An article released by Academy of Management Perspective which is authored by Arne

L. Kalleberg entitled The Mismatched Worker: When People Don’t Fit Their Jobs states that
matching people to jobs successfully has always been problematic in industrial societies, dues to
complexity of works and the diversity among people. However, this problem became common in
the United States in the past several decades. There are growing numbers of imbalances in
workforce as well in the institution that supports and govern them. The increase mismatches are
primarily from these factors: changes or lack of changes in the intuitional structure and not keep
pace to main trends and in labor force (globalization), technological innovation (which demand
and increase skill requirements), and the growing range of field of work and the diversity of
individuals.

Labor market mismatch is defined by Sloane and Mavromaras (2014) as mismatch of

employee qualifications and job requirements. They argued that over-education and over-skilling
is the results of labor market mismatch, which can influence the employee’s organizational
commitment and performance in work. These two outcomes of labor market mismatch could be
seen as underemployment. Sloane and Mavromaras (2014) found out that, overeducation,
according to cross-section study, suggests some type of market failure. Many college graduates
are working in positions that do not require a college diploma and in which their college
credentials are not properly utilized, according to such research. They also show that workers
who are both over skilled and overeducated have marginally worse job satisfaction. The findings
also show that overeducated workers had considerably more voluntary autonomy than
individuals with well-matched qualifications and positions. Workers who are both over skilled
and overeducated are in the same boat. There is no discernible difference in mobility for simply
over skilled workers. Although there are many studies, the research remains limited as it only
covered in single country which is Australia. The study also primarily focuses on male outcomes.
Moreover, while overeducation assessments might be objective or subjective, there is a basic
constraint to the process of measuring mismatch
Ref: Sloane, P., Mavromaras, K. Overeducation, skill mismatches, and labor market outcomes
for college graduates. IZA World of Labor 2020: 88 doi: 10.15185/izawol.88.v2

Underemployment is studied by Albert and Davia (2018) by measuring three separate

dimensions: overeducation, underutilization of skills/knowledge, and field of education
mismatch. They apply University Graduate Job Placement Survey 2014 to determine
circumstances of underemployed Spanish graduates first job and the relationship of these to their
job seeking practices According to the statistics, 40 percent of people who are underemployed
mix all three dimensions. However, researcher offered expand analysis by using multivariate
analysis to addressed other issues. In fact, Nieto & Ramos (2017) found out that there is no
substantial association between overeducation and over-skilling in the workers in Spain with
various levels of education, not only university graduates. Given their limited relevance, the
research results reflect some of the author’s previous data about job search strategies: using
governmental employment services and university career services reduces the likelihood of
underemployment. The researcher analyses’ following recommendations are like those made by
Quintini (2011): it is vital to increase information and guidance for new graduates while also
enhancing their abilities
Ref: Albert, C., & Davia, M. (2018). JOB SEARCH STRATEGIES AND UNDEREMPLOYMENT
IN RECENT GRADUATES FIRST JOBS IN SPAIN. Revista de Economía Aplicada, 26(78), 21–
41.

Manjeet, Pratibha, and Mini (2020) support that underemployment has a negative
repercussion to individual, organization, and economy, they argued that the existing crisis in the
economy place many of the employees in a critical situation, wherein they settled in being
underemployed to adapt in the environment. Workers are obligated to labor at jobs that are
inferior in terms of workload, salary, competency, or abilities to make a source of income.
Furthermore, it was found that underemployment can affects the employee’s commitment to the
organization. (Manjeet et al. 2020). Previous studies have shown that job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, and customer service may all negatively impact due to
underemployment. The studies revealed that underemployment has negative implications for not
only the person who is underemployed, but also for the organization and the economy,
employees who are unable to embrace their jobs will become dissatisfied and contribute less to
their personal and organizational commitments Moreover, underemployment in the manner of
overeducation has been associated with poorer employee engagement, job satisfaction, peer
connections, feelings of control, and future goals.
Ref: Kaur, Manjeet, Goyal, Pratibha, and Goyal, Mini. ‘Individual, Interpersonal and Economic
Challenges of Underemployment in the Wake of COVID-19’. 1 Jan. 2020 : 21 – 28

The Effects of Job Mismatch on Pay, Job Satisfaction, and Performance

Reference: https://www.mdpi.com/2199-8531/4/4/49/pdf
According to Si-Jeoung Kim and Sang Ok Choi (2018), job mismatch of the Ph.D.
workforce showed negative effects on pay and job satisfaction. It only means that having a
different profession with your current job is not good to maximize your skills and used your
knowledge in a specific field that you currently belong with. Performing a job that is far from
your profession will make you feel unsatisfied worker. It cannot also provide your desired salary
or high compensation. Through these, the job workers cannot give their fullest capacity in doing
their job due to mismatched skills and knowledge in a specific job.

