CHAPTER 2

Review of Related Literature

This Chapter discussed the related Literature of the factors affecting the Mortality rate of
Guppy Fish (Poecilia Reticulata).

According to Former Department of Agriculture Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Drusila

Esther E. Bayate was appointed as DA Undersecretary for fisheries. Fish are aquatic vertebrate
animals that have gills but lack of limbs with digits. Like finger or toes. Recall that vertebrates
are animals with internal backbones. Most fish are streamlined in their general body form.

Guppy

Guppies (Poecilia reticulata) are small freshwater fish native to Trinidad and the North
coast of South America although they have successfully established populations in every
continent except for Antarctica (Deacon et al., 2011). The thermal regimes experienced by many
of these invasive populations differ greatly from the tropical conditions they experience in their
native range (Deacon et al., 2011). This, in addition to the fact that temperatures in Trinidad can
fluctuate up to 7˚C in a 24-h period (Reeve et al., 2014), point at a remarkable capacity for both
acute thermal adaptation and long-term thermal adaptation. Looking into the impacts of acute
temperature changes on routine behaviour can yield valuable insight into the potentially large
impact of temperature on survival and provide a better understanding of the mechanisms
enabling their success as an invasive species. (The effect of water temperature on routine
swimming behaviour of new born guppies Poecilia reticulata, Maud Kent* and Alfredo F.
Ojanguren, 2015)

A female-mimicking robotic guppy, a malemimicking robotic guppy, and an

heterospecificmimicking robotic agent (e.g., a tadpole mimicking young instars of the species L.
catesbeianus), were casted in a liquid silicone rubber by using 3D printed moulds (Fig. 1). Each
robotic agent reproduced morphological and size features of its mimicked animal model and was
endowed with two metallic spheres (diameter 2.5 mm), as realistic eyes. P. reticulata is a sexual
dimorphic species, in addition, this fish presents a striking intrasexual polymorphism in color
patterns[48,49], which make it difficult to identify a model livery. However, we colored the
femalemimicking robotic guppy with a yellowish-brown pigment (color code: PANTONE PQ-
7753C), to visually resemble the observed color in many of them. The malemimicking robotic
guppy was colored similar to the female, yet the only difference lies in terms of its tail which was
larger in size and of an orange color (code: PANTONE PQ-3556C). Indeed, the orange pigment
in male P. reticulata plays an important role in social interactions in this species, particularly in
the female choice mechanisms[50–52]. The robotic tadpole had a dark green color (code:
PANTONE PQ-3537C). ( Together We Stand – Analyzing Schooling Behavior in Naive
Newborn Guppies through Biorobotic Predators, Donato Romano, Hadeel Elayan, Giovanni
Benelli, Cesare Stefanini, 2020)

The ancestral indigenous habitat for the guppy fsh (Poecilia reticulata W. Peters, 1859) is
northern South America and Central America [1], however it is now one of the most widely
distributed tropical fsh species in the world. It has been documented in 69 countries across each
of the continents except Antarctica [2] (Fig. 1). Guppy fsh can fourish in temperate areas such as
Russia and England if water temperatures are higher than 10 °C [3], and are capable of
colonizing many habitats including brackish waters [1]. Physiological characteristics, life history
patterns and phenotypic plasticity enable guppies to evolve rapidly in response to environmental
stressors such as predation risk; examples include altering age and size at maturity, size of
ofspring and reproduction frequency [1]. Female guppies are ovoviviparous (i.e., give birth to
well-developed, independent ofspring) [1], which afords improved survival rates when compared
to oviparous species. In addition, females can store sperm from a single insemination to ensure
several broods, which can lead to entirely new populations [4]. An omnivorous diet further
ensures higher survival/reproduction rates, as food sources such as algae, organic detritus,
diatoms, protozoa, zooplankton, fsh parts and mosquito larvae are often widely available [5]. Teir
exceptional survivability, adaptability, fecundity and larvivorous diet has since made them
favorable as a measure to control mosquito populations, which partly explains why guppies have
been introduced to various locations throughout the world for more than a hundred years [1, 5].
Indeed it has been suggested that mosquito control demand currently accounts for more than
40% of guppy introductions globally [2], and the increasing need for mosquito-borne disease
control will likely continue to drive this practice. ( Does anthropogenic introduction of guppy fsh
(Poecilia reticulata) impact faunal species diversity and abundance in natural aquatic habitats? A
systematic review protocol, Misaki Sasanami1 , John Hustedt2 , Neal Alexander3 , Olaf
Horstick4 , Leigh Bowman5 , Jefrey Hii6 , Pierre Echaubard7 , Leo Braack8 and Hans J.
Overgaard, 2021)

Aquaculture and fish diversity

The São Francisco River, which is recognized as the largest basin entirely contained within the
Brazilian territory (Koch et al., 2018), has a drainage area that includes the states of Minas
Gerais, Bahia, Goiás, Pernambuco, Sergipe and Alagoas, which account for 7.5% of the country
(Pereira, 2007). In the western region of Bahia, the São Francisco River and its tributaries cross a
very rich and complex biome, the Cerrado (Brazilian savannah). This biome is generally
characterized by flat terrain and a semi-arid climate with conditions ranging from humid to sub-
humid and from dry to sub-humid, and there are two welldefined seasons: wet and hot and dry
and cold (Embrapa 2002).

