundance of migratory herds of caribou and wild reindeer in circum-arctic tundra regions has
declined by 56% (4.7 million to 2.1 million) over the last two decades as of 2017 (see figure 2). The
extent and duration of the declines are a threat to the food security and culture of indigenous people
(Gunn 2018). The causes of these declines are complex and are related to a combination of factors
that include forage availability, macro- (worms and ectoparasites) and micro- (viruses, bacteria,
protozoa) parasites, predation (including hunting) and climate change – an overarching factor (Gunn
2018); because of climate change, the summers get warmer and this increase in temperature is the
most probable cause of the abundance and range expansion of Arctic pathogens (loc. cit.).

Figure 2. The 2017 and peak estimates for migratory tundra wild reindeer/caribou
herds for the 22 herds with at least three censuses (Gunn 2018).

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 3. Climate Change, Encroachment and the Sámi
3.1. Influence of Climate Change
Traditional Sámi settlement areas includes both sub-arctic and arctic areas with boreal forests,
coastal areas, and large mountain regions with alpine vegetation. Snow covers Sápmi for eight
months a year and plays a central role in the climatic, ecological, and hydrological processes, but also
in the way of life and reindeer herding (Jaakkola et al. 2018, 403). That’s because, for example, the
language of the Sámi has a precise classification system for snow (loc. cit.).
Knowledge of snow has been developed because of the Sámi’s necessity to survive under
extremely challenging and constantly changing climatic conditions (Eira et al. 2013, 118). For reindeer
herders, snow is a prerequisite for mobility, tracking, visibility and availability of pasture plants such
as lichens and grasses. The terms used to describe the snow on the ground imply characteristics
needed to communicate snow properties relevant to reindeer herding, reindeer ecology and the
economy of herding (loc. cit.). These descriptions are based on hardness, density and temperature,
but there are also characteristics which are important for traditional herding strategies; access to
water/food, tracing and mobility are good examples of this (op. cit., 127). When climate change
causes changes to snowfall and snow stratigraphy, these classification methods might become
redundant, as they become more unpredictable due to constantly changing ecosystems. If this
happens, either a new system needs to be set up, or this information gets lost.
Among the Sámi, there is a general consensus that reindeer herding is “facing the limit of
resilience” (Evengård 2011, 1). One of the causes is the disturbance of the seasons. For example, the
autumns are longer, wetter and warmer. The herders who were interviewed also described a delay in
the onset of autumn, and some also noted a shift in the oestrus of the reindeer a few days later than
before, which means animals can be slaughtered later than was previously done (op. cit., 4). This
could translate into less food and/or money for the Sámi in times they need it the most.
Although reindeer forage over 300 different plants in addition to fungi, ground lichen is the main
forage for reindeer in winter. Lichen heaths are degraded in heavily grazed areas and in areas where
forestry and reindeer grazing coexist (Jaakkola et al. 2018, 403). The Sámi described how snow can
come very early but then disappear again. However, it can keep on raining and snowing until the end
of the year. As a result, the lichen freezes in a sheet of ice close to the ground forming ‘ice bark’; the
pasturage becomes trapped under this ice sheet, thus making it almost impossible for the reindeer to
reach the lichen. Because of this, they need to move on to another pasture where hopefully, the
lichen can be reached. Climate change is projected to also threaten the lichen ecosystems in high
latitudes and increases competition with other vegetation, especially vascular plants. (op. cit., 406).
New situations due to climate change are so vastly different from any earlier experiences that
there are no Sámi words to describe them (Axelsson-Linkowski 2020, 487), thus the current increased
uncertainty of weather patterns and change in vegetation poses a challenge for the younger
generation because there is no previous knowledge to learn from. The knowledge the elders of the
siida had acquired may quickly be becoming obsolete (loc. cit.). They’ve also become unsure of their
role as guides and teachers. This loss of guiding ability in turn damages their status: “suddenly,
they’re nothing” (Ferris 2013, 15). In this manner and for the reasons stated above, the future of
reindeer herding might become endangered due to a rapidly changing climate and thus the herding
success of individual siida’s comes under threat as well.

3.2. Influence of Encroachment

Encroachment is one of the major threats to and concerns of the Sámi (Axelsson-Linkowski 2020,
481). When these encroachments turn into multiple cumulative encroachments by other lands users,
it leads to fragmentation of earlier open, large-scale landscapes and a decline in important forage
resources. These scenarios that are happening are of major concern as pastoral lifestyles are

5
 dependent on animal migratory routes over long distances to sustain the herds over the seasons.
This fragmentation through competing land uses is further worsened by often harsh and
unpredictable weather, low productivity, and climate change (loc. cit.).
One such case of encroachment is the open-pit iron ore mine in Kaunisvaara, northern Sweden.
The mine is located in the mire of Kokkovuoma, in the southeastern part of Muonio Reindeer Herding
District (Boström 2022, 4). The mine is located on the customary lands traditionally used for calving
and summer pastures. These used to be some of the most nutritious and best-preserved pastures,
but today these land are heavily disturbed (loc. cit.).

