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    PCS Notes

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    of 206

    PCS NOTES

    Department of Electronics and Communication


    Engineering

    RNS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY


    AICTE Approved, VTU Affiliated and NAAC A Grade Accredited)
    (UG programs - ECE, CSE, ISE, EIE and EEE have been Accredited by NBA for the Academic
    years 2018-2019,2019-2020 and 2020-2021)
    Dr. Vishnuvardhan Road, Raja Rajeshwari Nagar, Bengaluru -560 098, Karnataka.
    RNS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
    (AICTE Approved, VTU Affiliated and NAAC A Grade Accredited)
    (UG programs - ECE, CSE, ISE, EIE and EEE have been Accredited by NBA for the Academic
    years 2018-2019,2019-2020 and 2020-2021)
    Dr. Vishnuvardhan Road, Raja Rajeshwari Nagar, Bengaluru -560 098, Karnataka.

    Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

    VISION
    Conquering technical frontiers in the field of Electronics and Communication.

    REVISED MISSION STATEMENTS

    The department promotes an intellectual and ethical environment in which the strengths and
    skills of Electronics Professionals will flourish by.

    Mission 1: Achieving and fostering excellence in core Electronics and Communication


    engineering with focus on the hardware, simulation and design.

    Mission 2: Pursuing Research, Development and Consultancy to achieve self sustenance.

    Mission 3: Preparing industry ready graduates by providing skill training and nurturing
    innovation and creativity

    REVISED PEO STATEMENTS

    PEO1
    Apply fundamental concepts obtained from mathematics, basic sciences and engineering
    subjects to solve challenging problems Electronics, Communication and allied disciplines.

    PEO2
    Exhibit technical and analytical skills for the design and development of innovative and cost
    effective solutions.

    PEO3
    Pursue higher education and participate in Life long learning with right learning attitude to
    emerge as good human beings and responsible citizens.

    PEO4
    Adapt to rapid changes in tools and technology and work in multidisciplinary fields to come
    up with new environment friendly, sustainable technologies catering to societal needs.

    PEO5
    Cultivate skills which helps in building leadership qualities, entrepreneurships, effective
    communication and ethics needed for a successful professional career.
    REVISED PSO STATEMENTS

    The graduates of the department will be able to

    PSO1
    Apply knowledge of Electronics and Communication systems in the design, development and
    analysis of integrated electronic systems for the betterment of human life.

    PSO 2
    Demonstrate competence in using advanced hardware languages, IT tools and create
    innovative electronic technologies as per industry standards.

    PROGRAM OUTCOMES
    Program Outcomes as defined by NBA (PO) Engineering Graduates will be able to:
    1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
    fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
    problems.
    2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
    engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
    mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
    3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
    design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
    consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
    considerations.
    4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
    methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
    the information to provide valid conclusions.
    5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
    modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
    activities with an understanding of the limitations.
    6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
    societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant
    to the professional engineering practice.
    7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
    solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
    for sustainable development.
    8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
    norms of the engineering practice.
    9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
    in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
    10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
    engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
    write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
    receive clear instructions.
    11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
    engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
    leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
    12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
    in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
    COURSE OBJECTIVES
    A course objective specifies a behavior, skill, or action that a student can demonstrate if they
    have achieved mastery of the objective. As such, objectives need to be written in such a way
    that they are measurable by some sort of assessment. It will be specific to each Course.

    COURSE OUTCOMES
    Course Outcomes are the statements that help the learners to understand the reason for
    pursuing the course and helps him to identify what he will be able to do at the end of the
    course.

    OUTCOME BASED EDUCATION


    Outcome-based education or outcomes-based education (OBE) is an educational
    theory that bases each part of an educational system around goals (outcomes). By the end of
    the educational experience, each student should have achieved the goal. There is no single
    specified style of teaching or assessment in OBE; instead, classes, opportunities, and
    assessments should all help students achieve the specified outcomes. The role of the faculty
    adapts into instructor, trainer, facilitator, and/or mentor based on the outcomes targeted.
    Outcome-based methods have been adopted in education systems around the world, at
    multiple levels. Australia, South Africa, United States, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Europe and
    other countries have adopted OBE.
    The Washington Accord was created in 1989; it is an agreement to accept undergraduate
    engineering degrees that were obtained using OBE methods. As of 2017, the full signatories
    are Australia, Canada, Taiwan, Hong Kong, India, Ireland, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, New
    Zealand, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Turkey, the United Kingdom, Pakistan,
    China and the United States.

    Benefits of OBE
    Clarity
    The focus on outcomes creates a clear expectation of what needs to be accomplished by the
    end of the course. Students will understand what is expected of them and teachers will know
    what they need to teach during the course. Clarity is important over years of schooling and
    when team teaching is involved. Each team member, or year in school, will have a clear
    understanding of what needs to be accomplished in each class, or at each level, allowing
    students to progress. Those designing and planning the curriculum are expected to work
    backwards once an outcome has been decided upon; they must determine what knowledge
    and skills will be required to reach the outcome.

    Flexibility
    With a clear sense of what needs to be accomplished, instructors will be able to structure their
    lessons around the student’s needs. OBE does not specify a specific method of instruction,
    leaving instructors free to teach their students using any method. Instructors will also be able
    to recognize diversity among students by using various teaching and assessment techniques
    during their class. OBE is meant to be a student-centered learning model. Teachers are meant
    to guide and help the students understand the material in any way necessary, study guides,
    and group work are some of the methods instructors can use to facilitate students learning.

    Comparison
    OBE can be compared across different institutions. On an individual level, institutions can
    look at what outcomes a student has achieved to decide what level the student would be at
    within a new institution. On an institutional level, institutions can compare themselves, by
    checking to see what outcomes they have in common, and find places where they may need
    improvement, based on the achievement of outcomes at other institutions. The ability to
    compare easily across institutions allows students to move between institutions with relative
    ease. The institutions can compare outcomes to determine what credits to award the student.
    The clearly articulated outcomes should allow institutions to assess the student’s
    achievements rapidly, leading to increased movement of students. These outcomes also work
    for school to work transitions. A potential employer can look at records of the potential
    employee to determine what outcomes they have achieved. They can then determine if the
    potential employee has the skills necessary for the job.

    Involvement
    Student involvement in the classroom is a key part of OBE. Students are expected to do their
    own learning, so that they gain a full understanding of the material. Increased student
    involvement allows students to feel responsible for their own learning, and they should learn
    more through this individual learning. Other aspects of involvement are parental and
    community, through developing curriculum, or making changes to it. OBE outcomes are
    meant to be decided upon within a school system, or at a local level. Parents and community
    members are asked to give input in order to uphold the standards of education within a
    community and to ensure that students will be prepared for life after school.
    2018
    SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

    Venkatesha M, Department of ECE

    PRINCIPLES OF
    COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
    (15EC45)
    IV SEMESTER ECE
    MODULE 1 SYLLABUS
    AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
    Introduction, Amplitude Modulation: Time & Frequency – Domain description, Switching
    modulator, Envelop detector
    (Page No. 1 -23)

    DOUBLE SIDE BAND-SUPPRESSED CARRIER MODULATION:


    Time and Frequency – Domain description, Ring modulator, Coherent detection, Costas Receiver,
    Quadrature Carrier Multiplexing (QAM). (Page No. 24 -37)

    SINGLE SIDE–BAND AND VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND METHODS OF


    MODULATION:
    SSB Modulation, VSB Modulation, Frequency Translation, Frequency- Division Multiplexing,
    Theme Example: VSB Transmission of Analog and Digital Television
    (Page No. 38 -50)
    MODULE -1 AMPLI TUDE MODULATION
    TNTKODUC TION :_
    Messctfle signc ls o?te ?n cornrpa*rb-le for d i recf -*rorv6 nnjs sion . For
    * "rg'r.t, _h :trove) )onXet_dixFqnce^, f I Sftengh f,,ox b be
    ::
    tmc^reased by
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    o l*erfin7 qnt6 eae pororrel.er (o^


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    I siSnaI

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    fo,, = freclruen !g 4 nnessqgR STgnal , .f 4 Hs.

    *t Jn f vuq,ru€o gg J oitt lhe .8pecln-rro + nn c b) lr Aenot tr


    "rn
    U14 M (F), lhe .8 Fecttu'rr Ia bq",J l; rnited b & r,..t uz .

    Mtf) ..Nhert
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    a
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    perce'tla2e
    d MoJ,"l.*l-inn I",,J ex f S

    '/" V:txtoo @ %F= Ko 4* xteo

    l=;' rf An h fho", Ao , modub.hun, ?oJer ft beconne4 greal.'ai


    Qre^ier
    than I- therr Dirton"lioa \n fc|rpduceJ hob lF.B_ ,q+SG,o.

    + For pToFr - signd inan<nni, ssi oay q",J D€ret}i oo, -lhe
    AM
    t"todul#V rz?gn^) %r+*gn 'A; .ynu+ be fess.thqn (arrtzr
    EiXnaJ yo llq?€ . AJ ,

    *k: r. sremA AM 6i?nqj -the Moxin-rrro & Mininrq'n annfli{-,_dta


    +
    Aurt ,sitnd 16 ?ivro hg . Arnor= A"Ir+1!
    . Arnt^ _ Ac l- Hl
    \WrZnoJ Modu,[p.Sdx
    bUrgt tlf 1

    lV'!l nnuo mpf+qdes:-


    ,\
    A.-,A-n a

    enve,loPe dh 8(f)
    Arnqr=Ac tr'+f]

    Arolfn
    = A. I t- ;rJ
    f
    Fim' EJgx. t
    WI ia [pgsx-u{r.)
    lnle k^or Jrt"t tb" ..l+","hrd AM-aigro b.{
    ff*r,
    sl*) _ A" [ | * ko r'ntg] cosea [.t (rr
    --
    k+ A*r_:)l"lax innueo aonBlTfuda
    $ SC+;
    A.l":) Minirnuro o.o^rpli j..lJe 3? -S( t )

    Frgure 3 . Fhorda 1b'e Earvelope


    $ stD ["u, A"f r] kq.",rf] arekA,
    4vl aigna,l Teqch ?g iE nnqrTnnu&n Vqlue r,,.rho hn(t) - AnD. poo -
    "o. A,noz= A" ( l* kc.A.r,): Ac ( HH) : kaA,n J-r=
    sirnilarfy, at'r trgna-r reaohel nnTninnuro *rr. 1.1,"." ,'(t)=-Aro
    "on A,nro = Ac ( t - ko Ao.'): A" (l-Fr)
    (z)
    D'iv;clu7 eluNl-'ao (r) Ni 16 e?Lf ao Cg -Ne Arl
    "j-i
    A
    ^\rnat A.(ttl,t) _ ,.tM
    -r\ni4 =
    A
    A. C l-l'r) t- U
    -Arnax ( r .- pr )

    - l-t, Arnqr( :
    A,nqt A nrl n * lQ Arni o
    Ato{ - A.tfn :

    Ven fe*eXha .Vl t JR.tr & Adftn0 facu lry "Dep+ 4 SCe sul
    Exonurpl ,.
    A/\,^.l\ t, L, i LXTng the rness^?e
    v v *iryd
    v rnft) =
    *;l+ta , .ftJs',nFo" 'o
    ^,v!
    -+qd 6a,Q*&', JEe annplifude nnoolll^]rd 0rhw fo.r the FollohrhDtr
    tnoJu lo,}feo s",Jcx r/aluex
    H: s (i) oz (ii) p = roo%
    [-y Qtveq .'
    rurqlsq lY zu t7
    /l/\/^'"\
    Mess €e 6ignd ynt*) rl rLr q,p
    Itbr-
    Ct) vodulg:l fnder p: 0.5 ;_
    ? gn=/\.A
    l.^"n-r\n-_-
    tzA._/\-z\\r,\- ._^y\
    Ne knpr^r tnn* frT ala4{qur4 $rvl 6nry) e?U^}i ont .tg
    Sc+)= A. I r* kom(+t cosonf..t _ [r)
    'f.tr F= o" S : -tn+
    t^le knoru , F: Kn l.n'r+ll.r4st

    " J& ff*o AignoJ mr(*) la nnqtlnnurr\ o& *=o.


    o
    nnt*)
    onof
    <--{nnt*ll
    l?lolx
    ' nn(+) TS Mtofnnurn
    "$ *= tDo .

    Inn(+)l-, = E"l ft-t,= O. Mln

    .'.
    Fr= K.. Irtt)I,,..,o.- k.x I - oo **la
    I=t
    -1-rr
    ---v-
    lo

    F= Ka-= o'5
    - .' s,\,4/\^
    Ker{h q rnf*) "*
    " A/^-n "

    o"o s(f) o'-€ -l


    = IA" l+ Cos"t^ bc+
    : I+tz J A
    To Sxertl s[*) '- j oo'?
    .rxz..^x,^.',);- ^4."u,7: I e.4lpt4*J= A. [r* o.sc,D - FsAc
    A.
    ,A^in = A. I t+ r<o l,gbrf
    il = Ac I ttoJ = Ac
    *'o fie povelop t5 nnt+) befirueeo Arorn^= A" ond
    "{rpengr*
    A** : 1.5 Ae tn St+) c*ignd *s thor^r, io g,f 9ax,l

    Fiture 1: U^flg:J l1_l*:ls


    iD
    L= L. ( "." p=Kt**
    L

    St*)= A. [1+ h'nct! cos(cn].+) ) nrtr)


    =.*L,
    :) 6r+)= Ac L r + .i ..1 c^s (r,rf.+)

    i^*- AcLl+ka 6rXff) o"tr+ N={Ac


    'A^rn = 4c [t+ -reydj*] = A" [r+o] : Aq

    srt)
    - -d'4c=Attqr
    -- Ac- A.nirr

    V(\) *+.1
    fur5J|J:!nrn7 he Messa2< 6jt'\e,J,
    tnt*)= g
    €i$,^J fw (iJ
    l+t- , Delerrnftne 0^.r1d 5rerct" At.r1

    Y= so% (Iu F= I oD% Ci,, pXrt&s%


    b Qrvst dr,Jq I $4essag< SiZ'\^) mf +)
    = -L _
    Itt"
    + -0e '3 _L -l 0.s, 0 0"5 7 2" ,
    \J bo
    r0Gr) 0 Jpl
    -og', -o'lt -o.S 0'Lt 0.9 0.+
    -D'lJ o
    I
    , 0
    wrtt)
    lnrTirl;o.s
    +)l = -0.
    lrnrc+tlr.,:^0.5
    qf 0=-i.
    Innct)f*f e.5 + t=1

    F .', f'r thls nnessq7,( ,tig*r) , *t4 rug*)


    Sf+J bewrr.u Mnxrrnu/n o^f t= 1 atp)
    l-eRch ?,\ tq,blrnu.nD
    "^j--
    J-= -I .

    Venkqle8\q ,6 ,-r {e-oia 44g unt} Rcu 14 , Dep+ + EcE


    1"1

    Cas{D F;5o% = 0"S :- L}" k"T. ko_=


    tg8{hj-(+)
    -rhe ,<4ondqrd e?q,\fi bi4 SC+), 4v1
    "f ,signa) lA = A. [r+ Kl',r
    scr-)
    = Ac I r + K. rnru!.o.onft+ A*: A.[t+ t^u"i
    H" +
    rorttll U rry*)7 L
    f .rr_)qX b. S J+t2- 4"rn= l.[r-o.i
    n2 g'"5
    ot
    ond lg 6 hot^lq .'
    $-gux I.aQ)
    G,EL0D: f.ro-
    '\,\,.^-/\ o
    o

    p= l(,. 1.rt,1.^F) Ko= I -q


    *, =
    I'nc+rf*.,,_ 0,s
    -
    _Q:L

    s(*) = A c I t+ q^ rnttt] cDs"r^.fc+

    To
    SIft€t*)'n
    ":keleA St+),^ A-r* - A. [t + r*la4/^.,J = A. [r+ero"s]:- &ac ,

    o. f r + k^ [^**,L,J +"fr_exo,sl
    -The
    t :.
    s kd"A1T^ s+) iA ghot^r.
    =
    il"']*,2r l.J =o
    q1p i- F,- Fr= tos /, = l..rs :- e) ,(0'v." Modub.,led)
    r':.'z:-r:-n-z\

    P -- K^lrrrc,l*€ (:
    "
    "-
    5(f)
    *-i; + =d.(
    = 4. tt+ Knr^ct)] cosanf,$

    S[+) = 4c {,sxh I
    [r+ _l+t.r cosaaF.:f
    '\
    -', st4) : Ac' I l+ d"s"tr, ] C.os&nfl.f
    c l+t,)
    To s ke 4$ s(+) -
    :-
    Arrqx, 4. I t+ kq lrn*, l**l - Ac [t+r-rro.s]=€ +c
    4^rn = Ac I t+ K. l.ncf]|.,J - Ac
    [t-a.rSxo.r]= -0,&SAc
    The S,<e}el, S S(+) f.no- lr= t.a_C tS dhouro :o #Eu* i_.e(c_)
    a"d iS ov"6 Mod rn[^]e J ,
    t3

    rl
    Cqgt(l) j p:5oy" I U nder frfoolu W'on'"-
    A^- .^'^.-

    _L
    - - Amox= l'SAc
    Ac
    --Arne" = o"f Ac
    (ft) V
    _0.S4 c
    -Ac
    _l.ffic
    I

    s t*)r
    "l-EJ-
    four=&Ar

    ilr:^- oft=-f 4c

    4dn= O-+

    A_r
    (b)

    9regllF=Ps%:W:-
    -- A.rif,as+(

    (0.

    - o"9S'4"-
    - - A.in= -o'&g+c
    -Ac

    - J-0-(4 c

    (c-l

    FTgur" 1. J ) A r\4 Slgv\d f.r +)=ft,-+." (^J tHIDz @ i!{lz. "*t


    (cl ; LAs%
    Venkq.l€6hq.M, JRF &4dl:rhcl- Fqcu lf9, Dtp* sce sy lT
    "F
    l4

    Ertplqsfi'n
    n/A-/\/4./4y+
    W
    ' ,/\.-,/\.-M*Utui"^-1f^pFtude
    -r\../\./\- /A. .. \-^./i n/A,/^-&
    r'aodgJ,.iion
    r.\., -/\.,4/,^r -
    :-
    Qftn&il'en -J*do m'odulalto7 tsW"h
    vnr(*) - {rntCps &nfrrt (l)
    trL$) :' A'r5 cos &nf\t - ('J
    N.k.T #le .Zdc.n/,ard - +*l-r.Jq\€
    "qruqh-"n +
    fA

    Sc*) = Ac I r + k^mrc+1] e,s a^ Fc+ _ 6;


    .fo-Jh?s Cqxe nn(*): tr)t(*)+rr\(+)= A"o*t&"f# * AOC"sung"{
    s C*J = A" [f + f" (Arp*euf,i + At6*a"f41] Cns cn.p"t

    sc*) = n" I r+ bSrcos&nffi + fl CusanFc$


    l-tr s!'.'*t*t
    [.,
    s(*) = A.Itf hcosgnf;rJ +F.lbt-@:"rt{q*;
    s(+) - ' AcGs ar F.t t Fr A. eosenf"t. Gs&nf$+ ltA.Gsenf,.*-Gsanfit
    N,l(,T. Cog A. CogB = + { cos (*-e)-l- cos (,+tBD
    o

    st+)= A.cosotd8.+ + tl' ttcos&nct,.- br.)t


    \vcqrrier & '| ;iri{'",-
    t' ry& cos(an(rctl4t
    q-ur"r
    + lar
    F-no,o eTuoJion
    @';
    *ru0 nn'ddt:a Ne
    Yurc)cie"[F,"r, fo")
    ulPer'ud..d3; Z-t-.JoJq.l &ur
    ;i' ;fu:;J; ru:q'+.n r.nr, r.rr,, &

    4prt_gtrfi Fourier #q, -,


    Ne gef,
    scf)= & [s tr-Fc)ts ( F+rc! + Bt]!" t+- [rs-F''])+ s (f
    a [s
    L r [r.-*.;r)]
    . ro. an?^.- 4
    t H [s c F - Lrc+ fr"J) + I (ri +[+"+r.,fl
    r, _ rl.rd)
    *E (F+ tF"-F,n,Jn
    t ry. [s ^)-'

    rypr*-rFc+s,J) + s &+r+.+r.;!
    t5

    Arlrr uY_ A.Ht


    4
    +
    'UgAL

    +ilSE;>F
    - J t:Wyp t'
    ,r\,4v4.-^./1
    M,rl+ifune -tnnptr#qde tqodul"iiorr S-
    .JA\J/\,/\,
    !^. f\/\/\/V._.,t\*- r^.,^r,^.,^.,^.
    '

    Tff agryf,p$:- The +ol-al #^tus^Wr* Bq,rl ul;d'fh +"


    Mr.rlri+o ne =/t"rnplifuole -odu l*+rd "uJqw i.s
    BN_=2N l-tz '

    ruhere [f = Mqxirnunn (f-n , fro , frn)


    l"fd L{c.{ve Xhourr hn eTua}ion(a)
    ies /.As.Fo lloruS
    , fc --) Cory;s6 /sSrd hJjrb- amrpli'tlde 'A; .

    , f"-Fr e LsBr h,i-lb- aqpl?)ude

    . ft+%-
    t
    t-,s81 Ni)B ornrpfitude JT
    Hr Ac

    f"-fr3 LsBa Nit6 ernrp

    fc f fr-+ u3Bg xtli6- q

    * poNer Preae^t b q^t alkrq,*i^A_ ffi*"^) (vottag *S*A)


    t8
    2-
    = (ru^eli+.r&)
    "ZR
    Nhere Q= Load Re,aiala,nce tn lL,
    Ven kq-leahq-r4r :rRF c AotTqncf Fqcul+g ,,DePf + trcF S\^,7
    l4
    * ExFJg€{s) r%uJg @ B!%ond,*s si*t
    *ARx %y$$*gi*d** @{p,r ;-
    L ef Jbe d.o 'iq, Pq^ter fin th" Arql,-t\1nal . TBe Multi Jone
    P, , b,
    +M Argna) fmr *ru0 nnodu l"hoV 6igrnlx Conletirrs F". dlFftrcnJ-
    *.?u,oqJ &orrpon*fi r& Foruer
    fn &,lctrlqlaol m &lloru8,
    =nr'f".1

    t = P" t Pt*ur* Prr"r* P"u't Prr*'

    Pc= t
    "?R -(t)
    orr*,:(fut)- v?*7
    *( \;) = p.{
    Pur,:

    Prrou: P1-,sor=
    Sf -4
    "'Pr'r * P. * af* ,,#-n r,v *
    pr= r.Lt+ f+
    {+ q+ fl
    Pr=P.tr+ Fl'ij=p.tr+( f1
    Pr = p. [t+ *) raPt powe r $o s\ZnoJ
    r * +"-l ^tv1
    "1J
    r ll
    ,^l here l"li= t-rr'+tti = |.1

    ,o.
    $ ModuhFisn 5J",
    Jo Qen e,'r'o.,l , Ne} Modu\r^.hDo frnJurt f.rr N*nne ss
    ^A"
    At''qLs TK

    ?iven
    vv bg.

    Ht=J Pi + l-I,'f pi+ , +t/,i


    N*: Fsr .Afryle T6ne AM f,r1'ndJ,
    . Tola.l PoNer, ?r= P"(r+S)

    " ToJa/ S ide bqod


    f o Neo : P
    fsg Prr* t P,.r**: P. Ht, P" l-lL
    - +'4
    €' lb+al poruer hn

    t€ ,4iJ ebq,.,f,g
    Exannple !"3 i Delermtoe Jhe 'ruffo
    na-nnn a,a t{arirantrrn q,verqge .}ofal poNe}
    "t
    Jo unnnadu loded Cqrrfer poNer i4 AM- algnd.
    l^.f.k.T" ig ffr"n
    1o{€..0 foruer hn AM ,<ivnal s.tr-

    pr = p"
    [' *SJ
    Nhere'
    P" = UonnoJuloled cqrniea
    -G) FoNey
    j,(= Modul^fin'r IoJeN, Vqri u fuq o fi 1
    orpo lvI b e Conner Mf ari nDurrn od 1
    H:
    ,to
    P. = P"ft+l''"-l
    ' flt"hx & J
    o
    O"
    'Ttnqx
    /l+ lr ) _ l.r
    (TE l+i=i=l.S
    | - 3
    P. -
    = ) =
    a
    -tk yuhs l..f
    d>

    &nr,er
    i
    4 l'4 a xi rrrUcrr *rq nB rrfi

    laf A',4 Kignal is


    PDh)er -6'Jhr$'t
    "Uo nnoclulo(ftd

    po*rei

    X*i:n.rhe Tordi.d+ed Jon" qo -AM-broodc*Hn7 6l"tirrr

    Iq 4r,,1- SiTna)
    + CqTrter
    forr,ler
    not
    doexContelns qGU rrrssq?e sT7'vJ '

    no" lFe puesence


    $ Grrier pru€t 'R' fn -lo laj Po0er
    P+, reduca tbe- t$|icteoqJ tf AMI - $,?nd,
    b LsB LusB Cqrri u eoyua,) pNer " P" lJ-l+",
    .M , TRtr AolTqncl- Fqcu
    tg
    + EFFicienca
    xlx,-i\l1,Zr,,rl:
    U
    vN A l'4 6i7nal
    vazr.,nzLrr, r\r\,'-
    : (Yt I
    V

    I+ Y"6 fie fiaHo S {oJ-a,l Side bqnd pourer'16 lhq} + #}a'l


    )zqr6rni+ted pDrder,
    Pus*

    N,k r. ?t= P. [r *S]


    P.r*t Frs*
    a
    .'- f''l-
    t= +

    &tf.-t-
    --

    -', % tl,:

    S: X r|" N4^xlou,rr e$fiUencr7 t At'l

    - +xrou
    33.32:z
    l. 3: sNrrcHtNq MoDULAToR i-
    ,1 /\- ll-zr; Mzfl n-nvA.z,fzf.,lzf*r

    f+ f,6 a Diode eTrc,ufl- -uxecl 'b' ?ene?q+e 4rV-6f?n'd'


    o) rxplqio -the gperor.fioo + sruIfthfro? vtoduhfoo hJi.lb- crrculf Jt7*ro
    qod h1qv€f o^fnn! ,
    '
    ryslJanrot+
    L-; sNTlchxnff Kodula$or ta =txed b geneuule AM 6t?4oJ.
    Ciincuif diogro nn :-
    /rV z\/a.- v^.,^.-^.JU\,/\.^

    c(+)

    rn(+) v(t)

    rru-n.a
    b-9 -'
    \&(t)
    ft(t)

    +t +l
    o
    (b)
    vt(t) -To 10 -----F
    4re

    Frgure 1.3 : (q) st"ri+chlop vroJulorhr CIntuf


    ,G)ti{
    f dto?yu
    (b-)
    rdeqhzed ftaf,^j (v,ro) qcd ou+puf
    %(t) Sirelonlian g Dode
    G) period,tc puta<-Jrahn {r c(J) .

    Nir.l.'r'rB n ,odu lqlo6 Gnx{6[ + oro rJeaj JluJe


    .s
    -ueJ oA a. €rui'}th, follor,nred tH aqod PaS\ FitkrCBPF)
    *he7tl.^g ' Fo q Fhoru,a \q F''3uoe 1.3 (r) ,
    + Mefxage c#Vn"J nD(+) q",d Qqrzter 6iXna) . c(+) qre Sfnnullene-
    -otxl* eppfied o8 tnpu!- 6?"^f J.r fdeoJ d.to& 'D', 08 thotdcr
    t- *..,gr* 4,.3,6) ,

    Vien ka-leXha. M. { k?g,MTqn$ Fqcull-t} -, o+ EcE


    &o

    ,'" lEe-+oe.J tonf.^l- ' V (+i ld -tfie diuJu- Tx ffw^ EV


    Vr t*)- mr+)+ c(+)

    f* fa esxunnd 'fbd lorr*,ll ( Ac .-lhereFr


    o lF" o"#Pr* \^ thr + Dlode 'D' tE,
    "
    \d.(+)= V(+) } arheo cc*))o =$shot.)o io{iguri.='
    {L o
    : uoheo c(*)(o
    T -ihe diud. \/arf p-s te]^:een O
    [,ey The or+p,^l- Voltafle qnd Vr(f)
    aF q Yb-b eluat S CorrTe. rign".,) perriod l[ =
    gu}pu.+ yo1.yefl
    t
    u'. JEe DioJe Kt+l depnndx eo the Confrul 6i?n J
    $"tD aa thsruq Tdr Fgu'e -J-.3 cc) ,

    + *perrodic fuls<:|roic, ?et+), Jhe ouspui' volfftf +1he


    .u. Jo-Jetrx
    dio de Cqo bt h;ri Urcl o8

    kt+)= Vt+1 ?rt9 +(z)


    Sub,rtilrrb Siruorlion 1r; ia e?ur.lie,a (2) hJe goj,

    %c+) = frn(r) + Accos&n+c+] ft*c+)


    Relcnes d% ?pr+) uy rE- purier
    ".*t@
    ?pc*) = $ + I cosonF.t +. q6 e

    '
    " sc+l - fr,*l * a. ces&nf6*] t* -??5ro.KFc* + . . "]
    Kt+.1 =-l -1- +) +g
    E rn(*) hn(+) cosQng.+ +
    $ c"satrfcf *#&urrool.i
    Ytt+l = t rn(,*) +$- rnt+l Cos&nf,1+o&Gsenfct + A;.
    t& r
    JBe:reTujreJ AM Nc{w GnlereJ
    Pqsstnf \4 (+) thro ufi-, qo iJeoJ Bpr havkrT C""trr fre
    tf.' q.rJ BN=eF..Hz
    "'. fis oufp\rf + .lfie Bpf i6
    r$l cfl
    - + mt*) cos GtnF.f) 4ac& CtsenFcf

    6\c+r 1,,' an fi.t


    %' cnr = -& Lt + ko-t+f cosq4+.+S*ot Nqve '

    rut"ere k^ = A,oplrtuJe €nr6+l ,iU r


    #": forannele
    E?u'.lioo C6) k ]t* x4rnJerl ffi :8\Vnd,produlceJ tf -tla'
    St
    ' tireht^q- vod u l"for , tt'o
    0 ' '--'ql"wvs' nt)lb- :( qnn) eT ennp liluJe :s cq le d doruo b Sl'
    forrllsv(rq"v\-r
    ,* * * * oz

    1"4' ENvELDp6 DErEcroR **r(


    a> Expleio dre oPe"l^aheo + envelope defecnrr hJiJb neqj- diorTr"anol
    .&rrd -he
    Novef orrrrs ",AIxo nnent,uo SiTni$icqnce gf Rc-'linne Gnxl"ent.
    Trne- fulg zol?
    Dennodulorlioo
    @ DeJrclioo ?r jhe process S lflecoverinT the
    OriTiooul r6e3,sa?e ,Signa.l
    fro n ;|1re nndulclel hjo.ve od' Jhe
    liecelve tr.

    trg9'!j^_o$tt fL L6 a rficnple qoJ At*', ef Fective drode


    Circuif,. nrh?ch k ConnrnDnly -r.Med f.tn "JennoJu
    + At'4-xignq.J'

    Rc
    tr? lte r

    Rs

    %&

    FiSune 1.4(q) : c i rqqj t diof rrlp o3 Flydopg q+cf.E'l-


    VenKq{e.E .M , 4dTq^6- paCU ltq &sBF , Dep'. p e'ce
    01"2

    sH')

    € nUalgn"J

    '1
    -t-
    I

    Envelope -{ fit'zl-N4ve

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    A-ptr+,rd"
    /^.-z1,n. a.Z\-A-
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    a . AM - Nqves cqo =lTqvel Jo"?.r d r,<pn ce .

