UNIT 2

NETWORK SWITCIHNG AND ACCESS MECHANISM

Switch is a network device that is used to segment the networks into different subnetworks
called subnets or LAN segments. It is responsible for filtering and forwarding the packets
between LAN segments based on MAC address. Switch establishes a temporary connection
between source and destination for communication and terminates the connection once
conversation is done Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a
port leading towards the destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and
when data leaves a port or goes out it is called egress.
Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.
Classification Of Switching Techniques

Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between
sender and receiver.

In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.

Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.

A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
 In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice,
video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.

Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice

transmission.

Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

Circuit establishment

Data transfer

Circuit Disconnect

Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Space Division Switches:

Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single
transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set of
crosspoints.
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.

It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data
transmission.

It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no
data can be transmitted.
 It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required
for each connection.

It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred,
then the capacity of the path is wasted.

In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred
even if the channel is free.

Message Switching
Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a
complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.

In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path

between the sender and receiver.

The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a

dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on
the information available in the message.

Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.

Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node.
This type of network is known as store and forward network.

Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

Message Switching
Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a
complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
 In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path
between the sender and receiver.

The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a

dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on
the information available in the message.

Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.

Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node.
This type of network is known as store and forward network.

Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.

Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the
nodes.

Message priority can be used to manage the network.

The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it
supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching

The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to
store the messages until the message is forwarded.

The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the
message switching technique.
Packet Switching
The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one
go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.

The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.

Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.

Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.

All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.

If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message
will be sent.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is
considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the
destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the correct
destination.

The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.

 Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.

Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the
messages are sent.

Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between
sender and receiver.

In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Virtual Circuit is the computer network providing connection-oriented service. It is a
connection-oriented network. In virtual circuit resource are reserve for the time interval of
data transmission between two nodes. This network is a highly reliable medium of transfer.
Virtual circuits are costly to implement.

Working of Virtual Circuit:

•In the first step a medium is set up between the two end nodes.
•Resources are reserved for the transmission of packets.
•Then a signal is sent to sender to tell the medium is set up and transmission can be
started.
•It ensures the transmission of all packets.
•A global header is used in the first packet of the connection.
•Whenever data is to be transmitted a new connection is set up.
Congestion Control in Virtual Circuit:
Once the congestion is detected in virtual circuit network, closed-loop techniques is used.
There are different approaches in this technique:
•No new connection –
No new connections are established when the congestion is detected. This approach is
 used in telephone networks where no new calls are established when the exchange is
overloaded.
•Participation of congested router invalid –
Another approach to control congestion is allow all new connections but route these new
connections in such a way that congested router is not part of this route.
•Negotiation –
To negotiate different parameters between sender and receiver of the network, when the
connection is established. During the set up time, host specifies the shape and volume of
the traffic, quality of service and other parameters.
Advantages of Virtual Circuit:
1.Packets are delivered to the receiver in the same order sent by the sender.
2.Virtual circuit is a reliable network circuit.
3.There is no need for overhead in each packet.
4.Single global packet overhead is used in virtual circuit.
Disadvantages of Virtual Circuit:
1.Virtual circuit is costly to implement.
2.It provides only connection-oriented service.
3.Always a new connection set up is required for transmission.

DIAL UP

A dial-up is a connection that's established using a modem. To make the dial-up connection,
the modem must connect to an active phone line that is not in use. When connecting, the
modem picks up the phone and dials a number that's attached to another computer. After the
connection is made the computer can check e-mail, browse the Internet, and share files.

Dial-up history
The first dial-up connection was made
in 1965 by Lawrence G.
Roberts at MIT with a TX-2 computer and Tom Marill with a Q-32 at SDC in California.
The dial-up connection today
Today, with multimedia and bigger web pages on the Internet most users have an
unenjoyable time browsing the Internet using a dial-up connection and try to use other
options. Most users who have the available option use some form of broadband connection,
which allows a much faster download and upload.
DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL, originally, digital subscriber loop) is a communication

medium, which is used to transfer internet through copper wire telecommunication line.
Along with cable internet, DSL is one of the most popular ways ISPs provide broadband
internet access. 
 
• Its aim is to maintain the high speed of the data being transferred.
• If we ask that how we gonna achieve such a thing i.e., both telephone and internet
facility, then the answer is by using splitters or DSL filters(shown in the below diagram).
Basically, the splitter is used to splits the frequency and make sure that they can’t get
interrupted.
 

Types of DSL – 
 
1. Symmetric DSL – SDSL, splits the upstream and downstream frequencies evenly,
providing equal speeds to both uploading and downloading data transfer. This connection
may provide 2 Mbps upstream and downstream.it is mostly preferred by small
organizations.
2. Asymmetric DSL – ADSL, provides a wider frequency range for downstream transfers,
which offers several times faster downstream speeds. an ADSL connection may offer 20
Mbps downstream and 1.5 Mbps upstream, it is because most users download more data
than they upload.
Benefits – 
 
• No Additional Wiring – A DSL connection makes use of your existing telephone wiring,
so you will not have to pay for expensive upgrades to your phone system.
• Cost-Effective – DSL internet is a very cost-effective method and is best in connectivity
• Availability of DSL modems by the service providers.
 • Users can use both telephone lines and the internet at the same time. And it is because the
voice and digital signals are transferred in different frequencies.
• Users can choose between different connection speeds and pricing from various
providers.
DSL Internet service only works over a limited physical distance and remains unavailable in
many areas where the local telephone infrastructure does not support DSL technology. The
service is not available everywhere. The connection is faster for receiving data than it is for
sending data over the Internet. 

Data Link Layer

• Last Updated : 30 Apr, 2022

The Data-link layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI (Open System
Interconnection) network architecture model. It is responsible for the node-to-node delivery
of data. Its major role is to ensure error-free transmission of information. DLL is also
responsible to encode, decode and organize the outgoing and incoming data. This is
considered the most complex layer of the OSI model as it hides all the underlying
complexities of the hardware from the other above layers. 
Sub-layers of Data Link Layer:
The data link layer is further divided into two sub-layers, which are as follows:

Logical Link Control (LLC):

This sublayer of the data link layer deals with multiplexing, the flow of data among
applications and other services, and LLC is responsible for providing error messages and
acknowledgments as well. 

Media Access Control (MAC):

MAC sublayer manages the device’s interaction, responsible for addressing frames, and also
controls physical media access.
The data link layer receives the information in the form of packets from the Network layer,
it divides packets into frames and sends those frames bit-by-bit to the underlying physical
layer. 
Functions of the Data-link Layer:

 
1. Framing: The packet received from the Network layer is known as a frame in the Data
link layer. At the sender’s side, DLL receives packets from the Network layer and divides
them into small frames, then, sends each frame bit-by-bit to the physical layer. It also
attaches some special bits (for error control and addressing) at the header and end of the
frame. At the receiver’s end, DLL takes bits from the Physical layer organizes them into the
frame, and sends them to the Network layer. 
2. Addressing: The data link layer encapsulates the source and destination’s MAC address/
physical address in the header of each frame to ensure node-to-node delivery. MAC address
is the unique hardware address that is assigned to the device while manufacturing. 
3. Error Control: Data can get corrupted due to various reasons like noise, attenuation, etc.
So, it is the responsibility of the data link layer, to detect the error in the transmitted data
and correct it using error detection and correction techniques respectively. DLL adds error
detection bits into the frame’s header, so that receiver can check received data is correct or
not.
4. Flow Control: If the receiver’s receiving speed is lower than the sender’s sending speed,
then this can lead to an overflow in the receiver’s buffer and some frames may get lost. So,
it’s the responsibility of DLL to synchronize the sender’s and receiver’s speeds and establish
flow control between them. 
5. Access Control: When multiple devices share the same communication channel there is a
high probability of collision, so it’s the responsibility of DLL to check which device has
control over the channel and CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA can be used to avoid collisions
and loss of frames in the channel. 
Protocols in Data link layer
There are various protocols in the data link layer, which are as follows:
• Synchronous Data Link Protocol (SDLC)
• High-Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC)
• Serial Line Interface Protocol (SLIP)
• Point to Point Protocol (PPP)
 • Link Access Procedure (LAP)
• Link Control Protocol (LCP)
• Network Control Protocol (NCP)
Error Control in Data Link Layer
• Level : Medium
• Last Updated : 07 Sep, 2020
Data-link layer uses the techniques of error control simply to ensure and confirm that all
the data frames or packets, i.e. bit streams of data, are transmitted or transferred from sender
to receiver with certain accuracy. Using or providing error control at this data link layer is
an optimization, it was never requirement. Error control is basically process in data link
layer of detecting or identifying and re-transmitting data frames that might be lost or
corrupted during transmission.
In both of these cases, receiver or destination does not receive correct data-frame and sender
or source does not even know anything about any such loss regarding data frames.
Therefore, in such tDifficultyype of cases, both sender and receiver are provided with some
essential protocols that are required to detect or identify such type of errors like loss of data
frames.
The Data-link layer follows technique known as re-transmission of frames to detect or
identify transit errors and also to take necessary actions that are required to reduce or
remove such errors. Each and every time an effort is detected during transmission, particular
data frames retransmitted and this process is known as ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request).

Ways of doing Error Control :

There are basically two ways of doing Error control as given below :

Ways of Error Control

1. Error Detection :
Error detection, as name suggests, simply means detection or identification of errors.
These errors may cause due to noise or any other impairments during transmission from
transmitter to the receiver, in communication system. It is class of technique for detecting
garbled i.e. unclear and distorted data or message.
2. Error Correction :
Error correction, as name suggests, simply means correction or solving or fixing of
errors. It simply means reconstruction and rehabilitation of original data that is error-free.
But error correction method is very costly and is very hard.

