Computer Communication Networks (16EC6DCCCN ) Dr Poornima G

Unit-II

Switched communication networks are those in which data transferred from source to destination
is routed between various intermediate nodes. Switching is the technique by which nodes control
or switch data to transmit it between specific points on a network.
There are 3 common switching techniques:
 Circuit Switching
 Packet Switching
 Message Switching

Circuit-Switched Network – a type of network where the communications between end devices
(nodes) must be set up before they can communicate. Once set up, the “circuit” is dedicated to the
two nodes it connects for the duration of that connection. An example of a circuit-switched network
is an analog telephone network.
It contrasts with packet-switched networks, which break the communication into packets and then
send those packets through the network independently of one another. They do not establish a
dedicated communications channel between hosts, rather they offer a “best effort” network that
can be used by a variety of hosts to communicate at the same time.
A virtual circuit-switched network tries to emulate the dedicated connection established by circuit-
switching using packet-switching technology.
Advantages:
 Ideal for Voice Communication
 Economical for long distance
 Minimum delay
Total delay encountered for circuit switching is Tcs,
Where
Tcs =Tc + Tt + Tr+ loop delay
Here Tc = Tm (N-1) where Tm=Average route select time ; N = Number of Switching Elements
Tt = M/R= Number of data bits /Baud Rate
Tr =N Th Where Th = House Keeping Time

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Disadvantages
 Call Connection May take 10sec or more
 Since transmission is on PSTN there will be noise
 Faulty lines may take months to repair
 Bandwidth is low and fixed
 Billing is monthly

Message-Switched Network:
Message switching was a technique developed as an alternate to circuit switching, before packet
switching was introduced. In message switching, end users communicate by sending and
receiving messages that included the entire data to be shared. Messages are the smallest individual
unit.
The sender and receiver are not directly connected. There are a number of intermediate nodes
transfer data and ensure that the message reaches its destination. Message switched data networks
are hence called hop-by-hop systems.
They provide 2 distinct and important characteristics:
 Store and forward
 Message delivery

Store and forward – The intermediate nodes have the responsibility of transferring the entire
message to the next node. Hence, each node must have storage capacity. A message will only be
delivered if the next hop and the link connecting it are both available, otherwise it’ll be stored
indefinitely. A store-and-forward switch forwards a message only if sufficient resources are
available and the next hop is accepting data. This is called the store-and-forward property.

Message delivery – This implies wrapping the entire information in a single message and
transferring it from the source to the destination node. Each message must have a header that
contains the message routing information, including the source and destination.

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Advantages of Message Switching –

 As message switching is able to store the message for which communication channel is not
available, it helps in reducing the traffic congestion in network.
 In message switching, the data channels are shared by the network devices.
 It makes the traffic management efficient by assigning priorities to the messages.

Disadvantages of Message Switching –

 Message can be any size.
 In message switching, message has to be stored for which every intermediate devices in
the network requires a large storing capacity.
 Message switching cannot be used for real time applications as storing of messages
causes delay.

Applications –

The store-and-forward method was implemented in telegraph message switching centers. Today,
although many major networks and systems are packet-switched or circuit switched networks,
their delivery processes can be based on message switching. For example, in most electronic mail
systems the delivery process is based on message switching, while the network is in fact either
circuit-switched or packet-switched.

Comparison of Circuit Switching and Message Switching:

S.NO CIRCUIT SWITCHING MESSAGE SWITCHING

1. Circuit Switching is done by setting In message Switching, data is first stored by
a physical path between two systems. one node then forward to another node to
transfer the data to another system.
2. In circuit switching, data is not In message Switching, data is first stored, then
stored. forwarded to the next node.
3. Circuit Switching does not need Message switching need dedicated physical
dedicated physical path. path.
4. Circuit Switching is a Geographical Message Switching is a Hierarchical
addressing. addressing.
5. Circuit Switching is costlier than The cost of message switching is less than circuit
message Switching. switching.
6. Circuit switching routing is manual Message Switching routing is not manual type
type routing. routing.
7. Circuit switching reserves the full Message Switching does not reserve the entire
bandwidth in advance. bandwidth in advance.
8. In circuit switching, charge depend In message switching, charge is based on the
on time and distance. number of bytes and distance.
9. Congestion occurs for per minute in In message switching, no congestion or very less
circuit switching. congestion occurs.