    L'Q,, AM hlqved Coven6 lorye G re a


    g. A vl :trqorsrrnT+leaa ere less C"nnp)ef
    4, AM rece?verr{ e r e Sfoople, Dele$iozn &i Zilt
    Cor"t sblicJe+ "rA
    x*?Kd.S+aZK @
    W "F,^.S*
    7-. poNer k alqr+ed ?othe-froa6"1r6.4 ,{td ,

    &, 4M ne"& Larger Bqodroidfb (Bru' =&N)


    3, AM- zigrnl W-tr o.fffucted due *o Noixe,

    * Applicgnlisna +ir'_ra_.r*
    Arl :
    A,AA.-^..,4.r4-

    TBe Mt1on Tpli csdiens


    t AM s,re
    L+ Rqd io btoqd e$linV ,

    Ly ptch-rre Ttqegrnissioc-1 !61 a T\/-Eg4.k/.d^t ,

    ( aelevixie4 Brood cqsti \) ,


    "2..9

    DOUBLF SIDE BAND SUPPRESSED cenRIER (DSBSC)


    \
    n n.
    -n--4.,^ n - l n*-,zr.v,1- \n nrnZrnn- .n-
    'zl.

    MODULATJON
    r+ n overconne ,"ffi"; poruer r-toxtaTe in AM 1'rtaVe

    DsBs c _ Modu btlion ie t_xed

    L) DSBSc i6 a rr,efhod E-Irao8nnissioo q rnessq?€ nignqL t.ohere

    \ A'nplifude Mdub.ted Nqve in ruhrch'the Cqnrier ia Supp'ressed


    iA cqlled "DsBSc- lloclulo.lio4"
    1.5. TTnne aqd Fnetueog do-qio descfp#oo
    .1,4.-n-&
    r..,^,.r,,..^^ /!
    f-*L,p 4
    V
    Dsesc_ xignaJ:
    c^la* /\,n A-\
    Lel- rntD - A6-,cos &nf--$ c,) r Modulafi aX 6ignd ",q^nJ
    -
    C(+) = '4g Cosan.Fc* (z) : Cqrrie u 610rrol,
    -
    Then Xhe TT'ne jonno\o gxpressiorl ia
    for DSBsc- E\grql
    ffvua bJ,
    SC*) = rn(fl. c(+)

    f"r ro(*)
    = Ann Cos enf,o+ Ac

    St*) = 46 Cos&ntct x A,nc,csanf.t

    S(+_)= AnnAc Cos"tnFc*. Cosanf6l


    ',c- ' '!!vJ<'rr'!-)"
    l.sf pi-ag. *fulsa Ftvux
    l^l"k.x CosA.CosB=
    * fCos(A-ts)l cost++e>] -{nd
    .'n s(#)=
    ry [cot&x Cgc-+".,)+ f cosqr(fc*F",)! __>(+t
    \,en koHeAle.J4 r SRP arrd -4dIrra cl F^cu tt9, &.pt- S Ecr sytT
    d4

    Thtre Furieir iTroo6tunro sn botb *Aq + q1,*.hwt (+J,


    htr" g*
    sCf)= Ann Ac ce-tFc-F,,]) +s (e+tr"-F_ll
    + [s
    + [s Cr- tFc+rJ) + s (+ + r+"nr-t]
    >[=l
    M(F)
    Arn

    Cq)

    scr)

    o
    l.E;-r (bt gF*rr

    FiaLrre 3 ("t t-frF*,^.l:,*l (hD sPecroucn $ regl|b.g'd


    ;'tbow S?*r^ SnoNE'Jhe'i".Z"rr aSo. DsBsc NAd'
    V6ferh^J4D
    n Ne e$Eerve'J6oj on
    eitBer Side + +fc, lda l^s.ve LsB qod usB
    t^lrlb annpFlude @. ,
    n Cqrnler iearor rn *a,rppu.rr"J ftn the 6pec{rnl<rr o,a -lhere ix n0
    trnrvpulx e q, Jt .

    !fg[:- " , rhe Dsss c- $qnJ s(]) , trde r1o% a phone ReversJ
    ru heneVer the hnesSQ ge ,Kignd C trosses zeno , Q.<shotnto-t
    tn #T?ur.. 8"1,
    " A DsBSc 8i6n*l Gc' &
    alxo Cottied plRdy_($
    d.l

    Qenerorli
    nnnnry'
    ea ef DSB-Sc
    -ldave j-
    /\n* * @
    -The-
    devrces -,JB;-dt ?*erqle DSBSC NaVe8 ar€ k"'uan qX Jhe
    produtl Modu l'$Drs'
    t23i' 5 cl-) = nr(r)' c (+)
    Modu lrto r
    &TJte_Y r pro .t
    rdl9lAl. \.\t /
    \,
    utj' Y tdu b}o r .lo generqle DsBsc

    f "6. RtNqn,a.,zr-z1.-
    A,AA/\.^.
    MoDuLAroR * **
    A.-/\,^.

    Q) frWfaiolhe yrcrorlion + DsBsc Nqve 'usinft RioA t4oJulq+br


    qod qlSo sKe+ch l6u necessd rbl Nq ve tortd"ys ,
    L) Rin6. vodulalor B N produ$ Mduhlor r.Eed f* QeneraflrrT-.
    Dsgs c -'MoJul"$€J ri7nal'
    Circ uJyrlfos*r
    F1,A.,r\/^af.r; AA.-' U
    "
    ?

    'o
    I

    I t
    &)l s (+)
    I
    DsBsc
    sigm)
    I
    rl

    trrguft t, 6(q)
    r\A.-n-
    : c?ncuif Jtoq^-
    ,n.^r.- "t
    t
    Rhn? Moolulnlor
    n n- vnA4,A^
    ".4,^
    "lh. ^,r\.-,r\.
    L> c? r cuif d?a7ra nn qf RtnrT nroo,|.{ lo,hr 'S Ehoroo hrl
    Sl1ux L.t@) C.,t\si6l4 g -l-u,,ro Gnfer-fopped +"q m!a-,*s
    -Tr , Ta o"\d Four diode-f D1 , D1, D3 ood Dq Csnnecj<d b-)
    b"idt* cinquij- 19ad q Bptr UtlS' Grr+eo freryeogJ'f"', BN=&&r.
    "& t u gr
    I \zbn rod€Eha ,yl , sRtr ot'td r4'dI..tnf Fotcu tfr.J sy tT
    d.8

    rqJ B applied -io


    b the Cqrriev Signa) jtre Gnten bP.s fhe
    "F
    hp.^r tTr) eod ou.Fpujl ( % ) troox-Potrnne?n6 - Modut"hv ffiS*)
    1o the inP.^f
    ._$a'onrfo{rr'er Ta,
    irs Tpfied
    L rne oL+pd- Vof lage ^ppeatr6 acrDss fhe g..*J qo - oF1trr
    *nenxflonnrerrT{ (+.F+er possiop #nou6L, BPtr) .
    L; l6e odel GnneurJ b -tFe bnidgr< Circui J. CRrcrT) qcb hf e
    Oi

    .3wttcL-tes qod fhein 6N9+cht67 ia Gnhrolted ,t Ch f"nie f


    r3?Xnd (s?uqre ruave).
    Cincr,,rrjt upezrali o(1 n
    -
    0
    7\,/\ /V1J1./a ,l.,-z\,n Dl D,.l

    c$e(i) I hlheo 1be Cqrrier Tt tve,lhe


    ;ffi* Dr, Dz tecorner oN r' PiJel t"
    vrttt
    Ds, D4 beconneE s7r.
    'jhe l"td,rlob Mul*ipli e\ raess^g(
    Heoce
    4gd rn(*) by +I.
    t.
    f 'e ., V0*) -
    ffi(+) x (+l) =-rn{t)
    E?trl vqleoF ci r cu-i* i< 6honn lo pguxl- 6 (ul

    cglQi) :- Nheo iR cqrri er ts-V€ ,


    rrA.n-n
    lte- oiodea D: , D* b<cpmeZ oN &
    Dl ,D r)*Cortt€E otrF,
    ttJq hhr rznu h' Tliu

    3
    Ffeoc.n-th.
    nnissay 6ttnq) Sy'-1" qA
    xhowq b) #-?ux 1""6 Cc-) .

    i... , \4 C*) = rnf f) x -l


    VoC*) = - tn f+) i

    'l' "u Csrin bi ) qo'd GA'<0i)


    Casr (i
    "t "t?
    The RhA n4odq l'+aT oulpq; aj- lhe 6eundoa3a
    "f-
    #"nx,fon wvtr
    T& 7a ffrrn +
    {c+l = rn(*) x cc+)
    -(rl
    -Th" S?uqa hlove Cannier C C*) Coro ba ^repreae'nlqd V oL

    frurier Seni e8, q8 I


    c c*) = 1- Z- ^
    C5 n_l

    t n:t ln-t c's[n].f (en-r!


    .o, c(*) = 4 r . .l
    + frssn-fc+ - eoS 6 ntc+ + . . :
    .
    '. Srrb6+i kt-E L1/ualion (z) h6"\ VoC*) eZuqhon() N( W
    -@l
    Uc+l = hn(+) * + ftrranfc+ -g coS6nFcf *, o "]
    Nhe,n Vo C*) ld pmaed #rouyL-, BP1}""!A
    ,,---^(3J
    n
    u-V
    gt-f DSAgc 6iT"tqJ , )1

    + ttf,f; geoqrakl {^,-,


    Rlr{er Modulqbr

    t'
    +-

    t
    t
    I'
    c ct)
    -t- I 1t -l- t
    ^l^r^
    tl
    I

    It
    I

    -;| *l L\-
    I
    Cqarier
    d,E.*t
    v
    vcu
    Vo(+ ) o$+k
    ,ts"q1rL-

    J -t-
    -l l 'l
    I
    ]t
    l\
    i

    6FF
    Ds8 s(- Nqr
    R f0"
    VenkqJ€rha. M , JRer. detrr-rnti ForcU |fu" Dep+ 5+- p-Cg
    30

    I"1 . A/lz\.A.n.\
    Cshe"renf Ddecl,iefl q-
    r..-.A.,n,a.,n-t 0

    O) O"rt,tf- z'etevqns diogro- Srqolaio'th. upurqlfoar rf -16-e coherenF


    de**oo + DsBsc uoduhkd vJqvot. 4l8o 8.,tPlql'o Pt''otu era6v
    otod f nelUeoq/ eTro)..
    ll=+
    s(t) Pndu$ Lo ru PqSs
    PSasc Modulotn Fi tft r
    s SfoaJ

    \t-o= Cos (atrfc+ +$)

    osii llq'for
    Fi? uae b4 :
    o
    ,rl^...^.-^.-,- '
    95*9tr fo;llosfgt^J
    "o.!,:tu^+
    'r the Modul"frV &iVn"J nn(*) ix ?r-ecovened f;*nn a DSBsc Nqw
    S(+) Ug \,k\ry Coherenir DeJ€clcff 5horun hn f i?nx !"1 '

    * J+ Gn6isb + o\ p"ilurf Modulorfnr, ruhrcA nnclltipliez


    DsBsc ei}n^! s (+) ond Lo oa
    ft"lrr LoC^l U\6llodor. lhelr M
    Jne Lpr ,,ft pood uces re?ui
    ** F6r tro.i+hFul 'trecovery *Jh" nnesso?n /-tgn^) nn(+) , hu
    Je c*J o6ci oh.r ouffpu.t- .^ho
    il
    st4n ch"on?l eJ ftn botb +re%r
    ihe. &rrier hJqve ccD used
    J0[a. -fnanr nrf.lJ€r goJ ,

    th * -rf Lo Cq..! o6u llo\*or o^fp


    fiq.nrier njqrre
    "f
    % C(f) -U,lRd

    s €fjher t pRRIIor' @
    fo llorus.
    LeF b'.e oulpul- Voll-..uTr +.-tt" -0oc^j ogdllr^.fcr 7*
    Vr_(r)= Cos (eKFc 0- + $)_(,t
    xrhem +=pfux< efrur
    3l
    ;th-eo Jte c* rqod ulqjur oufpul-,
    pnrodu

    \/&l-)- sc+)xvl(t) C2)


    ru.k" T, DsBEC- *i1na) Stt) -> CosQnftt
    - A. rrrt+)
    V(*) : 46 mrf) CosuUf x c{&n+c+ + +)
    b -A
    -\ v(+) = g+l fcrs (en y.t+ + - aa b,+) * Gs (enfrf+$+mf,+!
    &
    -'. v(+) =
    #. nn(+)
    [cus $ + cos (47rFc0
    t.lheo vC+) is pos1eef.,*$ Lpf
    Ne Zef
    Vo t*) : #. Cos
    {. 'r(*) ou+Pu, s t-p r

    "'" -lhe ,oennoJuhj€") 6i8nd %c+; Trs P?roPod-lion'{'[ fr nn(*) '

    o"rd c6 d 4 Phqse €?rtrotr'


    is
    {r klheo h= 0" : Vo(t) =# rn(+) :) sufPtrt Vollagn
    Moxi"rruoo
    *hlhen S= ?o' : Vo(t)= O (";cosgd=o).Theolheoufgr}-
    vol'l€.g{ VoC*) r,s nn'ninnttcn (=rro)" TBix tt}e$ t.l ColEd
    RKt4*
    Vt! ?l!:t + ih.
    /\-A_/\..^- Ghenenfr D*L** *.ro
    . NxFt-
    b S 6n; lon lf, I t- $relu eaci a q?n< nof d1nchmni3eJ, i.e.,
    tf.'
    LocptJ olalla,fur {r-e4ueocrur
    fJ + cqrrier fne?r.reojf
    ,tfieo '1he ffr€?uang dr r4-e rcoce ra
    )(rJ - B. ) -- at-
    L+fh" fresai.ce of {re7ue"? d ? !+nen(-a a$=fJ-,F. ,ResulE
    lo sh?f 0- ior .tF n ,"Ju la$rbrg
    ,( f rfiXnrJ -Fre?rueoc+
    l.\,A,4..4 /\,^'/\^ ot
    7t,\ , | . .
    (t
    [t,, -freluroy ++h" oufpr^r- voltary 6ign<l Gheue"d-
    t
    .:,,u1<(IoT ig : {" = f.Fo".r + upNt*l 6hi }F (fJ <.P. )
    i l- ir Nqaliue
    fo = fn.-af --+ Dor^hr^JuT.':f,lffi izu
    ^fi
    VenKoledl.g,Vl":rptr CAdILlnd Fqculf{, Depi uF ecE (r} Ahi.j fo^fi,|rw), -svlT-
    3.?

    Pnoblernf
    A.A-z\,/\./^
    oo Coherenf
    za.z\.
    Deleciu?r:-
    n.n /\,.a\-/v^,
    & Ulgggtst+ : Cea,frder a r4essqge ,gtT-rd rnc+) Cenl.aio ?qT f*
    Co-,por,rn[ ob 4oo, &oo qoJ 4oo{z.thix 6\gnq) is applied F
    ao SsB vodulqlor log4Spy3, Ntth 0- Cqrrien 0\"t- lDoKHL, Nr-lE
    enty -0R Upper a-de bqrrd relqioed . Jo -the Coherenf d.r.f* Wed
    b RcoVer nntf)rTF( Lge^j o1elllr1fry sr^.ppl;er a 6hre hlqw $
    {te7ue.:'% 1,O0.0AKHZ, s+Jirne/rutV-"rol}
    (''; Dtlerrznfrne the fireTuency Co.orrrponenb ,gtn" J.l.Cl-..rr1. oqfpuf
    Cf) pcaf-fi-. ao"l,fv '4ssu.,niln71E^F"oty-the
    Re
    s lotoer *ide
    Aq^J fB +qnsh'{,+lto/ . ' .+, Gniqr')
    Q?veo d^k : c,T."rfi"nnfi;*, s r b |4a7e,t
    J, rc = ;.i-#
    {'re?t-leocXr Cer4pooerrh g nnt+)=) l0O HZ ,&ot)t+Z & 4oOttt
    aEt(L: krhea-rfi" vp.egnidEsgd k^PgqaeJ
    s_

    (++n,.,t +.+ F-- +cl


    us4 fo= fr (e.'-e.)
    fo = f^- oF
    fj=IoO,EX(H?
    oo d by
    . oulpuf {c:eWeo U e.g f; Cohereni Delecfdr at.t Jrr^ rshi++(
    ob=f.\ - - lo0.0&kH) - lool<lit = &0t-t}
    .p.
    o
    o, teufrPuf fu<queaa?) qre ( eO -"1o) gol-l? , &DOdo = [gOlt]
    = f

    Atlo-&o=380H) xT
    $*, t'it F;' ral-
    + +br :
    "r
    ,Trrrq v

    Cq,B{ii) S- D.\heo Loruer .<,Ju tg*l ,a*mnamitkd , outpuJ fr"e


    A.A.zlr-

    il*^treao B dei€cr.rr 4o=f-*o :


    Efo=f-+^t]
    t;u"
    ^'l
    th.^Ttt*
    ll-- .-^a^,

    u;^J furyeodcl Qa< 5I.i@ oF="20H?'


    h
    "'o freqlte6\c! Gnpore'0S "f th. derccm" ouffPu$ a?re ggt't&!t
    and 4&oH) .
    33

    |&Cox*oA
    rrra.-nva.za
    Re ce
    r1f\
    iVer
    7v^-
    !-
    ^.,.1-A_/
    o> Etplaio ,lror,..r Cpllre,l receiver Cqn be Ured 'fcrn dondulnJiy
    DSB-Sc Si?noJ. Jqft buty - zo ll
    L> TBe @er
    ,*98+<rr11, u-tJnbJe *or
    qwa hqrned $
    "S

    $.$flp
    lx!4k$"t f #*'., _ I-chqnne;
    Bloc,t< diqg,rqrn h rn(*)
    A./\tv ^.n r.^ $-4..ut$
    Moclulc,rtor

    cos (&n'$cf+-41 - - -- +l

    D$BSC S i?4^^J Phq6e..=----


    Dif cni rrfrnqlcr
    s l+)= AcCsS&"fd; nW)
    Pl ushr f{e r
    Siur&npc*++)

    #0, shd'o(f)
    I
    I
    t-
    __l
    plguaf a.F a_ chqnnef
    :
    *1flucerwr@ *ttj]p
    b lFe Co'gov\ rece'ivey Gr-g;r<E gl-*ruo Coherenl de*eCf.trX
    6upp[ ed rui -]b- Sa"nrre Torpr3
    rurj6 bJrvdLloJ -[o o^..0 06 cj ll
    eX1JglF ruil6 raPett)o e
    .5f?^ql duppliedtfrt pttod.-lCd nrodqbfo'rs qre 3oo ou$ * p"q{c)
    + -lhe Coheuent defoz in -the rlpper pqlh t6 refern€J b qA th
    nel] qod -tho$ tn lhe ls hren pqu
    -p}"aa< o.l..r"t@ Q-ct"onref
    q8

    Ven kq"le6ha .Mr J RF 4 fi-qncl' Fotcu l{9,, Dept + EcF 5V IT


    3+
    oPen^+ion
    A.z\.u\, nl^-
    i
    l+ qod
    x,rheq locpul o(3ci llerion r5igoal ?A + $e {amre PhqSe
    Ptqru€6tuJ o6th.rf rf Camiw hrqve A6CoS&nf.$ rXed h' gr.nerab
    JF,. irrconnb' DSBS( l^Jqve . lFeo -1be I- channgf oufPu$ GfllqinS
    .lhe de,xined dnnnodul"f'o7 5tXnal ro-t(+) aolJ Q-chqnt'e-l sufPuf fl4
    ftro.
    ;,1" k,T, \/or = &. nn(*) cos$

    nrhen Grrier ia Ery\roniSed d=o'


    anol

    3l ro(*)Xo
    \= $ttnl sio{: - Q

    Ly lfie our.fpu-l- vol*a ga q l*chqnne1 qod Q -cl.annet8 ere Cembia<J


    h\ phxe d"acrinnioqloraqd tF prduces q DC- CBnfrp I nrlne.l -

    frit Dc con,lup I srflna! ia fud b- vol|ag.e Gn'fr-alleJ osOll.rtor (vco)


    {CIod ft rgu+o^ggs*lltr gJLtE ggyBlulelJots io %llqfle
    GoftDlled o&6llot}or,
    .'" Vco Cqurie^r irs qlr,t)ayA hn
    Jff-e Grrier vxd E ff/rer"h
    oufip*F i,x, alruay<, enu<) l,
    @
    35
    lo? " Quqdrafrure Cqrrier Mul fiplzxkr"-
    6.A-nn I A^U
    .^-,1.,.a-z:
    n

    ^nAl^
    (e) NiJb- releyqoi dio7ra68t e1Plainr the opeto.$ioo "+ 1b€
    TUadrahtre cqrrier rinu ltiplexinT?ror$rnl tler S cheme oofd
    ?t^ece?r,er schenrre , D ec :o re /]r^ ro l?
    ', Fvl'
    + raftrre Carrier Mulflplertr? t4 a ;}echn i Vue
    Q L{q d }n r^l hrch
    ru€ cqo .l,nq6\grrril- nnooe nuroler
    + SiTnola (osasc- hJqv")
    ru?ihlo ihe $qore chqnnej Bqod,^.tid+h. hiaJecl^,nt quei6 alxo
    n e roed q\ euq#o l.l"u *Ar\ plifru cle MoJu lo.t' Fn (g n M ) .

    Qe V -frqnrnnitler
    A., -4.- A.r*^-^-4l4.- l^
    :

    mr(t) Producl
    rqoduhtor srf)
    A"cosenf.t

    Phoxeshilft
    Ac$in anf"$
    .rrd(+, produc*
    Modu ldlr,l.: sd(+)

    F?2 @) Quodmpry_Gn{91roufl1lgi"7 @
    q$fofffiler
    " F igqre (n) Sho ru8 A.AM *rqcxnni4leo. t+ -*oo p-d.,cf
    Gn6Kb a1

    nnodulo.rou4 tl'.'oi otre 6upplied hJi-tb Comt er4 rul..rch dil Yer
    to Fro,se 4 q; (phase Quod,,'afuar)
    " l[6e or$pr$ Jhe :h.ro p-d.lU p6leJsla!.ur,6 QDe Sclnn ^uJ
    "S
    Jc podu ce rnulJ? Ple xed ,&'B^qJ . 9C+) .

    i"e., Sc+_; = sr t*) *s.r(D -


    Sf+) = Ac nnr(*) Cosanf.t + 46 rqa(*)Sioezsg.y

    ,'. QAvf -*nroArin;ller allor,r;,S -jtonlo


    ^oJubt<d
    (osesC) Ncrr&E .lf oCctlpT
    -tr, ferne .inqasrnissioor Chorn..; BooJruid+h.
    \l.nkq+eahq ^ M, JRrr-fiIqnr* pocu lf9, oepf +EcE sytT-
    r
    *" Tt
    e MultrpleXe d trVn"J 3C#) , OCLuPi €8 q c)-l*nnej gqcr4r"rld

    + BN = &kl : l,rt: ({^rt.r'u^ (frnr, {-r) Cun+ereJ a.l. Jhe Gtrd

    \6 ("1)
    Prod u c-f
    i v(+)
    n.rnl(+)
    Modubtor $

    Mu lli plexed c os en"|il


    8ig',1{r,S t+) '- Qno
    P hqs e'-shiFle r

    producf %t+t
    Modulaloz Xrt So.Ttt)
    F'ALrf(b): e+ tvl TeCd\,ey
    pigux Gt ahorux ETEAffii6;hich Gneixlt { -}ru0
    Coherend d.rcdo,f whrch qne
    nl znoLs havuT ganrre .f'e*e
    ,The receTr,rcJ nnutlipl.xuJ sign"Jsc+) i.r orpplieJ b Ih +*o
    +'o^odr $ rorpdulafoX.
    L, Th. arlput
    $trp fldrd rqJ,rl"tnr ia
    V t+l = 6 (+) x Coss nf.'-$ .

    LrThu -Jop Lpr ?nenn ove)'the Atd1 Sce4Tuenw-l+rnnx o"J q ilorux


    tnt8 46 nnrf+).
    oo- %,c+l= Ac hnr(+)

    SBnnrlerlqo iE orrfpr^f
    t bstt"oo pruJucf nnoduhrur fa
    V2 C+; = s (+) xsi4&6f,ct
    Lr The bottem' Lpp -fEnnovea -lfi" ,Argt nu7-Jtro{ qaJ
    A^
    atlou.lS u^t? l-t( tr\f.+ \
    A ' '-.tltr ,,
    G(

    %ntt;
    !
    $a
    -+s ^&e)
    Appli
    "3+ ig Nid'lh - CoeugenVaFimr
    3T

    dra"hgex
    -4unnn.r{n- ,L
    'N
    Dg Bsc - nqodulq.fien ".r-
    ,a.-n-nl ,a.,l.^,^
    L, Cqrnier si?no] ia SuPressed
    & ' LoN foruer Gnguorr.tpin *n ,

    5. Ef Pt CieouT 1a nnorie '1fiqo At'1 .

    4 , the Md,-rlafion Sq'\+en 1b Sinrple '

    5. Lineon rrlodUlnfion'

    %lU"+?% @ t'p$g[g's'+gsc:I!:ltrr
    ** r-

    -{.. Drcslgo of recet ver ls Cmt,plel ,

    a . Bqdd t"ridf6 reTuined 13 Sqrn e q3 tho.l- An4


    "f
    D .e., BNRnr = BL.lDs*ri z'F-

    =it +rylio+,op 4^,3it:c :-


    n z,\s fr.Al - ^'/\.^./v
    poinL b poinf G--uniG'thon'
    L> y'"alo7 Tv FrFk'tx Jo--jtqrgnnl* Glon In$rrzrol-ia4,

    VenKct{e6ha" t"4 , sRF &ffitrrq Fqcu lf9, Dcpt + Ec€ 5v tT


    3g

    l0: sI N qLE sJ DE BAND SupRFSSE D CARRIFR (SsBSc)


    y'\-4.-z\'4
    MoDUr4rror.f :
    ;\v^.,A./a.rz\ dt--"\r^t oJ\t..r\.X x\-.\-tv A-z:.-,1.- eg\.*

    4 ,*a"doo.l Avl qod DSgsC MoJulahon ?re?uiTes a*t^onsrnigs)arr


    tq"J Nidib + BNr = &fnn,
    l+ "'" ro AM e DSBsc- Moduhliorl , hqt F o+ the *irqnsnnissioo-r
    botS-
    bo"d ruidib tx oceupied by 'lbe epper ,xfde tq"fd *f -th" nnod,-rlaleJ
    Nqve o"d elher hqlP o|+h€ *noq6.",rssioi4 tsh, r'.5 ocrupied a.*
    ?
    .

    L2 lhe usg qod LsB qre uettvuelg nelaled tb eqch other b.r
    Virhue of tF-err 6il-,r1. Uy Carr ier .flrzyr*? '.+;'.
    aUrrf th
    only one ,uJet".d fa nece ssair1
    ltr +r qlvstr)iss ioo
    S
    l',1essoge Aitnd.
    tVrcfifl<d, +h" nnod,-rl+ian ls

    TL{d{9"
    x
    slm)

    I ssB
    Mo.luhH klo\\re
    elXnal DS6sc
    rq(t) .(i9heJ sr*)

    AsCos OnfcF
    caTtiev [4ave

    IRS i V re?Uencg Jescr


    r
    , ,-/\=/\\,4^
    nrr,oor&ion scl"o,.a
    fr.A.Az- f\,/^\l/^*.- f.,r th"
    ?e:g3l% S ,t€A
    ^I*JC.J Hqt^e
    " pre?ue6\c,
    0\ ddrTmr\nofim Scheme .W#u fenerqFiwr + Ss6
    vlo"f ,nl"Jed t*lqvt
    iz 6hov.lo \,r\ absrrt &\?Ury< ,

    ' r{ C-xi:le $ pmolutr klJrJ^he {allov,.xd bS geg,


    ' JL',u ou+pu$ + th. p^Jus nt"d qbr+or ,:\ DsBSc 6tvrv,)
    S,C-t)
    = rn(t) x Ac &T f. f CoS
    5?

    ;, s1f f) - Ac m(+) , crs&nfJ _(r)


    ToKt'.'n7 F"Ur )er +qrxftrrn 04 bolb .4"\a
    "f e4'uafii'm (rJ r"re gel-
    s;(f)=
    + [r[+-tr.) -r M(r+F
    M (r-F,) +
    = +6{,c--2---J rY(rIF.)
    s1@)
    +A ,_drU
    ' ,'Jherq
    M(f) tuffiueoftf FTeclrrucn T -et
    ,qess'\?k 6g-r\^) -\*)
    .0A .{hou.rq hD #igure z (q) .