Various Techniques for Error Control :

There are various techniques of error control as given below :

Techniques of Error Control

1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ :
Stop-and-Wait ARQ is also known as alternating bit protocol. It is one of simplest flow and
error control techniques or mechanisms. This mechanism is generally required in
telecommunications to transmit data or information among two connected devices. Receiver
simply indicates its readiness to receive data for each frame. In these, sender sends
information or data packet to receiver. Sender then stops and waits for ACK
(Acknowledgment) from receiver. Further, if ACK does not arrive within given time period
i.e., time-out, sender then again resends frame and waits for ACK. But, if sender receives
ACK, then it will transmi next data packet to receiver and then again wait for ACK fro
receiver. This process to stop and wait continues until sender has no data frame or packet to
send.
2. Sliding Window ARQ :
This technique is generally used for continuous transmission error control. It is further
categorized into two categories as given below :
• Go-Back-N ARQ :
Go-Back-N ARQ is form of ARQ protocol in which transmission process continues to
send or transmit total number of frames that are specified by window size even without
receiving an ACK (Acknowledgement) packet from the receiver. It uses sliding window
flow control protocol. If no errors occur, then operation is identical to sliding window.
• Selective Repeat ARQ :
Selective Repeat ARQ is also form of ARQ protocol in which only suspected or damaged
or lost data frames are only retransmitted. This technique is similar to Go-Back-N ARQ
though much more efficient than the Go-Back-N ARQ technique due to reason that it
reduces number of retransmission. In this, the sender only retransmits frames for which
NAK is received. But this technique is used less because of more complexity at sender
and receiver and each frame must be needed to acknowledged individually.

Unit 3

Multiple Access Protocols

The Data Link Layer is responsible for transmission of data between two nodes. Its main
functions are- 
• Data Link Control
• Multiple Access Control

Data Link control – 

The data link control is responsible for reliable transmission of message over transmission
channel by using techniques like framing, error control and flow control. For Data link
control refer to – Stop and Wait ARQ 
Multiple Access Control – 
If there is a dedicated link between the sender and the receiver then data link control layer is
sufficient, however if there is no dedicated link present then multiple stations can access the
channel simultaneously. Hence multiple access protocols are required to decrease collision
and avoid crosstalk. For example, in a classroom full of students, when a teacher asks a
question and all the students (or stations) start answering simultaneously (send data at same
time) then a lot of chaos is created( data overlap or data lost) then it is the job of the teacher
(multiple access protocols) to manage the students and make them answer one at a time. 
Thus, protocols are required for sharing data on non dedicated channels. Multiple access
protocols can be subdivided further as – 

1. Random Access Protocol: In this, all stations have same superiority that is no station has
more priority than another station. Any station can send data depending on medium’s
state( idle or busy). It has two features: 
1. There is no fixed time for sending data
2. There is no fixed sequence of stations sending data
The Random access protocols are further subdivided as: 
(a) ALOHA – It was designed for wireless LAN but is also applicable for shared medium. In
this, multiple stations can transmit data at the same time and can hence lead to collision and
data being garbled. 
• Pure Aloha: 
When a station sends data it waits for an acknowledgement. If the acknowledgement
 doesn’t come within the allotted time then the station waits for a random amount of time
called back-off time (Tb) and re-sends the data. Since different stations wait for different
amount of time, the probability of further collision decreases. 
Vulnerable Time = 2* Frame transmission time
Throughput = G exp{-2*G}
Maximum throughput = 0.184 for G=0.5
• Slotted Aloha: 
It is similar to pure aloha, except that we divide time into slots and sending of data is
allowed only at the beginning of these slots. If a station misses out the allowed time, it
must wait for the next slot. This reduces the probability of collision. 
Vulnerable Time = Frame transmission time
Throughput = G exp{-*G}
Maximum throughput = 0.368 for G=1
For more information on ALOHA refer – LAN Technologies 
(b) CSMA – Carrier Sense Multiple Access ensures fewer collisions as the station is
required to first sense the medium (for idle or busy) before transmitting data. If it is idle
then it sends data, otherwise it waits till the channel becomes idle. However there is still
chance of collision in CSMA due to propagation delay. For example, if station A wants to
send data, it will first sense the medium.If it finds the channel idle, it will start sending data.
However, by the time the first bit of data is transmitted (delayed due to propagation delay)
from station A, if station B requests to send data and senses the medium it will also find it
idle and will also send data. This will result in collision of data from station A and B. 
CSMA access modes- 
• 1-persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data, otherwise it
continuously keeps on checking the medium for being idle and transmits
unconditionally(with 1 probability) as soon as the channel gets idle.
• Non-Persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data, otherwise it checks
the medium after a random amount of time (not continuously) and transmits when found
idle. 
• P-persistent: The node senses the medium, if idle it sends the data with p probability. If
the data is not transmitted ((1-p) probability) then it waits for some time and checks the
medium again, now if it is found idle then it send with p probability. This repeat
continues until the frame is sent. It is used in Wifi and packet radio systems. 
• O-persistent: Superiority of nodes is decided beforehand and transmission occurs in that
order. If the medium is idle, node waits for its time slot to send data. 
(c) CSMA/CD – Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection. Stations can
terminate transmission of data if collision is detected. For more details refer – Efficiency of
CSMA/CD 
(d) CSMA/CA – Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance. The process of
collisions detection involves sender receiving acknowledgement signals. If there is just one
signal(its own) then the data is successfully sent but if there are two signals(its own and the
one with which it has collided) then it means a collision has occurred. To distinguish
between these two cases, collision must have a lot of impact on received signal. However it
is not so in wired networks, so CSMA/CA is used in this case. 
CSMA/CA avoids collision by: 
1. Interframe space – Station waits for medium to become idle and if found idle it does not
immediately send data (to avoid collision due to propagation delay) rather it waits for a
period of time called Interframe space or IFS. After this time it again checks the medium
for being idle. The IFS duration depends on the priority of station.
2. Contention Window – It is the amount of time divided into slots. If the sender is ready to
send data, it chooses a random number of slots as wait time which doubles every time
medium is not found idle. If the medium is found busy it does not restart the entire
process, rather it restarts the timer when the channel is found idle again.
3. Acknowledgement – The sender re-transmits the data if acknowledgement is not received
before time-out.
2. Controlled Access: 
In this, the data is sent by that station which is approved by all other stations. For further
details refer – Controlled Access Protocols 
3. Channelization: 
In this, the available bandwidth of the link is shared in time, frequency and code to multiple
stations to access channel simultaneously. 
• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) – The available bandwidth is divided into
equal bands so that each station can be allocated its own band. Guard bands are also
added so that no two bands overlap to avoid crosstalk and noise. 
• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) – In this, the bandwidth is shared between
multiple stations. To avoid collision time is divided into slots and stations are allotted
these slots to transmit data. However there is a overhead of synchronization as each
station needs to know its time slot. This is resolved by adding synchronization bits to
each slot. Another issue with TDMA is propagation delay which is resolved by addition
of guard bands. 
For more details refer – Circuit Switching 
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) – One channel carries all transmissions
simultaneously. There is neither division of bandwidth nor division of time. For example,
if there are many people in a room all speaking at the same time, then also perfect
reception of data is possible if only two person speak the same language. Similarly, data
from different stations can be transmitted simultaneously in different code languages.
Ethernet:- 
Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology, which is defined under IEEE standards
802.3. The reason behind its wide usability is Ethernet is easy to understand, implement,
maintain, and allows low-cost network implementation. Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in
terms of topologies that are allowed. Ethernet generally uses Bus Topology. Ethernet
operates in two layers of the OSI model, Physical Layer, and Data Link Layer. For Ethernet,
the protocol data unit is Frame since we mainly deal with DLL. In order to handle collision,
the Access control mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD. 
Manchester Encoding Technique is used in Ethernet. 
 

Since we are talking about IEEE 802.3 standard Ethernet, therefore, 0 is expressed by a
high-to-low transition, a 1 by the low-to-high transition. In both Manchester Encoding and
Differential Manchester, the Encoding Baud rate is double of bit rate. 
Advantages of Ethernet:

Speed: When compared to a wireless connection, Ethernet provides significantly more

speed. Because Ethernet is a one-to-one connection, this is the case. As a result, speeds of
up to 10 Gigabits per second (Gbps) or even 100 Gigabits per second (Gbps) are possible.
Efficiency: An Ethernet cable, such as Cat6, consumes less electricity, even less than a wifi
connection. As a result, these ethernet cables are thought to be the most energy-efficient.
Good data transfer quality: Because it is resistant to noise, the information transferred is of
high quality.
Ethernet LANs consist of network nodes and interconnecting media or links. The network
nodes can be of two types: 
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE):- Generally, DTEs are the end devices that convert the user
information into signals or reconvert the received signals. DTEs devices are: personal
computers, workstations, file servers or print servers also referred to as end stations. These
devices are either the source or the destination of data frames. The data terminal equipment
may be a single piece of equipment or multiple pieces of equipment that are interconnected
and perform all the required functions to allow the user to communicate. A user can interact
with DTE or DTE may be a user. 
Data Communication Equipment (DCE):- DCEs are the intermediate network devices that
receive and forward frames across the network. They may be either standalone devices such
as repeaters, network switches, routers, or maybe communications interface units such as
interface cards and modems. The DCE performs functions such as signal conversion,
coding, and maybe a part of the DTE or intermediate equipment. 
 Difference between Token Bus and Token Ring Network
• Last Updated : 04 Jan, 2022
Token Bus network is a standard in which tokens are passed along a virtual ring. In the
token bus network bus topology is used as physical media. 
In this, the virtual ring is created with stations and therefore tokens are subsequently passed
from a station during a sequence with this virtual ring. Every station or node in the token
bus network knows the address of its predecessor station and its successor station. A node
(station) can transmit the data if and only if it has a token. Its working rule is analogous to
the token ring network. 
 

Token Bus
Token Ring is defined by the IEEE 802.5 standard. In the token ring network, the token is
passed over a physical ring instead of a virtual ring. 
In this a token is a special frame and a station can transmit the data frame if and only if it
has a token. And The tokens are issued on successful receipt of the data frame. 
 