In this region, small rivers, streams and alluvial soils are exposed to periodic flooding and the
presence of riparian formations (Embrapa, 2002). The survival of the local fish fauna is strongly
dependent on the allochthonous organic material imported from the marginal vegetation (Porto,
2008), which reinforces the need to preserve the environments around the streams. The rivers
and streams with high physical complexity in the western region of Bahia tend to exhibit high
species richness due to the greater availability and greater combinations of suitable habitats
(Castro et al., 2015).

However, degradation caused by anthropogenic factors may be responsible for reducing the
abundance and diversity of native fish species (Teresa and Casatti, 2017). It is estimated that the
Cerrado regions have suffered, for at least the last 20 years, from the chronic effects of
agricultural expansion including major changes in the landscape, especially in terms of land use
and land cover (Embrapa, 2002). The rivers of this biome have also been affected by predatory
fishing, damming and silting, deforestation of riparian forests and the introduction of exotic
species (Costa-Neto et al., 2002). Other anthropogenic impacts include those caused by
infrastructure development, such as the paving of a 160-km stretch (between the municipalities
of Itacarambi and Cocos) of the federal highway BR-135, a 2.657 km-long highway that
connects the North and Southeast regions of Brazil.

(Horedesky et. al, 2020)

Coral reefs are highly productive communities which are important to the fisheries of tropical
IndoPacific countries Langham and Mathias 1974, Stevenson and Marshall 1974, Carpenter
1977, Marshall 1979!. In the Philippines, corals are being eliminated from reef communities by
siltation, dynamite fishing, collection for ornamental and construction purposes, and other
destructive fishing techniques Carpenter 1977, Carpenter and Alcala 1977, Gomez 1977,
McManus 1980!. Because of the many alterations of the coastal zone by man, it has become
important to clarify the relationship of reef fish diversity and abundance to habitat characteristics
for fisheries management purposes. There are many reports qualitatively relating reef fishes
distribution to types and configuration of bottom cover Hiatt and Strasburg 1960, Vivien 1973,
Fishelson et al. 1974, Hobson 1974, Nagelkerken 1974, Harmelin-Vivien 1977!. In addition,
there is a growing body of literature which supports a suggestion that space, rather than food, is
the primary limiting factor of reef fish abundance Randall 1963, Sale 1978, Smith 1978, and
others!. Attempts to quantitatively correlate substrate characteristics with reef fish parameters
have yielded a variety of results which are sometimes nebulous and largely inconsistent between
studies Talbot 1965, Risk 1972, Talbot and Goldman 1972, Nolan 1975, Sale and Dybdahl 1975,
Luckhurst and Luckhurst 1978!. However, some consistency has been found among correlations
of fish diversity with a gross index of substrate complexity Risk 1972, Luckhurst and Luckhurst
1978, Gladfelter et al. 1980!.

The purpose of this study was to see if any meaningful associations can be drawn between reef
fish perpendicular to the reef front in order to sample a profile of the reef to a depth of 20 m. The
Buyong Beach and Olango Island areas were surveyed in March, 1978; Sumilon Island in
August, 1978. Fish censusing was carried out in late morning and early afternoon to avoid the
diurnal-nocturnal changeover periods sensu Hobson 1972!. The same diver censused fishes in all
transects with the use of an underwater tape recorder. Surveys began at the deep end of the
transect, approximately 20 min after the transect lines were laid down. Fishes appeared to resume
normal behavior shortly after the transect lines were set and they did not appear attracted to the
lines.

The transect was marked every 2 m such that the transect could be visually subdivided into a
continuum of 4 mz quadrats. From a distance of from 2 to 4 m, the marker which corresponded
to the quadrat being censused, fish species identity, number of each species, and estimated fork
length of fishes within each quadrat were recorded. From these were calculated biomass g/mz!,
abundance no. of individuals/mz!, species density no. of species/4 mz! to avoid redundancy this
variable was excluded in the canonical correlation analysis described below!, and
ShannonWiener diversity H'! based on biomass Pielou 1975!.

.The diversity index is based on biomass rather than numbers to reduce bias toward the more
numerous smaller species. Biomass estimates were calculated from the estimates of fork lengths
of fishes using species-specific length-weight conversion factors sensu Grovhoug and Evans
1974!. Two levels of spatial heterogeneity were examined. The first level concerned large scale
incongruities in vertical relief and was measured by a surface area index SAI!. The SAI was
obtained by measuring surface contours along one side of the transect line. Directly underneath
each 2-m subdivision of the transect line, a thin nylon rope was forced to conform to the bottom
contours. The line was then straightened and measured. This length was then divided by 2 m to
obtain the SAI for each quadrat.