    ' 16e &perlrurz-' S ia {iguae e{D CorfttEE


    DSBSc ftip)srft)r6ho*ro
    rt butb tbe &dt bq^dA ( L ss & us B) G",JereJ {^r'ltE resTe* b
    Cqrriw fr-e?qe4ctd.
    c t..lheq DSBsc E?"oJ ir< yasS"d Jtsuo^?\ ts?f toi.jb rE Gnter
    #"equeary ,.Fc' qnd gondruidib *N, nz , rf F+ -hensrniE us6
    {
    Mea Na W sffOrt1,", SSB Modulo^led FfXd,
    t
    S,(f)= + qf++ft) : sssvloduhkd 8f,-)
    - rJ BpF a,ttoruE eo-! Lse @ uifb on[y usB'
    ,.,rJ
    S(f): + (urr-F.)) j ss6 volut^d gs"v\)
    -<qJ
    kJiJt Ls6
    "r.rg
    TBe 'shngle giole brqd
    "n ss-l Grrrieer nnod,roled pwrrl
    sugpne
    s f+) PooJqceJ at, jhe
    o.^iput
    $ Bpr contlug,gt?^re,e
    **^Id ond cUXAr(?tp-[ , ,fTLd rde baqd ^or,,^e etr]r].n-":
    ^._^*-^*_.^ .=^_ S@
    gRpSessea
    Jbe F rerueau\ donnaio p.hqn
    duzcn)
    "f sgg _ r,no.luloded p va
    r"f cleorlg repreao_nk l b Fryure z ,

    tri?Llre & (._, 6hor,tl8 the 6,reCfrLrd-n + SSB-,S??rrotJ u)tb- USB,onty,


    F,'guX "t(d-l 6ho d,S fh" frecWro +j Ss B- 6ign".tr ari Jq Lse *lf ,

    o'., Trqo8nnerssiaD BqodLoidfb r+ ssa


    Moaul^led plnnat
    --
    vb j:
    ?
    Br: hJ e ll'-rTrtr"$"l,
    Venka{exha'M. IR-FLAdnrncl* Fqculfu, Dr,p+ o+ Ec6 st/fT
    1"1(f )

    M to)

    l^l

    st(+)

    j +.tu col
    blse G)

    f.-inl Fc t+N
    z|, l

    1f+l I

    k)
    Fc*hJ

    (D)

    -'Fc -€c-tt^l fc-t{ 'F.


    ffi HI
    ',^J I

    flge : , (a; s Rectruo.r $ nn(+) (D specj.ou,ar ut Ds BSC- 8\qd S r(+),


    G-t Specfruoo t ss B Mod.*gno.,t (d) Sp ec}rurnr
    nqvro7 Dnly usB d ssgrrodul*'ld
    s Cb sb'", hauUg 611, LsB . 5t*)

    * Hg*t"s *.| B -tlodu\o$ien :-


    L, S sB- M od ula,ficrn 'r€?ui?res hqlf + lbe Bqcd t Jrd'lh ^ne7ul reJ

    for A M qa-rd DsBSc- 8ignal '

    &' Due .io 8Llpprex6ioo oT CqrnTer qnd ooe 8fJ. b"odr Power i6
    Saved
    3* Reduced hnferFeoeac4 gl r.loife,
    4l
    t Dt6 ad voo*q ges ag Ss B',-
    ^-,^.-/\-
    A^/ ,--ltn ^-.-
    1-. JFe Qene?rafi on and recep*, on "f Ss g S,gnal ia A Cornrplet

    P?rocess

    &' ssB-Modulqh'qrr Egst-enn ia Expen+ive ood highlp Ga-nple.r l['


    frrrpl emeni .

    E' Srtnce the


    cq"rri"o o"J ofle fr',de 6"^d i6 strpptre ss"d ssB
    *rqr*rni*fer eod aeceTrrer needt heve gxcellenl- Frqrue.\V"ill^.
    .AtqbiJtV,

    + 4 PPlr cl*i rn Ef-


    r'','o -(ep o
    T -pDi-
    l' Mobl)e Gnn-elnicorh'on rtdW : (sioce ssa is power Savi2 n.dul,.Di
    & . ssB i s ql8o t,t8 ed Fn o.pplr o^,hant hrf tdhtclD bqqd uoidJh rreryct)
    Qre LoxJ,
    E{: . poinl* poiny C-rnuoi6egre61

    " Tele"n&t
    . M? lf +quytPf Fc^fionr
    " f?qdio NoviXonlien

    @.s-Adjua$ Fqcu ttg" o<p1- + D cE sv tT


    49-
    .ll
    vESTIqIAL
    a*^.Z! {t^DFBAND
    nZ\.n-,arz*
    MODULArror..J (vsg) :_
    n/\-a.n /\a ,/\._Z1.-/^.,/\/A a\-Z\.---

    Nsq%€iry @ Ngd-Fw^,lfa;yedglg*f :
    L+ The ssa rnroduhlion 7a no* approprfaE hroy qf nnoduhh'qn .
    Becqvxe -Jbe upperstde b""rd q^d lswen6iJe luod rnee} aJ-
    fre f reqrueocg 'f"' ocrd fJ frs Veur/ drggrcut .b iloln#.
    Grr?er
    ogi €**b-gfrd, rnrr.th i*."olsra ssB- rl?m tu@ .
    L5 To over cn,rcvthk dt++rcuBg,
    Jle nndulloliooJechnii We K'',orun
    +\ " Ve8*i tnd 5i& Bod CvsB) - MD.ltalal,,ena" i.a 1.ned
    b VesHTal sidebq^d Modulqfud xrgnod [vsg-signol) cen^?66 S
    , ftl\ofi
    /,/^\,
    one conrrplele NAe bqod qod
    /\-/v\ /,\.-rVv^\.' &
    o \re a*iXe (8 tn. sther Bidebqod
    )+
    &t
    -{- Qeneu a}i oo + Vsg r.*ld ul"}ed fhw :
    /^\nrn-e^^/\.nn nzr-nn- ,/.\-,A_./\._/\^- Z\,,vh-

    pnodu4- V5B
    Modutq+o r Nqve
    q?iy :F"ll?a s(+)
    A6cosonf"t

    F,"Vwe1 3
    X.l^€SXg
    .VsB Signd generah'r wg+z a pnrooluc$ Modulalor qoJ q
    Eldebood Sh"+br7 "J F? l+er q< Enotrro hn +?gure 1_

    " Produc+ MoJullohr generdez a. DsBsc .:ig,nal ood theo poss


    f } .iFrrou# a side bqqd xhopng f ? l*ea,
    " Lef H(f) bethe .*rq6%Fer fuocliorn cy side b*J shaphnl Fil {e r
    Thi.g f?HrD^ dtll pqss one Carnplele &tJ"bqnJ doqf Wf$h L
    \les*ige@droce @ ft pqr+ + -unNooled (othen) s;Je bqool ,

    .,/
    43
    b fhu zelohan beiruee.n lhe JrcrxFrr fu^chan Hcf) **e Ft l+er
    orod the 6pedzurn S C+l 4 Jhe \Ats- n,loJtolod("i Noiae -SC+l iA
    degnned 6rl , Scf)- sr(f)xHC+)
    a
    ta
    s (F) = # [vG-F") + MrF+F"il H(r)

    M (F)
    r"1to)

    0N
    srCf)

    fc Fa+N
    (

    I
    I
    4
    rusB,
    v
    -+c
    rc) +6
    Fr?Llreo? ! @s Sfec0rr.orr e4 nn(*) (1,_1 u4erfr,ror DsBSc signal sr$)
    (cl Specrdrio gl vss-voduhled 8nrl scf)
    +
    Fteqqeau{ dn"',gtn derco'f gsrun
    * VSB 'o-ro.lula}ed r,.rr,w ?A Shougc}
    h^ $3ufep, Figux oCU (.r ihe Xpec-0zrro og DSasc 6.'gnql pod.lC.JqF
    iFe etnhLd
    f fogducf Modulalor, prTurezG) 6hor,,.lx1Be rLpectru.nt
    + WB- r'noduloe*ed 6hnod st+) .

    Ft sozn #gud z(c) ?+ Ix evidenl- +h"f the To.lq) *no.dBnni sgion ,

    BqnJr"ridtb tF VSB- Modulorled aiTd i7, hrfi.er'tBqo tho&


    + ss6 qod Lowea {hqo +hof DsBsc - si?'ns,l.
    "f
    i " 0.,r N < BNr&ss)< zlrl
    y€n<o.te8hq" lrl: J(F &A4lqnur Forculttls Dept rfr Ece svtT
    Dernodulah'on
    /\^,r\ .,/\,/\r\ n,lf "+nnVsB - urdulqled Nq.ve:-
    n-nn n-/1.-r:.t^.- r-.*

    VsB vldubdtd
    s "r6n^) Mod ulatrrr Vc+)=mrg
    s(f)
    Cos enf6t
    Carrfe; i
    s??n^l
    Fi?ure : Du5|gjs.on
    .s $y:q@
    J6t DernoJubdiorr -6igr*,.) +G qchierccl la W' wbt ^
    Co herer"d DeleO1x "oS 6hot"ln inr
    figrrre(S) ,

    -Advqo+rges o-f VsB:-


    vn\^.^' /\//\,^.
    /\n.,^.^-^-

    l6e Mojor od rnnta$e,& + \AB rroJuhlirn ace


    L2 -6. redu0ion ln Bqndruidtb. r* [8 qlrno8r. 06 +$"Uerd- oal+**
    ss8.
    L; Eoxy 1o desrgo fne fn.Fer.

    ''+ppl? ohen6 cf VsB : - -


    A7\z\rnf ' aun'u

    L2 Vs6 th. a+a^JqJ voJulqhen Hnn?,%re u.sed


    rinoJulafioq fa
    fon fi e -l-noosnnission "F Tv- signol8 .
    4S

    rfr,q: W W : [nr iriat@ He+crodyntnT]

    b r" ihe eonD nDuoi Cq$isn eVF^6, Ft lS necesso?r?. ;b -*renalqie


    rnoiulaled Nqve s(f), lre qvuequd :tgg @ REl9lgId
    in fre%uencf So lha.i t+
    ple\ q j)eru +Xllenly tgld,
    occu
    L-> i'e', r+ fJ 8x the Fr<nueaqro
    + r.,40duk^led Nqw sc+) th.o
    freTueocrtJrqonlo.lor ehaog1g' rnodulOed Naw !fis,ue6.,g '$r' l.
    e?Jheir f"*fl:) Upruard *ronrhhon @
    +c- Fl :) Dov.lcr r".rqo^d -lrqnElodin6.
    +
    t) ot. trt-eluea(+
    &nd Pqss fr De r
    *\ thoroo hn fig uae 4,
    I .l-. --^
    ]YIJ X LK
    DSBSC _T
    vtodulaled v (r.) I

    s (*) \!(+)
    signaJ t
    I

    _l

    Cos orrg,_|'

    F;so t glfpqy IXI€W*-, @ ylg1\n r @


    CsnaiAer & "^
    He.*enudq nh'r?
    /t-'Jn'v{
    DsBSc nroduloied 6iXrvJr.,
    sCf) = ,Acnnt+)"Cosanf6l-
    .luhere rrr(f) i,tr dt -(r)
    lirni.ie the {re?u."? bqnd -N<F<Nshptarn
    tor Figundl(a)
    The fourter -l-raq6+{rhn "f eTUo0i,rdt(t) )x,

    = # fr're -Fc ) * vt c+Fcil (z)


    s c+ 1

    ' F f PUc{u-.5 5(+) occupl?t" -Ug1d 4 fn"2_r.ndq (f"-llt


    (f.+ru1 aod - (fc-N) B - (f.+t ) d8 hrr
    \rbn Kq"le6[a . M -,
    '6hot^rn
    SRtr g fl'dTuoct Facq lfcl , Depf DP EcE sv tf
    44
    c qse(T) : tr re^nueo c!0
    S v
    -lz-oarx la$r"o4 JE Lonrer Fretueoql
    /\,/\.,\ /\./&\/ v
    . 11/A.-/\,A./V^-A^ @)
    t ({. qooruarXo"d
    -. " fo= +.- fi-)
    -> eF jfie pnodutJ-
    mren\)
    A& lh. eu+p.^F nroduloloo- In ff*o Ug

    V Ci) = s (+) X Cosan F.t


    V(+) = 46nntt) CosQnFc$ x coSa^-El

    '-' V, ff) = Ac nn(*)


    &
    cosan (Fc-Fu) t + try^d. ) co s &n (fc* Ft_)*
    =/
    ToKlo6 fourienla-eoxfonrnrorhtro
    dn botb aidez r^f u g.f+
    6'l

    v; (F)
    = # ["(F-(Fc-Fr))+M (F+rr.-rrlX +
    \l-r(F-cr.+Fr1; * r'1 fr* (F6*r.,X
    the rpe c.lnlrrr * (D ia xhor^onr hD G)
    vr
    F,gu." u il
    s+epp : pq ss jhe pnod u$ ,r4oJu;"d'nr Erlp, r- tr-*a% @, Bp F .hav>p
    Jhe Cenle n e?uen
    ? fo = fc -f 1 B- Br.l = zr^l , We *f
    Vr c+) = *: ,o e) cos&nrrc
    To tchnT Fou rie tr :trooA F

    M fF +f"D t' i E' tpetlirucrr E

    . ". ay nhn? eX^l^l-i un e) [ s C t


    -G)
    Gunr po
    o"d owpui- "F tspf )]
    'Kcf) r+ ia cleqfl Jnr& Jhe cerufen
    frzfuue"fl,.f;
    q DsBsc ^odulr^kd 64grar^l s(+) i,p ,snar6to,leol -lb o-
    Ner,,,r fvenue"? bood
    lfuJ.-F;
    Co,k(ii)
    -,iX,iX' "" EirffI.y Sgg!"r,o
    L'Q2 fc-+ fo=FC|F
    b PqBz he Pnoducf rrroddoJ.r oufptri- q(+) 6hourro hne?_f tsl
    4'I
    -lhrough a, App hovhirT Certer {veftur^V fi = Fc* fr & BN=e rV,

    Vtte W, Jhe ottlpu.c- d)- BPtr


    ' V? = S r,+; csS &tr ( Fct.Ful t
    ( +)
    va (t) =
    # r*) Cosarrfo * j fo = F.* Fr_

    TqKhn? Furi er*re,azf.nrra,^h'*G?"n, af clex t^le g<J-


    \& c+)
    = fv c+-fi) + xr c+fit _-(sr
    +
    the cen+rr +""V;.1"/ + DsBsc o'aedulr$ad fri8".'d i&
    "' (fc)
    Jr^qoxla+tJ Jd r,rixl./"a
    'fu<4ruea7 fo = 4.++,
    -Ihe
    5f ecfrur4 + K (+) Ta Bhonro tq #gum &G)
    t4[F)
    ('a)

    scf ) (bJ

    l*jt
    K)
    ^te.f.
    fl*Fc
    vo(f) I
    f

    L --l (dt
    I

    I
    I
    Fo=L-
    It

    _t_ Yrr+;
    I
    G-r
    I

    -q
    pigure &:(q) sxc#unn g rznct) (bl specFrlrrr q Dsasc,4rg*l"t*l fi=F"iF,

    (c) 5 Peclen-lnn af produCf nrodulafor sulpr f VIC+)


    ("{) Specforlcrr uf dorunrnrord *rqoslo,kd frrW\) \&(+
    (el specfa"rnn >N upruolrd -fnq fts4<d 8ig-rxl !&(+)
    4s
    l.l + F"d e ?qrt.U
    \./ *Xio,o Mul+i *"J3? <"trDtrl>
    L> Hul+f plextoT is csnnbrnrtn? N- frnJqpenJo^r
    ^pnocess +
    nnessafle .rSgnol,,K irrJo a
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    41
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    of Communication

    , Nunneri cad probleffn)


    /
    V. T tJ Q - PaPerE
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    , hlheo , y < I =) Reau 16 ftn ru",J., nnadulofioO
    . l^lheo , v=! =+ Rcxulb ir"r cr14?cq1 modrllqfiml
    , r,..lheo , V>7 + Re8ul5 hn oVer
    tl.todulo}igf),

    &' {x^rye:7ouWl:
    l+ spp{Eg^AY " (conrerJerhng *tt T:ff?" arsd)
    . st+.) - A. Ll + H cos(2^'f.,*1] cot Cznftt)

    L2 XXH.I?*S '. (e orlxiolerrrng raru l*ip le rctexld€e Srgmlx)


    {ztr}rt)
    . sct) Ac L'+ Pr c os Qnf^,t) t FzcosC'-^f)*'"1-t
    L.J here, p, = KaAnol j pr= K4A"U.
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    . Arnqr(= As(rtp) ; "{nrr= A.(l-Fr)
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    Principles of Comm ication System (pCS) SVIT t5EC45

    5" To{cd PoNen


    anA,s nAA,l
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    p p
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    lz{ = fnn , fou- diagte -Jooe +t4
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    tru = fren'ueoql $ Lo^lev side 8rril= fc-fnn
    Venkatesha M, JRF and Adjunct Faculty, Department of ECE ve[katesha.a@saiv cil
    3

    of Communication

    8. Plt^dlcJ'
    n z\.,r'\./\-^
    mod:r lqlqn :-
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    Venkatesha M, JRF and Adjunct Faculty, Department of ECE v"pn,l<ates I*. tn"@-s a-iv rdv a.+c.i n

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    '^1={nn
    4
    of Communication

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    !
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    Sr+1

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    fc= 5o 7a

    = 5o I r+ o.?5 cos Czxbt cos (roo^+)


    S(*)
    . T{Fft., AMstlffi,:-. A-uT A. (ltp)= 5o (t+0"15)= 8J'5
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    ,4,5 A*tn =

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    (S"^")

    r( t:. S t1: D']5 '


    Venkatesha M, JRF and Adjunct Faculty, Department of ECE
    5
    SVIT l5EC45
    of Communication SYstem (

    (i0
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    ', Sct)
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    af
    9.3'tS ?.31(

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    .',
    JA.5 N
    5
    Pr= t&.5 ( t+@')= 146 N
    Venkatesha M, JRF and Adjunct Faculty' Department of ECE veq k*te.s hp.Qq@,sgrvid va.aqin
    6

    Principles of Comqrunication System (PCS) SVIT t5EC45

    J A cqnrier N'rve rsin(tnxsuoxroFb) %rts i8 aoplifude


    rnodu lqk I I

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    "
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    . '. Arnd= 0.& 1
    ?*i l5oo = l.E k HZ
    ln"5= o" |: h.r=osoo - &'5 kHz
    '"' Ft=
    ' r Po = qg= 0.0b o,qonl
    f{r= 9" -
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    0.-l 0.0&5
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    = 0.086
    ood lowev q*s"ds (_Uu
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    f> LrSgl:
    L sgl :

    ii) t-lg$a k;
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    k_knplo&ipg&to 'ilF.
    k uf,p." &"le b".J q .,J Lorce r ,<,rJe b. n.l ftr,
    6pethuo, i8 & fhq-F t Csmer Yx

    Venkatesha M, JRF and Adjunct Faculty, Department of ECE


    I
    Princioles of Communication

    flc
    l>'+r^pt"-r.rJu
    t Cqurier F"fleo*J'U ; E = oI- --lv-
    ii> -/'vnptitrJex .tI- usat and Lss t i/- :
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    a

    _lli4qDles of Communication System (PCS) SVIT r5EC45

    (3> /- AM hqx the fo"rnn,


    Nq,\€
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    D$er619p19,
    (i) N+ MdLl'l'dioa Iodex
    (iD fie (qrriex poruer q.,d ,Side bqnJ poruer
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    ? ,

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    Qeaen"l g-%\)alioo t rnu ll'' torre h\4 eV\*hen O
    F,a- -tero nvg1ag; eigna lx B -
    sCt)= A. I rf Br cos an]rT t H"coS a.a t-r*] coszn$.l-
    ,'" By Compa ot^? eLrae,hanz O & O 'r{€ gpj^- -@
    Ac= lkHz']^68r(Hz
    aod ilJ'*-f[=''.t ffi;t'T -1 ]"=oog

    G-> oJ )r

    F{r-ffir; =\m =&.te


    :-f
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    &R = &xtoo- {-Yr-r'
    Nqtta

    b
    4.4144 udh.
    [rhem, P*6= Tol^J gorue rtn ollgide bu#r.
    Venkatesha M, JRF and Adjunct Faculty, Department of ECE veJrllatesha.m@saiyi
    1
    of Communication stem (PCS SVIT r5EC45

    (i'i) s(-\tvltl qr4 F-rcntteoqg 6pe&dan i-


    f,.,^/\ a.-.1,\rrf--- ar.*-/\^
    '4{n*
    ?wq d"f"
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    Ac Rr
    tr
    SC+): &o coS&n-xaoxrdts * So cos er-x&oxrd! . Cosenxr^r#ts
    + 3o cog &nxaorr#t, Cos &xarro3L.
    ar'K'T cos A,(0sB -- ps (e -r;) cry, tA+6f
    + +
    Dg x (ao-r)xro3t -f cosla x (l+Dxto3
    "?u.
    + ms aat (aof a)xr#{
    S(lD - &.0 coS &nx
    "loxtf,t t f Fxrtl* + rDs&f xdrx#fl
    5 prs e nx
    trr Ico3 "?n xtsxtff + cos&n(&exrdt]
    TaKe Fourie y Tr qnxfornnali1* tlu"J,m,O O e,,n

    S(+) = ,{l [S tt-rtir)+E(]+aoKt+€ [S (]+r1 K) + st]- rrr)


    (t+BrKf +5ts (t-+r8K) 4 s(]-rsi
    +€ [s(]-&r]<)+I
    +€ ts (l-'?aK) + t G+aerl]
    &
    sct): t0[s c3-aoK)+ 6 (]+-t0k! * 1"5 [s (]+\q k) + E ct-l1l
    + tCb-prR) + s Clterk) +t (3-{ex)/ +E C}+&uKfl -,
    +E'Ct+leitl+E-Cl-fbtfl"'"'
    W=
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    $xar= llrHz s
    t sr
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    18 K HL
    anrp
    "roKil"r
    lrl.rrk lov .,
    -=
    Busgt =€lf<H+ brrst-&-&KFtL
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    ,o

    of Communication SVIT r5EC45

    srt)
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    5 E .f

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    t;SIl l- (plo,+,y st+))


    ts tuo sr- i
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    :-
    -- P. L'
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    Pc=&u :.Hf =d,le Side bor,i*spor^wr P"a .

    rPtr=atr++-j TlqJ prucr ia


    Pt= l"*Pru
    f+= &+ 4,414+
    r+-
    D
    6' 4z ++ L-l ctft
    A> 4n =A M- Broq Jc*sl:n -lrrq r"6 rar?ft y Tqd f ale-<
    Cqryier N hq1- tui tt be Jb. rqJi4t(d
    flureo.
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    Ly $iven .loh I e qyr\eyfDNer, P
    'f c- SoKtJ '- 0"95
    o, 11=
    . rrtakqfid
    f orue r, l.= R f ,+SJ = Soxto3 [,+ ryi
    &J

    Venkatesha M, JRF and Adjunct Faculty, Department of ECE


    ve nktp s h +*p @sa_rr id_ya*a e, in
    t,

    Principles of Comm (pCS) SVIT r5EC4s

    (S) 4n $- TuenLg friXnd lo Sin '?n {soo)t ia vzed b


    Ar dio
    a"tnp,tifiJJa nnodul'{^6 a Cqrrren *J 5o s14&.n(to)-t-,
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    i) side tq"'J F"uqTrSencjex
    ii) 4^Pl?tude 4 each fr;de banJ
    \'ri) eqnd r"tidtb tuVatvud
    iu) FFh t;,unu) t& 4n4 Uo^ve ,

    b Qiwni ?n(t):losi4zn(5u01 1- ) A^f tov : br sm Hz


    c(f ) _ Fo Sin Jn ( to)g- _, **=_o€Xirr
    ond F;g& (Vwn)
    Ac= Dw : #.= IDT H L
    ?) #"= rH*
    ''l
    look* D.Sk = loD"F Kt-tZ
    loo K- 0'5 k =- 11"5Kl-lZ

    ;) +r?t;tufu *A &,Ae La^{ - 0. &,x50: tiJv \/


    E & -

    fii) tn.?t5J I - rfir= & (0 ,EKtt.-)


    Midt6 eN

    IBN-=zTtr l
    f u) E l# Lr e,rr ta.t 0 +M Uqw
    .-
    ,a.',ntr'\-'^ - -!- i\An'-
    l)- Xloo - 0'& XWo
    V

    % q: l'1L
    ,v
    Venkatesha M, JRF and Adjunct Faculty, Department of ECE -v-e_n ka teS h a. m @sa iv i..dJA.
    lg

    Principles of Communication System (PCS) svlT l5EC45

    (v'r.u)(6) '{n 4nnplifuJe nnoolul.kJ EgncJ ?t il*d +


    s tl-)=l-t o cos&^xr # rt bcosanx r#tr" cos sRxrdt*"?tosqnxrd,F .

    coS4n x l d+] . D€J€rnn\ne


    r) rc+ I od u lo,heo index
    ii) s;de b"nJ po ,er
    ,L, i\,1) To+qj rooJul^-leJ puJ.r . A6rt^J^^4- R.= top.(L
    Q ivc n 4M 8 i.s 5no.l
    s (+)= [ocos.? nx#t+5-sao^r#$.cosanxrott +ecosetrxrf r.cDs47\I rff
    s(*) = lo coS&nrr#+[ | + t cosanxrdr +* tus4^-xtf+]
    st+)= I f + 0.s co enXtos F + 0.& cos4nxro"{ Cps a^-xlDob
    to
    4M e?Uohon f-+"o nnesstge rvg,mtx la
    -l6e 61a',Jq.d

    sFl-) :4"L rtprcus*#r,+ t[-tzcies.o]-rf] coc em-].f


    -O
    ."o Ac= lDvj
    c= lov_: 0.5_:I_: ttf 0.&
    0.oZ rl
    F, =
    0.
    t; txro3 = l knz Ng,-B', ,_

    {)o(e+ Modula}r1g*x : }r+= Hi+ l.rr' : rT


    rf D"S'-+ g.g-t :0.538

    ,() r) &ae bcnd eope r .


    M

    lr,rt> TokJ r,roduhf.d


    i
    fo ruen -f
    Venkatesha M, JRF and Adjunct Faculty, Department of ECE ve nkate s l! a 4q@.$aixnytua qai"Q
    r3
    Pri nci ples of Communication System SVIT r 5EC45

    +') +" AvJ BignoJ \or tl^,. $.w o

    cos(aowzt) +4 cosCe+DortD + cos [z<o-on*-).


    DeJtr6g''. 'lh.'?rc+io
    { po6er fr1 q\eABW Ait^d -E' th"f
    ? poruer idr ltnrnodtrlr.kd &mier 6tgnd,
    b Qtvea A v -e?r-la}ron Ja
    SCj) = coe (&ooont)
    + {cos(a+oont) + cos (&soo6g)

    /an x c.os(ar
    T+
    r,LoNr - -vv' qnd L
    ofocf C

    V.
    --A'-,pli fuJe B_ LSs & usB i6
    l1-tr -L f.-l =
    L
    Ac4J
    L_ I

    "2 --,--r.a.
    ,'. -Ao''1p lil'Ll. ? ,"rog. &Sd, An A.X la -
    lEu Rqho pot.lcr fr1 ,l_
    ? [,teSS V t srr^)
    "b thqf t Gglaier por"r J_ ( E)
    \ 4ql +
    poNer h'-)
    GrtierSgnxJ
    P*
    lo.

    P-
    P.- (+)-= (o.s)=
    P'd)

    PC = 0.&t
    tFNoE I'Jn Generorj $- 4ny +v| ,8,ifn"J 1fiu Retio "S Ptwlr
    fn b F drri w rkgr\oJ i.r eli; r "l^''
    prreaeod l4ess r^Z< ,x":nr^l lhr1f
    M, JRF & Adjunct Faculty, Dept., o

    (. Fo pru blenn to,


    t+

    Principles of Comm unication System SVIT l 5EC45

    s> CongiJer a6?-6Jage SsB-xoelulqfo^r aa Ehsurn b figuat-f.


    lhe fopuf sf q
    Isic3qcj @nXflsk Volce ,8\Vna! lrr e to'1f't
    TanTe + Aoot-rz 16- B"4kHz. tel-uro Oscillalreou frenuencie.g
    hov! valueg d,= loDRHz and dr= loMHz. DerlerrnFne
    Dsasc t ,odul4J€d Nov<s afpeqrioT a,t-
    ^dB "f
    Ci; Srdebq
    -,the outpuE
    ? [6e groducf nnoJ"rl4fcrrS .