 Token Ring

Difference between the Token Bus and the Token Ring:

S.NO Token Bus Network Token Ring Network

In the token bus network, the token is While in the token ring network the
1.
passed along a virtual ring. token is passed over a physical ring.
The token bus network is simply designed While the token ring network is designed
2.
for large factories. for the offices.
The token bus network is defined by the While the token ring network is defined
3.
IEEE 802.4 standard. by the IEEE 802.5 standard.
While the token ring network does not
Token bus network provides better
4. provide better bandwidth as compared to
bandwidth.
the token bus.
In a token bus network, Bus topology is While in token ring network, Star
5.
used. topology is used.
The maximum time it takes to reach the While the maximum time to reach the last
6. last station in a token bus network cannot station in the token ring network can be
be calculated. calculated.
In a token bus network, coaxial cable is In token ring network, twisted pair and
7
used fiber optic is used.
In a token bus network, the cable length is In a token ring network, the cable length
8
200m to 500m. is 50m to 1000m.
In a token ring network, a designated
In token bus network, distributed monitor station performs station
9.
algorithm provide maintenance. maintenance.

Backbone is most important part of a system which provides the central support to the rest
system, for example backbone of a human body that balance and hold all the body parts.
Similarly in Computer Networks a Backbone Network is as a Network containing a high
capacity connectivity infrastructure that backbone to the different part of the network.
Actually a backbone network allows multiple LANs to get connected in a backbone
network, not a single station is directly connected to the backbone but the stations are part of
LAN, and backbone connect those LANs.
NETWORK ADAPTERS
The network adapter is a component of the internal hardware of a computer, which is used
to communicate with another computer through a network. It enables the computer to
connect with another computer, server or any network device through a LAN connection.
You can use the network adapter on a wired or wireless network. The wireless network
adapter receives the signal from the computer and converts it into radio waves transmitted
through the antenna. Radiofrequency signals are electromagnetic waves, which vibrate
when they propagate in the air at the appropriate frequency band or frequency.

The frequency generally tends to 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, and 14 channels are available. The
radio waves reach the router first, and then the broadband modem or internal network.

The adapter for the desktop computer is usually pre-installed. If the desktop computer does
not provide a pre-installed adapter, the card can be connected to a PCMCIA slot or a mini
PCI slot. Similarly, old desktop computers may allow a modified Ethernet adapter to be
inserted in the PCI slot. Some electronic cards can even be inserted into the memory card
port.

As another option, a USB-style Ethernet adapter can be compatible with both desktop and
laptop computers, or it can be connected to an Ethernet port via an Ethernet cable.

REPEATERS

Repeaters are network devices operating at physical layer of the OSI model that amplify or
regenerate an incoming signal before retransmitting it. They are incorporated in networks to
expand its coverage area. They are also known as signal boosters.
Why are Repeaters needed?
When an electrical signal is transmitted via a channel, it gets attenuated depending upon the
nature of the channel or the technology. This poses a limitation upon the length of the LAN
or coverage area of cellular networks. This problem is alleviated by installing repeaters at
certain intervals.
Repeaters amplifies the attenuated signal and then retransmits it. Digital repeaters can even
reconstruct signals distorted by transmission loss.So, repeaters are popularly incorporated to
connect between two LANs thus forming a large single LAN. This is shown in the following
diagram −

Advantages of Repeaters
•Repeaters are simple to install and can easily extend the length or the coverage area
of networks.
•They are cost effective.
 •Repeaters don’t require any processing overhead. The only time they need to be
investigated is in case of degradation of performance.
•They can connect signals using different types of cables.
Disadvantages of Repeaters
•Repeaters cannot connect dissimilar networks.
•They cannot differentiate between actual signal and noise.
•They cannot reduce network traffic or congestion.
•Most networks have limitations upon the number of repeaters that can be deployed.
Hubs are networking devices operating at a physical layer of the OSI model that are used to
connect multiple devices in a network. They are generally used to connect computers in a
LAN.
A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected to the network is
plugged in to one of these ports. When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to every
other port, without considering whether it is destined for a particular destination device or
not.

Features of Hubs
•A hub operates in the physical layer of the OSI model.
•A hub cannot filter data. It is a non-intelligent network device that sends message to
all ports.
•It primarily broadcasts messages. So, the collision domain of all nodes connected
through the hub stays one.
•Transmission mode is half duplex.
•Collisions may occurs during setup of transmission when more than one computers
place data simultaneously in the corresponding ports.
 •Since they lack intelligence to compute best path for transmission of data packets,
inefficiencies and wastage occur.
•They are passive devices, they don’t have any software associated with it.
•They generally have fewer ports of 4/12.
Types of Hubs
Initially, hubs were passive devices. However, with development of advanced technology,
active hubs and intelligent hubs came into use.

•Passive Hubs − Passive hubs connects nodes in a star configuration by collecting

wiring from nodes. They broadcast signals onto the network without amplifying or
regenerating them. As they cannot extend the distance between nodes, they limit the
size of the LAN.
•Active Hubs − Active hubs amplify and regenerate the incoming electrical signals
before broadcasting them. They have their own power supply and serves both as a
repeater as well as connecting centre. Due to their regenerating capabilities, they can
extend the maximum distance between nodes, thus increasing the size of LAN.
•Intelligent Hubs − Intelligent hubs are active hubs that provide additional network
management facilities. They can perform a variety of functions of more intelligent
network devices like network management, switching, providing flexible data rates
etc.

witches are networking devices operating at layer 2 or a data link layer of the OSI model.
They connect devices in a network and use packet switching to send, receive or forward
data packets or data frames over the network.
A switch has many ports, to which computers are plugged in. When a data frame arrives at
any port of a network switch, it examines the destination address, performs necessary
checks and sends the frame to the corresponding device(s).It supports unicast, multicast as
well as broadcast communications.
Features of Switches
•A switch operates in the layer 2, i.e. data link layer of the OSI model.
•It is an intelligent network device that can be conceived as a multiport network
bridge.
•It uses MAC addresses (addresses of medium access control sublayer) to send data
packets to selected destination ports.
•It uses packet switching technique to receive and forward data packets from the
source to the destination device.
•It is supports unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many) and broadcast (one-to-
all) communications.
•Transmission mode is full duplex, i.e. communication in the channel occurs in both
the directions at the same time. Due to this, collisions do not occur.
•Switches are active devices, equipped with network software and network
management capabilities.
•Switches can perform some error checking before forwarding data to the destined
port.
•The number of ports is higher – 24/48.
Types of Switches
There are variety of switches that can be broadly categorised into 4 types −
 •Unmanaged Switch − These are inexpensive switches commonly used in home
networks and small businesses. They can be set up by simply plugging in to the
network, after which they instantly start operating. When more devices needs to be
added, more switches are simply added by this plug and play method. They are
referred to as u managed since they do not require to be configured or monitored.
•Managed Switch − These are costly switches that are used in organisations with
large and complex networks, since they can be customized to augment the
functionalities of a standard switch. The augmented features may be QoS (Quality of
Service) like higher security levels, better precision control and complete network
management. Despite their cost, they are preferred in growing organizations due to
their scalability and flexibility. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is
used for configuring managed switches.
•LAN Switch − Local Area Network (LAN) switches connects devices in the internal
LAN of an organization. They are also referred as Ethernet switches or data switches.
These switches are particularly helpful in reducing network congestion or
bottlenecks. They allocate bandwidth in a manner so that there is no overlapping of
data packets in a network.
•PoE Switch − Power over Ethernet (PoE) switches are used in PoE Gogabit
Ethernets. PoE technology combine data and power transmission over the same cable
so that devices connected to it can receive both electricity as well as data over the
same line. PoE switches offer greater flexibility and simplifies the cabling
connections
Bridges are used to connect two subnetworks that use interchangeable protocols. It
combines two LANs to form an extended LAN. The main difference between the bridge and
repeater is that the bridge has a penetrating efficiency.
Working of Bridges
A bridge accepts all the packets and amplifies all of them to the other side. The bridges are
intelligent devices that allow the passing of only selective packets from them. A bridge only
passes those packets addressed from a node in one network to another node in the other
network.
A bridge performs in the following aspect −
•A bridge receives all the packets or frame from both LAN (segment) A and B.
•A bridge builds a table of addresses from which it can identify that the packets are
sent from which LAN (or segment) to which LAN.
•The bridge reads the send and discards all packets from LAN A sent to a computer
on LAN A and that packets from LAN A send to a computer on LAN B are
retransmitted to LAN B.
•The packets from LAN B are considered in the same method.
Types of Bridges
There are generally two types of bridges which are as follows −
Transparent Bridges
It is also called learning bridges. Bridge construct its table of terminal addresses on its own
as it implements connecting two LANs. It facilitates the source location to create its table. It
is self-updating. It is a plug and plays bridge.
Source Routing Bridge
This sending terminal means the bridges that the frames should stay. This type of bridge is
used to prevent looping problem.
Uses of Bridges
The main uses of bridges are −
•Bridges are used to divide large busy networks into multiple smaller and
interconnected networks to improve performance.
•Bridges also can increase the physical size of a network.
•Bridges are also used to connect a LAN segment through a synchronous modem
relation to another LAN segment at a remote area.

ROUTER
A Router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. 
Let us understand this by a very general example, suppose you search
for www.google.com in your web browser then this will be a request which will be sent from
your system to the google`s server to serve that webpage, now your request which is nothing
but a stream of packets don`t just go the google`s server straightaway they go through a
series of networking devices known as a router which accepts this packets and forwards
them to correct path and hence it reaches to the destination server. 