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Computer Communication Networks (16EC6DCCCN ) Dr Poornima G

Packet Switched Network:

Computer networks that provide connection-oriented service are called Virtual Circuits while
those providing connection-less services are called as Datagram networks. For prior knowledge,
the Internet which we use is actually based on Datagram network (connection-less) at the
network level as all packets from a source to a destination do not follow the same path.
Virtual circuit Packet-switched network
Virtual Circuits-
It is connection-oriented simply meaning that there is a reservation of resources like buffers, CPU,
bandwidth, etc. for the time in which the newly setup VC is going to be used by a data transfer
session.First packet goes and reserves resources for the subsequent packets which as a result
follow the same path for the whole connection time.Since all the packets are going to follow the
same path, a global header is required only for the first packet of the connection and other packets
generally don’t require global headers.Since data follows a particular dedicated path, packets
reach in order to the destination.
In Virtual Circuit Switching, it is sure the all the packets will definitely reach to the Destination.
No packet will discard due to unavailability of resources.Virtual Circuits are highly reliable
means of transfer.Since each time a new connection has to be set up with reservation of resources
and extra information handling at routers, its simply costly to implement Virtual Circuits.It is
used by the ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) Network, which is used for the Telephone calls.
Datagram Packet-Switched Network:

It is connectionless service. There is no need for reservation of resources as there is no dedicated

path for a connection session. All packets are free to go to any path on any intermediate router
which is decided on the go by dynamically changing routing tables on routers. Since every packet
is free to choose any path, all packets must be associated with a header with proper information
about the source and the upper layer data. The connectionless property makes data packets reach
the destination in any order, means they need not reach in the order in which they were sent.
Datagram networks are not reliable as Virtual Circuits.
The major drawback of Datagram Packet Switching is if the Buffer, CPU, and Bandwidth are
available then the only Packet will be forwarded. Otherwise, Packet will discard.Easy and
cost-efficient to implement datagram networks as there is no extra headache of reserving resources

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and making a dedicated each time an application has to communicate.Its is generally used the IP
network, which is used for Data services like Internet.
Switching and TCP/IP layers
Switching at Physical layer: At physical layer there are no packets exchanged at the physical layers.
The switches at the physical layer allow signals to travel in one path or another.Switching at Data
link layer: At the data link layer we can have packet switching. At this layer the term packet in this
case means frames or cells. Packets switching at the data link layer is normally done using Virtual
Circuit approach.Switching at Network layer: At this layer either Virtual circuit or datagram
approach can be used. Currently the Internet uses a datagram approach but the tendency is to move
to Virtual circuit approach.Switching at Application layer: At this layer it can only be message
switching. The communication at the application layer occurs by exchanging messages. Email is
a kind of message switched network.
Comparison of Circuit Switched Network with Packet -switched network:
Sl.No CIRCUIT SWITCHING PACKET SWITCHING
1 In circuit switching there are 3 phases: In Packet switching directly data transfer
i)Connection Establishment. takes place .
ii)Data Transfer.
iii) Connection Released.
2 In circuit switching, each data unit know In Packet switching, each data unit just
the entire path address which is provided know the final destination address
by the source. intermediate path is decided by the
routers.
3 In Circuit switching, data is processed at In Packet switching, data is processed at
source system only all intermediate node including source
system.
4 Delay between data units in circuit Delay between data units in packet
switching is uniform. switching is not uniform.
5 Resource reservation is the feature of There is no resource reservation because
circuit switching because path is fixed for bandwidth is shared among users.
data transmission.
6 Circuit switching is more reliable. Packet switching is less reliable.

7 Wastage of resources are more in Circuit Less wastage of resources as compared to

Switching
8 It is not a store and forward technique.
9 Transmission of the data is done by the
source.
Circuit Switching
It is a store and forward technique.
Transmission of the data is done not only
by the source, but also by the intermediate
routers.

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10 Congestion can occur during connection Congestion can occur during data transfer
establishment time, there might be a case phase, large number of packets comes in
will requesting for channel the channel is no time.
already occupied.
11 Circuit switching is not convenient for Packet switching is suitable for handling
handling bilateral traffic. bilateral traffic.
12 In Circuit switching, charge depend on In Packet switching, charge is based
time and distance, not on traffic in the
network.

Structure of Circuit Switches:

A Circuit Switched Network Consist of switches connected by physical links. A connection
between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links. The link is normally divided
into n channels by using FDM or TDM. In circuit switching the resources need to be reserved
during the setup phase, the resources remain dedicated for the entire duration of data transfer until
the teardown phase. Circuit switches use either of the two technologies Space division switch or
the time division switch. Space Division Switching the path in the circuit are separated from one
another spatially. It is used both for analog and digital networks.

Circuit Switch Folded Switch

Crossbar switch connects n inputs to m outputs in a grid using electro mechanical switches.

 Electronic Microswitches at each cross points.