    (ii) stJe tqnck qf ssb onoJuh,ted uqve 4fpe orhn b


    ?
    J-aro BpF's.ou-tRub,
    (tiU Pqsybc6d qnd 6uqrd bcnd S+^ro WF'a'
    (f9 skelth he .,apa#noro q+ eqdo Xitge 't| the
    Yn( +) V t+1
    Ptr4 r

    Al cosenfot AocosanQt

    : tg*Fkgc gggwgj'.ftr
    tr i $'tlri
    t^
    t
    ,

    > Qiven :- f^reqzueoc.t; rn(*) : f,,., JooHZ ,b


    'J = A"4KHz
    f- = O"3KHz -b 3.4 KHz
    {*q,urnel + Cqrr) eri ! Fr.=
    .(l tooKHz
    -Llae4 -!w 'pMt

    f renueor3l $ &triev 2 t fcr= lovlllz


    uA<d +w PMa
    1) Ttrle PMt oufpu-t- V (+) ConsiSE gr -hoo /'iAe bq.,da qS
    followx : LsB = f,, - f,o, = ioot< Hz - (o.sknz,h s"Ar+rz)
    Principles of Comrnunication System SVIT r 5EC45
    t,
    CIrrd, L)Sg= f",+J.
    usB =+ (o.8kHz b 3" 4KAz)
    loot(Hz

    usB = loo"3KHe -t; lD3.+ KHz

    lpa3s)
    d} BPFI
    " n'l-'
    : 4ssu'ne
    t I
    t
    fha+ Bpr is desi?nud b q llow
    onlg usg' TFen., BpF1, ot,t}F\^l- St (+) fle1Ue.r.3
    k

    ,00.3KHz&
    99.+kHz&
    I

    <= SPecf-anrnn gf nnrt)

    s.4rwz frelueoqj ln (nz


    v, (3)

    .$ Sffcfntnn ,F Vt(+)
    qf oufpt^t" prrr
    t
    f'egUeo{g io YrlZ

    srf l)
    + 6p<fauro * St(f)
    a.}arryq; ol B?tr1
    'f.e?areoqt tn kH*
    l6

    r sEC4s
    Principles of Comrnunication System

    S?vni lat\' 'lhe ?Ma ot,r}pql-

    fotlor^lx. (rE Whl- i6


    frn= Fus Hz & CqTrier frtilenu5l
    { = lo R"",fl. fu Pmz'
    fi) LsB = fo. f-
    foMHs- (too.3t<H2.ts lo3. ll-|<rfz)

    L6a
    = 1.91q7 rq+z ro 1.816e v{z rund
    ueg = {.r+ f-
    3kHZ J; lo3" 4 Vn*)
    = IoMHZ + (roo.
    u9$ = lo.f oo3MHz ,[i l0'103*Mttz

    i') ou+t,tl + BPF&. : 4ssunne thAJ' tsP ea k JegiTned h


    qlloht o1!9 usg. lben BP Fa oufPhf sacU
    (Fass7

    f.^eltleng t6'
    +c+) = lo.loo gt4tz -b lo" lo3gMH'z
    i'it po ss bq tPF"t = f 0" [oo3 MHU 6 fo. lo3g t4H+
    +
    bPF'- = 9.9 Ti+itHz h lD. f oD3 t4qz- '
    r\tvvv- 9
    t') sffff: sr tt)

    l0&3Klt: lo3.+K Hz
    ur+)
    ,&
    ol.4,ee
    Mnt
    satt)

    ? g^4 -
    lo. toss Pq39 rb.ro:r+
    l-1

    1> A otso6 Cqrri er loooknr is giorulla neovxly nnooJultled


    "F
    uy s fnwoidaj 6iwql8 Df KHz , 6 Kr+Z qad I HZ HrFlr nntdul' K
    "?
    fodtces ,587, qod =ls% reXpecf?*ly. nrhof otile lhe
    + 35%
    #e7venAes prerrerf ht fFe ru-rodqlo.led Nqve qoo, rulr',| t3
    .jhe roa)i Po Ner' Jlne /3-ulv zo16
    ^Jtd
    L2
    $pao^..D5pl- P"=o1sop1 o f"=foookttz
    5tlarV1

    *mL- A KHz : Fror= 6Y-H?_ : P.a= SKHZ


    pf - 0,35 L Fr= 0.SS : I,lS = O.+5
    t) tr,5.tu1 Jy/' Prgja^JdL -*ftD Jhe
    r'f ,lr .^- l.^l tn-l I ln|r^a
    Sdgl*djq\^e;-
    c

    L> Cq r?ri€r S" = looo kHV


    L2 LsBl - Fc-Fnnt= loooK-al=938kHZ
    L2 uSBl - F" * fiorr: looo k +a K' loopKHZ
    L> LsBa z fc- f,n-= looo K-6 k - 1?4 kFtl
    L, uSBp = F. t For_ - looo k+A f : lo06 kH)
    b LsB3
    L> ar3B3 = Fc+ Fr3 loooK+ek loos.knr - -

    Pc= gscN

    fr+ = r/ rn,. + l-?i+ 16 =

    H+= o'993+
    n ', Ro\oli odtd Po Netr2
    p
    ,t- &SoC'+'-.9q.+)

    l+-
    brr 3+3" 4 l^f
    "b

    VenKor+eXhn.M r 5ef g+dIu^tf Fr(ctllt9r DcPf + DCg srlt!i-


    &

    lo) Thu rncar-r'Fs-,7- ztXnd A% c- nrtdbqnd freTuecr?t"f l',o|


    )re b fi,o rn^W Ssoknz h l6so Kl-tZ . lhe qrgocinle"l
    -loKH
    bq"'d ruid+h 7,2 z. -ft-tis xrgnd ra 6 be irqnal"nJ fr
    a *xed 4re?uenudu bao.td G,"tered qf 41okft+, D€*ro-rnFrrs
    Che luonnT Taog ih"} oru*+ k prrovideJ fu JF," logi o&c;lldhr
    ' 9kl i $"
    = E 30 k Hz *o 16 ao kHZ 3 = toKHz Br^,1

    fi = 41ov+z
    f" fo= 'Fc-fr-= 41ot<Hz
    f nromilQ
    ,l ignai
    fc

    Fwn ffwo d^,q t (#i#


    rni xer)
    our?hl fu
    '( = 41skt-rz = f.- Fr
    o "o Loc-^l 06cf ll^iqr fiE1ueau1, Fvls Qavrn
    \;
    f;= f"- Fo

    U !'ren, Fc : 530 kl+z. : fu= b3o V-- 4-lo k = (o KH Z


    Fc= l6soKfiz-, fl=ledop-z|1ok - llrokHz
    o'o TrrntnVToctg< c}. LogJ olci ll^fc/r Ftqruerfl *rf A
    6 o Ftnz tr ltso KHe
    I f> fne Borod r"rldtb + FDM - r698+<n -lohich 'wsen
    De*er nnlrne
    ssB rnoduhhon af iho-l-nqnSrvritfer #.'r &{ Volce 6iXnalz
    having a eqodbid+h + 4Ktlt .eadr,
    b Qiven N= & 4 ,uolce a'g*lx NitE ssa nqodulqfien .

    N= Frn :{KHZ
    ,n^ ToJa,l Bo^J Nidtb FD0'1
    pWt<n Trs
    "+
    B hl = NXfio\- &4X+kHZ

    Bl,\ = 16k4z
    X X ef )f * 2h )F#,
    2018
    SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

    Venkatesha M, Department of ECE

    PRINCIPLES OF
    COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
    (15EC45)
    IV SEMESTER ECE
    MODULE 2 SYLLABUS

    ANGLE MODULATION

    Basic definitions, Frequency Modulation: Narrow Band FM, Wide Band FM,
    Transmission bandwidth of FM Signals, Generation of FM Signals, Demodulation of
    FM Signals, FM Stereo Multiplexing, Phase–Locked Loop: Nonlinear model of
    PLL, Linear model of PLL, Nonlinear Effects in FM Systems. The Superheterodyne
    Receiver
    I

    MOPULE A

    A"gf" , is q Process "F alle rfing either 'f,re 7utearY @


    ModuhBe'1
    pho,ae + cqrrieY aTXnoJ rbr otecorJqnte l.litE 1tre hntlenlqneorr8
    vqlua ru-resStF F\?^d,bV KeepirrT oorplifuJe f Cotrier G"uhnl-.
    "f
    L2 6.nero^,1 €zuqfi'on -A.gl" Mdulonkd Nqrrc ia ffwo
    'f \,
    : $t*)=AqCosOr(D
    trhene -0) 6f gnJ
    , A.= Annpti*uJe "+ Qaarler
    O,c+)
    = Angle f th" nnoJub,e<d zf,;ffd,
    Mod ulqlion {echn \?ur} ore fi-r t41erdrvt"leJ inlo -truo tgpq

    trTqusnctd laodul"dre4 (F M)
    phaae r'aduhlisn C eul
    a process uf ol*erhn7 fre?uedl
    e Ntfh -the hrrSlenloneotrx
    KeepfoT aro,Plifude , pnaa "P
    Cor rf i e,ry G-r,St nl- ,

    l+ lEa Qeoera.l e?Uqhon + Ft4 - 8i?"qJ '8 8'Fwt At


    st+)
    = Ac Cos [anf6f +dilnK*frntt)rr]
    phene
    " V7
    -(z)
    = fre\u.^o/ Sendffiv?t.' porarorxr 16\ Hz lvo h.
    mt*) = r4essqr 67na)
    ' Fhqa" MoJ ul"0ion
    ,.\,A- .-. n/^../\..A.n.p :
    Id t8 g Pnocex B- + alterhsrg phose uf Cornrier Ai?4"tJ pl
    "c.otJdn(e
    NiJb Jhe lcg'lanJeneoua \arluex of oessa8€ ai?.,"J,
    b -rtre general e?,r1r1fionr .f p14 S"tgn"J ia
    5(+)= A" 'Coi tanF.t * Kp Fnt+il -e) 1
    {

    1" t ,\.\-.\F
    Bqafc DepFnT*ierw l-
    n,f:n- .f.,a^
    The vro&f cernr)or..lly f6e"l ongle rnedulorhoo ltchni ?Oe tE
    u
    Pregzueo
    g.-/\/^^
    c^J Modu lql-io,n'i
    0 7n=-n.n:w

    lsorn€qf *|e bo;8ic d.,6+nil"na L\f,th "re5p+ Ju F7e?uen? naedu\a-


    - jierr qffe w\ fo lloNF"
    (e) r7lSp"%f11f1."d [+; c+! :_
    The Inx*a.ntavreourg frelueoc,g + F n t- a\7nal iz rna+hernaflortt;l
    da$-hed aB , I
    -U8 ,3hown \n #ffux 1.

    fc ts
    Ft"t
    fq- kgRo)

    1?5r:
    Frn-, #?r* L, fulto^tr? obaervqfien4 Go be mqde
    t+ ruhe4 nn(*)=o : frc+)= fc *iffitrffir"rrietr

    +? (+)n; s.t
    QA'
    ,o, vfaxircruro -preftueocf
    + FM 6T9a.rc d iA
    (b, 4ry;ff J11^9fl1 F [orc+)]
    j-usJonleneout,s \Alue, 9it*) c't FM S3?^^) tE irelq}td -b rE
    trxhneeu,t fre-luenutr fr (+) aA {otlotrl6

    VenKq{esho.M.r JRF g- Adlqn$ Faculfq" Depf + ecg svrf 2


    3

    Ccl Maxinnuo Fre?ueocr/ olevj".fiqn


    o ,-xz":":- [^fu1
    -
    :-
    € r^/'.}..-'.r- '

    T* In the oli*fer.nce beltoeen hnoxfotrnn fre?ueoot "F rM 6i?^"1

    .fuJho,f of -t/onnduWd Cqtrriea 'fneQue"tV'


    r* ia de'lokd b.l ofrur,-
    i.r, of^u.* : k+ Ann

    pn+ 3
    Frorn *he drbrnt*iun s; Fne?qeng dwienh'orl, r
    of-^": r'4qx' *ff,ly..iy,{,
    F;:U;ff
    ^f'"r= fr ({-Ltn"- f.
    +b?n^ fr3.ux t, FrC*)"_p ,Fct kgAro
    o". ol-^i f" * K.F A -- Fc

    zl-'6onl K'F At Hz + Yr-rJic'J<d in #Wt


    (ds gler^ftba;-
    I+ 'the dtyYoenoe hltrleen Ma[irnurO n"d rnr\oi'num'pre$uee:r1eA
    1.r

    + FM 5l8n4l'4t6'Ehownr itrl }+wx.2.


    .'u Cqrrier Swtry @ st"l\rr7 Fn
    t+KfA^
    l;p T^w Grnniw trE ueotr/ i6.,
    f6 rt --J" i er Bw\
    2- t;:i
    'F.- r : U ; : L:l-f_il
    Fi$uxz:
    ,'\,(/\r'!
    Cotraier
    d#€
    Awhe U - a k++_
    = &ot no*
    TFe Cgrrrter *bA = f, C*l 4t (+)rn,o:
    ,n*n-* Ax^E;
    e) Xgl"i.UIdxX: e)
    It tx '1he -r-qlio "F N'lax'rnnunn .freTue?.?. dev,o^.I-lon *6 th*|
    f ne?Ueou/ "+ l6rqesq?e I;XIEJ - rf ir dnno+<d b} 6.1'arbot Ja',
    t"t', JnJ.x
    f,1oJ SJJon
    ,"n Ftr4
    t -r
    J -) No uoi.l-F

    sY tT 3
    wen Kq4exha.M c JRtr & AdTUccr. pocut]tlr pe4ef + FC.5
    +

    l. &. frenu,eoq mqdgbl:t :-


    V P
    nn,aZrnn
    nOodut nFia,n . DerTr,rs Jhe
    -fFrne dtnn^to €x presslo4
    e> De*Fne Ffe?uen$
    Ke]€h ne v'n rafoa'rrX
    fcr .Freg.tren n od ulrkd N ot'rre & q [8g S ce SSq
    t '

    t'
    L+ Freluen,^1 vtodulo.Fion tn a Pu-ocess + alterhnT -the freryue^"* +
    csrrier .sgnal iq ec,uodu^.. Nrh {he inapn{eneouS \aluex E
    rne66qpe nipd b3 Keepi=n7 orirrphtqde &Phq6e "I Gmicry Grrrlunt.
    T-fnne da,arohn eXpregsron ".-
    Anl^v\ nrnzl n,a\-^.-^/^-
    - Le,- the hna{q^d-aoeoLl8 \zblue + Cqrrietr 6ignal i6
    et+) = A. Cos *5 fc _) tr)
    . Lei jhe f?ns+an4qneou, V.nlue + nnesscle 6qrvJ fn
    tvl(*).-. Ao.,Cos&n+ct
    e) +
    . Ne koo^t *"d tihe 6ton.,f,rrd e?u,+ion 4 -+ngk nndu\olled No(ve

    TB ffr^^ b.r'
    s(*): Aa coS g,(+L-c")
    ruhere 9;(i): Angle t FM Da^/€ (mrodulolQd t..lo,rw)
    ' th**tre fnx+e+tnesU,E freryrenuT fi(+) $
    Ne Knoru Fn4:igno.l
    l,s %twa atr fi C*)= f.* k+-t*)
    t..lhere , ky= frelu*Y S-r."-^*fi$)h{

    ,"dt = rd-€ssa?e 5\Yd


    . Ne knsw th^f -iln"
    {ngular .frelueo.?,
    wi(*):
    tt 'd+= t^
    -d-ei(+)

    onf,(*) 4otcul
    "" ftCfl =-!--4ert+)
    &n "$
    (=;
    sq-b8+i*qt/- {it*l= $.*
    frnr+l hn e?,ts^fibn (>t ?.,eget-,
    4
    5

    ': {"tk+ttD=#*rt1 r)
    3-ot(r) -
    cLf = Pn'Fc t Px K1 nnt'i) (e)
    -
    +pp!g xohgro^.j on botS .aidu $ e?qqF'n(c) Kle gkj^

    Jfd *t *r
    a+,' z - J f*o+.*enKpnnr+! dt-
    .u
    0
    9icf) = &K*.t + &n Kg l rntt) dF
    lhe QeneroJ eTuotlian q trM 6i -01
    ?.r'cJ iA
    Stf)= Ac cos 9i(*) -IJAW e9/lonlion ftl

    .sr*) = 46 cos [onpc] t o


    ^
    Kfr |rnt+tat]
    E?uafiuin (O i.( -the generod e7u^l-ion rf Fvt Ai ?"^o.J f,nr oroy-
    ,nessa?< 6ry"pJ nn t*).
    for , rn t*) = A*CoS olfi f-f
    Jrncr) 4t - o-cos&nfrt d-f Sio mt
    f C*"tnrxdt= rn

    = pAm - " Sio anfor+)


    nfn, (r)
    sf+) Ac Cos
    -
    en kg xlb . s\o cznf..,ll
    = fanfclt e6lru.,

    = Ac Cos fanp.t + !|4"]


    .f^
    s\n{xf.t]

    -- (to)
    F1^,tefi on (to) ia Jhe 6iqnJaod e?tta,fi orn
    + f"r F l'4 6i gnotl
    rvlt*)
    = Ann Cos dn F- + : ryh e
    "e F = 41y * bPr*^.+
    .s Modu\e,&'"0 Ia1&x
    +I - -E^ e trv\ /gg^il,
    t?n
    fie?rq?uioed N"n efr"tl I
    nn(t), Ct.D g_ irr "Liqu x P) -

    Venkq.+eahq. M: TRF :zSdlrunct FotculH , Depf sB gcg SU tf 5


    v,.ssa9{6g*l
    € rn6)
    = {;oun|-f

    sff)

    € FM&iN
    scF)

    -vr-l,1l)t I v_ U _V_U yrll l1 V l

    FiW6e(2)" Cq) vtessqe aXwJ rnrt) (bl Grnti w6g'vJ cc*)


    (c) Frelueag MtodLtLAkd -(FvD EXno') ,

    triru t< 2G) ,<hoNs -16e -+rrna dsrrur.in xnqlms(n4afiorn


    -F FM-arg.*J
    d ss)-Aqgpry { ,,
    s(+) Ehoruo hrr ezu'tion (fll-
    ug{4 yi$ rep.{E-rnRx,lr
    T'5"e?gn^? n'

    d;@:&)i.&lc+l= Fc* k+nutc*f ,

    |
    1 phq8< M pd
    ^d:
    AA4.-zr-
    talalien Z-
    \nnAnz\
    . It te procear + oU{frrn? Shoae + Cqrnier AT+^oJ ht'
    ^
    ffCcordaoce tr|,ih Jhe bn8fon6,,rn€oLl8 r,&lueS df rr.ress^?< 5q:nsJ
    rnr}) U7 Keept-a3 annplilude &fren-s€ng + @mnievr Grrsleo"t-.
    TFrne )ornaio tr eressi on + fvl-6ignal 18 9) uecr 6t
    3t*) = 46 Cos Ol (*) J 9it+) - enF6+ + Kpnntt-)
    _ _
    oct) € phqx ModubteJ $gna)
    (Prvt-s)9ru^l )

    6
    l'&'d I f rnplennerrMmr "t Ph%e Modulafer ?{\ng trre?ueow Mqdulq}ud
    Mrnn nr.yr-nna; ,* /.\A,/^=n.l,zr- AAv.v ' y'\.,,/\//\.,^.-^-- A-. zn-
    -"a
    F'reTueoqJ M od qtafur -tl3hne phq6c M oJu lahnr
    A./.\Jn-^/^' {,,^ .A/^. U l\/'\.,/\./\/^ /\.\
    li..le knourr th^.f Jh,e 6tqodd6ol e?uo+ion,
    + F lV 63gnd f.rr qof
    messq?e 61wd nn(+) irs
    ffneo b.,
    s (+) = 46 Cos [rn€.r + an kp f-q) di _ 0)
    larlg :lhe rstaadara eTuah.on
    6inni
    A*n"J nW) \x ffnro bY , + Pvt-6i?^rJ frnr aoY nr.resso.g<

    (*) .= 46 Cos
    E
    fanf.* * kp nnt+l]
    &.r":"? i* id cleqzr th"d., ihere iu o depnrh
    e!,uafion8 (rr &
    e),
    Cz)

    fU
    hn'pleronen+nn7 Fu-xr\ l uh? phe6t rvoduhfin qool
    lt:utbtjt'ry "+
    Vi ce - VeT Ea, -

    *ffU): I'o,Rh1rymr + F M r4hng


    A,A./A.,,1. .p M ".-
    U 6u,n

    tn tt) Jrneut
    Jndegrcrlw Pha,e tvtodulqlor FM
    afnrls)

    Ac Cosgnfcf

    CawieT p\Xn<)
    *H$ro,
    z\-r\unz_
    r*
    +U? F t4-ai*'o) ke phqet Mtoduhdrr
    r4_aiVd, T,ttl.A,AAA^n^^
    ^. n-n^-- n/^v\
    ^^r_
    edulo.fur frprd frlg"\s) 5 .rfmt+t aJ. %,e cqo
    Qenenak FvtX;$nqJ ,oa 6hovurl T4 {-ftuxJ-.
    QSff): :r3g!:rnendarEt $ pllffULtrMl :-

    Ftelrqs6\
    )rf ferenlialw * PM
    Mod tr lqfur

    Ac Ces"t[-Fcf
    Cqryi qt 6f
    Zn cJ

    russ : 6SPIE, ry,rx;ge"")Jieln Nn i-


    Bf cha"dr7 Fre?rxoo7 nnodu
    -tr^,re Go gnrennb
    Pvt- St',^q,f ,

    7
    kq+e.3ho. M, JRtr & trctcu ltq, DeP+
    I
    ooo Frsrn trig<;ire (Ll + rigux (&J Ff 16 clea.t ih*J- bptb ptvl &Fvl
    6ig)A.q8 qre corrclonled h- eqch oJhsr ,

    o'o In-thia
    n-^'/v^-
    g,r{gb, Ef?are!3l qdxhh,'n r^!L.^l^ss{h
    ourly
    e.br' I . T.f Te?uirad pM- 5i7nol fs Tneruk{ UV =t lry Indi neuu- rnetr.'oJ
    dn/\,F.
    nz A\oron hn fgux A).
    1.3. closa?Fic"rfiun or
    n'La"n:-n ' n'ggqJ RjUtrg {&*?
    f\r/\-^rru-
    Def eoJfznT cnn-Jhe \telue af nnodt-rlqlio,n tndet 'P' qnd chqnneJ
    t'r'ro dypeu
    Fvt-6ignoLl ore clo6snigied -hruo "l,
    Bqodr,,.lfdth" hn1-o

    i) Norror^l Bqnd FM
    ii) t"lide Bqnd F y
    ?> Nqrrohl Bqnd FM :
    ,1 /,\/^./!1 n./\NW ,"

    Jo No,nrow baod FM 6rT")


    b rnu volue 'f rr.,odut^-iiqn br"lex , F<! (Lesshan 1)
    Ly only *ru0 &iAe B^rdg qae puesen1-
    t+ 'The
    Jraornnissim chond Bqod r,.:idt[,BNr=aW
    t+ rn. ynegso)fl< ffiwrJ'fre4,ueog, ;6 in b<]tDeedl
    F,.^
    3oHz h 3v+z
    L2 fine1-LrenLu dwi*,hcnr i6 lg-kHz
    ',4oxfaquerr
    APj[f*,{:- Nqrrornl bqod trr4-*echnt%le iol rootinty r*<d tu,
    Speech 6i g.rntl rhqo& ro I ssion
    E Xaor ple : Ylobl le cb'.nn nnunjGrF'ierl
    iD
    ' xide -buq.l F M :-
    ,\,A.z\ aya.,a-n''a-
    ^
    Jo l^lide-bqod ftTy\rJ
    b fr" Vqlue + finJ"rt, p >1.(4re"rcrfhan
    nnedu lo,.Fj."n l)
    L; fo$eni.E r\ember + x'ide bo.Jx q/uc prexent-,
    *ibb lhe r,r€ssa6rc tuT\rJ fneZu-\l-,*- fl6 hn b+^.r-,
    30 Hz -tr 15 K tlz.
    8
    * lt r The BacLd u.rrd th +
    Nrde bqnJ FM di?lod Cqn be Qlculqka
    +n lr' Cqrssn'A Rule .Ahowo Do e%;,.|ien Gl
    z_
    r CARsoN 3 Rute
    t
    F.b.l
    Bqnd nrid fh eF h.ride bq,,.d
    Fu.
    b rr-ru Mqxirrrr,rror .FrrWng d*i^l-ir1 ts .1SKHZ,

    'lpjgk{ "Fbridg bodti_


    + N iole- r*,iffifini7.re Ir ro.rolrrly t;r'<d fn Hr?A Quclr|7
    tqwl c &iq^r,) -fnornamissi o4,
    ErAXRle I tr t4-cl^,o",^ula

    R:gfie{xr ts$r @
    ,t .lq rre r,v bqnd FM

    poronqeJen

    1. Modutation fnJex Less thao f Qreoko thon {


    P
    o?, Boo"J rurdth
    & Fnn +&4,F^^,
    'Nunnbur
    *
    si'"le bo,xll InfrniFy
    4. frelrueatr^J
    +
    p1sss"€R xlo soHe ;to kflz
    Tp61
    = 30 Hz b t5 KHz

    -T
    5 KHZ

    6'APpFcr^c1b'r1
    speech&ignotl ry^ l M@
    Ex: Mobile I

    rm _..-4 ,. I Ex: FM-.a{gfiorx


    cetnounio*rno ' '. t-"'i6 '"to
    || (E^net4'

    9
    uncF FqCq l,r* s
    LO

    s'4 (r*ao*t),
    l-y
    'Pghlp irygp"1
    qre chq?rq6r i.zcd
    Xp*l,\h'on
    rrrodulal-\sn
    Nqnroru bo.rod FM arqnoJz 4
    furdect ,tr2 le,*sJhon 1.
    L, Nqrrouu boqd pq olrgrrn) e.truo,}ion &n be Jerivfd $*-l genor",J

    Fil4 e?Alqhou'r f.tr nn(*).- A^cosOnftolt +) ,rP\8 fslloNs

    s (*) - Ac Cos fen Fc* t p $'io {an fr+f


    e%ud- (,, ir 0"1

    io
    Oune^,1 FM eX4,lqh.orr fu rrr(t)
    = Aa.,Cos (anf,'+) eb.leu'
    Socfi nn l.d.
    N' K' T Cos(++f; : CogA.CosS:sF64-SFnB

    ttt
    (r) -) St*) = Ac Cos enf.* cos ( ls sioenf_t) As Sin (s^Fc +) x
    sto(p sfi^rn'firr)
    Frr NqrnoN bq"\d "FM -z.f'Woll , p< f
    "'- fhu \Alue + pOinanf#
    beco"nrs lea*thon L4.7rce.
    -Y) ood
    I* auppno achex atnno8b 0". Iherc+ore

    Cos6Psherf".,+) n ! ('.'{TFss2i)
    grn ( Siur,tal.J)
    F
    D+0" - /
    Bu 6uA&r$uli19 e?L^',h'prl& a+r
    (g s-(il ftn e?qqfian (2-) Ne ge-r-
    Nqnroru bood FM 6rgnoJ
    St*)
    = A. Co s &nfci A" p Sirranf.* . g rnrenfrf
    .1, Nqrrplo bqod FM 6rB.1qJ conxi
    q fc 9 Crrri er &\
    F.-+,'-2 Loww 54
    fc*F^9 UPPe'v

    ToJql:filbro6rnrission Bqod r.+rdtb 4 n.la,rrroru b*rd trM +JBNr =&


    ". 10
    rn (f7 sifiuJ Frq
    6tgna)
    AmOgse$fh\t I

    A.singng.g
    lcutao'g.y
    ?o'
    Phqse
    shif,ter c"uJt.,
    ffgned

    -l
    Fr?uacr : rn&t^Meftf4 ErotSry,qn
    vv (J ' fW+W ff'lqrorubandJ
    r@'i_"
    trigux d, rshov.l.r the tndr ne$ roelhod + b*^J
    ftnc.rxrtn2 ;rlqrrrovrr
    FM aigrroJ Ehorun t.'r #?uae @ , 1t6hn
    ft rholx rnodulqhr
    NLR: l6e Bendwidfh Te?uired ts treasrnif Nq?rre*r bq^d FrvJ
    6i?'r\oJ ia .6oznq o8'ihd t ,4M- Aiqnq) --frqne nrrssiofl choonnJ
    bchd r,^lidth tt p 1 rr
    ur
    :-*
    * x(

    tf Cer'.,per iseor bd-Neen A M ond F M '" -


    4.,^/\.,^v^\ n,n*n.,A r+-'..'*'l

    pOranneler Jrrde Frc<l Ueo rrJ


    '\nrplT
    M odul \o$ie-nr Modu lr,.fi e-n

    7. A lleahnT Arnplr fude frelue"V ,


    peroirneler ai
    C-qtyi e z

    &. Cn3lqr'f Fo.?UeoW qord +orpli fud €, phe6e


    - e,ler 4 Cgwi<a Phqae
    M od ulqH orr
    H= koAr (t . A= 3&*,
    JndI e 2(
    'f^
    F<l (Narrorubaod)
    F> a Cruide b"nJ)

    Vertyq4e1lq.M, T(Fs.+d_l-uoct Fcrcultt/, Oelsf ofr Ece svrT 11


    fC

    sl.. No pororneler Arnplr$'.rd e Fwyen.x,


    tv4od u loh'orr
    Modclhn'*qn

    4 Tra46rt',t* Ai
    Po Yoear
    P+= P" [r+
    {f ]
    <
    F+=
    -
    "ZR.
    s Nls\Xinn U.nn
    3z'33"/'
    1^ot: l=
    frry 7
    |sutuer.tfUroT Ioo
    (orre hde pouoer orJ t e 4ll ihe *ronsMi H<d
    Gvtiet powed aa(
    Por,er frr r4g-bll
    ,.tJqx1e
    d ) Po
    ^e.r
    6, Bqnd r^lidJh NoTfowt'o^d
    " -BN= & f-.,o.., EN= df.,;- O
    Bhr: af6+ S.^b
    .

    ' Bood N'd1b lr,-,


    (tuide
    tfr-,
    " Bqod ruid
    radge,n.le,,t
    $ rrdu- o4 N.fodu
    -Ja^eicn Tod ert ( ruiae
    4
    Covev\ Lqrr- Gtun* ltr.f *d >*t-eot
    dn -r\te a
    Ex: Rqdfo EX: trt4- eln.n.'"V
    a.
    Le ss Cernrpf q , M o-ae Grnpfey

    1. Io e7 penli Ve E&pe,ffii $s

    lo, t'.tdi/
    Innnnune h 0{ol2j

    ll ' Nqmoru b"nJ


    . Ni de Lay-,4
    lo?.
    Shoa- t- d |6favtc-q Cer.,r,rnuoj
    - G'.frio5'1
    gp1';onL.
    _Lt: Fl4-

    12
    t3
    MoJulqhefl l-
    -: J)"sbr{rti*+^,8
    Nun.rigl
    l...,.r.^^
    pp1blggf
    InAlvva (vru a ph & A&hi"oreJ"
    pydblqfi,

    uJ Anqb MoJu b,+cJ


    t ,.t.V<l r'\- ..ArA ,6'a

    SrD = fi. Cos [eit+l ..', e


    "t' (unern eW^h-r,.r "+ tr M hJq,!€ '

    sr+)
    = 46 Cos lanf.f * an r<1 Jm+) dt
    l* rn (t) = A,.n Cos "znf;f
    Sr*) si"a^-f-t]
    = Ac Cos [rn{.r + F
    3.
    W tr; fft"t +.Ly 6ryot.-
    F"rrl-
    t
    | a[sr*ilJ j
    Jr df 9i(t) = Aryle t FM xArd ,

    4
    YXY ftUg"lrgg,'r-
    oP,".r= k+A,=p^f, j t= r;?:nil"1r"\nv

    =) NernDtrr ba.d ,* V"Tvr)


    P
    <1,

    F>1=) NidebunJ FM E\T1ql


    cger rp?$n^"d,{gh? :-
    Ca,wiw S{lv\f &
    - ,

    J' BjdX'S:- . BN- &fi,-+{^f,^,ig ti:i#rt_;! i ^F,""'o.

    ' BN =-af-r =+Nqrng6 b".4 FV ei7-r1'iJ


    ko€a '4, SRf K.Adfurrcf Fo,cul+t' Dt.P+ f ece sv llF 13
    t , lEe eluo}.ea f.ttr q FV Nd"r,e iA
    "
    scf) = 1o $in fs,r x ld-t- * s siar t2xro3t]. colc^^loh:
    =une fJqlq zot?
    _

    6ii) D'lodu)"dtqn tqdrx


    (u-t Ftre?Ueou1 4qVfotfiarf
    (D poruen dlssipo^Jrd h1 looo_.

    AsSr E%rotfion
    "F trt"1 ft12.^^) ,
    st+)= losin fs.?xrf b + b si61 trxrffl
    l"l,k.T. SlanJord e?uafiorr + trr"l ,aiy4, Cr-l

    st-D = 4c srn f,znF.{ + P.S}nant.+]


    B?
    zu-
    "2n &nF^= l&X tos : A.= lo v.
    Os

    (rl cqrti er,fteVrreou/: f.= 5.Hl,ln_go"-lt8xt06 nz,


    (D D4odubfi\
    fteprcno/: fnn= r,9rxrr3 Hz,
    (iil #=
    MoJutqtierr J.,"f ex : s n.. sc#) i.r ilr.le bqnd Fr,,t s/t
    F=
    $i6\ce P> L .