Job-Field Underemployment and Career Satisfaction: A Relationship of Cause and Effect

Sharon More & Tova Rosenbloom, 2021. "Job-Field Underemployment and Career Satisfaction:
A Relationship of Cause and Effect," International Journal of Business and Management,
Canadian Center of Science and Education, vol. 15(10), pages 1-82, July.
Reference: https://ideas.repec.org/a/ibn/ijbmjn/v15y2021i10p82.html
Sharon More and Tova Rosenbloom (2020), found out that experiencing job-field
underemployment negatively affects an individual’s career satisfaction over time, which may
possibly imply that experiencing job-field underemployment, in and of itself, is typically
involuntary and certainly not planned. In their conclusion, I can say that having a job
mismatched has a negative effect not just on the worker but also in a company where the person
is currently part of. The individual who experienced underemployment may feel dissatisfaction
with his or her career. In these cases, they are not willing to enter these situations because they
are also aware that it might bring negative effects. It is also not planned to be experienced this
kind of thing. It usually happens when the fresh graduates are avoiding unemployment and to
gain experience.
 According to Anna Dros (2013) job mismatch occurs when people's levels of education
or experience are incompatible. Discrimination in the workplace refers to unequal treatment in
the workplace that prevents equal job chances. Additionally, certain abilities are unsuited with
the job's criteria. The goal of the study is to learn more about employment mismatch and the
factors that lead to it among foreign employees from Lithuania and Poland in Denmark. This
study should have a focus exploring the factors that cause work mismatch and discrimination,
and the researchers focused on which factors are important in influencing the possibility of being
mismatched and to explore the viewpoints of Lithuanian and Polish immigrants on work
mismatch and challenge the assumption that overeducated immigrants are more likely to
experience discrimination. According to the outcomes of studies, the immigrants' perspectives
are for their participation in the labor market and to attain the better status jobs in Denmark.

According to Lam Ka Hou (2013) there is a positive relationship between

transformational leadership style and organizational commitment within two (2) independent
variables which are leadership style (transformational & transactional) and leadership
competency. As a result, they added to their previous study that there is a positive relationship.
They also stated that their findings supported previous studies that showed a link between
leadership competencies and organizational commitment. They included if we study job
satisfaction in the relationship between leadership style and competence, job satisfaction was
found to partially mediate the relationship between leadership style on organizational
commitment, as well as the relationship between leadership competencies and organizational
commitment.

The common explanation for the job mismatch is related to “job allocation frictions”
(Tijdens et al., 2011: 7). It occurs when the required level of education for a given job differs
from the employee’s attained level of education (Piracha et al., 2012). So, the problem of job
mismatch
concerns the fact that many immigrants face barriers to make full use of their qualifications in
the
host country. Nevertheless, we do not find the problem of job mismatch self-evident as it seems
to
be associated with another underlying process, discrimination, which we consider to be a
reasonable, though disputable, explanation on the relatively difficult position of immigrants in
the
labour market.
So far, several studies have looked at the incidence of job mismatch with respect to such
categories as gender, age, the residence length, or level of attained education with a strong
emphasize on its impact on wages (e.g., Aleksynska & Tritah, 2011; Budria et al., 2009; Cedefop
2009,2010,2011; Piracha, 2012).
https://rucforsk.ruc.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/57657257/
MASTER_THESIS_Job_mismatch_in_the_Danish_Labour_Market_Anna_Dros
%26Mante_Gaizutyte.pdf?fbclid=IwAR0H1Ac6j61xL1EYlGqi6jcmWwQcJCNvdj6uJ_0n5Vs-
Ce686kcvTPOzYiY
 In addition, the study did not include the factors of corporation size (sales, etc.) and
organization culture that might influence individual job satisfaction and performance. Therefore,
such multidimensional considerations and panel analysis with time series data are needed in
future research. Future studies can explore the effective utilization of the Ph.D. workforce,
including panel analysis, through the accumulation and comprehensive utilization of data related
to Ph.D. workforce statistics and other related statistics. Finally, various qualitative and
quantitative methodologies that can estimate job disagreement should be developed and verified.
file:///C:/Users/MYKA/Downloads/JOItmC-04-00049.pdf

In a research article presented by Villaverde (2020), job mismatch is a word used to