 Limitation-Number of crosspoints.
 To connect n inputs to m inputs requires n*m crosspoints.
 To connect 1000 inputs to 1000 outputs we require 1,000,000 cross points. This is
impractical.

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Computer Communication Networks (16EC6DCCCN ) Dr Poornima G

Multistage Switch:

 It’s a solution to the limitations in crossbar.

Design Steps for Three Stage Switch:

 Divide N inputs lines into groups each of n lines.

 For each group we use one crossbar of size n*k, where k is the number of crossbars in the
middle stage.
 We use k crossbars each of size (N/n)*(N/n) in the middle stage.
 We use N/n crossbars each of size k*n at the third stage.

N/n (n*k)+k (N/n*N/n)+N/n (k*n) = 2kN+k(N/n)2

Switching path

Drawback:
 Blocking during heavy traffic.
 Sharing can cause lack of availability of resource.

In large system having 10,000 inputs and outputs, the number of stages can be increased to cut
down on the number of cross points required. As the number of stages can be increased possible
blocking increases as well. Clos investigated the condition of non-blocking in multistage
switches and came up with the following formula. In a non- blocking switch the number of
middle-stage switches must be at least 2n-1, in other words we need to have k ≥ 2n-1

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According to Clos criterion: n = (N/2)1/2 and k ≥ 2n-1

Total number of cross points ≥ 4N [(2N) 1/2- 1]

Today’s telephone companies use time division switches and a combination of space and time
division switches.

Time-division multiplexing, without and with a time-slot interchange

 TSI consist of random access memory with several memory locations.

 Size of each location is the same as the size of a single time slot.
 The number of location is the same as the number of inputs.
 Slots are then sent out in an order based on the decision of a control unit.

Time-slot interchange

TDM bus TST switch

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 Space division switching is instantaneous.

 TDS does not need cross points but in case of TSI processing each connection creates
delays.
 Time space time switch.

A switch in packet switched network has a different structure, it has an input ports, output
ports, a routing processor and switching fabric. An input port performs the physical and data
link layer functions of the packet switch. The bits are constructed from the received signal. The
packet is decapsulated from frame. The output port performs the same functions as the input
port but in reverse order. The outgoing packets are queued, then the packets is encapsulated in
a frame and finally physical layer functions are applied to create the signal. The routing
processor searches the destination address in the lookup table (routing table).The input port
stored the packet in memory and output port retrieve the packets from memory using
specialized switching frabics. Crossbar switch, Banyan Switch, Batchers Banyan Switch are
types of switching frabrics..
A Telephone Network
 Created to provide Voice Communication.
 Need for Transmission of digital data resulted in invention of Dial up Modem
 With Internet need for High speed downloading and uploading was required and dial up
modems were slow
 Hence, Digital Subscriber lines Technology was introduced to provide fast access.

A telephone system

 Introduced in late 1800’s

 Uses Circuit switching .
 Network is referred as POTS(Plain Old Telephone System).
 From 1980 the network began to carry data in addition to Voice.

Local Loop

 Twisted Pair connects Subscriber telephone to the nearest End office or Local central
office.
 The local loop has a BW of 4KHz when used for Voice.

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 The first three digits of a local telephone number defines the office and next four digits
define local loop number.

Trunks

 Transmission that can handle communication between offices.

 Normally they can handle hundreds and thousands of connections through multiplexing.
 Transmission is usually through optical fibers or satellite links.

Switching Offices

 To avoid having a permanent physical link between any two subscribers switches are
located in a switching office.
 A switch connects several local loops or trunks and allow a connection between different
subscribers.

Local Access Transport Area

Map of LATAs in the US

 LATA’s are small or large metropolitan areas.

 A small state can have one LATA and a large state can have several LATA
 Local carriers have various alternative terms for LATAs such as “Service Area” by
Pacific Bell in California, or “Regional Calling Area” by Verizon in Maryland.
 Two types of services are offered by common carriers they are Intra LATA services and
Inter LATA services.
 Intra-LATA services are provided by local exchange carriers. Since 1996, there are two
types of LECs: incumbent local exchange carriers and competitive local exchange
carriers.
 ILEC’s for Main Services and CLEC’s to provide Mobile Telephone Service, toll calls.

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Computer Communication Networks (16EC6DCCCN ) Dr Poornima G

Switching offices in a LATA

 Communication is handled by end switches and tandem swiches.

 A call that can be completed by only end office is considered toll free.
 A call that has to go through a tandem office is charged.
 Inter-LATA services are provided by Inter exchange carriers. Since 1996, the IXC’s are
also called long distance carriers/companies. They provide data services.
 Carriers Providing Inter-LATA services include AT&T, MCI, Worldcom, Sprint,
Verizon.