    (rv ) F re?ue-nu/ derrziuh ern I


    [^f^^J
    l^l,k.T. B= ,F a[r^^

    = px F" = 5 x 1"?l^tos - ?.S5xlos ttz

    P*= A-i = ,=oi


    = trrg: o,s r,l
    =
    "2R "? Xloo Cx tuO

    14
    &, LJheo a. 50"+ tvgtz Cq^urier i,g freTueocl nnodul^Ied 4 a.
    Slnt*old+,l AF ruradul,"$frn7 6Z-1il, jhe J-$fuu* freTueocrT-
    Traqched iA 5 U408 t4HZ , Glc"l".b Dec zote I

    Jqo ro l1

    (tii) Lonrez,f fire7ueou1 Teqched


    L, Gfven dor*q: f"= 5o.4 t4HZ I

    4^;fi.v*r *'*qn,.^+ u| Fu : +i *h; b 0. +Ds M lrz


    (i I @gggLtsgg J*441- prod,,tceJ :
    N"k.T fr, (+)__..=
    Infol.x F.*
    . aF'"'4n^
    ,g

    o ofr^, = fi (+)q.i F. = 50- 4o5xlo6- Fo"4x,#


    "
    aFr^":0.0o5XtOd - 5ooo - SkHa
    C' Grrier stF? I N. x.r coanie6srufrng -
    d- -u^Jlil'
    .?x^F

    = fDkHz
    0r,) Lo^r*l,
    frrc? XRted:
    f, tt),."- +.-^F-^,

    fT t+) , 33s M HZ
    = s0.
    ::::

    r.

    Fryq,e: f;H) + trXAa,rc


    15
    ,4or oo/e nnodulaled Signor) t: de PF"d
    \,
    sf+)= lo cos [en xrd,f *0.& siootoo"f] wlb- f-\nd lE
    ftltnwlnT , .tiTnaJ, Jqyle ltqly* zo16
    i) poruer in nndul"tfeJ
    li) the freflreenq derrzi<fi w, 4
    til) Th€ 4pro,xrrrntr -fi-.trs rnisgion, htJ ruid+tr)

    [+ q1e{"Jq i -]K. +,nb r4od^hkJ FrAd (r='r nrn,-t)


    st+)= to Cos feh- xro$ { o. & Srnooo0trt]
    N"K.T 1f X+ardrtrd e%l^f-iu'r4
    -O FM eitl^a,J\s
    T
    s t+) = 4. Gs [an f.+ + P sr4 &n f^+]
    -@
    0"J p &.nf"= &ooon
    F=
    '-)ft= looo H?

    a*.: t|\^) Fxfrn


    I
    t o'a-x looo= {oo H7'

    fi4)
    Tru' 'XXl rydffF. z L "'" *he
    fw ? wo t'roJu\^l<d P= o"? 6\N'
    ff*^ .a.m^J Tz xlqrroru b*'d F[1 ag""'
    o"" BNr= &f* = "2x
    rooo - &KHz

    16
    -, JRF +Afu
    l-7

    +. An Fl4 ud"v€ "K d+ n.d bq(l st*)= locos[a+ sin6nfl .

    Fts"'d th. ta.rt+q'4lqneouE faegare aut +


    sf+)
    Dec-zo l(+ /
    t, 6r wo trvt &lar^d k J|en*zo ts

    S [*) = lD Cos fe + sln 6"+] o


    Tre rnxlankrnou |re7ue^.r/
    (ut
    + St+); %**o +
    Fic*l =|*{Ls'
    fw $.iwo I >l1*J *^Z)a, ftC+): J+ Sin 6nL
    3 in 6n+]
    {i c+) = -l- d- [a +
    "?r d+
    6Ifl -
    =I
    rn.Cos rnr
    L o+6[-Co s f"."$ntnrnl
    &t
    4T CtrS6nf
    "Zn
    ficg= -lcos6nr_
    5' ,4 Sbrqaoidej mod u lo$Trrp Na.ve + ampli'hde 5 V qod
    frepeng lKHz f"f o.pRlied b or f r.?ueou7 'oodcrpt-ur
    Jhe F-re1q:eotl. .$naitr"vrfy 4 tt nnodu ll+Td i.3 5D H+ /votf .

    -The
    Grrri en Fa-ila"^rd is loOk t+Z . GlccefalZ
    (i-l th" fte7ue"*+ dwi ahwr Gl Mdqhhonn Jhdra,
    t, flp;|3.+tl A"= 5v " fr= lKnz : kf :50 n>lvor;

    1^; k^xA
    ,-$ =50x5:.lSofz
    .'rvl

    /iL,,,-,
    --- t^ =*so-=o..'?s
    lX tos

    tA@" s Rp s.*drrnctF"rcrllryr Depf S gcg sV IT 17


    6> In a Fvl stl8+e,n'',, hlhe.ro'the oudio freqyue$cLt is 5oDHz
    o.rd rnodula.h.g Val\o,7 &"5Vr Jie devforh'unr P-duced
    fx 5 k rtZ, I I lhe no.odul"ft^Z \6 l|€\gr f8 fincaeqxed to
    1,5V, C",lc.,..tqb thu rl,^t \Aluta +J-t*Un e^,"/ devio^Fion .

    C".Jc,^to.b t6 v^nodvrL",fi-.r findqr tn eqcj' Gs(

    L> q(p*Cd^ ' fr= rloo nz : 4-= ,5 V - ap = 5 l(r{ }


    o, kg4w1
    u
    ^F=
    t+"t1 &, 5
    :> F:
    +!=
    'rryl e'tq==
    b[i| :ro
    Cr.r"0il :rF A*r= 1. S v : ? :F, ?
    ^+ =
    ^I = ? a": &X d x1.5 = l5 Xlos - lb KHZ

    F: += !.5X lo"= so
    +,1 5ol
    1> lE€ Cqrriea 8",fo? u| o freTuena; ro-'todulafed .8iftnal F6

    ^hl5€ 6V"rd
    lo k Hz o4d +he u,nsd Z Sr're Ndtv€ -
    18 -1 rn
    Delennntnethe nnodub,.!-ion t'J., + trvl fr:%'d 'anQ Ep''nd ruidth'
    L) nUg.d$t; ch.rrvier6"Y:J0KHz 3 fr:Ikr+L -pzl
    L.i.k.T +h MuJ"re^.h*Iu.l-u )

    r-r
    R - 3F*^n

    Ganiezr Snro^?9 Uop''..n= loKl+L


    o r of.^ -1o
    = lo kKFt'
    HL
    nnayr = 3E Kl-t>
    "t
    .>1 "" Li 18 x,lid e tsP,'^ol
    trM1 ,%cJ,v\^)

    o', LlA.t'1f CqrSon'S zrule, BN,= Af,dt q{^vr.,


    = "?x-1kHt * "z
    x35 Ktt>
    KHa * -]o KHF
    18
    Szr--
    +FTranarnlsstsn gqdruidh prt- eTgr\aki- ftaranrT'o f(u t(.J |
    n n.,z1./V./\ "Fr^,^//\./\-/.-:^
    ^/\,&,/l/--
    -Ne !,nor^r Jlrai therc Qet *ruo- '*'lpu "{ Ft<*ftgttolz'
    {i) Nqrror".r- Bq,Td Ft"l-rdVnal ( Bcr;
    {ii) hlide -b nn'rd ru- 62na)' ( F>> 1)
    TFe -*pplro; Frnon b.) $*r"lo +* +F^Jr^7-tranx rrUsei",a t tvd ru ;di\
    G-r) "1 ps- $1nxVs i4 ?'^n T
    c^g*gs .glu'''
    acrard,t^6 J.o Cqrsour'6 -f.rrrnuh(*tuu11he B, + tro1- ft'N
    ia ftFren tV
    (t2 Br = alnnteof = aF,n ('+
    : +TW)) =af,n(r+o)
    :-
    -tukx D= devf
    "h661nfio = ^l
    F;
    Bt = afr*.raf -- olrCr+o) {tr l^IBFM- A?r"uJ\
    CP>>r)
    ^
    t't > tI P<L {-.rr ,ruafq,
    Bl = &f'"r
    1.e., ,acr-Jrg *o Grxo,',r4 r,^lo-, BN a5 W- hgwJ;3

    f af*+aaP =af*(r+n) i F>>t twgYrfl)


    u*T- I L aFq ",p<L(yif)
    =

    Nof : --IR'o -De,rrio.}ra rs0io i4&rM{ o,ltk+ frvoduJd'''n


    rqdex 4
    trt4
    i{', P- af *-:->
    -1\.)
    P De.,r.t iathon t.'.hga
    TrlA

    19
    Module-"? (-gdinUcrlion
    of Communication S

    t1
    .Qe-nenoiion
    ,^,\,\_^--^
    4 tr M- 1,.loves
    /^!/._-,-*,r-;,.^-
    _-

    JEere o"e-+tdo boxic rnethoclr * fenero,lST ,FM-x.lotvea,


    (i) olrec* M€Jhd
    (tr) JcrJirerf MelhooJ
    ,F *+. IMp,ir"
    (-4'r'z-sl-ro
    ry Yto"lu la lo r)
    <i> Qe lsUed-, + fJgZgqA" -XAVfgga $224,
    P*.(ecT-- t4trH6D:- - -2l-
    ^\,^/^\- |_^_ '",_-:J:v'- "
    Explain
    Tene"rafion vf FreVueoutr modul*! fiWd tnfu_
    d?ned roe/hod , ' t'Tu Jrr',rbnr,
    (J,il
    L' the pired ro-relxod 1)Bea e
    EioLggoida.J o?scfltslor, NiJB sne og
    fFe 'recrcJireo €fernenf (erq^ple: Gpqcjfive
    elerrrer6) t-,1+
    v

    loor c?ncuT_g- S$he ogci,losor beinT dfzrecf.ly Cedrfa-DtreJ


    Jhe nu.leg8q
    7e 6?Xn*1, hn(i).
    $
    l+ r. dTreu- rrrelhod rF FM-s;?.,oJ Teneralion, 1tre \oslqvrloroeer03
    #ruguenry ?Ee Cqo-z-Ter hJd\€ ?s Vq?rieol d7rec+Jy tor.occor
    : dooce hril6-"Fthe nn€Ssaq" 6igno.l ,

    1-; tri?.l, EI"ot,.)E a Hor+jy o6dlleLtoz kr r,ohlcl-, the Co.po ci fiw


    Grrrponerf +" -taoK cincui$.iQ, -le- ^---1'Fie-r
    tF'€ lol
    c(+) = H€-'
    c(*): C6 f K.rcrs+; _- (D K"rntt)
    1'1h)er€2 Co=
    Tb-fd GpaciJq6c. 61TFe ob8en(e + 'noolulo,iion ,
    ,l
    {= Voriable Gpotrifor qJe48i fi vr F7 B volle?e 6nanle

    c(+)

    f?q.t
    w :r.!-+Hq r*lp,+0 o,5
    v*-
    cj, lo\-*ar

    20
    es of Communication S 15EC45 '

    TEe freqzrJenul vf fhe Hor*lej e,lcillatof i,6 fi*. b./- dO

    l7 /-t- \-, .-
    I ' -iJhere cc*) = Co* lc.rrrCg
    r'\4 - 3*.li\\r-.1 -Lr
    x-., I LLl \ r\r,,
    , r-!-\

    Fof*)
    . t- z =
    .?4 {(Lr+Lr-) f co+ kcrtr'(i)
    I
    'F1(*)

    {i c*l = -fu- ; -uohere


    o-d^Gil-
    f^- (1*r-o; co
    co

    4 t+) = fo ( ,+ g ,,-,(+)Tb
    -Lr.<i.? Ot
    Fj"o-io;-1h."*-;;*, (;
    - \-r ^./ : (t_<)

    \ ."-
    -1t/J,o1cZu.fr'oz-r
    ({) \6., (r-l ** )
    1..;q,
    ?-l- ..,
    rr
    .,

    fl,t*)= fo (r- _E-',o(+J)


    Lef r,u e*3t176.,p- * o:t" / -'
    * = it ,-ul-,ere k4= F<7oeog{*r;+i r+y
    Po:rdn''ekv,
    F7c+)- {, c,*1l.'_,nrr' f>

    4r*) = Fo * k+;iD --(+;


    for 6inu*rld".J nn€ssoge rufd , rar(*) *
    {o4osanf *
    f7c+) - [ t
    ?o-.cos({n+Er+)
    Y?'
    {tl+) : ft , -tt
    1- A+ cos Q,Z4frf:)
    : -rul"ex

    E%.ro$im u, ? v<t., itur.,**".;f,]"*T;


    FM* Ltorw ?e-er".!B-.l AV **y Jl"".l_ ^-.ra'"J.
    3.t Hffi
    21
    les of Communication S

    Therefore, Jhe d;nect nrteJhod i5 <s*rightfoaruard 5 lr6rplernent


    ocrd i6 cor4xbJe o-f PttoviJto? lqrye +rQ?'u,Qr1l-l.-dt dev;o^-fiea 1^"F)'
    One 4-the rnojot li'rriiollorr uF Jb" Jinecf nrrefhod'i4,"the
    cou-rier f?e?ueoLy i,6 no-0- ob-leirred Froto a higtntg r6,}e'b'0e
    O&ci l{o+Dr.
    + '16 overcor'\e,Jhia lis-'tlaiioo cla{eJ .loop.€eed[aq-X 6'#Feff'
    . CI.

    Por .fhr cqmfetr .FreTueocy a6tjl-ti3a-+iobl rd -Uled -td


    Pfovide Fre?'L,lened0 SJ|.'ab,i l, Aed FM nraw.'fhi6 qrrqnftmQ/\h-
    ig Khot"rtr tcr trrX, e.

    . Volt-a?e FnegueocT,
    Con*rolleJ SCabi lized
    signaJ trM-Nqve.
    nn(+) Odci llqtor

    LoN- pqss
    Fi lkr €scrirnina
    Fix.2 3 Cornierfr:3gpgJ 6{*51pl + prygg,ghod
    F1j- ?gJU{Aor}
    b F;X,2 carrrlala 6F cru.,<jd D6Lillafor, Mixer, pucg,ueot5r dextrirni
    - na9o6, Lot^r-pqs\ +l'0-tr snJ v.f}a?k G",lnpfteJ D6cillqfix 6vco),
    l+ fni.6 Cer+izuru'|ion paovider
    . 6od .lr<7ueoa/ fdkb?):n/
    " Re?ucit^ed freTueogr devio,Jioq
    Jn pneruh-
    L'taFM.
    " GnElanJ- pnopoz$oo^ttry A.h.no oAry*_0_
    *{ZgoVkA?. fr
    hD$f.W" qle$..
    """ Jhe re+rirscl ,.tsFM-ua,ve'?.$ thJe-ined' '

    22
    les of Communication S

    (jf) f.,aired- Method @) tv.lodu lo.ior :- {t


    ,'\\,/\,,w-' /'V\, J'\,^ v r\J\.^\-/'\-/^.&\,^ / ".-^'^.rr,.^-^
    (S E*pt".iu-rlhe feneralioo^rnrsSrro,^rs
    { FM-ruaw tt/-\oV;"'d'aec*@
    4rnztronT ro-rcfhod'
    [ To Jhe tirrclrrecJ- ore%rrl, the rn€SS age Eig+to,l i.4 Firzt-
    trsed -b prnoJuce NRggW^b"9d,e*,, ruhicb i5 folloured L?
    pUIU,v .b iu-rcrea6e -th< Srerz.leosn o\evia-f'eu'l
    fggglncy
    -bo -lfie cl€8iTeJ level.
    t- 16e
    L-> pnegUeou/ rrlulfipllet pnoducea uJide-tq.J ftl hrqve,
    L; fod-ineCi ra-le*,ocl of trM-generuliorr Scl^rroe ,6 .r[xo CqtleJ a.f
    ,.
    rn"'4fpelp^Z )r3si_bood-g9?g1g pdsgtod'j,
    ce
    Tnr

    T€coT"ullion iE f^VentD?r,
    "f Llocx Jioo6re'n o+ -1h;,< :.r-lirs*
    + fie €fmp.Aipied^ n4-g<Fk6
    'ia ,6houurr t try:1 _ryu_ff,_,__ _ _ __jsc$)
    j___ _-_:*__

    1"1€ssq?e 6;9"o/
    i tlexrokr-hoJ
    r"J;de-
    Pfere trSoel
    Modula$ua, FM
    hJqW
    st+)

    giJ : a$udr.X x**--+ rt3h4rJ id"a +Jyg-


    V
    3J{ir9d P^x^
    b t^ Fj?'1, -the ru-ress".7e Eignal 'n(*) 16 gfra'P- io-rleTreleJ ocJ
    q co^crr)etr Na\re b*.
    theo-cEed l5 Ph48e-rn'ocfulqle ?ener8ltd
    onix1oJ o6u llqlo?". ,Jt'wc-l- rc<ulB \o q NBF M (Nq'rnoru tqo"j
    pnr-*^.,e) sc+) IJi-t6' cawior SneTrot'$ 'f"' ovrol rr"urelcrldiarl

    inJex. ' p<1,.a6 6howo to eTualioo 1'


    sc*) = 46 cos [aof.s +ax r'g'p'"7r"ncxl8Ur'i?*V
    !'nrola*l
    + $e -ppz ,yca$|"J oSdl\qior poovrolea 23
    les of Communication S

    J3
    Ly JEe NornoNband fM*xlow ix nex$ nrUllf plieJ to freTueor?
    69 -t w o7 trve?1teautr rd)LLqlipl ie?r.
    +
    I'
    trre?ueou./ nhu.-1.]ip[t eu- prtoduc ea ihe reTuireJ Nide bqrrd fM
    tilove ,g (*) ,q,s 6 hown )o F i? . 2 '
    NvrreN lqnJ
    Fl't t"JCve s1+2 Bqod pqss .

    Merrroryless
    Fi lter ;de bqnd
    NBtrM.I Nonlineqr devi hlil6 &",*er
    €vegga61r11 FM-sjthJ
    nI s tr*)

    f;.e2.leo91 rr,u tH plie r


    71-,a.-A-.,\,,,\^ -,-\r^.t,^..-.,zrj.t-<j,
    a. freTueocg nnu.t*ipliw Corr8fdtT.
    qf_ 0. rnernozryf ess non*l*rsq;
    \ q tcr"rd poss f,rterhavioT J-rco fr.eq,uenLf
    4x8..'.
    *V;cj,,Fotlowed {'

    b rne oufpui- \&ltaf rf m,e11.6.-qls5g non*lXeonder.oice l8

    rycf) - ars(+) * aasaC+) +a.s3Ct)+ '. * arrsn{*.1


    Nhere
    "- - ---{&)
    ' Stj) - Noro.ot^rba4d Frt-sl?n4j r"yi h @zt\e,r f*1ru""F
    fa ooJ ru-rodu-1"*_Hor.l \-Jezc ,pl
    i-e.. 5t+) - A. cos Fnf. f fg
    + a.n frnetA{ q.,d t E-
    lnratqnlentouu f'eg,tler5l E,
    fi f+) = 8" *
    K+ -c*)
    t, u.rheo \g[+),1heorop,6- .rg non-lb'ondev;co ia passeJ]huo
    s Bpf havvg Gn$er f"eqrueogr, ''' , Ne ge1' rery--ir
    Nrde botnd pnn- X',gnx,l StCt)
    ^*f."
    "*^rrd
    *-{*l - +4" 4 fmtt)ar] -)'tnlh
    A6 cos [* " FJ i
    . r\l \r'l
    t.i\er€ t = If.
    ^
    ord I
    Kf = nxp' & F{= nxp
    oL.|=-\-t-:f,t-:
    i4StqrfQrQour.!, - j6
    'E f.e?@1,"/ wgFn
    "..Ree,rxi.rrv,
    {'Ct; : +J'+ ftimrct) . t( or'l-e-ined '
    24
    of Communication S 1sEC45'

    Pnoblern5 oar t{Btr0,1 q l,rlcf M tui-th PvqqrueAtr, mql+r Pl;?YB o-


    o,
    f\/\,/\./\/' ,^^,9^* rvlL^\J/\v^- c(rf
    ^/\-'"- ^v{^-{+

    SF t- PreTuen gr nr'u.tHpl;er,

    rlx+
    nrF
    nx a|
    trrevueog muhpliw,ro-rul-tipli e& Jhe bf*F P"u?re.r,I-,
    "tred".la$'en fnd.x G) , +,piluvl,^/ &a,l+farr(^$) $y o
    o

    rnv,.rflpft 61haD
    f acfon n71 t .

    l' A bJock dioT'ra6 + pv1 :frun[n-ri+ler ;5 fihoon i6., F1?'1


    lfa nnqximuol freTueou-1 dev;crlo6 af ol -the ouSglf of-l6e
    FM frudnnitler c6'd fhe Gz-nier fr<7ueoty,f" . Il
    P^D
    q=dooKltz, f.o: lO,8Ml1Z,
    ^Ft=eSH?: \f 6+
    ocd nr=+Q,
    FrqlRarq, Frq/ueaL*
    Mu lli ptii r
    Xrtt Murfjph cz
    x.\y

    Lo CaJ
    OScillalo r
    ,r

    F b4 - ttro nSwtrfle r ' -


    ,-\,\^vV\,2\,,.\,.
    L-2 sl^h''n'- -
    'oP '
    L>'IEe
    ' Maxi.r.,u.Jo-l *reqrueOuJdqv,o.htrrl
    v- a, ltu ou$Fnl ^-
    .\^!.\-/.- ,.\,/\/.* .\) )^\,f-zf-n^
    qluen:_
    n' .r11XI_ I

    ,. xaP,r : 64x 48 x {( = T6.8 kHZ


    '
    fi =u* r** I =
    Afr= {srt>' L> tte Grrier F.earueor., .,f.'+^Sg5pdk
    fi.r= lo,Srqnz f.- tt'tu blocf,.|;**ro,-th1 @'t('\w F"eZ-leorrT
    T\= 6* f.= nrrfa
    |'z=4p
    F. t Slo
    -(r) 4arauorto't lo'sx
    \1fFt_t#.'
    Del
    a-"/
    rc-:
    =& =.

    al tr=.l3".M,b
    .P *- c(5"
    lr
    o-\
    &MHz
    =7
    f;q= rt?xf. = 4e (&s.6Mfltlo Qc'rtxt)= lt3Q'lMHlt
    25
    les of Communication S

    .2' Fo'r- a tdiole.band Fneluenqg nroJubtot, iF a nq?rrodtsnJ &5

    Cotoler, f, = D,LMtlZ, $eco^d GrT ler


    6=?.5nnz,
    ou}pu.i Grrrer f.renueacy = loo Mttz and aP=tSnnz ,

    Cqlcu-tedtr the rn'Lu);f lytoT faOorg 1rond !- tF N BFMI


    fresqsea!) deviafion i4 oloHz. Otq[ 1F" ftuilaLll tlogE
    dirgro 'r, q ti.r.- rrroJr-rlalor. (e-r,laoq1.
    v?r e. p,
    qiv€n:-
    (r{r-}J
    ov$puJ Gtaier,fic= loo M)+r trAtV f't?
    ovorq I Fr<11gav4 dev; "S'on
    t
    I lYl14
    rPliq
    43 -,lsk,+z 1 Yl: -
    f t=D'lr.1rt
    f' . u. I r.'l l'r+ (carrierg ih - 6?0rtL
    Lb6J
    f n: 9,()<1lPl <- Loo./ 0sC ll"fi/
    orollqk
    ^n - )a
    rllj f*2'ueno7
    f"a
    - ' EQqzJiaqzq'vr,_ Fe=tlo
    a

    - '){ lltx €/ ^....\,2-


    ,/tl.

    'lz- fr1$en d#q


    Tr0h :4!^en th Or,$P\^f
    Cfr,.fS 1L OL$ firqTueotrS
    af, = Dto H+ +- f cFd4 de.vi,"fiort ;8
    r ry/.dtvinhon af; - n'xn.t of I

    -'' fllx1z al * I9KH**


    = oFl
    OorrZ -
    3.1(xiD"
    fie ole f-rqTueolf ap ) Y11trn: 3+So
    {.q4ue^S, or"rUif; ,"tt = ?1 rx ? r

    J
    ltv- ofp ff^/,.RavJ ,<\l ,
    w.lfxer (,8
    T f = (rrrlr) -fr ['r- o,ru*1* to*l.,
    -
    'P-
    r
    !C=
    p
    g'*1"n0
    P'
    rqe- t;o

    p -_
    trx''eet^reog Mr,^.r*ipl,erl
    1_ tc _ h%rang *-J
    oln -f-.qprerrg J- ''J
    t4i<<.r ,/
    "' fc = ( nrt,- t")
    ?\Q
    fc= lltrzbl-rlrtz lr.rri \
    , tr. .c 'ntnl=rstJo/
    (oox tf ).' 3?f,cx o.lxlf --rtaXi"Sxr*
    3'lSoxo.lxl06_-\o-0xtot :
    r1.,
    -- 3'9 x to{ "?8.15

    +*!rr - tasf
    'h1
    =
    26
    les of Communication S 15EC45

    (9 4n o.d. rndulald 6rZ"'oJ i6 nepreser.r{ed 4


    cr2
    o(Io

    SC*): lD ces fanxroat- + s sin"?DDozL *10 $ia3ooon*] vorg


    FF",J 11"" follor"tio2
    ('rl foNea finJte ,a'rodul".led nTZnd (A Fre?uenq/ del;"^h'an
    <iil) Devi'.han Rqf,o (iv) phaxe dwio,,lf o,rt <!)Tran,r.n;sSiry SqnJHt

    ?*n, SC*) = lo Cot lqnx d f t J.Fsin "?ooont-t-losi "r 3crDord


    str) = Jo coslang.r * Fr Srnarff * p"Sf nar*fl
    Ac= lovj {6: - Fr=F ; f_,i tooo}r}j FA=to:J6-tSao
    lxlod

    {i) poulea'trrr tr.tool,^lJed gydl D- k? I 4- lor


    r+ +.J - - --:- '\. -t nnq l;
    Voluq
    "2R .

    D
    !t -
    az-
    ,E-''tc - rc-: l('0
    =furJ ' 5'o r\
    {i> FrQ?Lto4Lq de,t,i'..}iorr:'af " ,
    //

    lr X.T Af : Fx+^ # $"r 1"3[ vw-lsnA &z"d'


    9J *", r!,rud^Jota", 87nd sf+) Gn&EG r$ e- rrress ^f AWA^
    ,.sith Fr=a '* Bni tDoofrt & pr=ro _** tSooHb .

    af = pr{^,tPrfr"= 5x looo f lox lSu-o

    AF= 5ooo* lS,ooo = €gruo r+'


    ^61r - Jo KHL
    <u)
    k36* .85[o (rqo/'"\"d,'* rn&x).-
    F=D=
    rCt 1F = uF. f*'fox rur vrrax($^n ,,1r)
    frn d ,I
    tt . M..r(tr|o, rf,rp)
    &ok _
    _._-_:__
    l{5,5tJ5
    t:[,',
    I.S K ----
    &Dr
    .^e- [o;ct;-o"lr^,
    .6D _- s s;neooaat
    f +lostosoroatl.rx
    5 t to - re r'oliau
    -) :- '
    --_,r.,\-,r.-./r-^4^
    Y> !gyyll - 6ond*df
    .:--r-1' '-lvr :--.>-
    lY !-
    l\"'\-'l \z'\- /-\ * ^ t\ , ^,,
    *&
    .l.-cr^r-
    {xQo t's x;
    r ^/r r,-\
    k *et
    Bt^\
    t! = "2^F +af
    rft.] = &.^P l'J =
    8kI = 43kl-t+ 27
    les of Communication S

    srEREo &?
    9Fv1- E+IleLgI!!9_:
    s*eTeo Mul+iplexinTW G .Forro-l uf trqluenc? d?vrsion rnulfi'--
    (
    ;Ple>in7 nor'4; cieaig",ed :lu .frqnrrrrif :fnro seponate ,5i7nola
    lrn*(*) ond nnL(t)r[ via :]be Sqrne Cqrrier.
    Fr'4- sje^reo sYrfern conaiata 4
    a) F x1- Sjeueo *nqoxrnj+|er
    .b> FM-Sfro ReceiVe"r.
    FM - S+ereo .fnonsrrrT+k
    .\.,!\,/\./\ .\/\. nl\ rrzrZrz!
    a- :-
    ' Le!- mL(+) ond rnBt*) durnote the*u-ro ,.nreSSo?e €'7no[x picpqJ
    -uP tF Legf hanJ qrrl Qighf ho",d ro-'ic?':Ph:t.,% qF ttseJrenBrnii
    -fi$o?." end o'F )he 6f<iera-r, or3.xhor"tn '"o Fi?'t'
    " I* qA€s o p'ilo* Cq?rrier fraluencg, F.=19KHL- f'realuenoldou
    rnL(+) -
    a {t=', nn.(t t rr')
    - Produces, sub Cq-nrier, cogSnp.C)

    -dt I t-l MullifleXeJ


    \_ _ _ _ _)
    Ng.trixer b-cqrrie r + si7n
    cos(4rr[t)
    K cosaaosf,(+)

    pi? ti ptxteBgr rj:scL^+." cos&nFct


    +^JYfSw:w!-*
    cq?Tier
    fc= ll kHZ
    TFe Kuliplexed xZnd ro-r(*),
    irroJuceJ oti'the oulprl} o-f-
    rnrt"r-$?plexer in :lrcrrErrrll,kr c'P FM .Eae reo
    FLFfern i6,
    bc+)=- n-'Rrfl] -f fmst+)-rnR(r]cos4rrFc+ + K cos (anFCt)
    hr,ol+
    \----------\a------l u^vJ
    L-Y- I
    f, r
    Bq6etq^e, ^ DSBSC pi loFm
    z8itnc^l tY 6) ^ rnierX-gru'l.
    .<"'q4r\^)- G
    &i.:39Kx?
    -
    l-c=lSritz -

    28
    les of Communication 15EC4s'

    " Mulliplexed *:g;.tqjr mr*) corr.s?68 uf three dryftreO &\V"-k


    1. frn.t+t+bp(+t =)sum oF rn.-(f), rnRt+) ?enen^o..Fed hlpttru @
    <9{wple arqh8X€r,If i.X b*set,e-nd SWvJ '

    e'[rnrrt*)-rnp(]! cosd+nFcD =) DSBsc- ,5irnal pnodut"d 4


    lhe ptodutl- nTodr-llo.l-or.
    3' K' cos (ang.$)
    =+ p?ldi Cqrrie,?r zf€r'rrl rnqFpt;e,J uy a
    ,

    Cpn&tenf 'K'.
    FM-Sleneo Receiver
    /v\/^v\/\.^^
    ;-
    Mqlrixey
    ------1
    l.r
    I t zs. I