describe when a job seeker lacks the requisite skills and qualifications to meet the job market’s
requirements, resulting in unemployment. These are the applicants wherein their skills,
knowledge or educational background is not aligned on their job. A mismatch is a condition in
which there is a lack of balance or inconsistencies in the qualities of employees, such as their
educational attainment or type of expertise, field, or competencies that are incompatible with the
demands of the job. Job mismatches have a detrimental impact at the global-scale and at the
microeconomic level. (Velciu, 2017). Working incompatibility can negatively modify a global
aspect. Underutilization of skills results in a decrease in productivity. Lower job satisfaction and
motivation would be the result of absenteeism rises and drops of outputs. Overqualification and
underuse of skills is a problem. (Green & Zhu, 2010). Recent studies on the effects of work have
been published. Workplace mismatches are caused by two factors. Major approaches that cover a
wide range of topics but are primarily based on indirect as well as direct evidence. The first
approach is based on the human capital theory. Specifically, wage and marginal cost are related.
As a result, the effect of mismatch on production is magnified. Indeed, productivity is affected
by wages. Ultimately, highlight the significance of job matching, people, and employment for
better work distribution.
Kim, S.-J., & Choi, S. (2018). The Effects of Job Mismatch on Pay, Job Satisfaction, and
Performance. Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 4(4), 49.
https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc4040049
Park, K. (2020). Qualifications, job mismatch, and workers with disabilities. Portuguese
Economic Journal, 20(2), 161–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10258-019-00170-3
https://www.philjobnet.gov.ph

Admittedly, this conceptualization of commitment as merely a psychological state has

been debated in the literature, with many researchers arguing that organizational commitment is
more of an array of workplace attitudes and it is better defined by a set of observable workplace
behaviors (Klein et al., 2012).
file:///C:/Users/MYKA/Downloads/1513-Article%20Text-3994-1-10-20190725.pdf

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/person-environment-fit

Zhang and Long’s (2013) empirical study found that the relationship between person–job fit, and
its outcomes is influenced by individual factors and results in an incomplete conclusion if we
neglect such contingency factors. According to identity theory (Stets and Serpe, 2013),
employees with low levels of career commitment can be expected to display low levels of job
involvement and innovation behavior because they tend to exhibit less positive work attitudes
and behavior in general (Duffy et al., 2011; Pei and Zhao, 2015), which is not conducive to
optimizing organizational performance. Therefore, the role of career commitment must be taken
seriously.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01134/full

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
337893583_EQUITY_THEORY_OF_MOTIVATION_AND_WORK_PERFORMANCE_IN_SELE
CTED_SOUTH_EAST_UNIVERSITIES

https://researchleap.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/04.-Theories-of-Motivation-and-their-
Application-in-Organisations-A-Risk-Analysis.pdf

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
267783009_The_Utility_of_Equity_Theory_in_Enhancing_Organizational_Effectiveness

Theories of career mobility (Sicherman and Galor, 1991) suggest that some workers
choose an initially mismatched post that enables them to acquire the necessary skills, through on‐
the‐job training and work experience, which will enable them to achieve more rapid career
progression in the future. Alternatively, proponents of matching theories of job search
(Jovanavic, 1970) suggest that overeducation is largely a consequence of poor information and,
over time, workers will realize their error and achieve improved matches through repeated job
search. Other authors have hypothesized that mismatch may be a consequence of workers trading
off overeducation and lower pay for other job attributes, such as job security, for which they
have a stronger preference (McGuinness and Sloane, 2011).
https://ftp.iza.org/dp9698.pdf

Mayer and Allen’s theory is significant to the current study since it provides multiple
perspectives on why employees are committed to the organization, whether for positive or
negative reasons. According to Mayer and Allen, there are three basic components to
organizational commitment. One dimension is called “affective commitment” it is when you
have a deep emotional tie to your organization and the work you do, you have affection for your
job. Second dimension is “continuance commitment” it is when you weigh the benefits and
drawbacks of quitting your company, you make this type of commitment. One may believe that
sticking with your present workplace is vital because the loss you would encounter if you left
outweighs the benefit you believe you would receive in a new position. Third is “normative
commitment” it is when you feel obligated to your organization, even if you're unhappy in your
work or want to pursue other chances. You believe that staying with your business is the correct
thing to do. This will help the current study in determining the organizational commitment of
selected underemployed as well as individuals whose skill and job are mismatched based on the
Mayer and Allen model.

Organizational commitment can also be affected by the employee's personal characteristics such
as age, years of service and gender (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Baron and Greenberg (1990, p 174)
state that "older employees, those with tenure or seniority, and those who are satisfied with their
own levels of work performance tend to report higher levels of organizational commitment than
others". This implies that older people are seen to be more committed to the organization than
other age groups.

The organization as a workplace environment is built up of working relationships; one of which

is the supervisory relationship. According to Randall (1990, p 370) “the supervisory relationship
can affect organizational commitment either positively or negatively”. A positive supervisory
relationship depends on how work-related practices such as performance management are being
implemented in the organization (Randall, 1990). When individuals find the supervisory
relationship to be fair in its practices, they tend to be more committed to the organization
(Benkhoff, 1997).

The existence of employment opportunities can affect organizational commitment (Curry et. al.,
1996). Individuals who have a strong perception that they stand a chance of finding another job
may become less committed to the organization as they ponder on such desirable alternatives.
Where there is lack of other employment opportunities, there is a tendency of high level of
organizational commitment (Vandenberghe, 1996). As a result, membership in the organization
is based on continuance commitment, where employees are continuously calculating the risks of
remaining and leaving (Meyer & Allen, 1997).