POPs (Point of Presence)

 LEC’s and IXC’s interact via a switching office Point of Presence

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Rotary and touch-tone dialing

Voice communication used analog signals in the past, but is now moving to digital
signals. On the other hand, dialing started with digital signals (rotary) and is now moving
to analog signals (touch-tone).

Signaling

In band
Signaling
Signaling
Out of band
Signaling

In band Signaling

 Human operated.
 Operator room was a center to which all subscribers are connected.
 Same circuit is used for both signaling and voice communication.

Out of band Signaling

 Automatic
 Rotary Telephones were invented.
 A portion of voice bandwidth was used for signaling, the voice bandwidth and signal
bandwidth are separate

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Signaling System

Key Functions:

 Providing dial tone , ring tone and busy tone.

 Transferring telephone numbers between offices.
 Maintaining and Monitoring the call.
 Keeping billing information.
 Maintaining and monitoring the status of the telephone network equipment.
 Providing other functions such as caller ID, Voice mail etc.

Data Transfer
Modern Network
Telephone
Network
Signaling
Network

Signaling System Seven

 Signaling Points

SSP = Service Switching Point

STP = Signal Transfer Point: Usually deployed in pairs in case of failure
SCP = Service Control Point: Usually deployed in pairs in case of failures.

 Signaling Points Functions:

STP :Receives and forwards signaling messages.

SCP :Control the whole network operation.

Data base center to provide stored information about the entire signaling network.

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Layers in Signaling System Seven(SS7)

MTP1 = Message Transfer Part 1 (T-1-1.544Mbps and DC0-64kpbs)

MTP2 = Message Transfer Part 2 (Packetizing,CRC for error checking)
MTP3 = Message Transfer Part 3 (End to End connectivity using datagram approach)
SCCP = Signaling Connection Control Point (Special Service such as 800 call processing)
TCAP = Transaction Capabilities Application Port(remote call to invoke procedures)
MAP = Mobile Application Port
INAP = Intelligent Network Application Port
ISUP = ISDN User Port
NOTE: TCAP, MAP and INAP are examples of services that use SCCP

Telephone Network Service

Analog
Services
Digital

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Analog Switched Services or Analog leased Services

 Inter and Intra services

 800 Services.
 Wide area telephone service.
 900 Services.

Digital Services

 Switched Services
 Digital Data Service(64kbps).
 56kbps and DSU(Digital Service Unit)

Dial-Up Modems
 Data signals require a higher degree of accuracy to ensure integrity

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Modem
 Modem stands for modulator/demodulator
 Modulator creates a band pass analog signal from binary data.
 Demodulator recovers the binary data from the modulated signal.

Modem Standards:

V-series standards by ITU-T

 V.32 : Trellis-coded modulation: 32-QAM (4 data bits and a redundant bit for error
detection)  9,600 bps
 V.32bis : 128-QAM (7 bits/baud with 1 bit for error control)  14,400 bps
 V.34bis : 28,800 bps with a 960-point constellation and 33,600bps with a 1664-point
constellation
 V.90: Upload: 33.6 kbps, download: 56 kbps, Asymmetric
 V.92: Upload: 48 kbps, download: 56 kbps, Modem can adjust their speed

V.32 and V.32bis

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V.90: 56K Modem

 Traditional modems have a data rate limitation of 33.6 kbps by Shannon capacity
 Uploading : 33.6 kbps
 Downloading: 56 kbps
 8000 samples x 7 bit
 1 bit for control

DSL Technology

DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) delivers broadband to more people today than any other
technology. DSL is a technology that delivers broadband speeds over distances of miles or
kilometers via copper wiring, much of which are the same wires that are used to provide
traditional voice telephony services.

ADSL and Other DSL Technologies- VDSL, HDSL, SDSL

ADSL: Asymmetric DSL, meaning the bandwidth and bitrates are greater toward the customer
premises (downstream) than the reverse (upstream).ADSL lite uses 256 DMT carriers with 8 bit
modulation. It can provide a maximum downstream data rate of 1.5Mbps and an upstream of 512
kbps

HDSL: High bit rate DSL. It was designed as an alternative to the T-1 Line. The HDSL uses 2B1Q
encoding which is less susceptible to attenuation. A data rate of 1.544 Mbps can be achieved
without repeaters. It uses two twisted pairs to achieve full duplex transmission.

SDSL: Symmetrical DSL, meaning the bandwidth toward the customer premises (downstream)
is identical to the reverse (upstream). SDSL is not very common.