    J-l
    I

    Coherenf Deiecloa
    I

    Mut+iplexeJ tr
    si3 r,- -E/l
    rn(+) &Fc=38Krtf if$)-rnBc+l i

    NsrnohJ-bs"d cosC€rf-+)
    Filkr *un<d1I
    f"* 19 rcHz

    tri1 z: kgul3lerylp ,fW +^ru'i"t["1ffl


    FiX,2.ahodg fie derncU-fiplexer l0^r ?ecijvey + Fn1-s$ereo 5gslern.IJ-
    ?svsed S decover lbeJrdo rressc\A€ aig-"lt m1t*) ood ta-r{*).
    trM-8$ereo Je.,ullipbxer Cerpt66 + 3- Filiez-X,
    1. BUs-e.b3ng.,li]r : rf SeleCkJhe bo<e-band Cea-rponenf pnlt+-r+mntt!
    preSerd ior rnu-1fiFlexed
    6t'rrq) rn(+).
    {. ef r : (aqndpqssf;tfer);- J-t-6elq-h. fhe D6Bsc _ft:g+aoJ.
    5. t$g|fb$&)tr:- r+ se)ed-fbe ptgt Gn-ier ft:g,vJ, cost"2^fr+).
    . Fre?Uenurl doubler pr-odUceS ffis ve?\i-]red S*UCsrd^tev 6gnoJ,cos(47iFc1
    for coherrefu deiecliq^r f} DSBSC- 6VeJ r 1
    " Coheren$ neftclor,ie tor"ii V"dlPPeo.n.e,8rfl\4-! [t^.col-^*t+!
    }rhl-rTxer, pr,:Jucq the ne?uTred ,Agaats {I49 ond4llk(+).
    " trnorl$-'tbe 29
    of Communication S

    ** SUPFR FIETFRDDYNIF REC-EIYER:


    )o?
    p
    $;{'.nzn^z'- ^€* *
    (r -s/
    -.rU
    o
    Fkl
    E qE
    -e € !3
    -5
    {tr
    --F lo
    T llr

    tL
    a..i
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    qJ
    ^g
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    +:- |ot
    Q/
    2
    -HF
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    + .q<
    Y,)
    I
    x)
    af-
    I

    o0J F
    L
    ^0/ dz
    ll h b"& F)
    Y\
    -fqJ
    +H $,F g
    I Lr_ e
    =)
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    >" R<
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    ?3 \7J (
    3'a
    Jso vq.)
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    l3 tr) E(
    p<
    I P<
    9<
    I

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    6)
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    I Y(
    <J)
    f).
    .-= I

    L E
    !.- I
    n r.;
    t= Ja
    'lilf. E Jt
    sb5
    r- <
    u-(

    6
    50b
    "-w
    q/ LJ-
    ,q al
    -
    30
    les of Communication S 15EC45 '
    .-Ifu "Supethele.rod_grne TecagVet, ?a a Ape_ii*1-Hpe
    + TecrJyetr /n
    Jhal fulypilk Jhe folrornJlnT Feafurex €9
    L>God sebclivity LyQoodserr,r?irv?p
    b Aood X+ef:;lily.
    ' lhe blocr diaTa'enr ,f Super-belerodyne necejrzer i6 6hot^rn fin
    trig.t. '

    ' sqper-be*€nudgne Tecdver t^.Du-Ks oolhe prfnciple 4 "he*e"od;f1?,1


    " tslos'ff , i6 o-pCI-oc€ss or co.l'nb9nioy- .rocorrrrnrT
    RF- 6i9nqj qno,
    Loo^l oxcirlqjts'f'e*ueog efd,tre ut6 ftn a
    a4Ligrlj| qlggd&ft
    rI9rognl9 eYl^). 1F34 ePe'rqhea "ra perfurrnrd ,'n^5g9r. T6ea'Ffore
    Yixer is Glled ox Fleqr$
    "pSuper-hele,z"odglne recelwai-.
    lhe \&niou8 blocg tu-r Sqoerherczrodg"re rreC-u-rW?f e1"q,
    I
    L} Kre{yh"r?,fu[nn^:* J}z'ecetvexlhe RF- ziXrwJ. qr-{igno.J Gar be
    er-Dherr AM^Slf\qJ @ f
    "1-s;?rroJ
    for 4r',1-SignoJ : f*og FgFkr-fz .i6^1605knz
    fcir Fr- ^":qas): f** => ggMHz .tt logt,ztHz
    + R:;fX?e:* r+ sslsgB the neTuired freTtleouT fro,. ?ncomln?-
    Rf-xi?rrnJ aocl -,]gg[ftgfhe selec]ed FBr, .*.'7rol b'
    r ?ujred ccrnpF'l-ude level f.o- fuz'ther puocess?n7,
    + P9g!9!if3- I+ generetlw sroueDidod ft394e'J +*":'t
    * ".
    foeq,trr.+
    o {''l_o
    i, e {?

    lxlgl I r* perponn^X ther PheieroJgnrrg


    ,- 't^
    qcerafien.
    t
    g '
    Pnoduces corKtqnf ?crlerrnreJrqhl+r=:^.rg1tu/
    -0
    a xn*l
    61K ou,+ptf

    Ft
    TRtr
    F=f-r
    Jp '(F rLo
    :_-
    flo CorX{ent
    lo4MrtZ
    r Hw,dgg^?
    upero,lien t-
    *To
    lv rschieve
    Lvue\,/€ Grxlq^t
    to crj osci
    t-lGru
    ce/x}q,,,0 f-_.the C*padtozs Pnese"d 9o Rr-sl.a%"
    tr"ronlfril?i-[o" c-nec]ed tr Csnnneo @6ary<d -tuner.
    n-&.\-,/\- azS.*+:-
    t-" tfUk+"g"
    [Lt^i[ur i- r* ara-r p l; f i ex the tnfea ned,j e-lr
    -plru7uengr 6t*.J.+-pl'p;ed Tr-S7nd iafed h- dercrcr'
    31
    of Communication S

    ft
    fffgn:- r+ del€ck-the mressot!€ 6,X,rv.l
    u p"%ei trr cunplrf,e{
    -rtr- fffrd. @
    '' pvq:flr" - #olm"h# #Hr*'.i:"ffiTJ*
    t, {ud:p
    /v\{\,;r;., :-b$ #l-tr* T.-Til;-ffii#3
    /v\'\r /,rnpr
    anrpli*ude Jevtl .

    tt qk#*t
    :- :- bm6E the.poroar tevael uf a-nrrpliycd nr-x;g'ol
    ;r.^,r-:- f qSoryglele.tzui3Uuh:Jrj5;[.
    , r
    r. LS*W.Hi-:d
    -
    lggL(Rgser.
    Golg'E er$&Lg, ftiz4\il -b {,.F.c^Jsoun"l
    tne
    NRK :.ro Arvr-sujer bekooJy^' l-eceiver, Frr= fe.-f; 455 Knz .

    . In F M- super he*-"l5rne )"eceiwr,


    Frr= f+_L= lO"?lrtHa .

    Nurnrerr
    r\, -l\-..
    crJ problenns
    '/\_r\.4,/-\ l-
    1> Pnoue Jhrtr*h" nurnter g er"leba''''4 irr Ude bond rn<-s^Ao'
    k lnJ?"ule.
    t^Je k,oru Jhqj -*he i-eneroj expressiea * t'Jgpn4 -'|''fj?4'\s)
    i4,
    s(*)= A. cos fanF.f t p sin Cenf"*!
    t^rl"sx p= l4JHl^F-,r l^Lr = f* >l .fcn NBFM,
    -(r.l
    rl
    F?Uo*ieo ('r Cqrr b+ e:rpressed aL ,
    sf*) _ R. psinaaf-(+)]-J
    Eei f,zaF6rf fl"cott=rug'
    r. e,?( jaot
    5t+) = Re !Ac -(e,
    ++jFt,n(2nfi.+))]
    -13)

    32
    les of Communication 15EC45 -

    Etot -r*iny nt- orJ.o fiessel funoion, T\tF) e?r-Jorfisrn -b


    Co,n be r^e*arran/
    s4
    st*)= Re
    f . ft_,q(p, e*f fj an ( cf xF,")+]l f
    'lfr. Gmier a.rrpli^t.uJe 4.,k Corsfqr,g.
    fiete{ox r|- a^*t
    Jaren oud.s{de *. z"e"r-+ry'rsotr}+0' Re ["]. f4K{ ReGl
    ld'/{& Jt 6u--^$ioo -2c tef
    s r+)
    = o" Fn (F) ex+ tj en (f.+", F_)+l

    Re l_ Jn ( d =_j.
    eI i .za(p3
    r_r, n r"-,) ]I =J^ (p) c.'os @n ( pg+nF,.ry+]
    ' 'oo
    ' st*) : Z-
    Ac
    \
    J^ (p) cos fan (ft+n!n,)f]
    = -o9 -
    ea-

    By +a*"r7 Fuuvi <n 1 rnr nXl*,6tul en bofb a"det


    --- t5-.r
    -K'r-
    ?pI-
    stf) = z _*,p) fs cr- Fc-nFq) r s(F+
    Do

    -& Fq+ nF.;]


    g?u,,Sieyl (6),
    t+ l.< cleq?.$..,od- thr afetfn-tor +
    "'ft"n ";*f
    Fm-r-i8.^^, Cor'xrx[ S.^ tn]Tni-F ntur-rber g del+e l*nc],u'ru
    (*iJ. b.rnda) Sporced qf i= Fct nS- ft-r n=e, r 1,s4".". .too
    rn N8FM, Jn(p) fa frrdfi fnn qil rztluea ".f 'rt'" o"rl
    ' J,1(p) = lnir) fqn n-ew,o
    ' Jn(o) - - J-n(b) F!' a-odd
    fi3 yl,Jn r:rea^u lf,ntell Jecreqlq "na f5-(rglgtl
    o
    ""- TEe ftpe$nJry + h.lbtrt<1-,s1?4\d Oorwrslq + IF;11E n,"mb."
    "f &ide bqn& q6 6honrn Su-r Fl?-t-lx LeloN,
    lsc+)l
    +c,
    * R?l

    6^tr14 : - 33
    les of Communication S

    )e nnodu lqlion
    /\.i\.^..,.\..^\./^\,.\-_
    sf trM- l^lqveJ
    .r2.._,^t,_1r..Zr_^.-,f_,-.-,-
    :-
    Fre?rJerrttF Den-rdutaion ia-the PD-ocess ep necoveri"n6 orr?7in<)
    rne.{6qte .SftnoJ fno,n q6 tncorrLi"tr FM- rJqve .

    I
    Jhea^e qne -*r,.to nnehodA in {.re1,aernq derr^od ul^}is,,l

    {ii} phose - Loc.ked Loop ,

    1) Fgglensjgg{Tkf" @ :.-
    EhX:"ejl$.Dj5girr
    .1fie BqlqnceJ slope Jele clot @fr|rb "f '*t^lo slope de-+eclor
    circutt. TFe Blocxdioqoe".,
    O ba\ancrd
    ft frrevueo*JJext'i,."Ft
    stopede$oor iz ,<Vown r.l Fi?.a onel ib €"u?\'hl&d circulF
    Ji^ryna"1 \A shor..tn in Pif ,:.

    loPe circtri.f
    H, (f)
    rczebavd
    .<i8'r\9)
    Nqve $=V6,-V"
    st+)
    Envelope
    Slope circui
    r_!(f)
    r.,i1r: Bjx
    'TEe "[ro,znr
    ou*pq} Vo lfo$e
    "f {relr-rencq' deXcn;ft r? "rcdw iz
    @( tsoknced glope de,iecfr:r)

    v0 \61-
    f o t f,n=F.
    %o =
    ,L fve i fia)f6
    - (u
    -ve I fi,., ( F6
    h"rhene.,
    +tn- Fre7venut + Fv-ruqve
    f. = Corriga freauauX-(un,nodulo,l<J, ern)w)
    Thix ntfhoJ k populor Knpwn oB Kqlqrnced slopedeletlar'
    34
    of Communication S

    The e?uiValertl cfrccct'* df*n-e^ ,"x 6houoo iar p;y.2, rt,


    con*4a7 oE @
    + ry${:qR*iTTffgggr' :.rJ< p'rrroun/ ia tuned 6
    frenuaus "+ Fn- sitn^), " fsfj : (rnxrrneiiate FreltueacT)
    .r$ prduce.& leo" oW_+_

    t v ql SeCorrdsrt
    Yotlaget - --. ( hjto"ln?8.
    t) -lhe
    ruPpor- Pqr+ oPdhe seco,ndqryr- uf
    r-
    sr, Cwtrzi
    *rernfonn^r
    +
    -D D3!g- C

    Tf$el,Sstqa- qnd i* k**.rneol obow'fj Ly.

    ,l' R,
    F,
    FVI
    t"lqvz
    {r+r
    V9.

    L) -IF. louoear pa:r}


    L

    +d^qnAfo"r-6eJ ctkD C"rrr.isf


    41ha geconrdary cf
    * wnl'i lo9r diCI& <nwlope detcrr.u &nd i+ ?4ihr"'.,qd belot^t ,+; q
    ap" rrvS ix 1F ralo,:nnt fnqzuenc"pix " fc-^Fl'[t"-#,!["5r^.a.'
    L>g pwduCe,t Jhe rclrJixd oufp'.f *fUaa (EqdebcL^d p66ss-o^.fe5l
    %-rn(f) qs ShEtdO .'ar Z?u'.iion(t) ,

    4r..tornnod;gd utfd
    r J vo l.}aA<'vo'
    0.107
    {F[HdffiT,Tlir

    ^y'I Su a u
    fl4o
    toAren --,"./ -0. 10+ u*&:T*'
    *Lf n(d".spu*,-r\*''-.
    i;fn"*t
    c%,i -t
    * fraglreng
    ,r>lFe. ^ f&s: FSzJ:g$/ 31tse1i(
    7tfperlxr oJ arppe)- s to't,ut+uffd Filjers ,, N$ t-esPon'6<
    op {,s cirCUiJ i6 shgdo,ia-r Fic.3 d- _x _ 35
    of Communication SVIT

    35
    ' FM- o\ernoJulodis,n tvi^s Phs;e LocKed Lsop;- (PLL)
    ,r\^.av\,^\,^\r.
    A./\..\.^ /\,/..,/' V ' frZt ,v\.4.,/"\-'1'^
    -.-^-
    phs6e Locked Loop (pLL) t"4 a n€?s+Tvf' fee.ltack /e\j8!€lr,
    }ho^| Csng$k c,f JBres h-laiw G'a^rponernfi
    <ry * Nlhl+iPlieY -t,6<d c4 o phcse JuX*"" @ ph*:e
    CornpAa^o..to6,
    D(ii) 4- w\+aE{ G4lrDtled ox(tllo\hb(vco)
    /.)hI> A - Loop {ilkr, r"s.t"icl-, 16 a Loru pass f+lftr
    (LpF).

    Thu Bloc* Ji".7"e^ o'P PLL i6 6horun tz^t tri?'1'

    trrl- klqw ec+) v(*)


    s(+)

    vol*qge.
    C"ntrolied
    orcillo+o/
    (vco1

    triz
    ,\., ..//\!
    l: Blocx ji**nr o-f pLL
    L> -rn. Vco ou+pd iad.hruJ qa
    T(*) = Au cos (M+.t + {C+l O
    -
    r:k!.x 4ocrl: x,
    d7r
    flc+l a)
    0

    b -ituo,Jh" frrrGn i^*- .,6lt-'*J (ervt) o"'d fq Vco oufp"| ?i(+ )


    (sr+)
    qre qPpl;ed
    ,h ,tk- rnrul*?rlier,-fheo l* 3\^% erre'r X"grnoJ,
    ec+)="r(+),st+)
    -@
    t-sLex s r*)
    - A c €rn fun'$.* + S,r+l -Ct
    1ll.or< 4,(+)= &trK+ l*rnt+t at
    36
    of Communication S 15EC45"
    d-#-+- 3(
    <D L?neo" Mod e | + Ph%e - LocKed - L"oP ( Llnqq6- PLL) "--
    n /vU /-\.\,/\-/\-/^' +/'\./\-/^
    VT.u q.p. I MqM.-,

    TEe phoSe loCked toor lelr-; ?6 4ctid 1o te h 'phol"-


    4..,'\,/\,^"\,/'\.^
    LockT trlhea^r

    Jhe ph*e effor 4",+) = o


    14
    f,1e Lmertr nnode.! 4 RtL fr tn< dernodulq.iion 4 FM-6i?n'o'd
    I
    6hovoa fut Ftw6<.2. anKo fffKv
    4,c+y
    * ,-., $"t+) v(t
    4"tt1

    0";
    -:E^?W
    /\-r\- l\-\,.._,^.
    ,d";;Eluc(qct-16.p
    ^^-4.,^-^/ ,-.r,-. '
    -1Je ;k6otJ th""t-
    {rc+l - "tn- r"tou
    fl,+r 6q- ^" -t.rhex ke:
    r F'e1 scr*"' }-irnr,y
    l ^ O +trM-uq","p
    $tr; '- *a Kv l'v@dt , -tuhex kv-
    'dffit#v."
    ?"er,.-rc.n.l

    fr-o,n{i7.2, ' -@)


    + (+) = g,c+)- d*r*; _ @
    lxt.k r f"n phoxe- locK rr-'ode : S"C*) = O C^!,,lfi,?*r")
    "', 81,{.rp..}ioor @t :) O _- 4,f +l - Sot*)

    "'4,t+; = Sur+)
    -t)l'rid e%!..hunr O c@ -Tde gr_r-
    tr,n,
    ao' kf J il,+-l "t* -- { n Kv J o *
    6s
    , rnt f '
    Kg
    ' Io'rrt+1dt o

    -6.1, 37
    of Communication Svstems

    . bi+f€rw\tra.f'g torb 6idq { eruo^fio''a (+)."r^1. gttl-

    k1 rnt+) .- Kv vt+) ,

    vl+) = Q-
    kv
    rrr t+)
    = Knn(f) " trhex
    (= xe.
    l1
    l aa V ( +) o{. tn t+t

    firx,1he oulpv$ v(+) e-f pqg*loop Fr lkr ftt+f ta


    Jh< Lor,.r

    pnoporlSonaj .-b W \tl7^r\sJ .nodolothg &gr\rJ. E@r


    f -e., TFe rnres3a3€ 6?E"*J P?r0se/d ir.r FM-rrrodul"^jqd 'ruq A Stf)
    ,q_Sp{I€d and r* i4 pmo}uced q} {fu oulp"l 4 lo-o.p f;l}er
    +rfr -A
    .l:Non - Lfneqa- ef+ech irr -* F M-- lqve i- (vr u s" p>
    ln
    fr,,..Z.z.t/f,lZf.n ',^.r\-,\,.\.^ /v,!^,^-/.vy\-
    q)-Hrilt o s'horf 'nole on Non-linecrn ef?ec[ trn FM-'44/<+€rn'
    L; Non-\ineor ef+ecff Corn be e1*t^co- +Vpg
    (3) KFrDvl3 [ii) -hleak
    i6 finknlionolly'
    +r Norr-\hoeo'rih7' e( Sc^idG b<-6tun2'^+ 'f
    irn$"oduced trrlo The. circuif
    f no CenFuolled r0-''annea"'

    tx : ai'ueae Pw dev;cas '


    +Nonltneorjl-/kao"idbbel)QqK--lohentl-\6}nheac-,r|}y
    PresQ/* tn'The c,lrcuif, ' Lewbto
    the &$--fet) Auth non-1fr''iqr'rFet Ni11 )i'nii
    6t-1111

    Sc- AlPtcrnt ' non-\Fntc f,iV ia pa-e8ert-'


    rcr ena- 3<ne,ne'.*f * 7tpkNt'*hleqp
    co'n be
    -the ffiecf 6l- ileqK r1p4-linsa*.[ fn F,/'-xgrll<rrt
    a"d"o.tp^f relonhutr o'f lta
    *.r
    -v cstx"ote
    -"'
    f^q,. 1+* W"$
    -'- 6n,!'.,.*r {eu-i ge -d&<d $^T\q f "Q%ll'rv
    firosle# -:..-r'-'- ""'\'''v'\/-
    rnurlip.[ier
    38
    of Communication S t5t,l-!15 -

    F vt uar,a t{ernonXle-.u3 w+)


    Nur-lineqr dev;cn

    F',XI
    /vv\.
    "" r.ton -lrrreqnd*g;4"d
    $-e. FM ,*tylrrn'.-
    Cam.dw q nremwylex Non-nn4'&bcr ct,t 8hotoar h #)'t
    A

    '

    b k'T, -|he xl-horr f,qj'!..reon W,J a cnfp"d r1iTnoJ )a


    v(*) = a1 sc*) { Qrsqc+) +qss6(*)f ' '" * qosnc*)
    Le-t r.r,r Aprrytldrr 'ttpb Sd ooJ"' -CD
    i-(., v(+) - ersr*) +qaS(+.) +.rst(*]_..,^
    \a,f
    N.kT +fiq ZTrpD'(26iotrt
    f.(F frV--t\)a.\^a iS oOl.ox ,.t
    Sc*)= A" cosfanFcr 4c+f *
    oi \e (i-)-- o\1 Aa cos
    [tuq++4,,ntr + o, nl ,"dfi+fl_+4r(+)] +
    \2 o. a3,*.
    fr^+.r++,c+l
    ."- ih{ ths oq}p,d 1lollqg€ \@
    Gr>*i&<I, ar
    .Ti
    freaue:nl
    y;ffi ;fiffi.-T-T"l
    -iHobNahwu af , eap qrd z if.
    The Oe.vircd trM-,&i?.oJ Qn be
    F ?r%pecliyery.
    aS0t}o\l<J -tt*,-r?-a_
    &
    trPe ons ll^rnrn b &'g't -

    BPe vlc+)
    C.^fet'ed
    tP, ".1
    TC

    1* gr)' The pa- x.f'Ern "le


    ^+ka 7a'w:f ihu.-A4 tsetr i4

    Vol(*) = 41 46eos fa^f.r+$r*X pg**J ra)


    \v
    81,tto^.iio-n @ i+ 6or"s": fF"}+ tr*1-k\N"$
    .st*) = Laafct + + (+)] fxc-e"et
    Ac c.os f'rr c'l"'o'-t g€ 9'2n
    o-rnp-U-fLtc[L
    '"' A'qplrrude Non-lrneqrrTlr€.g o'p"ltro tr\4-sl- d*r r.Lr nti"o Fv-sya
    39
    -_*_
    2018
    SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

    Venkatesha M, Department of ECE

    PRINCIPLES OF
    COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
    (15EC45)
    IV SEMESTER ECE
    MODULE 3 SYLLABUS

    RANDOM VARIABLES & PROCESS: Introduction, Probability, Conditional


    Probability, Random variables, Several Random Variables. Statistical Averages:
    Function of a random variable, Moments, Random Processes, Mean, Correlation and
    Covariance function: Properties of autocorrelation function, Cross–correlation
    functions

    NOISE: Shot Noise, Thermal noise, White Noise, Noise Equivalent Bandwidth,
    Noise Figure
    les of Communication S

    t"
    X9{r!..:3.
    - : 3.7I Qonclon-r Vqriables
    f\'/^\'/\,/'\'^ fv"?a
    v P!-ocess :-
    A/v\- /\'^'-'l\-/"\'/' ^!'/,\/v'\'

    h{f"CrSqP :
    rv\,,\_,.r -\r\!.\P
    Rondorn

    RqnJortr,ness, ?aJhe essence ef Con-rnrLltniCnhon. fn Cornrrnuni @,.Ff etr


    r&y*en,16, ,SiXneJ o,.f ooy 6laqe belonpla eifher .1,/\,/\/\,^-/!,*
    De*errninis-fic
    6D Reodornr Siqrrqla.
    ;l./v.._,\ ^.;\>L,\-/.\.,'
    -TRe
    si?natg are dejerru-rini6j-ic, iF -tFe?r behqvSour i6 Knouln
    qnol Cqo be nep'ncsernled bg 'frrnrulo @ ?*pl^'
    rhe SiTnaB are Sovtd to be edgq("og_.I#[c) iFtheiy
    behevjoul- i4 flot knotrJo /r,rnpredi c*able .

    fi;6 rarodule, 7vef -lbe overView ef 1>zobabiJtfgtheory,


    yanJo.r, Vatr\a6l?A end Voa-iocq Ajod;/E+"G"} para.rreiera sclch et

    R€go, vg&gc", 'r"pS€!E , $gd@!g{_"}ieo, *f,flgfdslron,


    -41,$o-Veriqnr
    M'/\.\,/\,+
    e ood ca;53g1.relSUgr &99!5
    B,si[, "F,_,eg
    b:gJ:F/ ]
    . Rondorzr i- grpeuirnenfi u^.rhose a.'r.tcorrres qre noF
    R1KJ[7g!
    'k"'ot^""''
    p:SdE$&lS oot 08 randorn tx-Periroer$s '
    E3gE;le "" L> Tossf^?- a Colo
    L5 lBrPt.:ing a die
    ,
    L> Meo;ur"lnXfie Noise rbrtege o"t he-l<r-;"otr *
    Resislor ,

    r Sonnplc Spoce
    /.v"\-.\./--.'\\J\v/.-/"*^
    (S):-
    gKfetfrrrerrJ- i4 a rrrotl-heroe$-
    lhe farnple SPsce of A Ta"'clern
    - icoJ o.b8*.rqrfior", lxed s. *p^I::g l- 31 pgugJigtEges'
    oF Jhe eeqxoinnerr!-. r+ i6 denr.kd tl'S:
    ' *93gPd cs k)
    -,-,,.,. TaJom frperirared.
    :
    r't repiegenfi 8.ach oultome o'P1ts 5-eacA
    L e.,, &mpte q3qce' 6, G*isG ? o^y:*ib."
    -"'**"*-" r-::.:t]: T'"'
    p.r"r iJf".! ;T ; *i rt o"*\ o'o gt4erin're"0'
    les of Communication S

    ie., s=7s1,51 , sg , ,snl St,sz -.sn) SernPle SoinE hrt


    sqrnple SPace b
    ,/a\
    Rcrndorn E ve,'rf
    A,\,^..,^.-/-\-,,.\./.-
    t- (oa /

    4 RqnJeo'r e.Veurj i6 acr


    Jgpg" @ sgg oJ$:re @ s*L"f

    e"enE qne denokJ bg upper cxe letkr3 ,zucl..a A, B,ek

    X.llf 'tv 9$€r$lrs*lq r- @(tgl:et'4{,sysrq )


    Tr,..ro ever,rE- B qre sa.id 1o be rnuiuolly exctc-o*fvag
    A end
    iF ths qr€ co{\?gFty Xdgd-*rr @ cguglgsgrI
    tolr.ner.
    ol* ce +" gj5:t i A^ evenr 'A' of ao\ yqnJo"-., expe-
    -riru'rerr.f i'6 sa.r?-to hove occuned ff -tb. expea-larrrf fivexoo
    o111Come fi6gi belons1 rt gnwril(A,

    lg^"+ $g,tygf ?* The csarple'ne,'rl- iF ao evenv A, i:<the


    ev€d'\r Cgnlainr\o7 0(ll 6ctr0-lPle poicrE ," "S"brqnof
    /\.^_,^*-_-\+
    in A.
    *
    \J

    ,ryB Petrh[t'' u]
    Fl,"b
    TI
    - --lc+) I
    a,
    v- .- tr"r- :.1
    j-A+
    -

    c-- lcc)- +o
    €g'q,l. sryge " EwnE prySt, lrhr ( p;

    lelaJ-'11t*p !93teet 6am2lc s;:acr


    (s)'
    l.ar: {
    Jllur.rtraliarn.
    Ev<.ia ."d PgbqilT?
    '\-/'/..
    tri?rrr( {, illuxho,*rz the relo&,an8hrp befoeeo $a'ro-rple SPqce CS),
    tundom e,rner#, (e , o, c) aad -lhejz- proao,.bi li# <; fefnt, p($,pcct.
    ' Ssgvl-e"$$1n. *r tsv ibs"
    ?:il[*?ffifl{f# ?XA/*u
    les of Communication S

    : probobJilt:-
    *rffi@i
    .3.1
    u*'o A,i6Jen'kJ b7 Pcn)'
    Lei ot ranJo,n frper?rnrerri 76 ne-pe"ti<J n-+irnrx'rP Jfu eve#A'
    accura 4O-*irneA,-lBen ptobobiJfry S ew^t A, i'e, PCA) 16
    degfneJ ex,

    . 1Ferog"6, hR
    n "p ew,nFt4?

    Axiomr, ( t-ator) of
    a\n z-\.,,'\ - /\..'

    t. Pu) >o
    d.. P(s)= 1 froUJ p^roba,biliry + a1eve46 hnsoorple
    sFace lz I)
    3. 1+ Aqnd B oqe nnufuqlU 3-Xgi!4-'* ZwvrEfren,
    ':-=-:
    .p (*+ B) : P (,U 1
    Bq.,
    4 :F A an{ B qre *gg|-"d Meq ,

    PcA+6)'- P(A; 1 P(e;-'*q


    P(*e)
    r,uhex PCaa; -) Joir# prrotorbili4y + eVc.n$ $,6 .

    . qop pnobabil?*t1 i- [p(a, B) @ p(Ast


    **rfffi-rtny
    even.rfi A o,.'J B' i6 J"-$""J *l
    f+ru0
    'v/ If',, rlle)
    P(A,B): P(AB): rgpot n /
    t+fie'ra,l'o lna r"on"r*E the.Frq(}lsn of octurant-c ctl1--

    b.tb ta. tve^6 R, s.


    es of Communication S

    /:d i conolrliovrotJ R":bjft}.d u :-


    4
    "A-/!/^\.'V"-
    ';;;-l^w!^ /\-/\,€ ,

    .o.^Jut Jwo- evernh, X q'nJ y "F^ Ro.'J*"' €xper.;rrre4lt'


    ^.

    . fie condt*rono,.J pnobabt)ily , ? Lylx)TeFer, .lo -the probablJi-fy;


    .:E+ 16 def rneol a-s
    "+ Y-occurfog .ffr^ thc.f X-hq6 occured
    p[v/x]= P[x,v] _(,)
    Pixl
    hrhex P Lx,y]= foic,l prrobcrbiJtry + evenT Xuy .

    PlxJ= probabif ry + evet6 X. fknoo, ewnfJ


    i'c., conJilionctl prrobabr.l.i"ty f, Jo$rned as tk"?hiio gtfow _pwb
    - abi-U-}.1 .l^ Jhal $ prol''-,biliry f Knoon €Veni."
    S?rnri)orlp,
    lhe ConJrfio"u,.l prubobiJ 1.1, ?Lxlvf rcfev: to Jh-.
    probahJiJy o| 5-occurfrn1 , ?I wo _fho.r- y*t qS occlrz^eol ,I+ E
    de#nrJ at ,
    l'Vty]= P[x,v]
    * tr* Piv; -bt
    Bo,r rs:krusn
    f,y_$S'o:x*l pgh1hrlt ?,-
    I+ ff ws'Ths ?re[^]ion8hip be+r^reeo co,rJifi"n*J protabi l;l'ca
    a',d probab; lif,q inAiv;Jucr.l extnft P(4) L
    I p f Vl xl , Ptx / y]
    i )
    Pts),
    RRFIgC: 8o^yrs Jktl'e"'a 6Jqk4 Jh*r,-the cendrfis,as.,
    Pa-ob"^fi f,tu
    ? Lv lx1 ' P [x/y] P IYJ
    = .

