ER Diagrams, SQL and

Data Management Systems

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 Flat-File Versus Database
Environments
� Computer processing involves two components: data and
instructions (programs).
� Conceptually, there are two methods for designing the
interface between program instructions and data:
◦ File-oriented processing: A specific data file was created
for each application.
◦ Data-oriented processing: Create a single data repository
to support numerous applications.
� Disadvantages of file-oriented processing include
◦ redundant data and programs
◦ varying formats for storing the redundant data

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Data Redundancy and Flat-File Problems
Data Storage - creates excessive storage costs of
paper documents and/or magnetic form.
Data Updating - any changes or additions must be
performed multiple times.
Currency of Information – has the potential
problem of failing to update all affected files.
Task-Data Dependency - user unable to obtain
additional information as his or her needs change

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 Flat-File Data Management
User 1 Data
Transactions
Program 1
A,B,C
User 2
Transactions
Program 2
X,B,Y
User 3
Transactions
Program 3
L,B,M

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 Traditional Flat File

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 The Database Concept
User 1
Database
Transactions
Program 1
A,
User 2
D B,
Transactions B C,
Program 2 M X,
S Y,
User 3 L,
Transactions M
Program 3

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 Elements of the Database Environment

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Overview of DBMS Operation

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Human Resource Database

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Database Terminology
� Data Attribute/ Field: a single item of data
� Entity: database representation of an individual
resource, event, or agent about which we choose to
collect data
� Record Type: table or file
� Database: the set of record types that an organization
needs to support its business processes

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• Relational DBMS
– Represent data as two-dimensional tables
– Each table contains data on entity and attributes

• Table: grid of columns and rows

– Rows (tuples): Records for different entities
– Fields (columns): Represents attribute for entity
– Key field: Field used to uniquely identify each record
– Primary key: Field in table used for key fields
– Foreign key: Primary key used in second table as look-up field to
identify records from original table
• Operations of a Relational DBMS
– Three basic operations used to develop useful
sets of data
• SELECT: Creates subset of data of all records that
meet stated criteria
• JOIN: Combines relational tables to provide user with
more information than available in individual tables
• PROJECT: Creates subset of columns in table,
creating tables with only the information specified
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Advantages of the Database Approach
Data sharing/centralized database resolves flat-file problems:
No data redundancy: Data is stored only once, eliminating data
redundancy and reducing storage costs.
Single update: Because data is in only one place, it requires
only a single update, reducing the time and cost of keeping the
database current.
Current values: A change to the database made by any user
yields current data values for all other users.
Task-data independence: As users’ information needs expand,
the new needs can be more easily satisfied than under the
flat-file approach.

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 Creating a Table

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 Query Language
� The query capability permits end users and
professional programmers to access data in the
database without the need for conventional
programs.
◦ Can be an internal control issue since users may be making
an ‘end run’ around the controls built into the conventional
programs
� IBM’s structured query language (SQL) is a
fourth-generation language that has emerged as the
standard query language.
◦ Adopted by ANSI as the standard language for all
relational databases

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 Aggregate

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