A router has a number of interfaces by which it can connect to a number of host systems. 
Functions of a Router: 
The router basically performs two major functions: 
1.Forwarding – 
The router receives the packets from its input ports, checks its header, performs some
 basic functions like checking checksum, and then looks up to the routing table to find the
appropriate output port to dump the packets onto, and forwards the packets onto that
output port.
2.Routing – 
Routing is the process by which the router ascertains what is the best path for the packet
to reach the destination, It maintains a routing table which is made using different
algorithms by the router only.
GATEWAY
Gateways as the name suggest are one kind of gate (passage) that connects smart objects to
the servers by application of fog computing. 
In IoT, Gateways are network hardware that an application/system uses for interacting with
the server. 
1.Gateways make communication between the application and the server feasible by
connecting them altogether through a network tube, an imaginary tube that is believed to
exist between the application and the server and constituted by network waves through
which data transmission takes place.
2.A request about a certain amount of data is made by the user end and then the server
finds and processes data accordingly with the request.
3.The transmission is made via network tubes through the server to the gateway and then
the gateway to the application that made a request for data.
4.Gateways are considered to be the backbone for preserving the intelligence as well as
the storage capacity of the Smart device altogether without compromising on the loss of
the duo.
5.Gateways do this by application of Fog computing, on which a brief is provided below
that helps you to get an overview of the deal between Gateways and Fog Computing and
the whole data processing thing.

Why It Is Important to Learn About Gateways?

Gateway is not just hardware but a program in itself as important as other aspects of the
Internet of Things. Gateways are designed as a passage for data transfer and the more
intelligent a gateway could be, the more secure gateways could be, the more approachable
the gateways could be, the more sophisticated the programming and designing of gateways
could be, the more approachable and user-friendly internet of things be and the users could
access and enjoy the smart objects in their life more easily. 
If gateways could be understood and made in a manner that makes their potential,
accessibility, and user-friendliness to the mark, there could be prominent growth and more
security on the Internet of Things. For instance, think of a gateway connected to the smart
refrigerator, so now all functions like requesting for data and sending data wherever needed
could be done through the gateway itself, and if somebody could get access to the gateway
he/she could steal, modify or hinder data. Also, if the gateway could be accessed without
authority consent, it could be manipulated by a false server and data could be sent where it
should not, and thus machine learning algorithms could verify all of it by various
methods. 

Features Of Gateways :
Gateways provide a wide variety of features. Some of which are:
1.Gateways work as a network bridge for data transmission as it makes the transmission
of data possible to transmit with more ease and does not demand high storage capacity.
2.Gateways create a structural temporary storeroom for the data transmitted by the server
and data requests made by the user end.
3.Gateways made the transmission more feasible as it queued up all the data and divide it
into small packets of data rather than sending it bulk. Data transmitted through Gateway
is divided into various useful and small packets each having its individual significance
and a role to play while processing data.
4.Gateways made the data more secure if the modifications to the gateway could be done
which than could create more reliability over smart devices.
5.Gateways optimize the data for search engines, applications, and servers by implanting
better readability to the content so that a machine could understand and optimize data
with ease.
Types Of Gateways :
There is not any specification of gateways in the commercial market other than being brand
specific. But on the feasibility, performance, speed, and workability gateways can be
classified in a broad manner as:
1.High Bandwidth Gateways –
These Gateways are meant for a more complex and intelligent Internet of Things or when
there are lots of data to be processed and transmitted and a lot of smart devices to be
handled once a time. These gateways could process data with more speed and flexibility
and are able to handle more data at a time. Gateways basically are not categorized as such
in the market, but various brands have certain specifications through which it could be
decided either the gateway is of high bandwidth or not.
 2.Low Bandwidth Gateway –
These Gateways are really the best choice while choosing a simple smart object or when
you want to handle a single device once at a time. These Gateways are usually cheap and
are easy going with simple smart devices, and usually need a sink* for more feasibility.
They are really awesome if want a cheap solution to your data transmission.

UNIT 4
NETWORK LAYER
Network layer is the third layer in the OSI model of computer networks. It’s main function
is to transfer network packets from the source to the destination. It is involved both at the
source host and the destination host. At the source, it accepts a packet from the transport
layer, encapsulates it in a datagram and then deliver the packet to the data link layer so that
it can further be sent to the receiver. At the destination, the datagram is decapsulated, the
packet is extracted and delivered to the corresponding transport layer. 

The functions of the network layer are as follows −

Network Connection
When the Network layer receives a call request from the transport layer, it establishes a
network connection across the subnetwork. For this, it makes use of data link connections.
The end system's network layer interacts with the network layer of the subnetwork access
point for this purpose.
Routing
The Network Layer selects an appropriate route between source and destination device. This
route is either decided in the beginning or for each N-SDU, depending on the type of
services. The routing functions are facilitated by sub layering of the network layer.
Multiplexing
For optimum use of data link connections, many network connections are sometimes
required to be multiplexed on a single data-link connection. This is done by a network entity
that can multiplex several network connections on a data link connection, as shown in the
figure.
Error Detection
The network layer uses error detection functions to ensure that the quality of service
provided over the network connection is maintained. Most of the errors are detected and
corrected at the data link layer. The residual errors, Network Layer, notifies any. It relies on
the quality of service provided, and the network layer incorporates the mechanism for error
recovery.
Other Functions
The network service data unit is segmented at the network layer, and blocking is done to
produce a network protocol data unit (N-PDU). The delimiter of NSDU is preserved during
segmenting and blocking.
The process is shown in the figure. The network entity also carries out sequencing and flow
control of network service data units on request of the transport layer. At the request of the
transport layer, it can reset the network connection too.

Network Layer Protocols

TCP/IP supports the following protocols:

ARP
ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

It is used to associate an IP address with the MAC address.

Each device on the network is recognized by the MAC address imprinted on the
NIC. Therefore, we can say that devices need the MAC address for communication
on a local area network. MAC address can be changed easily. For example, if the
NIC on a particular machine fails, the MAC address changes but IP address does not
change. ARP is used to find the MAC address of the node when an internet address is
known.
 Note: MAC address: The MAC address is used to identify the actual device.
IP address: It is an address used to locate a device on the network.

How ARP works

If the host wants to know the physical address of another host on its network, then it sends
an ARP query packet that includes the IP address and broadcast it over the network. Every
host on the network receives and processes the ARP packet, but only the intended recipient
recognizes the IP address and sends back the physical address. The host holding the
datagram adds the physical address to the cache memory and to the datagram header, then
sends back to the sender.

Steps taken by ARP protocol

If a device wants to communicate with another device, the following steps are taken by the
device:

The device will first look at its internet list, called the ARP cache to check whether
an IP address contains a matching MAC address or not. It will check the ARP cache
in command prompt by using a command arp-a.

If ARP cache is empty, then device broadcast the message to the entire network
asking each device for a matching MAC address.
 The device that has the matching IP address will then respond back to the sender
with its MAC address

Once the MAC address is received by the device, then the communication can take
place between two devices.

If the device receives the MAC address, then the MAC address gets stored in the
ARP cache. We can check the ARP cache in command prompt by using a command
arp -a.

Note: ARP cache is used to make a network more efficient.

In the above screenshot, we observe the association of IP address to the MAC address.

Object 1
 Object 2

There are two types of ARP entries:

Dynamic entry: It is an entry which is created automatically when the sender
broadcast its message to the entire network. Dynamic entries are not permanent, and
they are removed periodically.

Static entry: It is an entry where someone manually enters the IP to MAC address
association by using the ARP command utility.

RARP
RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.

If the host wants to know its IP address, then it broadcast the RARP query packet
that contains its physical address to the entire network. A RARP server on the
network recognizes the RARP packet and responds back with the host IP address.

The protocol which is used to obtain the IP address from a server is known
as Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.

The message format of the RARP protocol is similar to the ARP protocol.

Like ARP frame, RARP frame is sent from one machine to another encapsulated in
the data portion of a frame.
ICMP
ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

The ICMP is a network layer protocol used by hosts and routers to send the
notifications of IP datagram problems back to the sender.

ICMP uses echo test/reply to check whether the destination is reachable and
responding.

ICMP handles both control and error messages, but its main function is to report the
error but not to correct them.

An IP datagram contains the addresses of both source and destination, but it does
not know the address of the previous router through which it has been passed. Due to
this reason, ICMP can only send the messages to the source, but not to the immediate
routers.

ICMP protocol communicates the error messages to the sender. ICMP messages
cause the errors to be returned back to the user processes.

ICMP messages are transmitted within IP datagram.

The Format of an ICMP message

The first field specifies the type of the message.

The second field specifies the reason for a particular message type.

The checksum field covers the entire ICMP message.

Error Reporting
ICMP protocol reports the error messages to the sender.
Five types of errors are handled by the ICMP protocol:

Destination unreachable

Source Quench

Time Exceeded

Parameter problems

Redirection

Destination unreachable: The message of "Destination Unreachable" is sent from

receiver to the sender when destination cannot be reached, or packet is discarded
when the destination is not reachable.

Source Quench: The purpose of the source quench message is congestion control.

The message sent from the congested router to the source host to reduce the
transmission rate. ICMP will take the IP of the discarded packet and then add the
source quench message to the IP datagram to inform the source host to reduce its
 transmission rate. The source host will reduce the transmission rate so that the router
will be free from congestion.

Time Exceeded: Time Exceeded is also known as "Time-To-Live". It is a

parameter that defines how long a packet should live before it would be discarded.
There are two ways when Time Exceeded message can be generated:
Sometimes packet discarded due to some bad routing implementation, and this causes the
looping issue and network congestion. Due to the looping issue, the value of TTL keeps on
decrementing, and when it reaches zero, the router discards the datagram. However, when
the datagram is discarded by the router, the time exceeded message will be sent by the
router to the source host.
When destination host does not receive all the fragments in a certain time limit, then the
received fragments are also discarded, and the destination host sends time Exceeded
message to the source host.

Parameter problems: When a router or host discovers any missing value in the IP

datagram, the router discards the datagram, and the "parameter problem" message is
sent back to the source host.

Redirection: Redirection message is generated when host consists of a small

routing table. When the host consists of a limited number of entries due to which it
sends the datagram to a wrong router. The router that receives a datagram will
forward a datagram to a correct router and also sends the "Redirection message" to
the host to update its routing table.

IGMP
IGMP stands for Internet Group Message Protocol.

The IP protocol supports two types of communication:

Unicasting: It is a communication between one sender and one receiver.

Therefore, we can say that it is one-to-one communication.