    ?Lxj
    !T."f i-
    -ile knonr "tfrqt Jhe C*dr+io,,"..} pnot<H-[,"ry,
    pLytx): l*+ _o
    Frvl
    ya.ac.rn
    of Communication S

    :)

    " =
    FLx, Yl ' P [Y/x]
    -(a; F LYI

    -' ' /) - L?4


    .a,,.r'larr\g p[x/yl=
    -p Lvl -b \:7

    -" Pfx,vl = P Lxl Yl' PtYl - CE

    8t Gnrporky eluo'.Heru @ ond @ t'-le g<-.l-

    P Lvlxl. rixl = p["/v] r tvl


    Pfxlyl-P[4 4= BoYes theo..,.,

    $f: . :f X qnd / are fo,Jer.nd.rd {rrutrnlly Ztclu'riw) evetb


    of cLtlr'u.ncl .
    *th.q
    b p [v/,] = p i, "- ?Y;']' ; I
    xdepe .d.".d t
    b f fxlyl; ptxj
    r tt.'cfae G"r&+ro,*.j pwbobiliV i,r ,.ff\ics"!le f.^-
    d;Aglg[ t/ad a,btet' lel1tE .

    , F- l*!gi4-9g1U Ls,Jol"s gmbabil;u'pl'5


    P(A,ts) =?(Aq = ?@)' PCB)
    o
    Ph,y) = P(xv) = P[A)' ||,s)
    les of Communication S

    3.3. Rsndorr'' Vqriqb)ea i- 6


    r\./^\,/\-...^ /\ir/\-/\/\-/'-'/'..t-

    De{+vtiJi on :- Rqn clonn Vqr iqble i6 a 'neo.J \,hlued f.rncfionr NhicL


    /\.z\.4/'\,/\^

    ConJeKe oo? \alue'frorn the "Sqhnple spoce,anJ i[ ?sn?e ia


    Sei q Teo.J nurarber6'
    RunJo- Varioble nno/ t€ clqAdiFteJ oE

    (a) Discrrejt RlnJoq \lauiqble (.DRv)


    Cul Gn*tnuoq4 knJ"q \Ariobh Ccnv)

    'F;3!1{51 i;1r'+gg:r ( Ptx<*l)


    Lel X, be a d?.5cre-h- tf^ondeo \ler'iob-"le o^J x1,4a,13- ""14 te
    1fu, Voluer {L'X'cq',*aKe, -the.q p LX<x] ia crntteJ pnobabil?
    nnost -tuoclfen,
    *l'py3gjSry t:" o''y nJo- vorioald|'
    D^ggblt"n $*9r":-
    d",amr^run 1fiuot]ioo ra d'".,t<d
    bf 7, @) :t*
    ;;;-U
    irs 'ret"^,}<d f p"cob<b;Ji{-{ nrass -flot-F'oo o8
    ,
    X:) R"ndo^"tvsnia"ble
    ,l t")
    F = If Lx-t!
    L^ -- iJ - {= trt, }",1 o . ,,"}
    . 1fie trl ia " funOcn + ! a''d nep a fuoc]io''r af-
    I
    randoor Var?qbleY
    L> e3313ir+rei
    4 dtdgb^16 aolfurthan
    ffiu*il fir"GJr, 8,") 6^'i6*e tbe fsllotnri:n? F'Dfetrh
    l> ( oo (Non- Nega)3w)
    : -.uc<rt
    o*',i> Q,t*>ZO
    f tr0")= o o,.d fit*)= t faouoded behr<en D&1]
    lii) P tX-. a] = F"(a) : a-+tuY te^l rurnber
    f\)P Ls<r<ft]= \(^)-ict 3 ^>b
    Ng&: fi cr) i'l3 o(tgg _h-nol^)n sA ceq,q&,Ilw {€i.h1[*
    rr.-.\-\n i.,,,.r $,x*r "
    les of Communication S

    +
    ** Ps.*Pttdyr"* ftP''
    Probob; lif'tr d*f ry
    h; '{r-rauioo I Paow fF"F
    <a>ulhaf do Vou nneqn
    -ucder$he Aorfqce or a Puz,b"tr' li\ d** V
    lho +o*aj areq JJ
    vr.u f uoe lluly -"2olT
    4.r.'ctimr [Pdf) ia al'oaYa t ' (sxaru;
    p^ro ba bi -ti JV di5,J-'i bt'tfie"o
    (.Pd+).
    4tlnuioo ia cqtteJ oa prrobabiJiil dendt4-ft.ract on
    J* i.6 deno+ed by, f"x tnl.
    Halhemolicolly :
    f'/ ,"t= df(t)
    dt '

    -k)here, F tr; :2 pro6o.6ill+v Dtal-t'i b"rh"en fiincl''en


    -

    ^ *tqonJeo \&ria61u'ttsvd Gc'1ere ooY-


    tx'.
    reo..l vrlue
    * itl
    fhe+ola1 oneq 'uoJetr the grroba.8, nf'6 dena;l-y curr'^e
    rOloaY,l eqTurod ao I' (uni tYl ,

    ,PM
    t' €',
    -L
    J f"c"ld't
    -b€
    Ptoo p '-
    \! d+s v:.jfioyt
    A'/\'^'^B1A t*'
    ,

    {.,
    !i
    'xc*l = dr o)

    Eppty rn+Ytuol an brnb kdel


    -
    betile.rolht lr'tt^E -xb x'
    ph r-
    ^oo
    J i,*l olt = IJ tl"l ht9 d, ,
    X
    -Do
    .1J, r -h
    :
    ^
    P"; .
    Jfo(r)dr= L-
    |-i(,c)J f(+*l-f.tr*)
    -Do 1=-^
    , PD6

    J+",-ldr
    T^t L '\ -= $.(u.)-F^Cu')
    t'-'/
    t 'X' = L-o = Loo
    --es
    _J
    =96
    't/ )< -44
    dlt{tntv}tql
    / Dtr..,,opx+iPo
    becorr_ur. &(*)= ! and QC-o">= o (,ProPer'l"iei "1dlt<tn
    "+
    -Fu",c*,en
    les of Communication S

    i- frvore thqo t Rqdood', \,&raab]


    =-4 S:W:,'.,ta$lgo^Ajgllsa
    CervtiJer-*sts ro^Ju- Voridblex X ond Y' @

    r {1rylff ttr.Lh9&p$s,o :-
    tgJoinl dfat"iU*len fuc'cliao +T $tdo ronJot \'&niablel X 'y
    ;6 Jerro+ed ny 5"r6,v)- n

    L; r? ia depneJ ai -t1-c probabi-!?3Xf Jhq.tr- l6e z-o'de'on \lorrrqble


    -rqoJedD ya6ioble /
    X fa les tha6) @ e?u'.J to'x^ qnd th4f tF€
    i.g less fiao @ eTrorl h' . il'
    i., p[X(r, y<t)
    * *<l'
    =r,rrrc,!):
    . +i^f
    r\-,\-/\
    poo bo"A?li +.) dl;>t3V -Puocfen:-
    U a\_A_ -r'v "
    ",\zf-rr_.r._
    u" +
    o) E-xp laio :16e -*er.or 3orc0 p'ro6a bl-1r4,-den4,5t /.&.!.t-'
    '}^aoJacn \raniable,r \ ood y' shot'rr t"f +X."fftloJerl5'
    su$c"gPdf curu{ . i6 g"ri,$.?

    l,) + J"uo n"^Jt^ \lrrria


    fornf ry dr*"rt
    probcrAiJi fuaclio,1
    th'
    x ood y i4 ffwt k7- fi. per.fial denir,afive f
    ioi.',}' d;at"; buhan fuoclio'o, r+ 16 denokd 4 f ,tt ,V)
    i.e., + (t,q)=
    'X.,1 I"
    atf,y("'Y)
    ort.ay
    ruhere E, ., (r,y ) = Jol.t probobi tr-r.7 d ?r<+i, bnr,on
    '|
    randera'r \&r?oblel X')
    'Ju^cliorl "f
    o:Jgga"0 'Vrlu,r.,e -cr.Jer |he,{urface of a ProbabfJid#
    d.*rnY funcren f6 alu.nY,1 1- (u^i+Y)
    f&a nb
    i ez fn,r,',y)dr rT = t
    )
    - Do -Do
    J
    es of Communication S

    'P^If:- ay,de$+n.lio'r' qf Joini probabiJr-ty d..*V ft^trioq

    f'X,f(x,+)ul _ &- E,y(",t)


    &x.ay
    ___ol
    -4,pply dourble t'rfe?-re.l ern b'ft', Adez bejhdeen lir,tr: E

    -Do 5 0o.
    ohoh i r^
    t^,y(^,?)dxrr-_J dr.dy
    Il^ /**ryru'
    [ _ -a=Y=fr
    L- t=N=-*

    t^l'k.T Ut,,tlhe prroper*,er. 9 d[f,'' b^he"r {* .}'J,tt'


    &,, (*' o") = 1 n"'")
    FX,Y. Fo",x) -0
    ,

    ?q Dq
    0
    1 P^
    I (n,.t)d't d7 =
    J \{r,,
    -0" 0a

    = L-0
    A
    )-

    "". fo+eJ \rblurne UoJer .lbe <(r-laface S "S$-lu'tr.ld*ry


    S^*- i"{ .rr-l^, Jr 1 (u"rtly).
    of Communication S

    (D
    .."-Addrfionod
    ff$sen
    a\.,\*,^..\./!-
    r'!
    +i;oClien-"-
    Pvf,ryfpAn"gXAN:"
    'u\-'\'/"v
    for rnur)ae '- Di6+frb,^n-,Da *m(seo I FoU)= P Lx <O
    ^/\-/\_,/\*
    D""6'J.J -fuoctie"r : fotnr =*:t"l
    PpW$.r + draffr3yl t$en;-
    (r) f (xl:l
    0r) ! &*). o
    0'i) P fx<"1 = t h)
    (?r) P Lh. ,<d = D,r^l * Frct) 3 a>b
    (r) 4 RooJo,r-l ViariqLle X hox dtafo-,' U'^.fi et.t f-un G'' un
    ( 0 : -t-<b
    t-_^ :
    r)c)
    t-X
    1L- VL- : o S. 1-( to
    took : rt)lo
    (a) D$er,6-,ffr,e -the Grsfu^t K
    (r) rr,raluo.b p(x<a) and <x <+) p (;
    (O Delernnfne probaF,J?.! J*tU.{w'rcfien ,

    L-) pno6-r-Thg
    Su*^ d^tr- pnoba.b6Ji-ty dlrtdb^heo &"*t
    ^
    D : r<o
    I
    l-;(x; = iL krt j D<x3to
    rooK j )t>t0

    (q-l r" t*.ld Crrxl";t 'k' :-


    .\av\! t\-^../\-...-,.\-/\*

    lnle knoru th^r (v) = I


    ,
    *-, f ^,,'0 J"e" f, (0") = loo k
    took=1=) k=Ito0
    -Principles of Communication
    rl
    {v) " P l-x <sl :-
    A-l\.z.\-lv
    -1r. K.r P [x <o] -- Fn(a)
    ., p[x<s] - Fxis)
    l,\ &f
    fi"wa qoga b(5)=
    \J
    kxt--A\rst'=
    + \lDol- l6-D
    = D,OS=

    It=s f K_ VqtLre

    "' Pi" < 5J = Frts )*-o.ols-.


    'P[s<xtd:-
    b, K r p b <x So]-eta)-FnG)
    '\./.v\-,4,!./-----i

    t
    p [s<x <]l = Q(+)
    _ iCr)
    *(+)= kxr=-Lx 41=!_3_
    ,60
    , y' / 0.62r
    Rrs)=
    ,oo_
    p Isz-xar| 0'"?4
    = lft-o.o(=
    (c) p,{**'t'v 4,g3tv *g'-h,-,1
    A.r.r.r FO,n, - c_ &r*l
    dr-
    (
    [",
    t" o=hJ
    fct; { 2gr-
    loD
    ...( lo
    I
    L- ". "Jr /rt-j
    1
    (
    \roo.,i *
    * l)t ?('
    d r. (a:G
    ?
    d F,(x1 7(o .-
    fr,o,l ._-
    o(tt(lo
    dt
    t) lo
    les of Communication S

    u"u"S*f trH, ,;wsy",- roz

    9 '^ft,b-qD e)Grnpb, ex4laio nrr-.,od i,l rile-a.tr* b,pa*"r16y"a


    oh/trir\ges' v- j-.u' Junn kq ly ?ot+
    (e- raru;
    L-) sq{ff rnJ.g g1,gcrae-
    @ Meao + o^ttieodeo-r var?abre i{
    bg
    .*he Surnrcrolian
    fx+ressed
    Vaniqbl 'x' 1l th" vo,luet $ reodero^r
    rdeigh+ed Ug-+rnAr proUa6ilitie,a
    "

    S.+d$kli"cil a\/ercge ia
    "rl*o U)teA rlteqh @gx+ecta.$orn v&lue
    rcroJorn tzhato\Lte rt,u1
    $ de^n+<J 5t E[x] @ mx
    [''', e [xJ= 6].: Z_ * p[x=x-l'r =I1(f&)
    All'a, All'tr t N'
    *Rp9fe : Le| ,.X, beJhe TacrJo- 166;qble *h^f t ozTr*,,*a n^
    the die experinr,er$-, t\g&ich Go:JeLe X- { 1,i,3, zf ,fr(} ren)
    vqluet,
    6uppodt*ltlr..f the Jia- 16 ^cotteol N**irnq q,nd .+he nunnter
    ?t aPPeo(t.4 Tl*-*f .r,e,r. lfien,lhe .6J€,*?6+TCJ a,rzezuge f{
    Cqlcntp^Jed
    \ Cu-'"t',p o(ilJh numbex q"d djviJ-f ^g+
    Jfu Jn$a..1 nurnbq; o4+t"l'ga Jh,^.+ Jn. Ji e i5 rolle{
    * .

    Sjr+i8,h c,f a.verega'


    na- )
    B[x_]= f
    ro
    )t. rlot (" P[x="]-+)
    It= I

    e 4n + &no+ ans+4nat5n5t644
    LXJ
    N
    5 n3*
    i.r., E fxl = "1r * {ne f 4^4 +Sn5-FGne
    N
    , lrr Gt{6nuou,f fonJuq r,hri qble., X ,&}ed-ia+' CrJ qWE?<
    ia il*o cilc,"ld<d $y,
    F. -LxJ: "f'J rfxfrld"l A

    NRE: &lo*?AJioJ
    o"l,€r@\?e.l nrrcludq Ue^o Medion and Mode.
    les of Communication S

    3"6 : Mororen[ 3- t3
    ,^,^/A','\-\
    lrlornre-nE qre qo opplica,lioo uf (orrlonn \/e$iqbb' X " . lFeoe
    Ore-*ruo -]ypa o-f nromenfi
    (o) Moro-renfX atoqf the orifio
    (b) Cenfrp{, n-ronnenf{
    (a) Mororenk abouJ-the
    /.!^'^v\-\^
    Origia"-v r
    - '/v
    ^-,\,,.\/^"^/

    Ls' 'X'te a Coriliauocuf r"tJt , \Ar?a ble, 'theo 6Tb- 6rden


    n'prnerd oP "fqoJoo \lao-iqble'X' i4 d"{r"'"J ox,

    E Lx! =-f t^ f^r.r d,t


    -Do
    Yoa* w;dely -cn<d Fcronne4[ ore,
    RSU Ib
    Lv fir*rno,a^rerf : forl n=Tl ; E tx3= Ii "frx>dr.( 14
    Vleoo
    -'00
    Ly Second nnorners: R4r Fl=tl
    E rx!= Iirq,xfix g ffiil:F H::HrJl#^od*,
    (b) Cenlo-oJ nnonnenk
    /\,a\_/z\_/.\ /,1,^\../\/'\-^^/-
    .-
    |
    rnonnenE a^bou$ the kD€-qo %rlue o'p 'A-s^dono-' \'/ariab)e X Ore
    &tled ?e Cerrfral rr''ror*.nE'i t^'^'/^!z\-

    n1b- orJer C""hdJ nrpo'xrrl k d4r-cJ cB


    n0o
    E f ( x- nr,()I : J (*- rr)n {r'/ *l d,t
    -oo
    otseconJ o"der
    * l6e rnogf hlide\p -Lla<d Ce/\,aq1 nne'rrruf f6
    G+r*t rns'!''elr, . t.? , f* rr=A
    r q-t fb
    E L(x-h*l- J (n-'*Iflc"rJx -e

    -0o
    + E [CX-hr-f] ;2 Reru l5 inr Vqriqnce 4 raodoo \zarlob]e'X'
    les of Communication

    t4
    3;l i a\/\,/\-
    Meso, Vot-ience ancl ,q+u6AarJ d,yld:n:-
    C"f" /.\./\'n./ n&
    ^v^\-.v\.- '

    y.:l i
    ^> ,ar^,ra,r.. Meoo Vqlue 76 olxo kno,pn qr ElreSEd*&Lue qf
    Yqndn"n Vrrlqble oX', f'| ia the Flrx+ o-rdev rnororenf qbou+ ti'r ongio'
    I-i iA denoi<d
    \ , Lrl @ n"
    l^.lheae E) ErfeUolioar Opernfo.r ,

    fnlqJteir''n^ficqlly, rneoo
    "f Cen++nuouu rsJo"n \&riable'X, f4
    ff*, b,t, ^h
    flr= E[x]= j *focxrdrt
    -00
    $!: IP RooJe'o\Ar?oble' X' rpre,3enft ra*ap (11l, ,th"o
    roeqo ?epresenff ,Average Dc-vqlue (fA.)
    b) Vor?oncs;-
    a\,.\-/\\./.. '\-,'\

    TEe SeconsJ orde,-Ce"$rqj ro^erner$ op "r"oJutt \"hriqUld X' f4


    k",ownr aA V<ryidnce
    \lariancr uf frooJoan \,/ariable f.{ d.n"}cJ U-;'
    4
    Mqtherno^.J?orl\z i-f k #wr 4,

    W'= E Lfx- o,nfl


    *.195.}99t: N,K r,
    0-r,*)'= x-+ ,n?_ e X nnr
    Phex Drc=Meqo op e-V'X= GnAleal-

    E'-- r t^{ + u frn{l - & E Lx -"1


    $nct 'rr* 16 Gn8lqvrf f [",i] = rni-: a u [xrn"l :.{rr1e
    . 7-
    ov
    ^-
    = ELfl+rD;-
    /^ 9'l . , ^
    aElxl .rnr
    ^"I'T E[Xl : t"nr€ rneqfl g vtrndon-r \zhdoble'X',
    ["= Et]3] +nni-'- *r*.r*
    les of Communication S

    IS
    oo
    \'= t r [x']
    ^,i' -a hti-
    - ,x:
    trL r fx'] - mi
    +
    r.e., Vay (x) = s econJ **l.t-r*t.rd
    Aboqf or;?io
    -Eft * uF Meqo

    61fa# tin
    NgF: rI Bqt'dern vhriotble\x' nepre,Eerf ov]pwt
    fr ll- ruo,w recliPiev Jh.n
    \4<-x
    Vn-) 1-.- -r--*'
    0 t
    Meqo-+ Awrag< Dc-vb lteqr = gCxl = nnrr
    Ftxu]+ t4ea6 s?uq?c vtrlue 9rt ?i*eg @Po'oe" (oF:Y
    $a -+ Vqriqn& + r|?i\^s& i!c- eouoer '

    =4 s?ua6 { awooga oc- rztll'ogr :; f t


    rn"L $iv ef -D!=-e9loer

    n'. Ola = u lxl- hli coro be r*J 'i


    tl
    .Lr
    L------------a,,
    Ac- porOer = lotil PoN€r - DC-potOer [ *ssumt,i9 e.i.u)
    I
    S*andord
    n/\/\,/\,,-
    dwiq*ien".
    z..z---'...^/V:-z
    s?uofe ^ruot tlelue of l/ariance i6 &ued qr 'sbdd dggplqr':
    i+ i4 d.^r{tJ q Jtu 29-bol ' 6 '
    L.r, 6|= +Vv*tn
    er Ci rcui l- q re cli li
    tJy&: tf 'x' rePre&'^f.4 t''e
    o"fPtr \^ll€\g{
    v3lg+
    jfneo &*and"J dovic^frun ?vr^ L"| r'4lgn s18g-
    vqlur) Cnnas- .
    les of Communication

    5" g: Covqridnce cno) Corle,f qdiqa Co.*h}uni :- l6


    a\,/\-,^-// .-\,/\/\_/-\.* -l\,\,'\."\'/\
    ^-,\,/\-/A-lv

    c CoVq{iance "'_ rf
    ^.,/\,,/\,7.\.,^,/\./\
    o
    6ivel jos"d efpecfo.|ie.. 6F fir.lo - fu,,rde.q
    - Varia ble{ y o,nd .Y. r+ !.{ Je"rt J b6 <*gnaol' )ry

    i.€,, cov (1 ,y): >xy= r [ (X-rn,() (y- rnyt


    uohea-e mt: Meqn u,p?ao.lonr Vqriabte'X'
    \OrVMnU
    Ve"o ?rsndola Vqr'a6le ,y'
    .

    ^d. "f J
    - b, \<.T Gr/qr)dnca telooee rr X, / j4
    cov(xry): S^f = e ICX-rarn) ( y-"ry)]

    = e lX )- Xo,,.tr - rrrnyl^*^fl
    = E[xvJ - r tx Tyl - r Ll*y-]+ uh'x
    l
    |
    v-d)u 't
    l
    ^' /. -.
    Or^|"^t Cosh"t Gil4hl
    = r [xV] - [f]+rn*rr,y
    i'1y E
    Lxl - rr,*E

    g ixyl - ;9.- ^**il t'nm


    = EfxY] --a^*r,*"u^7
    covlt,r;- )rr= r [xvJ n1rt*?
    -
    -o
    S5:,rF e trY]- o, Jhen1fu trq^Joo.VaricLbtc8 X ,y
    are .&ild fo be ol&fgd
    TF *ru0 ronJe'rt-r Vqriobla\ X noJ Y are JnJepende'ql-
    -the^ 4h*1or< d.id tu b< "'gtg1pE[d'l
    Fur JaJ "P*td,A (enJonrr t/ariotrlleE, f, and /
    E [x y] : E [x] E tvl ; rrrn, hf qnd covcrriq'rce
    (A *ero tu,,h g Stttorhu.n g
    of Communication S

    ft
    torrel,,.$isa 4+, Uad 16 a rneatUTe o'.| el<pen"lonc^X
    Co-
    beitoeen rqnJor?n wric{bl€x X ond Y.
    I* Ta de.!+,ned o,A -1he ?^odio o-p Gvae^iaarce ( \xy@Covrxv)
    b ltu. produt) (qn. rrt
    .r*ia denond -b Z5lrnbof r
    'xy
    i.e., Correlo\hon G-e.$-$uo0 i4 ?i*^ ?
    D
    l-
    t
    Cnv (x,f) -0.chen
    ,J)o u -
    ry = {+ondorJ, dwi+ioo "p X
    Irz $ = {,}e,iord clel'a}ionof Y
    ,y= 9l"ljtry Ae

    I
    '^'u y
    ,i
    Ii ff WX depernJo c.,,6 b<.}^reeo rqac{o'a-1 l,&ri*blel } .r"tol y -

    i.e., (i)Jl ,| =o ,RoJooo, Voriabler X s^A Y oat SaiJ


    -io be
    ^/ *1fl*r8 P3gxf.4
    tn),f
    \.. ,, | --1
    vxy _ 9 ; ond f are Atzo^gly d"podd
    on €qch othea-
    ciii)if o <lrrat :) X end / q.'< Xruct 1o nei'lt''st
    fr'rdgendw nor *ot"-lly depe-
    * hd*d oo eqch olh",t-. o
    es of Communication S

    g"? : 4-i rr l8
    Correjo$1on*uncfien
    ,'^./^\',.\'-,^\-/\-/'\- -,/'!
    l- Orr., A e)
    q
    ^../...-/\-/\,./'-

    Oefft're Orulocorrelqhorr {tr".1 04" Me/,17o6 .1 E trnporfan1-


    P'rop€f+i€J. v.FU Dcc Lot+lTan.zotg (64o"r-11
    L+ D4xI:r: lh" aLdo csrrelahorn .1qndeo",
    +{ocj,iu^ "f rh,e
    Vcrr;qble'X', i76 de-Fned c,S1F1* trp€rr-odian prtodu0-
    "FJhe
    rf,*ru0 Ts^dor' llariablE: X Cr) snd X(t), oblaicrqd bt/-
    ob&yvio? Jhe Tqodor4 1&riqble' X, *inne{' l('qod'-{.'
    Taa7eU'ive1y,
    ^f
    r+ id de"rored u.rr
    4 ( * ,I).@ 4, tz)
    Grrdorllen ntl'e6. 14 ?ittreA

    \ ( k,-1.)
    = E f^col. x(r! = ?t (l<-1)
    .'. .'4do correJalion {-unction ga'vex coUglSSgn "+3|ircd gt6
    u*t * bgl!ul.yie!$!n'ne
    +* cerrelo.*icr,-fuochon, q ( k,J) i4 a Juno.,oo + -tFnne &14{-
    - ?e/.\C( C k-{) .

    ptrope.u^$t€{:-
    r.fifi be tae qilro crrra-.l+ion -fu.^'cr"rr
    f R'J"'c'
    tfr3f
    I

    -Jhecr

    <f > T* (z) = Tx tr-l) 1 r"l ;q a fun6,on g trme dif$exa6


    (k-{)
    "tir) &Co) = r [xf j -i.:heo k=l
    <it> tz) i4 nnAllggg, volcre {^I_o
    T1
    [.€, T* to) >.-"[*k) ]w aay vqlu! "P z l
    (rg rr (z) ra a ex5I+XgL* (z)
    "p
    r'", T{ (r) =
    t:)
    -Principles of Communication

    r1
    * 4il-+! Gvarian(e i- (v'i-r-r' a P)
    n. ,/\-/\./"" t1/v\_/^r--'-

    -4{^i" GVa ri an@ funthotn "p


    "l a",donn prDce,*8' Xo t6 delintJ
    orA,,

    Cx ( t(, r [(xc k)-r^)


    {) = (xru)_
    ",*l
    CxcK,r) = 't(K-t) - nnf
    U-he'r( C)" C K,l ) -\tth CoVqy?oo(e
    =
    L Ct<-l) .- -4"$o CorNJ'$rua belvoeen XC k)qqol x(t)
    hx = Meocl of Yqnolom vhriabk'1',
    * *+
    $lo'- :g* cJlt$,r:hqgv ".-
    (q) Oe,finq CIrss Orrel^l,uorfr,octro-n. Merrtr,onlE pnoperf''c-f .

    tL',"f:,Yl:i'
    L>o:[glgn:- *ruo Gnznolev \&riqblea X qod y, obgerwoJ
    "rernJooo
    o^.F *8.ne trnalqnE'K'qod "l ze,getHvely, th-eo i*e CTDSS Corr€,'*.h

    - orr {un$on b<}rnreen ^reodedn Vrriab\ez X qod y iX ?"w b\t


    ^
    \r(k,r)=r[xck) Yr4)]
    G)
    tryy ( J., t< \- E y(e).xcK!
    C'noss corrt-lodioin &"rh^n ffu"e,r
    -tf",e Co:fl1[ea bjj3i-w
    .fruo .li P',-r\-/\.^r' qnJornr Droce sse^.
    Pexv.f ?l\_/\-A_/! " z,.v---..-.r--

    L2 Prope'rtra:-
    f\,/\./\,/'\./'\,/'' L, r* i6 Qlrt+"'c {rachou-r
    (r) = Try (-.)
    t Q, Y)
    y
    &, I+ o)oet nnl hqve ttr)^xi"rru"rn "* }rigln
    \5. &y (z;1 <
    * L,t,'l 1 t, rol]
    i.rhex qrt
    4r (o) I ^rgto)
    ^ujo-
    Co'r'cLfiorr
    -tunc+ie?A ' xoond Y rer?eui wlg "^t E=o=l
    of Communication S

    Nurneri Pp.lbe eoj3tn,ufEg +sxg{ru{ dwr^h'on :-


    cprl
    o(u
    '6nrruhe: . rnx-- eCxJ= ft
    f^r^t a* :)M<qo
    {}
    -w
    Var(x) = ECxg - rni :) \laria,nt (r;t)
    Stqndqd deazi*h"n : 6i= +^,lV*ilil
    O + rondo,o \/qriqb)e X",'Nn*l e

    drS+n"b".l;err {u^cf;oo

    tr"-1, :-' 'lC{O


    o<x<.2
    lc,ur = I i a.( :ci z1
    \|n : 4<\
    LL
    D<*ernni61g
    @) Mtoo (t ) (ul Vqr ionce Gl srqnJqod devi^hoa,
    ry* "'- fro-
    T*: o)^|o , ptrobob:Jily d;arn:b^lian -f-un*ien,

    r, ar = { *fnt. }i"."
    *'i j I re &< l(b
    t x>.*
    probq-F'.,J "
    ttV d",6q
    f r- r fl^u, fou,,o ,

    fcrr-?&,^,=
    dr |I ,h. 1.."o."
    ^Ll&(xir1
    u< coo frnsr
    yeqd,^roo).
    ole*:lg $.rnrhon -. ;.il":l^",*.
    a-
    -zrrds
    {Cnt.
    (q) lleqa l noo r
    /\-/\,/\ e [x]_-. - x($)d x +
    --J^ Jx f..r')drt J Jx. (|).Jx
    -x)
    .l Efxl =9.f83
    (br l&triqno N k,T VqrCx) =. e I
    -r/\uV^-
    "
    x]- mj-
    E t^{ =_f*t il"t. , ('2o i
    i" n( r
    -
    -^ / ^1d* = f
    r* )d r, * fl*'(| )d r =+*

    (r\ /,, 1,4 . vqr (x)


    W.t -
    tx/ = 0x-::ltxit ^a
    W" Elx! -nri'=-r,i'= -t.nr.
    1.s$ -(a,(rs)'= t.t6!
    -(e,r seL= l.l6l
    \L'l \fl3{qry^*9$}i-:- 6 - +V'%rcn rCX) - t. lo+
    r\-/l-t- f.=rfZf-^: " N =
    les of Communication S

    ModuleS:
    /^v-\.a\,.\/\-.-
    (r); Noixe
    r\,/\./\-/\,,-.,/
    :- al
    a> De,$+ne Noiae. Menfion iE VqroLrX fupe8 (tru q'r
    6vlaru)
    Noide i4 a olia+',tbqor @ gggsSd
    fisgx,gv Fw"t r^rhic-h
    a'PPeqr4 ruijf,tu-r;he
    reTui red ftel2,seaL\*ft\grq) ,

    Tfu clsE liics\Hoo vf Noi6e-gou6c€,{ qre


    6houhhD tri?.1.