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VDSL: Very-high-bit-rate DSL which uses up to seven frequency bands, so one can allocate the
data rate between upstream and downstream differently depending on the service offering and
spectrum regulations. It provides a range of bit rates for upstream communication at distances of
3000 to 10000ft. The downstream rate is normally 3.2Mbps.

Technology Downstream Upstream Distance Twisted Line code

Pair
ADSL 1.5-6.1Mbps 16-640kbps 12,000 1 DMT

HDSL 1.5-2Mbps 1.5-2Mbps 12,000 2 2B1Q

SDSL 768Kbps 768Kbps 12,000 1 2B1Q

VDSL 25-55Mbps 3.2Mbps 3000-10,000 1 DMT

ADSL is an asymmetric communication technology designed for residential users; it is not

suitable for businesses.

*Provides high speed to down stream direction than upstream.

*Divide the available bandwidth of the local loop unevenly for the residential customer.
The existing local loops can handle bandwidths up to 1.1 MHz.
ADSL is an adaptive technology. The system uses a data rate based on the condition of the local
loop line.

DMT-Discrete Multitone Modulation.

The Modulation technique that has become standard for ADSL. It is a Combination of FDM &
QAM. Each system can decide on its bandwidth division. An available bandwidth of 1.104MHz
is divided into 256 channels. Each channel uses a bandwidth of 4.312KHz.

Bandwidth division

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Upstream:
 25 channels for upstream (one is used for control and 24 are used for Data transfer).
 Bandwidth available for upstream is 24*4000*15=1.44Mbps.
 Data rate normally is 500kbps

Downstream:
 225 channels for downstream (one for control and 224 channels for data)
 Bandwidth available for downstream is 224*4000*15=13.4Mbps.
 Data rate normally is 8Mbps.

ADSL modem

Customer Site:

 Local loop connects to splitter that separates Voice and data communication.
 ADSL modem modulates and demodulates the data using DMT and creates upstream and
downstream channels.

DSLAM

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Company Site:

 DSLAM perform the same function like ADSL.

 It also packetize the data to be sent to the Internet .

Traditional cable TV network

 Was started as a voice service provider.

 It is also called as Community Antenna TV.
 Cable TV office called Head End , Rx video signals from broadcasting stations and feeds
the signals into coaxial cable

Communication in the traditional cable TV network is unidirectional

HFC network (Hybrid Fiber Cable Network)

 Second generation of cable networks

 Uses a combination of coaxial cable and fiber optics.
 Transmission medium is called fiber node.
 A RCH serves 4,00,000 subscribers. It feeds the distribution hubs each serves 40,000
subscribers.
 Modulation and demodulation of the signals are done in the distribution hub.

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Communication in an HFC cable TV network can be bidirectional.

Downstream Video Band

 TV channel occupies 6MHz so it can accommodate 80 channels.
Downstream Data Band
 This band is divided into 6MHz channel.
 Modulation uses 64-QAM(Data rate is 30Mbps(6bits/baud in QAM))

Upstream Data Band

 This band is divided into 6MHz channel.
 Modulation uses QPSK(Data rate is 12Mbps(2bits/baud in QPSK))

Cable Modem:

Cable Modem:
 Installed in subscribers premises.
 Similar to ADSL.

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Cable Modem Transmission System:

Cable Modem Transmission System:

 Installed inside distribution hub by Cable Company.
 Receives data from the Internet and passes them to the combiner which sends them to the
subscriber. It also receives data from subscriber and pass it to the Internet.

Data Transmission Scheme: DOCSIS

Basic Architecture

Standard for data transmission over a HFC network by Multimedia Cable Network System
(MCNS). Data Over Cable System Interface Specification (DOCSIS) : defines all the protocols to
transport data from CMTS to a CM.

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Steps for Upstream Communication:

1. The CM checks the downstream channel for a specific packet periodically sent by the
CMTS. The Packet asks any new CM to announce itself on a specifThic upstream channel.
2. The CMTS sends a packet to the CM defining its allocated downstream and upstream
channels.
3. The CM then starts a process called ranging which determines the distance between CM
and CMTS. This process is required for synchronization between all CMs and CMTS for
the minislots used for time sharing of the upstream channels.
4. The CM sends a packet to the ISP asking for the Internet address.
5. The CM and CMTS then exchange some packet to establish security parameters which are
needed for a public network such as cable TV
6. The CM sends its unique identifier to the CMTS.
7. Upstream communication can start in the allocated upstream channel; the CM can contend
for the minislots to send data.

Downstream Communication
In the downstream there is no contention because there is only sender. The CMTS sends
the packets with the address of the receiving CM using the allocated downstream channel.

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