(CARPENTER, MICLAT, ALBALADEJO AND CORPUZ, 2016)

Since February 2020, parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) have been
discussing the challenges of conserving biodiversity in a world that is undergoing climate change
and increasing human population and consumption (CBD 2020). The parties will formulate a
new global framework, scheduled to be agreed in 2021. These decisions will provide a global
environmental agenda for the next 10 years (‘‘post-2020’’)
The parties should consider Brazil to be central to the discussion of the post-2020 period due to
its vast biodiversity, especially those in inland waters. The country contains a large percentage of
the planet’s freshwater species (Agostinho et al. 2005). For example, the country holds 3148
freshwater fish species (ICMBio 2018), a larger richness than North America, Central America,
Europe, and Oceania combined (Dagosta and de Pinna 2019). Another example is freshwater
Cladocera, with more than 140 species (Brito et al. 2020), a number that corresponds to * 23% of
the world’s total for this group (Forro´ et al. 2008)

Brazil’s high freshwater biodiversity is in constant peril (e.g., Pelicice et al. 2017; ICMBio
2018). An assessment of the state of conservation of Brazilian freshwater species organized by
the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio) is being done through
voluntary collaboration of national and international researchers. These evaluations have shown
that many Brazilian fish species are extinct at the regional level (ICMBio 2018); this is alarming
because the extinction of local or regional populations eliminates genetic variability. Brazilian
diversity is being imperiled as dams, agricultural expansion, pollution, and other impacts take
their toll on Brazil’s aquatic ecosystems. Other threats include invasive species, a danger that is
augmented by planned inter-basin water transfer projects and by unsustainable aquaculture and
sport fishing (e.g., Ribeiro et al. 2017; Garcia et al. 2018; Daga et al. 2020; Nobile et al. 2020)

(. Azevedo-Santos et. al, 2020)

Local Fish Diversity (LFD)

Inland waters such as rivers and lakes are considered important for hydrology sources and
fisheries (Groombridge & Jenkins 1998; Jenkins 2003; BAS 2014; Mutia et al 2018). These
waters are considered a source of food for many poor people and communities (Fernandez-San
Valentin & Berja 2012; van der Ploeg 2017), especially their contribution to the Philippines'
economy (delos Angeles 1990; Israel 2008). However, pollution, overexploitation, invasive
species, and rapid land-use transitions have led to a severe decline in biodiversity in these many
aquatic resources (Kottelat & Whitten 1996; Araullo 2001; Ong et al 2002; DENR-PAWB 2005;
Dudgeon et al 2006; Delgado 2003; Macusi et al 2015; Cuvin-Aralar 2016; Appleton et al 2006;
Nieves et al 2020; Su et al 2021). These even pose biosecurity issues such as outbreaks and the
spread of diseases (Pruder 2003; Lightner 2003; Mendoza et al 2019).

Since aquaculture is one of the most critical industries in the Philippines, these resources must be
conserved, protected, and properly managed. These can be done by looking into the fish
inventory present as ecological indicators, fisheries stability descriptors, and ecological integrity
of aquatic habitats (Ikpi & Offem 2011; Karr 1991; Welcomme 1995; Zampella & Bunnell
1998). Impacts of habitat deterioration, invasive alien species, and climate change across spatial
and temporal scales should also be included (Nisikawa & Nakano 1998; Zampella & Bunnell
1998; Guerrero 2002; Ramsundar 2004; Kwak & Peterson 2007; Ter Braak & Verdonschot 1995;
Angermeier & Davideanu 2004; Anticamara & Go 2016). Many studies conducted in the
Philippines have shown the importance of biodiversity assessment of many inland aquatic
resources to the integrity of the aquatic ecosystem (Aralar 2016; Angeles 2005; Romero et al
2016; Paller et al 2013; Corpuz et al 2015a, 2015b, 2016; Guzman & Capaque 2014; Romero et
al 2016; Briones et al 2016; Quimpang et al 2016; Estal-Mercado 2018; Paller et al 2017; Garcia
et al 2018; Baysa et al 2019; Roque et al 2019).

Most studies on inland waters cover the large lakes of the world, which cover the most area and
are generally considered important for research (Downing et al 2006; Downing 2010). The
global role of small lakes has been doubly missed because the spatial area has been
underestimated (Downing 2010). However, it is important to note that small lakes and ponds
dominate the world's lake area (Wetzel 1990; Downing et al 2006). Thus, studies on small lakes,
especially in the Philippines, where they are most abundant, are crucial since they are more
exposed to intensive activity like erosion, deposition, and landscape alteration, making them
more dynamic than large water bodies (Downing 2010).

(Demayo and Ganzon, 2022).