    E:t rnqJ Noiar

    I
    Mon Msol€ Ns+urql Shoi TFerrnrqi t.lhik
    Noise N0ise Noisq
    I
    .

    Jndttstrio,)

    FilL: c$hghon + stredgr,eB /:ug!s


    sj{je_& I shoJ Noise appeor{ iq ooive devicas due Jo Br&p
    bjsxpgn op chorge cqrrier8 (eleclnons ond hol$l
    kg*,Ugi TFerrrrrl Noise i,6 gnerared to ropfgggges,99f 'f
    Jhrnnqllrr e kclrorA.
    6 r'u\,r'..u'''- /\'^'^"^'^
    11[it-}|3$rl fie Noi*<r^rhicl"l4 ?ar$siqo diarilb''rj'an aod ho4 lL'+@
    RSf1y Pptpt 6Pe9&*^d-e!dt7 owr rurde ra19e "f f,-nr,rrencre4.
    les of Communication S
    : TU Q.P o( o(
    u:sho-$
    . a\./\,,\.M Noi8e l_
    /\,,\-/- "
    (e) b.lrrJe a shor+ nok on sho| 3r1e;6" . 4-v1q'tu:,,

    sho* Noixe afp€ard io qcliw dwice4 due i6- .rsoJ',...,


    beisvi
    ep charV Cqrrieyx (electronx ond holex).
    iXgelu:
    t Jo \zhecuar:fubes, sho* notae 16 yne.ruled olLte h mode"o
    ehnission og eleclronf
    frpnr, Cg,ihode _plofe .

    4elniCondud.rr &vicc4, Sho$ noi& tA


    Enet^elrd drre .6
    Tqoolornr Qlffuj,ion -f m?nori}g
    cl*rg< cqrrieTs @ traodoro
    gtner'rrionr qod T€co,!-)bfrqlioo
    * erecr.run _r-nle po?r4
    " ra pbb_d*gfra/r_Fo,s,ili6gne,ra*ed due lo rotndern
    ernissiod) photorg.
    "f
    Cerv$der q \ttccu.6dnude #g f. Le*'I' b< fie Ol,rm/d
    .3l.otnln tzrr
    qod sho* rtoi/rc Goponod g<nwoJ<d i4
    tr*{+) q6 ,6hocoo to #g t
    -$k ic+)
    cuufn
    Diod e
    a(}ut"l
    (S\\noo"
    I (Dc-cu6enf)

    FtX.L'" Vorcc urn' diode cu,rrpd VryJ\,.,pJo


    a\,a\-/!^ .\,/vs fW",
    V3grya1"uod-e
    Nila 'resped -fo Fr9'2.Jhe-Ji:tJ Ctrrnod *. vniJri=liud" t6,
    t(*) = I+ frN(+) : I$l(t)+s}.f raoia Cqffid gzn,
    dut fo Tsfldo,al Erni S$or,r
    elecnoa'1
    b""' t6" Meso$g.^-lqoe tAltre $ ftn''r Gti"de,
    "f f t,lcf.ran^7,
    sI"* raria. tunrrd t"r Vqcurnna;oie iaywaby
    E tq] : &?1Br I rhex 1,=t eintl.coutu,6
    " -
    A^1: Nois< 67"lwtrard gql"'drui
    b {,lr fnl'Juot-frbn dlds , -' -dlb
    e [riu]:- Q? (r+rr)ol , t= 'b
    m#it&or,rrs^f
    of Communication S
    st+ $'
    3. : l- &'
    tQ Thezrnej
    zf-fi-,1,r-
    r.loiaB
    ,a\,/\-^.-\-.,!.\
    (vTu e.p)
    a) uri}e o Shorf no[ o,r 'lherrr-nJ Noise .

    l+ Therrnoj Noi& ?4 Tenerrdtd du-t -b' To"rJorn, nneroerrf op


    Jhernnally irrduced cqTrie!3 Glcduonx) in ot csndu$o-r.
    L> JEe rqndera-' mp.fion
    $ lherrrraily hnJuceol eleclupng pruducex elecl-n"c
    Cuwpnf hsl^"tch 14 ,lr-soJorn to ncdure. 614 .runde.ff, Currer$ i4
    Qlle4 " tgl.! ",iaF
    lo r"hxn *fu"
    l.-,r gigrrx I xhoru4 noi&-Mode) u"nA resislar. a.crd i[ eryrlvalc"il
    -ltse,yenin'6 Cing11it ttl +i9.2
    R
    I- N.: -lhevnt.l ruoik
    t*Qr-T*
    r
    OUrnrerrf
    :
    + Vr^r
    a R,=R
    -
    "t^:
    L;
    rgJ<
    w tlaga
    The rrrv.l lb itc
    .

    f;91: tloiar nnodeJ Pigr' E?u..rwleal cirtud l- (ro h".ot


    "
    l.t"x
    No;a hnxr)
    Ru- e '/
    L> $e vleso \,qlulo1-lhenn-vJ nois{ &{nu{ i.( qlt^}o,y4 krp.
    Ly q%&ru fzhlur T Jh.
    t.1eon
    @q
    tr tKl = +KBNTR
    l..e{..gx K= Bo}ttrrna,nn G",shd xtd28 3/.
    = 1.38
    ft tr'rnper+ux o\t hslJ6 }e{ishrr ii upemfig - ",%ok
    (skndo'J)
    Bu: Noiv e%llw.lold 6an{614f5 iqHt.
    Q: Re*istur in .sL
    t+ rh. N4qxirnu4o 4ois.t pohnr, produueJ acrog ,@\A"l't'vrr'sflrr
    wlodel Ahsrun ,lrr #2., iA
    | r,l "\
    PN= r
    - L Y-rrJ -- 4 K 6i.rTR
    -4{- - 4k
    - KT861 hr''tfl.

    kl^X Po^,err d"li.re"e"l to lo*d hJ.la RL.R &-


    D
    rrrqr_-VT-
    + e tt.
    of Communication S

    5.t3 : NhrJr Noiae:- (vru q.p)


    l!/\./\./v!^vw

    q/ Deflne r^Jhiie Noia< . plo* poHvn Epecnd &r,,t?)'X a"\d


    au*o CofiTlnf,orn.frnOurr (,qcp) .>f t^lhile nn i.x
    vru Ju/ul'urf zot'- - 5MErvl-
    b n,r.i*e Noignr_
    /,\A../\
    -,$-
    -The NoiOe -t\9.l"r"ch hs4 Gqrj.gXion dfXfr; budion snd l^s\,€ -Fl@d-
    por,Jetr speclro,J d"*"td o\re !- q ruide .rocg^e of f yea,tren(r"% id
    cqlled tdl'\ile Nor.t.
    . r* iC derno+ed b.y hJ (*).
    . ruf.Ek Noiar i.{ ocnalogo% -b-h+e"o"
    ry!4_tgAl-" inJho
    €errge the-ts i+ Ao,{ rdl f ne7.*ocy cor?-\ponen I irr eTrod
    zUrrot-tn/S

    brh" gorue,er 6Peu6vJ drn^V'+ rs{^3bc npi4< P"bocea '


    Nt*) i4

    s,r(f)=+r-o l,lT-n
    T": ilois< Lnuiveh'l *oPe
    ,u1n) 'fux
    Ca/tAlal,f (+t+; pgo (por,rxr sp<^trttt
    . l',0 &rrll\)
    t-

    Etat, PH1 +
    opp$dpgy "+ AUE-{otrx",-
    b A"*o- e'n€tp"d;an
    $vnt};on og 'ooLab nei&<, *klc+) i{

    [u(.) = $ sc+; (,.r.,sucf) t]ttr "6rzl)


    . ". 16(z): {$: z.o rrutt)
    \ Lo elsevohe?t
    \-:-> & srz)

    Fi?z:-Atalo Corretprlien4-unr*o,n + ru't"i jt No/x<


    t /\_,/- /-\,^\../\--
    ^-r\_^-
    les of Communication S

    J.t4. /\z\.^-^./\
    Noi6e E?Uivorle,nt Bqndruldh
    o** &5
    r\,/\,/v..-,{ f\a._,n-Az^\n

    a) ilhqrf T6 noi6e ewivqlert Bendu"r?dt5 ? Derive crcl eapresster;


    fo-rJhe 6dnne . vru _funel3qly-ool+ (5vfaa.q;
    L> Noifr e?r;iVqle/d bq.d Nidtb- ?-epre6er^E 15q .Fre?Ue^V
    sel<*rvi{ oF he fil+tr. -
    r+ )x deuroteJ by &t1orbol Bj Hz .

    l.lqJhenno0iolly, f $ 1A defineJ oa *he trqt'io "f ft-hJ noiA€


    - oulpujr poNeT *o :baf ap Noiae specrro,J *rrfry aJ'ToPLLts.

    i.e., Bx=+--
    >fli -8t
    -h)hea^e,
    P'o= ToJaJ noi6e ov$prd podez in NqtlS
    Un
    i = a^Pd x;ttlro t drrv|ns- r 'r
    NoiSe u{crKf nr
    e?qafiovr 0) i6 r{irrrllt?ied-}o-, Bt=!4RC HZ
    Proof :- conaiJco- ot Lor,o poss fi t*et(LpF) havioT vo llq8<

    Yhlio *rorrger fuoclion lHCj^)1, Cs xho,"ln tu-r p;7 t ood


    iE eq,uivorleot circurf i"n Pig,z,

    LPtr L$ No)^( )
    s Noixe ono
    It ln tioll sp€cldunn.\*t*?

    FI?1Z Lpr t:i B rlp &-"lr EXS!:dV


    ,\-/!/+-

    -4-
    F
    I

    vl'-
    F-i? r: ry^lPF yllfj"ac :s{:dPYtf*Ee'
    Princinles of Comrnunication 1sEC45 _

    t.le knorutJhrtl' Noile bqoil wiatb Bl , i* ft-wn \. &(

    ---> (r)
    F,
    _
    K.
    .ih,l -L"-
    sn.
    't
    J".Jrd rpi"r{"lpedrou d*6f1, SnL= KT +Cr_l
    k= Bo ll-{nncnrj s Gna}qnt
    To f fn/ +DlaJ Noirre sujrpuf
    /Vvaw\./\-- ,/\,,^.^/- ,-\,.Ve\ .\..\i/t r..r I r11.-
    potoer./p
    "
    \ \, nO /
    rvw> fin.1 -the Vb l}eg{ *"en6f*.fuoc}ien, l-.t(o; f,"'Jerrns
    .

    * zu^rn"f qcrJ ouSPq,- rto\z< sPecf"qJ d"ffilt S,ni & Snu i{


    Hrj")=,[_:n,
    'v- \E",f
    :)' tlHci*ll-=
    ''t--'t-
    sno

    "",
    S\o
    = 1H c;^lltip
    (Jr./- t'
    tu/
    .,0=
    S", lH,, | . KT ___> (z)
    Fvon prT.:,, Rc_ LpF tbe %ttsW *renr&r "fuorlier-r,
    H cs;: Yg
    tq = '/s" = '/sc ,-
    * 7sc scR+ R
    SC
    I l+scR
    Hcs;=+-Scr- i s=l^r
    It
    li,,o) _l
    1fj t"l cq
    l .. I
    fa[e M0^gr^.,riiqde sfl botb rltdtl,-l.)r g<|
    I
    U^),l
    V H ( r,.lcA)-
    ll-
    n
    I
    ntJ(^))l - (\J
    t1 (ruca)' -
    1J6n e?uqhan (+) na $t r-re $ri,
    of Communication S

    ,q .KT &-1
    -no- l{ (ruca)L
    S\= KI \- '
    -..--(5\
    -[ q^rqq-
    o.
    . l6e *o+rd {'l-oi^R o^}p?'f foNQtr, Pno t{

    P=
    '}t0
    nDo
    I
    J 'no'df
    c' lln

    o^N
    P:- J 5I
    j t{Qoce;L
    ,a+
    IJ,K.T |n r eZ-f
    I) Kr
    ob
    P=
    'vto J+
    [r+(an* cR)'] (e;
    Le+ ea PcR. rt the,o 6aa fcq;t
    = - :t!
    ctifftneirrli*,h.'P' piftft tufa$ h')t- -t.x g{-}-
    {7rcR4J dx
    __.> dF
    olt=1 / ' = {zrcq
    o'o ?
    '40 - J
    ^Do
    l' Kr
    (+ rt') -dr- = e- [', l.
    o &-FcR. {"ncn j l+t-
    ,Dtt\D
    --
    Kr
    .ttrcR
    [--*unt
    L ,^,ll [""'i+,=c*)
    h
    Y
    rrl-o _ kt l-+qnl (co)/ -"1u,;](Jlr t-r- ( + - o)
    = {.nCe'& -)
    QaCaL
    p
    t- _
    +l-"4-= Kr
    d.ncn" a" 4 Lk -(+)
    ryl
    'u^
    -Ne g{-0-
    -U't${V eqUsl'terrz(+l ge' iD\ e?tj^h"t 0)
    P
    K.- _
    TJN 'ryo KT
    Jn:
    n" 4ck x KT
    -_:
    ---+<-

    4'n^" JJtu. tz
    of Communication S

    3. I 5 : N oire
    r-\,rL^V,\-
    Fq cfor
    ,\,/^./\,^\-
    qnd Noi,ee F i?'q re : - &E
    f\r^,.\,/\t"...'\
    ^\_^.i\,^.-
    aF orn o^6 a.rnpllfier@ s-relhsDrk tA d*r^rd
    Mggflgr, vwla< ?o'et rna}io o^'* the vg*t-
    *" r^*fo 4 $lt{\rd 5
    o\-
    N^t tt -thsg f .6.i?"*l fo hle/r AF tfic out?ut-
    " Xji
    ( s/N.) Potn'rer vo'fi0 n'|'lht t"tP'd
    i e', Noia facf"r, p=
    ("|,t.r) Potrer ?^qf?o otr1fu oulPd
    D p
    Lo
    't'x 'No
    (8, /e^") P D
    ---> (t-l
    'Ni
    'so
    p
    sl = 6j?r,oJ Fower o$ tnpud Lo Uo{tl(

    a
    lp : Noi.g< por^J<r o,i-fnpril fr\ ruo{'tff
    ? Ff8r\orl pot,.ler ai- oufp\d t4 l^lq+F
    \
    P
    .N t-loi& pot"ser orf ouryvd b Nq+B.

    Noia,e tr:w;et- ( %")


    Noi6< .fu$or, P eaep?tessed ltndB,TA knovoo cl6 5loise P)8ux

    v ,.) Noi.a ViVutt = to 1l>? L fl

    (rt*)*ro
    Fi?'qK = lo l-o6 I
    \lo ia<

    l, f"/r )
    , ,ordpr,dj I

    s'dB lo ) o7 (./*;"
    'I'\Pnf- to
    r
    .rog
    /-, \
    l>tN )
    t--"J .-;J ot^tPff
    (slot)-
    ''' .' \}di^d4 rords,,
    ,
    [sl^)
    -o4(
    No!- ''
    ' |

    the ideal V*lLle *f r.lo;rq .{, Zu* i4 0d^a


    of Communication S

    +" EJyl{^.d litr ktrp}g. ( r" ) :_


    d.1

    Jhe e+ulva.le,t Noi6<*enrrpcrodux ?4 gfwn bt,


    T"=(F-1)T
    -ts+rere, F Nofrefq+y,,
    =
    T Tewflerqltlrt tn kelwr = "7+,f (s-Iendq^d wfu+
    + Co.(cqcje
    \,.\,,\,^- Conn +* PS^TPEKs:-@
    ^^^yL-
    <
    T[t f:11x! foj'prgffs connecftr tn o,rcqd) "' !Jro"r;
    Cenglder @sco.de Connec+ion op No?6y *r^ro _pyd_f ?,-Khrorf-l (*rnpfr?er)
    Kl.oron i" * t. f .

    Nl*., g
    C- ir
    '"2
    ' tJ

    F'?'{_i Cs6C^Je G,rrreCIar { N-noi^< ne}h)rrF4 (A,npl;fio"r<)


    --lohex
    €S= Qqin _ "F r Nelwoat<_N
    F,..,
    = Not6e fqc+"o. + Ne*tou.rf- N

    Jhe swrqll Nol5r.kc'.r" tr F"r N- arrrplifie4 (nerr^rorrcr)


    co.r'nec+eol b Csxcode Y6 ?t\^en
    % F3iglfugrl^,
    tr- q+ _ra=t+ r"-1 +
    9t €r 619

    acrd 1 E <laiwilanf noi6e]r"rrpet-qfux -;(r)


    14 ?-hrcn Ly

    Te=(e-r)t
    rsLex 'g'f6
    +V gq,t-ralron (r)
    q{.^sn

    A-,4trrplipex Ganedl.F= E +F"r-l


    N*: F.r ftl J
    CeAGlde
    les of Communication

    Nqnneric^J prDbkrns:-
    |
    4,.\.^\-/r ,.v^/.!zv^'
    L?t+
    A!/\-
    + fiornnuhei-
    A_,r\-,^'^.,^^/'.

    /<-r . \ uhex
    1. s.loia trr?.u.)<: %"= ro.0ry Ce) I F:
    F=tt loia<L,;r PlN,b",es
    - \llN/r"p
    toia<fa$.r =
    (%)"*,
    e UFlPrujflC t199g951ae : Te=CF-t)T
    priiE ftrrrnulq lw coxco\ded Ne}ruuqin^pt;Fierr :-
    t\.n - 'e-, .,,/\-.^'/\./...,,\ /\,^!rt
    n-2..-n-U\ /\*7\A

    Q) Pun &-r.leftoorq (e"lf;Ferx)


    (oqx {qUur: F
    = ft + F"-
    o( r

    61
    Noiar FWx: E"= ro lo7 (F)
    Qr) Fq -t3^- ^FJeF{d-ot
    f4 (+nrer; h ox)
    ^.^/\,/\,^-,& ^,.-.,!

    r.lri.k{qc}.n'. F=F1 1Fa-l +f3-}


    Qr 6,6r
    r.totar ft** . Ee= lo log C F)

    t' No?&e
    l\-4..^../-
    e?uj \4sl c'd Bqnd uldth ""-
    {f\,z\_/\,^r /-4vn.,^^^-^

    R. I HZ.
    L/N - - 4Rc
    5. Sho+ Noi6,s 1
    f\-/\....-,,\/-
    M?on S?us?c Vq\u.-o y| Slo+ Noi6re Ulrre",t i5
    E tr;r{] = &!r I 851 ) n =l' a x li\9 co,nlu*n hx

    6 Th. U*nJ Noix :-


    .\-,/\,^,/.-^\,/\/...\,^.-
    - Mes.n s%rmo \t""[rr! * 16"oor.] NoiEe vblh'g.4
    e [v]^l = 4KBNTR o.nd k= 6olfJtvrqhn'4
    r, Gh"r{''il
    ' ryB f1[l. : Pp = KIE' \ = 1.38x tox
    les of Communication S

    3l
    a^el
    1. Suppo.se q'?rPl?tio t ho4 a nbinR'Fi?,(rut + 9dB
    power Wn + l5d 6' f* T4 Gnne$ed i^ Cq8cqde -'lo se
    O.nnp-lif.ieT& t^sijfi :no'tsly- F??qde 6f AodG" Ca-0cu--A-orh 'fhe
    ovaa'all

    noiae frgrzre ?,rr -Jni5 Coacoole Gnnetllon hn dedbeJ aln4b


    vru Dec-Qot1[Joa-zotr
    t+ qtm S!"'- 4- rl|q.rv

    fou:to* ' Q6"=15 ; f*-ao : Fde=?.


    ..11, /q\ ,Jt,
    rX) "u,= ,o^t€) j
    Ito= ron ff)
    o" f = ,on
    i]' lontii/"l; I G
    F, : T.94a 6, : sl'6as F": toP

    -W F ri i S f.,r -''ula f"r - ex Gnnecled hs\ GrCa&,


    n .t o-roP li fi

    eWt-qtl n-ol& &Uuo, F_ F, * +: ?.e43 +


    lp0-l
    3l'6&3
    . tr- ll'o?3
    t-

    .". ovfirqrt nloi,* F,gux, %u= lo\o?Cp): tolog ( tt'ors)


    +d aB Inl=l* ;
    I'oa- t

    Q- Troo poat devrceS oac hfl o<co'de' F"n tfo {;'"st-


    cennecled
    q?-e sde
    8|age-,-the n"ix" figux qod ove.iloble PNetrga-in
    qnd tz"la rezRe$rretT, Funl5. Second &+ugu,Jhe oolze hW*
    sod avoti\qlle Peh)€r glqr'ar sle Lsdrs c'nd'lode rnexpe$*l?'
    Drknrrruno lle o.w"at1 Li* F?u* r^da J-*lt:':,:t,j1
    (6v"otu1
    L7 qrwo d^h: W l",._ o6a.qll
    o Noi6e frgr.)f,
    Frae= 5 :) F,= 1en(%) - s'lgB F= l+Q-)"-3rl(p131'6$-l
    + tz ts.gg ql tt- n-
    ltsE
    e,d*= l.r-F 5.014
    _ =tt,,
    Q,= to^(r'l,") =
    il;=rs =) ll==s't94
    =
    * J

    q;;=,0 r *=;"q;=
    =,o('sl')=31'da3
    ro f"1

    l;"'rui:rYlff;",,
    les of Communication S 15EC45

    (") r" q rv* ?recefwr-, ahe qroenna 16 o?)ro rurcunled eor q *q y1 ravxl
    or,nd a. .toq- Aaale i4:Uxed * Gnnect *be anlcnrh2 f." Jt" r^€ce f v€y.
    TD owa^Grne jhe e++e$ + LDSSy Gble, d- ptre-61rtr)pppie' K ra-roLlnl.d
    po Jhe q^+(nno qa 8luoton hl ffgux a. @

    Deraod..l
    €r=&o ds %= 6ode
    F, =6de G=lg.ls
    P !'e*,4rznpliFi rt LosSy CaUle trm"rl-end 4
    the receiwr
    Ftgy43t Tv- )'eCeiw?r
    6) rsnarna **iil'* +fr}}; e e#k$
    (b Frrrt tx" yvtran $Xux T+n" aiptu-, E th. l'3:g-n^,rJilt'
    rw,,x

    E_ryLi1 d and-the
    B*" + frB"f errd recuwr iA hnmwtd p
    e, da
    + 6'$?-{^h^:-
    (i) f:
    PT^q--4rz'rpl,F;e
    ,..,...-!,4 (^) evxg) ntog'€tDgg{ *
    €'du= &o :; €r=lo^
    (#)=,oo tRq Ztl8[s'n ,-
    t\,a\-.+
    ft,r A- Neh^lurLr Ft;is firrmr
    f a, = 6 :) Fr= lo^(*) =s.r, -\c ix
    F- F, + Fa-t + Fr-t
    tir) LoJsV Otle"_ 6
    6i6,-r
    E",u= 3 :) &=lonn/:i_4 F=3.9r+(.?-t) 1 (sq'et -')
    10O tooxo.(
    * j*rt(
    gr=*=*=0.s. F= 4.166 l-
    I
    q"i"r f,r'
    O.-
    '" FdB= to log Ce) - 5' ,+8 d a
    Lo ssg Orble (b) rjL_rPI: unrl!.er j
    (nt) f tUJ- cr.rd vp t6e TeCe iwr._
    r\./\,/\,^\t\ ' /-\,/\t\/\,.\,-\' "
    /601
    {sd.= 6o :) % = lon'ru/: tgoo o{b(e - Uecdw.
    {^il'1 t"1u
    Ga" = 16 + Fg = lo^qt)=sq'gr
    FO*=,olo gtr = l1'oldB
    les of Communication S

    ,{)The eJT,\ ) PoNer sr\d rni& Pohler rnqd4ur"cd o.t)tre irrpu}ry.


    do or"rnp.U+iet ctne lfoyuf ond l's;rvo rr-e,'speclSvgly't4^)he
    47V.gJ poruer- aJ-Jhe nr*p*t i4 l.SFilqnd noi5q fooer i64ontl
    c"rlculq..b 16e annpllf\er nft&faClor qny' rrpiae figuxt
    Ly Qrwo dJ": -fM r.loj8-:h!0or t r*rrrs $
    /\-/\z\. ../\- l.l.k,r S'gni), nor'6a

    Bsi = lSot-ttnt poNer nqJlola g-lw^ bt


    DD
    rnl: t, s p, F= lSi <rYto - tsoxr;6* _t!.4.
    b.
    DP
    ,yl i ,So l"fx15'6 l. SxrS'{
    l-so: l'S flltJ
    Pnor 4o rn,,.t 'i f,: A-664
    n', Noia Fi?uoe,
    F=7
    t-. -
    ?s= lolog(r): 4.a6 dB
    'ds- ./

    * sle
    fhu o,f httf"d tf so arnPlif ier i.A 4odg"rf tbe no'r,a<
    lk
    ft?roe 4 aq ornpli*ieo- i4 dod6r Cgtlcu-lq.b tho a,3"'u,-lh ne,'x<
    )n",ho ln d6 qf th{- ovr\Plifier oufPl$
    L; 91x*d^h,- t"kT
    Noiza {ac}rrr-, F itt-ktrrx
    (s r.ln ) = 4o ds I G^ie)-i"ho
    *rnpd F:: F^lar;npc
    u, n K/ inP'o \,-,^- ,,loe /€I9
    rfsNel
    lo9 p
    Fo.le
    -)
    (sNR)rdpa
    lo
    v = ro
    o \(soie).
    = &o
    [s \ r.ra) ^?
    /o*F+ol6
    ' (snrR)rnedol; (t *e*rJ"
    Fu=
    q/.1
    4o _ G*( )o,or.rdg
    fslal
    t -ohlpd.--
    do dp,

    t? A
    'l I*t fr*l c,?ncui.i i6 eZri\All^J S aporalldCwrhnq
    - --lJ
    JI ot'\ rr of R =lKru 'o,nd C:0.4+fJF. Clcuh"b lt* ett<Ji*
    t@
    nst\* *"b *Ju r;dtb a ll
    lb [Zt*CChW trotX
    )-tl Yn Ir' f 'r t.lolae gz?irlg)",d to'lJr-rid ' di"..d r.ridtt J
    R\-l F\vJL
    r-
    R^'-- 1 = g3l.grCrrr
    -N 4qc - alf
    I
    +TIdF?
    41 xro"xO"4?Xt6{
    I
    of Communication S 15EC45-

    (T> 4 noi6€ ?ene.r-a-hcrr


    -cr,sin7 diode f4 trq?uirqJ fo poudu.)
    lSpV nDi& q receiuer rcl..icn hqa qo Fneuf
    151{et24 il^r
    irrrp<dance "F tssr- (purs19 n<siShw).'Ihe TeQdlrr ha,j e,-
    nE'i&Forcey bqndaridfb + dooKHr - Glcul^"b tt* Glnv\,-
    Jh*"gA Jko '[.iode .
    lLr
    -/ t-- --
    ^u^lh
    a :--l eod B,.r:QOo kne
    '%1: tS;rv lsr I
    R=1S,a_
    -\ <l
    \/ -t
    sl"4r'oia currenJ n" d,tooU i*:I.* -=*Klr: .- VsN _
    r
    lSXl6b_ o -,*^t a
    o(/\lv 'r

    TK{ a*uq^J cqt|-vd,I,lho,dg S. diode X *:wa by


    va
    E trSu] - q?r B,..r
    lr
    ,
    '.!lz
    ^
    1<xlo '/
    n,2- _ exl"6xro-tl yf 2<"to-oXlb3
    (axro +)-
    "lxt.AXtd\ly&ooy.1e3
    s) C^lc"-{orb ,$,o TrrE .rroi;< v* llage ard thenrr,a-l neia< pe*e,y
    o-f,noni."U^ qcrrDss e &oKtL Te,ZSs+a{ qf dS"C +er"rpeEa}il}e -
    -r'Ji$6 oo e*{-et}iw rreiX< Bor\dejdtE loKitz
    +
    F 615^
    .'|^!'^\''\-
    R=eoK,L : T=ef uc = d?3 *&S = Als K j BN= l0kl-tz
    /r-...-.----__\.
    ( 1) rrns
    /\n
    *E_yJF9.
    _^!/\-/\,^\-z-w-\-
    .{J
    \'
    e tu;1/6,,r;r,,1" s?uqx vetue)
    -f_ *,r..l

    F r( ,r r fviul: {KTfuR
    F" lvll = 4 x )'38 x lt-1?"
    IN-J
    x 278)( lDx lo' x QgX)bs
    ')

    e [viu] = 3 . {S 11 X ld-r2 vottl


    ,/Etrt-r 1" n:]_sf
    Pv e Rvts rr.eia< wtle9- ,

    tt) }3$-!ris< yo^err-


    fx: XrBp: l.3rxtdt3x &1s xloxrog
    Pru
    =4.tt x to1? v.lqrn
    2018
    SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

    Venkatesha M, Department of ECE

    PRINCIPLES OF
    COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
    (15EC45)
    IV SEMESTER ECE

    MODULE 4: NOISE IN ANALOG MODULATION

    SYLLABUS: Introduction, Receiver Model, Noise in DSB-SC receivers, Noise in AM


    receivers, Threshold effect, Noise in FM receivers, Capture effect, FM threshold effect,
    FM threshold reduction, Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis in FM.
    2018
    SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
    Venkatesha M, Department of ECE

    PRINCIPLES OF
    COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
    (15EC45)
    IV SEMESTER ECE

    MODULE 5 : DIGITAL REPRESENTATION OF ANALOG SIGNALS

    SYLLABUS: Introduction, Why Digitize Analog Sources?, The Sampling process,


    Pulse Amplitude Modulation, Time Division Multiplexing, Pulse-Position Modulation,
    Generation of PPM Waves, Detection of PPM Waves, The Quantization Process,
    Quantization Noise, Pulse–Code Modulation: Sampling, Quantization, Encoding,
    Regeneration, Decoding, Filtering, Multiplexing, Application to Vocoder.
    MODULE 5

    DIGITAL REPRESENTATION OF ANALOG SIGNALS


    Statement: Sampling theorem states that any continuous time signal can be completely
    represented in its samples and recovered back if the sampling frequency is greater than
    or equal to twice the highest frequency component of base band signal.
    That is Sampling frequency, f s  2W .
    Where W= Highest frequency in base band continuous time signal.
    This condition is also called Nyquist condition for sampling process.
    Explanation and Proof:

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