Figure 3. Land dispossession and disturbances caused by the mine in Kaunisvaara. Blue line: border of Muonio reindeer herding district; light red line:
border of summer pastures; yellow line: traditional migration route; black zone: the mine site; orange line: public road; red brown area: planned
windpark Käymäjärvi; red line: power line; pink line: Aareajoki gorge. The rasterized areas indicate estimated disturbance zones for each exploitation
(Boström 2022, 5).

From satellite imagery, the direct land dispossession can be estimated to about 1300 ha.
However, if considering the disturbance zone around the mine and associated structures and
infrastructure, the actual area lost is significantly greater (see figure 3). The traditional migration
route through the Tapulivuoma mire is blocked by the sand magazine and tailings pond, and the
herders are now forced to move the reindeer north of the mine. This is an area with several
topographical constraints and difficulties, including the Aareajoki gorge. Navigation of the area with
reindeer herds places excessive demands on the herders, both physically and mentally. Nowadays
they need a helicopter to guide the reindeer effectively. As one of the reindeer herders stated, “It’s
no longer possible to gather the reindeer. They don’t gather in the natural way as before – now they
spread out…” (Boström 2022, 4). In this way, the Sámi reindeer herders are forced to adapt to these
changing situations, otherwise they won’t be able to herd the reindeer anymore. They are after all
considered to be semi-wild animals; the Sámi don’t keep them, only herd them. The vegetation in
and around the directly impacted area has also changed, resulting in reduced pasture quality. Most
likely this is, in part, due to a documented decline in groundwater levels of up to 16 meters (loc. cit.).
All the impacts that have been stated above caused a cascade of changes in reindeer behavior
and their seasonal migration routes and patterns in Muonio. The animals now scatter onto the lands
traditionally reserved for other seasons, and even onto the territories of neighboring herding
districts. In turn, this results in overgrazing and degradation of pastures, when used during the

6
‘wrong’ season. This translates into the reindeer trampling autumn pastures in the summer, winter
pastures in the autumn and so forth (op. cit., 5). This would eventually lead to pastures of lesser
quality and they might even become unusable if this trend goes on. Because of these effects, another
mire, Tervavuoma, has become increasingly important during the summer season. However, this is
where state-owned energy company Vattenfall is planning to establish a new wind-power park with
up to 58 turbines (see figure 3). Semi-domesticated reindeer are sensitive to disturbances from other
land uses, such as agriculture or industry, especially during calving in spring and when they are
gathered for marking and slaughter (Axelsson-Linkowski 2020, 482). These future wind turbines thus
make these parts of their territory virtually unusable.
The herders fear that all these cumulative effects may result in the summer pastures becoming
virtually unusable. As a result, all the reindeer would stay in the autumn pastures (loc. cit.), which
would eventually lead to overgrazing. So all in all, the Muonio-pastures might not be usable anymore
in the coming years, due to this increase in encroachment.
It might not be seen as encroachment, but tourism also has a certain degree of impact. Although
tourism development can help people get educated about the Sámi and their culture, there are also
negative aspects of tourism development. For example through disturbances to reindeer herding,
which mostly refers to hikers and snowmobile traffic disrupting the feeding patterns and rest times of
the animals out in the field (Leu 2018, 23). So all in all, these encroachments mainly cause loss of
land, thus requiring the reindeer to migrate to other pastures.

3.3. Possible Adaptations and Solutions

Some Sámi are willing to adapt to these changing situations in their environment. Several herders
already have emphasized that their focus must now be on principles of herding and teaching the
children to think for themselves, instead of only teaching the new generation the old ways. They do
not use the phrase ‘adaptive management,’ but the concept is very much in line with an approach in
which it is necessary to test what works or not under changing new conditions (Axelsson-Linkowski
2020, 487).
A good example of this adaption to climate change is a proactive strategy that herders today use.
They send the reindeer to the pastures rich in lichens (pine heaths) in the beginning of the winter as
they may become inaccessible later in the season due to icing events. More elevated areas and
spruce forests, which are less rich in lichens, serve as reserve areas in case the pine heaths become
covered in ice (Axelsson-Linkowski 2020, 486). In this manner, the reindeer build up enough fat in the
first part of winter which they can rely on if necessary.
The forced/irregular rotation between pastures because of food scarcity instead of the seasons
can be seen as a result of both climate change (ice sheets forming) and encroachment (not being
able to lead them to the right pastures). However, the ice sheets also serve as a barrier for the lichen
to regrow. Herders have noticed that at places where ice-formations – such as thawing in mid-winter
or rain-on-snow events – take place, the lichens regenerate fairly well and that they will provide good
grazing pastures later (Axelsson-Linkowski 2020, 486).
As a last resort, when the lichen-rich areas aren’t available and the lichen hasn’t regrown
properly, the herders have to feed the animals expensive supplementary food, such as commercial
pellets or lichens gathered from locations outside the reindeer herding area (loc. cit.). This is a more
reactive strategy, showing their developing adaptation. They are also starting to reverse their
traditional pattern; they take the animals inland during the summer and to the coast in winter, where
there is no snow and thus pasture quality is better (Baird 2008, 7).
In case of the mine in Kaunisvaara, rather than using railroad to transport ore, as originally
planned, Kaunis Iron ended up transporting it by truck – across the territories of several reindeer
herding districts. Large parts of the operation also never underwent an impact assessment or were