Multicasting: Sometimes the sender wants to send the same message to a

large number of receivers simultaneously. This process is known as
multicasting which has one-to-many communication.

The IGMP protocol is used by the hosts and router to support multicasting.

The IGMP protocol is used by the hosts and router to identify the hosts in a LAN
that are the members of a group.
 IGMP is a part of the IP layer, and IGMP has a fixed-size message.

The IGMP message is encapsulated within an IP datagram.

The Format of IGMP message

Where,
Type: It determines the type of IGMP message. There are three types of IGMP message:
Membership Query, Membership Report and Leave Report.
Maximum Response Time: This field is used only by the Membership Query message. It
determines the maximum time the host can send the Membership Report message in
response to the Membership Query message.

Object 3

Checksum: It determines the entire payload of the IP datagram in which IGMP message is
encapsulated.
Group Address: The behavior of this field depends on the type of the message sent.

For Membership Query, the group address is set to zero for General Query and set
to multicast group address for a specific query.

For Membership Report, the group address is set to the multicast group address.

For Leave Group, it is set to the multicast group address.

IGMP Messages

Membership Query message

This message is sent by a router to all hosts on a local area network to

determine the set of all the multicast groups that have been joined by the host.

It also determines whether a specific multicast group has been joined by the
hosts on a attached interface.

The group address in the query is zero since the router expects one response
from a host for every group that contains one or more members on that host.

Membership Report message

The host responds to the membership query message with a membership

report message.

Membership report messages can also be generated by the host when a host
wants to join the multicast group without waiting for a membership query
message from the router.

Membership report messages are received by a router as well as all the hosts
on an attached interface.

Each membership report message includes the multicast address of a single

group that the host wants to join.
 IGMP protocol does not care which host has joined the group or how many
hosts are present in a single group. It only cares whether one or more attached
hosts belong to a single multicast group.

The membership Query message sent by a router also includes a "Maximum

Response time". After receiving a membership query message and before
sending the membership report message, the host waits for the random amount
of time from 0 to the maximum response time. If a host observes that some
other attached host has sent the "Maximum Report message", then it discards
its "Maximum Report message" as it knows that the attached router already
knows that one or more hosts have joined a single multicast group. This
process is known as feedback suppression. It provides the performance
optimization, thus avoiding the unnecessary transmission of a "Membership
Report message".

Leave Report
When the host does not send the "Membership Report message", it means that the
host has left the group. The host knows that there are no members in the group, so
even when it receives the next query, it would not report the group.

Routing
A Router is a process of selecting path along which the data can be transferred from
source to the destination. Routing is performed by a special device known as a router.

A Router works at the network layer in the OSI model and internet layer in TCP/IP
model

A router is a networking device that forwards the packet based on the information
available in the packet header and forwarding table.

The routing algorithms are used for routing the packets. The routing algorithm is
nothing but a software responsible for deciding the optimal path through which
packet can be transmitted.

The routing protocols use the metric to determine the best path for the packet
delivery. The metric is the standard of measurement such as hop count, bandwidth,
delay, current load on the path, etc. used by the routing algorithm to determine the
optimal path to the destination.

The routing algorithm initializes and maintains the routing table for the process of
path determination.
ROUTING ALOGORITHM
Routing is the process of establishing the routes that data packets must follow to reach the
destination. In this process, a routing table is created which contains information regarding
routes that data packets follow. Various routing algorithms are used for the purpose of
deciding which route an incoming data packet needs to be transmitted on to reach the
destination efficiently. 

Classification of Routing Algorithms: The routing algorithms can be classified afollows:

1. Adaptive Algorithms – 
These are the algorithms that change their routing decisions whenever network topology or
traffic load changes. The changes in routing decisions are reflected in the topology as well
as the traffic of the network. Also known as dynamic routing, these make use of dynamic
information such as current topology, load, delay, etc. to select routes. Optimization
parameters are distance, number of hops, and estimated transit time. 
Further, these are classified as follows: 
•(a) Isolated – In this method each, node makes its routing decisions using the
information it has without seeking information from other nodes. The sending nodes
don’t have information about the status of a particular link. The disadvantage is that
packets may be sent through a congested network which may result in delay. Examples:
Hot potato routing, backward learning. 
 
 •(b) Centralized – In this method, a centralized node has entire information about the
network and makes all the routing decisions. The advantage of this is only one node is
required to keep the information of the entire network and the disadvantage is that if the
central node goes down the entire network is done. The link state algorithm is referred to
as a centralized algorithm since it is aware of the cost of each link in the network.
 
•(c) Distributed – In this method, the node receives information from its neighbors and
then takes the decision about routing the packets. A disadvantage is that the packet may
be delayed if there is a change in between intervals in which it receives information and
sends packets. It is also known as a decentralized algorithm as it computes the least-cost
path between source and destination
 
2. Non-Adaptive Algorithms – 
These are the algorithms that do not change their routing decisions once they have been
selected. This is also known as static routing as a route to be taken is computed in advance
and downloaded to routers when a router is booted. 

Further, these are classified as follows: 

•(a) Flooding – This adapts the technique in which every incoming packet is sent on
every outgoing line except from which it arrived. One problem with this is that packets
may go in a loop and as a result of which a node may receive duplicate packets. These
problems can be overcome with the help of sequence numbers, hop count, and spanning
trees. 
 
•(b) Random walk – In this method, packets are sent host by host or node by node to one
of its neighbors randomly. This is a highly robust method that is usually implemented by
sending packets onto the link which is least queued. 
 
DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING PROTOCOL
A distance-vector routing protocol in data networks determines the best route for data
packets based on distance. Distance-vector routing protocols measure the distance by the
number of routers a packet has to pass; one router counts as one hop. Some distance-vector
protocols also take into account network latency and other factors that influence traffic on a
given route. To determine the best route across a network, routers using a distance-vector
protocol exchange information with one another, usually routing tables plus hop counts for
destination networks and possibly other traffic information. Distance-vector routing
protocols also require that a router inform its neighbours of network topology changes
periodically.
How the DVR Protocol Works
 •In DVR, each router maintains a routing table. It contains only one entry for each
router. It contains two parts − a preferred outgoing line to use for that destination and
an estimate of time (delay). Tables are updated by exchanging the information with
the neighbor’s nodes.
•Each router knows the delay in reaching its neighbors (Ex − send echo request).
•Routers periodically exchange routing tables with each of their neighbors.
•It compares the delay in its local table with the delay in the neighbor’s table and the
cost of reaching that neighbor.
•If the path via the neighbor has a lower cost, then the router updates its local table to
forward packets to the neighbor.

SHORTEST PATH ROUTING

Shortest path routing refers to the process of finding paths through a network that have a
minimum of distance or other cost metric. Routing of data packets on the Internet is an
example involving millions of routers in a complex, worldwide, multilevel network.
Optimum routing on the Internet has a major impact on performance and cost.
The goal of shortest path routing is to find a path between two nodes that has the lowest
total cost, where the total cost of a path is the sum of arc costs in that path. For example,
Dijikstra uses the nodes labelling with its distance from the source node along the better-
known route

INTERNET PROTOCOL(IP)
Internet Protocols are a set of rules that governs the communication and exchange of data
over the internet. Both the sender and receiver should follow the same protocols in order to
communicate the data. In order to understand it better, let’s take an example of a language.
Any language has its own set of vocabulary and grammar which we need to know if we
want to communicate in that language. Similarly, over the internet whenever we access a
website or exchange some data with another device then these processes are governed by a
set of rules called the internet protocols.

Types of internet protocol

The Internet Protocols are of different types having different uses:-

1. TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol): These are a set of standard
rules that allows different types of computers to communicate with each other. The IP
protocol ensures that each computer that is connected to the Internet is having a specific
serial number called the IP address
2. SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): These protocols are important for sending and
distributing outgoing 2. SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): These protocols are
important for sending and distributing outgoing emails. This protocol uses the header of the
mail to get the email id of the receiver and enters the mail into the queue of outgoing mails.
Emails
3. PPP(Point to Point Protocol): It is a communication protocol that is used to create a direct
connection between two communicating devices. This protocol defines the rules using
which two devices will authenticate with each other and exchange information with each
other. 4. FTP (File
4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): This protocol is used for transferring files from one system
to the other. This works on a client-server model. When a machine requests for file transfer
from another machine, the FTO sets up a connection between the two and authenticates each
other using their ID and Password. And, the desired file transfer takes place between the
machines.
5. SFTP(Secure File Transfer Protocol): SFTP which is also known as SSH FTP refers to
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) over Secure Shell (SSH) as it encrypts both commands and
data while in transmission. SFTP acts as an extension to SSH and encrypts files and data
then sends them over a secure shell data stream.

6. HTTP(HyperText Transfer Protocol): This protocol is used to transfer hypertexts over the

internet and it is defined by the www(world wide web) for information transfer. This
protocol defines how the information needs to be formatted and transmitted.
7. HTTPS(HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure): HTTPS is an extension of the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It is used for secure communication over a computer network
with the SSL/TLS protocol for encryption and authentication.
8. TELNET(Terminal Network): TELNET is a standard TCP/IP protocol used for virtual
terminal service given by ISO. This enables one local machine to connect with another. The
computer which is being connected is called a remote computer and which is connecting is
called the local computer. 
9. POP3(Post Office Protocol 3): POP3 stands for Post Office Protocol version 3. It has two
Message Access Agents (MAAs) where one is client MAA (Message Access Agent) and
another is server MAA(Message Access Agent) for accessing the messages from the
mailbox
INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE PROTOCOL
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) works in the network layer of the OSI model and
the internet layer of the TCP/IP model. It is used to send control messages to network
devices and hosts. Routers and other network devices monitor the operation of the network.
When an error occurs, these devices send a message using ICMP. Messages that can be sent
include "destination unreachable", "time exceeded", and "echo requests".
 •ICMP is a network layer protocol.
•ICMP messages are not passed directly to the data link layer. The message is first
encapsulated inside the IP datagram before going to the lower layer.
Types of ICMP messages
•Information Messages − In this message, the sender sends a query to the host or
router and expects an answer. For example, A host wants to know if a router is alive
or not.
•Error-reporting message − This message report problems that a router or a host
(destination) may encounter when it processes an IP packet.
•Query Message − It helps a router or a network manager to get specific information
from a router or another host.
Source Quench − It requests to decrease the traffic rate of message sending from
source to destination.
•Time Exceeded − When fragments are lost in a network the fragments hold by the
router will be dropped and then ICMP will take the source IP from the discarded
packet and inform the source, that datagram is discarded due to the time to live field
reaches zero, by sending time exceeded message.
•Fragmentation Required − When a router is unable to forward a datagram because
it exceeds the MTU of the next-hop network and the DF (Don't Fragment) bit is set,
the router is required to return an ICMP Destination Unreachable message to the
source of the datagram, with the Code indicating fragmentation is needed and DF
(Don’t Fragment) set.
•Destination Unreachable − This error message indicates that the destination host,
network, or port number that is specified in the IP packet is unreachable. This may
happen due to the destination host device is down, an intermediate router is unable to
find a path to forward the packet, and a firewall is configured to block connections
from the source of the packet.
•Redirect Message − A redirect error message is used when a router needs to tell a
sender that it should use a different path for a specific destination. It occurs when the
router knows a shorter path to the destination.

Casting in computer networks means transmitting data (stream of packets) over a network.
Following are the different types of casting used in networking −
•Unicast transmission
•Broadcast transmission
•Multicast transmission
Unicast Transmission (One-to-One)
In Unicast transmission, the data is transferred from a single sender (or a single source host)
to a single receiver (or a single destination host).
The network switches hear the MAC addresses of the devices on the networks to which they
are connected. They can then forward packets only onto those networks containing devices
with the connected MAC addresses. Unicast gradually becomes less efficient as more
receivers need to see identical data.
Example
In the following figure, Host A sends the IP address 11.1.2.2 data to the Host B IP address
20.12.4.3.
•Source Address = IP address of host A is 11.1.2.2
•Destination Address = IP address of host B is 20.12.4.3

Broadcast Transmission (One-to-All)

In Broadcast transmission, the data is transmitted from one or more senders to all the
receivers within the same network or in other networks. This type of transmission is useful
in network management packets such as ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) and RIP
(Routing Information Protocol) where all the devices must see the data.
There are two types of broadcast transmission −
•Directed Broadcast, and
 •Limited Broadcast
Directed Broadcast
Directed Broadcast transmits data from one source host to all the other hosts that exist in
some other network. It is used in two scenarios −
•When the hosts are responsible for parsing data from broadcast packets.
•When all the hosts require the same data.

Limited Broadcast
In Limited Broadcast, the data is transmitted from a single source host to all the other hosts
residing in the same network.

Multicast Transmission (One-to-Many)

When the data is transmitted from a single source host to a specific group of hosts having
the interest to receive the data, it is known as multicast transmission. Multicast can be more
efficient than unicast when different groups of receivers need to see the same data.
 Example − Multicast is the technique used in Internet streaming of video or audio
teleconference, sending an email to a particular group of people, etc.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

• Difficulty Level : Basic
• Last Updated : 12 Feb, 2022
These are a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice,
video, data, and other network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched
telephone network. Before Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), the telephone
system was seen as a way to transmit voice, with some special services available for data.
The main feature of ISDN is that it can integrate speech and data on the same lines, which
were not available in the classic telephone system. 
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also provides access to packet-
switched networks that allows digital transmission of voice and data. This results in
potentially better voice or data quality than an analog phone can provide. It provides a
packet-switched connection for data in increments of 64 kilobit/s. It provided a maximum of
128 kbit/s bandwidth in both upstream and downstream directions. A greater data rate was
achieved through channel bonding. Generally, ISDN B-channels of three or four BRIs (six
to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded. 
In the context of the OSI model, ISDN is employed as the network in data-link and physical
layers but commonly ISDN is often limited to usage to Q.931 and related protocols. These
protocols introduced in 1986 are a set of signaling protocols establishing and breaking
circuit-switched connections, and for advanced calling features for the user. ISDN provides
simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission between individual desktop
videoconferencing systems and group videoconferencing systems. 
ISDN Interfaces: 
The following are the interfaces of ISDN: 
 
1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI) – 
There are two data-bearing channels (‘B’ channels) and one signaling channel (‘D’
channel) in BRI to initiate connections. The B channels operate at a maximum of 64
 Kbps while the D channel operates at a maximum of 16 Kbps. The two channels are
independent of each other. For example, one channel is used as a TCP/IP connection to a
location while the other channel is used to send a fax to a remote location. In iSeries
ISDN supports a basic rate interface (BRl). 
The basic rate interface (BRl) specifies a digital pipe consisting of two B channels of 64
Kbps each and one D channel of 16 Kbps. This equals a speed of 144 Kbps. In addition,
the BRl service itself requires an operating overhead of 48 Kbps. Therefore a digital pipe
of 192 Kbps is required. 
 
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI) – 
Primary Rate Interface service consists of a D channel and either 23 or 30 B channels
depending on the country you are in. PRI is not supported on the iSeries. A digital pipe
with 23 B channels and one 64 Kbps D channel is present in the usual Primary Rate
Interface (PRI). Twenty-three B channels of 64 Kbps each and one D channel of 64 Kbps
equals 1.536 Mbps. The PRI service uses 8 Kbps of overhead also. Therefore PRI
requires a digital pipe of 1.544 Mbps. 
 
3. Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN) – 
Narrowband ISDN has been designed to operate over the current communications
infrastructure, which is heavily dependent on the copper cable however B-ISDN relies
mainly on the evolution of fiber optics. According to CCITT B-ISDN is best described as
‘a service requiring transmission channels capable of supporting rates greater than the
primary rate. 
 
ISDN Services: 
ISDN provides a fully integrated digital service to users. These services fall into 3
categories- bearer services, teleservices, and supplementary services. 
 
1. Bearer Services – 
Transfer of information (voice, data, and video) between users without the network
manipulating the content of that information is provided by the bearer network. There is
no need for the network to process the information and therefore does not change the
content. Bearer services belong to the first three layers of the OSI model. They are well
defined in the ISDN standard. They can be provided using circuit-switched, packet-
switched, frame-switched, or cell-switched networks. 
 
2. Teleservices – 
In this, the network may change or process the contents of the data. These services
correspond to layers 4-7 of the OSI model. Teleservices rely on the facilities of the bearer
services and are designed to accommodate complex user needs. The user need not be
aware of the details of the process. Teleservices include telephony, teletex, telefax,
 videotex, telex, and teleconferencing. Though the ISDN defines these services by name
yet they have not yet become standards. 
 
3. Supplementary Service – 
Additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices are provided by
supplementary services. Reverse charging, call waiting, and message handling are
examples of supplementary services which are all familiar with today’s telephone
company services. 
 
Principle of ISDN: 
The ISDN works based on the standards defined by ITU-T (formerly CCITT). The
Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) coordinates standards for
telecommunications on behalf of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is
based in Geneva, Switzerland. The various principles of ISDN as per ITU-T
recommendation are: 
 
• To support switched and non-switched applications 
 
• To support voice and non-voice applications 
 
• Reliance on 64-kbps connections 
 
• Intelligence in the network 
 
• Layered protocol architecture 
 
• Variety of configurations 
 

Advantages of ISDN:

• ISDN channels have a reliable connection.

• ISDN is used to facilitate the user with multiple digital channels. 
• It has faster data transfer rate.

Disadvantages of ISDN:

• ISDN lines costlier than the other telephone system.

• It requires specialized digital devices.
• It is less flexible.
 Unit 5

Transport Layer
The transport layer is a 4th layer from the top.

The main role of the transport layer is to provide the communication services
directly to the application processes running on different hosts.
The transport layer provides a logical communication between application
processes running on different hosts. Although the application processes on
different hosts are not physically connected, application processes use the
logical communication provided by the transport layer to send the messages to
each other.
The transport layer protocols are implemented in the end systems but not in
the network routers.
A computer network provides more than one protocol to the network
applications. For example, TCP and UDP are two transport layer protocols that
provide a different set of services to the network layer.
All transport layer protocols provide multiplexing/demultiplexing service. It
also provides other services such as reliable data transfer, bandwidth
guarantees, and delay guarantees.
Each of the applications in the application layer has the ability to send a
message by using TCP or UDP. The application communicates by using either
of these two protocols. Both TCP and UDP will then communicate with the
internet protocol in the internet layer. The applications can read and write to the
transport layer. Therefore, we can say that communication is a two-way process

Functions of transport layer

The functions of transport layer are explained below −
•Service Point Addressing: The system can run various programs at the
equivalent time. For this reason, the header, therefore, must contain a type of
address known as service point address or port. The Network layer is taken as
each packet to the correct computer, whereas the transport layer receives the
entire message to restore the process on that computer.
 •Segmentation and reassembly: The message is split into several packets.
Each packet has its sequence number. The transport layer reassembles the
message correctly according to the order number and identifies those lost.
•Connection Control: This layer can be connection-oriented or
connectionless. The connectionless transport layer treats each packet as
independent and produces it to the destination. But, the connection-oriented
transport layer first makes the connection and then provides the respective data.
•Flow Control: It is also responsible for flow control implemented end to end
instead of across an individual link.
•Error Control: The transport layer can support error control. The error
control at the transport layer is implemented end to end instead of across an
individual link. Error correction is frequently completed by retransmission
The protocols used in this layer are −

•Transmission Control Protocol, TCP − It is a reliable connection-oriented

protocol that transmits data from the source to the destination machine without
any error. A connection is established between the peer entities prior to
transmission. At the sending host, TCP divides an incoming byte stream into
segments and assigns a separate sequence number to each segment. At the
receiving host, TCP reorders the segments and sends an acknowledgment to the
sender for correct receipt of segments. TCP also manages flow control so that a
fast sender does not overwhelm a slow receiver.