7
approved by any government authority, and the environmental permit lacks concrete measures to
mitigate impacts on reindeer herding (Böstrom 2022, 4). These breaches have prompted the Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency to initiate court proceedings to nullify the environmental license.
Their license has been partially withdrawn as of January 2022 (loc. cit.). The license can get fully
withdrawn, as it can be seen as an environmentally hazardous activity: “[Environmentally hazardous
activities] encompass any use of land, buildings or facilities that may give rise to emissions into soil,
water, air or other inconvenience to human health or the environment” (Business Sweden 2020, 1). It
can be assumed that the mine causes at least emissions to be released into the air and possibly in the
water that is used to cool the drills used for mining. If the environmental license gets withdrawn, the
mine needs to shut down, as it doesn’t respond in accordance to the necessary conduct. So in short,
more ecological action could be taken to take down facilities who aren’t following the proper
conduct and cause harm to humans and the environment.
As stated earlier, tourism development can cause more disturbances to reindeer herding.
However, indigenous tourism might also be able to help spread awareness of the Sámi way of life. It
can be used as a medium for passing on information about Sámi culture, history and struggles to a
broad audience. The recognition of such possibilities for Sámi culture can be observed by the fact
that the Sámi Parliament in Sweden on many occasions has identified tourism as a new Sámi industry
with cultural significance (Leu 2018, 23). The negative effects of these developments can fortunately
be alleviated by having Sámi individuals with a connection to reindeer herding become involved in
such tourism ventures and who are able to steer tourists away (loc. cit.). This way, tourism can be
managed in a manner that doesn’t negatively impact the Sámi, while putting the struggles of the
Sámi in the spotlight. This might help generate sympathy and awareness of what’s happening to
them and their way of life, which in turn might help with the survival of their livelihood.
Lastly, new policies in favor of pastoralism and which allow for the necessary flexibility in land
use in the face of an increasingly variable climate could help the Sámi with the pasture-problems
caused by encroachment and climate change (Axelsson-Linkowski, 488). Allowing them to have more
room to move their herds to pastures which at that moment are better suited for grazing, causes
them to use less fodder, which can be quite expensive and is seen as a last resort in difficult
conditions (Jaakkola 2018, 410).

4. Discussion: Future of the Sámi

Several herders articulate a deep concern about their ability to retain the traditional Sámi way of
herding based on natural grazing, when having been pushed towards a dependence on artificial
feeding – as has been stated earlier. All these impacts caused by climate change and encroachment
also undermine belief in the future. Older herders retire early, while the younger generation of Sámi
don’t even begin herding (Boström 2022, 5).
Seeing the changes that already have happened to the Sámi and this key part of their culture, it
wouldn’t be out of the ordinary to state that changes of the same nature will happen in the future.
The use of more modern equipment and technology, like snowmobiles – but helicopters and other
technologies as well – will increase. The role that indigenous tourism will play in their day-to-day life,
together with pastoralism-supporting policies, might help in the survival of their livelihood and to
spread awareness respectfully. Eventually the current “traditional” way of herding might not exist
anymore. However, the Sámi have existed for centuries and it is hard to imagine that their culture
and their way of life never underwent major changes in that time period. However, these changes
have never been as rapid as right now due to climate change.
Their current way of herding reindeer might not exist anymore in the future, just like the historic
way of herding reindeer doesn’t exist anymore in the present (Ojala 2009, 164-168). Still, the idea of

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herding reindeer as a part of their culture most likely will live on – like it did for centuries. However,
proper policies do need to be made in order for their proper survival (Axelsson-Linkowski, 488).
This paper is of course limited by the research that has already been done on this topic. While a
lot of researchers talk about the impact of climate change on the Sámi on a more “physical” level
(restricting their lands, the pastures getting more and more fragmented), limited research on the
thoughts, emotions and future of the Sámi has been done. Therefore, there were some more
speculative aspects present in this paper, although still being based on the resources at hand. That’s
why the suggestion is to look more into their mindset on this phenomenon and how it mentally
affects them.

5. Conclusion
Climate change and encroachment both have a major impact on the livelihoods of the Sámi. Both
cause limitations on their current herding strategies, be it because of food scarcity or because of the
unavailability of pastures, caused by encroachments or by ice formations. These limitations lead to
necessary adaptations; they use the pastures at different times of the year, they feed the reindeer
artificially, but they also guide reindeer with, for example, helicopters when needed. These forced
changes and adaptations can be seen as the consequences of these external forces.
As for the hypothesis; climate change and encroachment do indeed have such an influence that
their current “traditional” way of life is in danger. However, as has already been touched upon in the
discussion, their livelihood probably has the resilience to live on, albeit in a slightly different form or
way. This doesn’t mean that nothing must be done; only with the proper help (policies preventing
cumulative encroachments and/or policies supporting pastoralism) can the survival of this core part
of their culture be guaranteed.

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