•User Datagram Protocol, UDP − It is a message-oriented protocol that

provides a simple unreliable, connectionless, unacknowledged service. It is
suitable for applications that do not require TCP’s sequencing, error control or
flow control. It is used for transmitting a small amount of data where the speed
of delivery is more important than the accuracy of delivery.

•Stream Control Transmission Protocol, SCTP − It combines the features of

both TCP and UDP. It is message oriented like the UDP, which providing the
reliable, connection-oriented service like TCP. It is used for telephony over the
Internet.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP):

UDP is short for User Datagram Protocol. It is a basic protocol that allows for
nonsequential transmission. It is a protocol that does not require a connection to be
made before functioning. This protocol is used when speed and size are more critical
than dependability and security.
UDP is an end-to-end transport level protocol that adds transport-level addresses,
checksum error control, and length information to higher layer data.
A user datagram is a packet generated by the UDP protocol.
Format of User Datagram:

a. Source port address:

It specifies the address of the application process that sent the message. The source
port address is 16 bits long.

b. Destination port address:

It specifies the application process address that will receive the message. A 16-bit
address is used for the destination port address.
c. Total Length:
It specifies the user datagram’s entire length in bytes. It is a field of 16 bits.
Checksum:
The checksum is a field that is 16 bits in length, and is used to detect errors.
Disadvantages of UDP:
1. UDP offers the fundamental functions required for the end-to-end delivery of
communication.
2. When reporting an error, it does not describe the damaged packet and does not give
any sequencing or reordering operations.
3. UDP can detect an error, but it can not indicate which packet was lost since it lacks
an ID or sequencing number for a specific data segment.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):
TCP is an abbreviation for Transmission Control Protocol. It offers apps with full
transport layer services.
It is a connection-oriented protocol, which implies that it establishes a link between
both ends of the communication. TCP creates a virtual circuit between sender and
recipient for the length of transmission to establish the connection.
Features of TCP:
1. Stream data transfer:
The TCP protocol sends data in the form of a continuous stream of bytes. TCP groups
bytes into TCP segments, which are subsequently given to the IP layer for
transmission to the destination. TCP segments the data and forwards it to the IP.
2. Reliability:

Object 4

TCP allocates a sequence number to each byte sent and waits for a valid
acknowledgement from the receiving TCP. If no ACK is received within a timeout
interval, the data is resent to the destination.
The sequence number is used by the receiving TCP to reassemble the segments if
they come out of order or to delete duplicate segments.
3. Flow Control:
TCP sends an acknowledgment back to the sender stating the number of bytes it may
accept without exceeding its internal buffer when it receives. The amount of bytes
delivered in ACK is the largest sequence number that it may receive without issue.
This process is also known as the window mechanism.
4. Multiplexing:
Multiplexing is the technique of taking data from several programmes and passing it
to various apps on various machines. The data is forwarded to the appropriate
application at the receiving end. This is referred to as demultiplexing. TCP uses
logical channels known as ports to send the message to the relevant application.
5. Logical Connections:
A logical connection is a mix of sockets, sequence numbers, and window widths. The
pair of sockets used by transmitting and receiving processes uniquely identifies each
connection.
6. Full Duplex:
TCP offers Full Duplex service, which means that data may travel in both ways at the
same time. To provide Full Duplex service, each TCP should have transmitting and
receiving buffers to allow segments to travel in both ways. TCP is a protocol that
manages connections. Assume that process A wishes to communicate and receive
data from process B.

Format of TCP Segment:

a. Source Port Address:

It is used to provide the location of an application software on a source machine. It is
a field of 16 bits.
b. Destination Port Address:
It specifies the location of an application software on a destination machine. It is a
field of 16 bits.
c. Sequence Number:
A data stream is split into two or more TCP segments. The 32-bit sequence number
field reflects the data’s location in the original data stream.
d. Acknowledgement Number:
A 32-field acknowledgement number indicates that data from other communicating
devices has been acknowledged. If the ACK field is set to 1, it indicates the sequence
number that the recipient expects to receive.
e. Header Length (HLEN):
It determines the TCP header size in 32-bit words. The header must be no less than 5
words long and no more than 15 words long. As a result, the maximum size of the
TCP header is 60 bytes, while the minimum size is 20 bytes.
f. Reserved:
It is a six-bit field that will be used in the future.
g. Control Bits:
Each bit in a control field operates separately and independently of the others. A
control bit specifies the usage of a segment or acts as a check for the correctness of
other fields.
h. Window Size:
The window is a 16-bit parameter that determines the window’s size.
i. Checksum:
The checksum is used to detect errors. It is a 16-bit field.
j. Urgent Pointer:
If the URG flag is set to 1, this 16-bit field indicates that it is the final urgent data
byte and is offset from the sequence number.
k. Options and Padding:
It specifies the optional fields that provide the recipient with more information.
Types of Flags in the control bit field:
a. URG:
The URG field indicates that the information in a segment is critical.
b. ACK:
When the ACK field is set, the acknowledgment number is validated.
c. PSH:
The PSH field informs the sender that higher throughput is required, hence data must
be pushed with higher throughput if feasible.
d. RST:
When there is a misunderstanding in the sequence numbers, the reset bit is utilized to
reset the TCP connection.
e. SYN:
The SYN field synchronises the sequence numbers in three sorts of segments:
connection request, connection confirmation (with the ACK bit set), and confirmation
acknowledgment.
f. FIN:
The FIN field is used to notify the receiving TCP module that the sender has
completed data transmission. It is used in three different sorts of connection
termination segments: termination request, termination confirmation, and acceptance
of termination confirmation.
Comparison of TCP and UDP:

TCP connection establishment

To make the transport services reliable, TCP hosts must establish a connection-
oriented session with one another. Connection establishment is performed by using
the three-way handshake mechanism. A three-way handshake synchronizes both ends
of a network by enabling both sides to agree upon original sequence numbers.

This mechanism also provides that both sides are ready to transmit data and learn that
the other side is available to communicate. This is essential so that packets are not
shared or retransmitted during session establishment or after session termination.
Each host randomly selects a sequence number used to track bytes within the stream
it is sending and receiving.
The three-way handshake proceeds in the manner shown in the figure below −

The requesting end (Host A) sends an SYN segment determining the server's port
number that the client needs to connect to and its initial sequence number (x).
The server (Host B) acknowledges its own SYN segment, including the servers initial
sequence number (y). The server also responds to the client SYN by accepting the
sender's SYN plus one (X + 1).
An SYN consumes one sequence number. The client should acknowledge this SYN
from the server by accepting the server's SEQ plus one (SEQ = x + 1, ACK = y + 1).
This is how a TCP connection is settled.
Connection Termination Protocol (Connection Release)
While it creates three segments to establish a connection, it takes four segments to
terminate a connection.  During a TCP connection is full-duplex (that is, data flows in
each direction independently of the other direction), each direction should be shut
down alone.
The termination procedure for each host is shown in the figure. The rule is that either
end can share a FIN when it has finished sending data.
When a TCP receives a FIN, it should notify the application that the other end has
terminated that data flow direction. The sending of a FIN is usually the result of the
application issuing a close.
The receipt of a FIN only means that there will be no more data flowing in that
direction. A TCP can send data after receiving a FIN. The end that first issues the
close (example, send the first FIN) executes the active close. The other end (that

receives this FIN) manages the passive close.

Session Layer (Layer 5) :

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of

sessions, authentication, and also ensures security. 
The functions of the session layer are :  
1.Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2.Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are
considered synchronization points into the data. These synchronization points help
to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the
messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
3.Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication
with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
**All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in
the TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”. 
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These
are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers. 
SCENARIO: 
Let’s consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some
Messenger application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the
application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data. This
message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure data), and
converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted. 
 

Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to
transmit over the network. 
The functions of the presentation layer are : 
1.Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2.Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or
code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is
known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
3.Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
Application Layer (Layer 7) :
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application
layer which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce
the data, which has to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a
window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the
received information to the user. 
Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc. 
**Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer. 
 

The functions of the Application layer are :  

1.Network Virtual Terminal
2.FTAM-File transfer access and management
3.Mail Services
4.Directory Services

Application Layer protocol:-

1. TELNET:
Telnet stands for the TELetype NETwork. It helps in terminal emulation. It allows
Telnet clients to access the resources of the Telnet server. It is used for managing files
on the internet. It is used for the initial setup of devices like switches. The telnet
command is a command that uses the Telnet protocol to communicate with a remote
device or system. Port number of telnet is 23. 
 
Command  
telnet [\\RemoteServer]
\\RemoteServer : Specifies the name of the server to which you want to connect
2. FTP:
FTP stands for file transfer protocol. It is the protocol that actually lets us transfer
files. It can facilitate this between any two machines using it. But FTP is not just a
protocol but it is also a program.FTP promotes sharing of files via remote computers
with reliable and efficient data transfer. The Port number for FTP is 20 for data and
21 for control. 
Command 
ftp machinename
3. TFTP:
The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is the stripped-down, stock version of FTP,
but it’s the protocol of choice if you know exactly what you want and where to find
it. It’s a technology for transferring files between network devices and is a simplified
version of FTP. The Port number for TFTP is 69.
Command 
tftp [ options... ] [host [port]] [-c command]
4. NFS:
It stands for a network file system. It allows remote hosts to mount file systems over
a network and interact with those file systems as though they are mounted locally.
This enables system administrators to consolidate resources onto centralized servers
on the network. The Port number for NFS is 2049.
Command 
service nfs start
5. SMTP:
It stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is a part of the TCP/IP protocol. Using
a process called “store and forward,” SMTP moves your email on and across
networks. It works closely with something called the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) to
send your communication to the right computer and email inbox. The Port number for
SMTP is 25. 
Command 
MAIL FROM:<mail@abc.com?
6. LPD:
It stands for Line Printer Daemon. It is designed for printer sharing. It is the part that
receives and processes the request. A “daemon” is a server or agent. The Port number
for LPD is 515. 
Command 
lpd [ -d ] [ -l ] [ -D DebugOutputFile]
7. X window:
It defines a protocol for the writing of graphical user interface–based client/server
applications. The idea is to allow a program, called a client, to run on one computer.
It is primarily used in networks of interconnected mainframes. Port number for X
window starts from 6000 and increases by 1 for each server.
Command  
Run xdm in runlevel 5
8. SNMP:
It stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It gathers data by polling the
devices on the network from a management station at fixed or random intervals,
requiring them to disclose certain information. It is a way that servers can share
information about their current state, and also a channel through which an
administrate can modify pre-defined values. The Port number of SNMP is 161(TCP)
and 162(UDP). 
 
Command  
snmpget -mALL -v1 -cpublic snmp_agent_Ip_address sysName.0
9. DNS:
It stands for Domain Name System. Every time you use a domain name, therefore, a
DNS service must translate the name into the corresponding IP address. For example,
the domain name www.abc.com might translate to 198.105.232.4. 
The Port number for DNS is 53. 
 
Command  
ipconfig /flushdns
10. DHCP:
It stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). It gives IP addresses to
hosts. There is a lot of information a DHCP server can provide to a host when the
host is registering for an IP address with the DHCP server. Port number for DHCP is
67, 68. 
Command 
clear ip dhcp binding {address | * }

DNS

An application layer protocol defines how the application processes running on

different systems, pass the messages to each other.
DNS stands for Domain Name System.

DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a

host on the network and its numerical address.
DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.
 Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence
of symbols specified by dots.
DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This
allows the users of networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking for
other hosts instead of remembering the IP addresses.
For example, suppose the FTP site at EduSoft had an IP address of
132.147.165.50, most people would reach this site by specifying
ftp.EduSoft.com. Therefore, the domain name is more reliable than IP address.
DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space is
divided into three different sections: generic domains, country domains, and inverse
domain.

Generic Domains
It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior.
Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS
database.
It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization type

Country Domain

The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-character
country abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of three character
organizational abbreviations.
Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the server has
received a request from the client, and the server contains the files of only authorized
clients. To determine whether the client is on the authorized list or not, it sends a
query to the DNS server and ask for mapping an address to the name.

Internet is a group of computer systems related from all around the world. The
Internet protocol suite is a framework defined through the Internet standards.
Methods are divided right into a layered set of protocols on this architecture. The
Internet gives a huge variety of statistics and communique offerings, which includes
forums, databases, email, and hypertext. It is made of the neighborhood to global
personal, public networks connected through plenty of digital, wireless, and
networking technologies. Working of the internet: The internet is a global computer
network that connects various devices and sends a lot of information and media. It
uses an Internet Protocol (IP) and Transport Control Protocol (TCP)-based packet
routing network. TCP and IP work together to ensure that data transmission across the
internet is consistent and dependable, regardless of the device or location. Data is
delivered across the internet in the form of messages and packets. A message is a
piece of data delivered over the internet, but before it is sent, it is broken down into
smaller pieces known as packets. Uses of the Internet:

ELECTRONIC MAIL

•E-mail: E-mail is an electronic message sent across a network from one computer

user to one or more recipients. It refers to the internet services in which messages
are sent from and received by servers. 
•Web Chat: Web chat is an application that allows you to send and receive
messages in real-time with others. By using Internet chat software, the user can log
on to specific websites and talk with a variety of other users online. Chat software
is interactive software that allows users to enter comments in one window and
receive responses from others who are using the same software in another window.
•World Wide Web: The World Wide Web is the Internet’s most popular information
exchange service. It provides users with access to a large number of documents
that are linked together using hypertext or hyperlinks.
•E-commerce: E-commerce refers to electronic business transactions made over the
Internet. It encompasses a wide range of product and service-related online
business activities.
 •Internet telephony: The technique that converts analog speech impulses into
digital signals and routes them through packet-switched networks of the internet is
known as internet telephony.
•Video conferencing: The term “video conferencing” refers to the use of voice and
images to communicate amongst users.

System Architecture: 
From the user’s point of view, the web consists of a vast, worldwide connection of
documents or web pages. Each page may contain links to other pages anywhere in the
world. The pages can be retrieved and viewed by using browsers of which internet
explorer, Netscape Navigator, Google, Chrome, etc are the popular ones. The browser
fetches the page requested interprets the text and formatting commands on it, and
displays the page, properly formatted, on the screen. 

The basic model of how the web works are shown in the figure below. Here the
browser is displaying a web page on the client machine. When the user clicks on a
line of text that is linked to a page on the abd.com server, the browser follows the
hyperlink by sending a message to the abd.com server asking it for the page. 
 

Here the browser displaying a web page on the client machine when the user clicks
on a line of text that is linked to a page on abd.com, the browser follows the
hyperlink by sending a message to abd.com server asking for the page. 
Working of WWW: 
The World Wide Web is based on several different technologies: Web browsers,
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). 
A Web browser is used to access webpages. Web browsers can be defined as
programs which display text, data, pictures, animation and video on the Internet.
Hyperlinked resources on the World Wide Web can be accessed using software
interface provided by Web browsers. Initially Web browsers were used only for
surfing the Web but now they have become more universal. Web browsers can be
used for several tasks including conducting searches, mailing, transferring files, and
much more. Some of the commonly used browsers are Internet Explorer, Opera Mini,
Google Chrome. 
Features of WWW: 
•HyperText Information System 
•Cross-Platform 
•Distributed 
•Open Standards and Open Source 
•Uses Web Browsers to provide a single interface for many services 
•Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving. 
•“Web 2.0” 

First of all, whenever we want to open any website then first we open web browser
after that we will type URL of that website (e.g., www.facebook.com ). This URL is
now sent to Domain Name Server (DNS). Then DNS first check records for this
URL in their database, then DNS will return IP address to web browser corresponding
to this URL. Now browser is able to sent request to actual server. 

After server sends data to client, connection will be closed. If we want something else
from server we should have to re-establish connection between client and server. 
 

 
History :: 
Tim Berners Lee and his team at CERN gets credit for inventing original HTTP and
associated technologies. 
1.HTTP version 0.9 – 
This was first version of HTTP which was introduced in 1991. 
 
2.HTTP version 1.0 – 
In 1996, RFC 1945 (Request For Comments) was introduced in HTTP version 1.0. 
 
3.HTTP version 1.1 – 
In January 1997, RFC 2068 was introduced in HTTP version 1.1. Improvements
and updates to HTTP version 1.1 standard were released under RFC 2616 in June
1999. 
 
4.HTTP version 2.0 – 
The HTTP version 2.0 specification was published as RFC 7540 on May 14, 2015. 
 
5.HTTP version 3.0 – 
HTTP version 3.0 is based on previous RFC draft. It is renamed as HyperText
Transfer Protocol QUIC which is a transport layer network protocol developed by
Google. 
 

If an organization has 1000 devices then to check all devices, one by one every day,
are working properly or not is a hectic task. To ease these up, Simple Network
Management Protocol (SNMP) is used. 

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) – 

SNMP is an application layer protocol that uses UDP port number 161/162.SNMP is
used to monitor the network, detect network faults, and sometimes even used to
configure remote devices. 
SNMP components – 
There are 3 components of SNMP: 
 
1.SNMP Manager – 
It is a centralized system used to monitor network. It is also known as Network
Management Station (NMS) 
 
2.SNMP agent – 
It is a software management software module installed on a managed device.
Managed devices can be network devices like PC, routers, switches, servers, etc. 
 
3.Management Information Base – 
MIB consists of information on resources that are to be managed. This information
is organized hierarchically. It consists of objects instances which are essentially
variables. 
 
SNMP messages – 
Different variables are: 
 
1.GetRequest – 
SNMP manager sends this message to request data from the SNMP agent. It is
simply used to retrieve data from SNMP agents. In response to this, the SNMP
agent responds with the requested value through a response message. 
 
2.GetNextRequest – 
This message can be sent to discover what data is available on an SNMP agent.
The SNMP manager can request data continuously until no more data is left. In this
way, the SNMP manager can take knowledge of all the available data on SNMP
agents. 
 
3.GetBulkRequest – 
This message is used to retrieve large data at once by the SNMP manager from the
SNMP agent. It is introduced in SNMPv2c. 
 
4.SetRequest – 
It is used by the SNMP manager to set the value of an object instance on the
 SNMP agent. 
 
5.Response – 
It is a message sent from the agent upon a request from the manager. When sent in
response to Get messages, it will contain the data requested. When sent in response
to the Set message, it will contain the newly set value as confirmation that the
value has been set. 
 
6.Trap – 
These are the message sent by the agent without being requested by the manager. It
is sent when a fault has occurred. 
 
7.InformRequest – 
It was introduced in SNMPv2c, used to identify if the trap message has been
received by the manager or not. The agents can be configured to set trap
continuously until it receives an Inform message. It is the same as a trap but adds
an acknowledgement that the trap doesn’t provide. 

Services provided by E-mail system :

•Composition –
The composition refer to process that creates messages and answers. For
composition any kind of text editor can be used.
•Transfer –
Transfer means sending procedure of mail i.e. from the sender to recipient.
•Reporting –
Reporting refers to confirmation for delivery of mail. It help user to check whether
their mail is delivered, lost or rejected.
•Displaying –
It refers to present mail in form that is understand by the user.
•Disposition –
This step concern with recipient that what will recipient do after receiving mail i.e
save mail, delete before reading or delete after reading.

WEB SERVICES

The Internet is the worldwide connectivity of hundreds of thousands of computers of

various types that belong to multiple networks. On the World Wide Web, a web
service is a standardized method for propagating messages between client and server
applications. A web service is a software module that is intended to carry out a
specific set of functions. Web services in cloud computing can be found and invoked
over the network.
The web service would be able to deliver functionality to the client that invoked the
web service.

A web service is a set of open protocols and standards that allow data to be
exchanged between different applications or systems. Web services can be used by
software programs written in a variety of programming languages and running on a
variety of platforms to exchange data via computer networks such as the Internet in a
similar way to inter-process communication on a single computer.