‘rere ena rah (5) case were known, Biography of Sigmund Freud Sigismund (Sigmund) Freud was bor citheron March 6 or May 6, 1856, in Freiberg. Moravia, which i now prof he Casch Republic (Scholars sages on his bir date—the ist date was but 8 mont afer the mariage of his parents) Fred was the firstborn child of Jacob and Arai Nathanson Feta lthough sf ther hd ewo grown sors, Emanuel and Philp, fom a previous mariage Jacob and ‘Amal Fre had seven ter eilren wii 10 yer, but Sipmund resin the avo of is yoy inlgst mi, wich ny ve pi contd on lifelong selfconfidence(E-Jones, 1953), schol senourindd youth, Freud i ot tea clone Giendhip with ay of is younger stings: He did however, snjoy a warm, indugent elatonsip wath his mex, edn him in later years 10 herve tat the motherson rsationship vas the most perf, the most ie from mbinafene ofall human lationship Freud. 1933/1962, ‘When Sigmund was tes, the wo Freud fails left Freiberg. Emanvcts family and Philipp moved to England and the Jas Feud family mv fis o Leipzig and ten to Viena, The Avsrian capital remained Sigmund Freud’ home for nearly 80 yeas, until 1938 when the Nazi imvasion fred him o emirate 10 London, were he ded on September 23, 1939. ‘When Fred was about year and hal old his mother gave bith a second son, Jul, an even hat was to have sigifean impact on Freud’ poyhic evelopment. Signud was filled with botity toward! his younger toter and hshored an unconsioes wih for is doth When lus ded at month of oe, Sigmund was left wth elings of guilt at having caused hs brother’ death, When Fred reached mileage, he began to understand that his wish didnot actually Cause his brother's death and that chil often have a doth wish fora younger Sibling This dsovery purged Freud ofthe gull he had erred ino ato anc by his own analy contrbuted to his ler psychic development (ere, 1900 1933,‘rere ena rah 5) Froud was drawn into medizin, not because he loved medic cause he was intensely curious about human nature (Ellenberger, 1970). He entered the University of Vienna Medical Schoo! with no intention of practicing medicine Instead, he preferred teaching and doing research in physiology, which he continued even ater he graduated from the university’s Physiological Institute Freud might have contin this work indefinitely had it not been for two fac- ‘ors. First he believed (probably with some justiation) that, as Jew his opportu nities for academie advancement would be limited. Second his father, who helped finance his medical school expense, became less able to provide monetary ad, Re- oinfeae toil Poti | 2a Pennie | ‘eRetiaeit enya The Sve Chapter? Feud Pryce Ictantly, Freud tured from his Iabortory to the practice of medicine. He worked for 3 years in the General Hospital of Vienna, becoming familiar with the practice of various branches of medicine, including psychiatry and nervous diseases (Freud, 1925/1959. In 1885, he received a traveling grant fom the University of Vienna and de- cided to study in Paris with the famous French neurolowstJeaneMartin Charcot. He spent 4 months with Charcot, from whom he learned the hypnotic technique for treating hvteria. a disorder tvieatectemerertzettrersesterter the imonner »‘Tres ena rah 5) In 1885, he received a traveling grant fom the University of Vienna and de- cided to study in Paris with the famous French neurologist Jean-Martin Chareot. He spent 4 months with Charcot, from whom he learned the hypaotic technique for tueating hysteria, a disorder typically characterized by paralysis or the improper fanetioning of certain pats ofthe body. Through hypnosis, Freud became convinced ‘of a psychogenic and sexval origin of hysterical symptoms, ‘While sil a medical student, Freud developed a close professional association and a personal fiiendship with Josef Breuer, a well-known Viennese physician 14 ysars older than Freud and a man of considerable scientific reputation (Ferris, 1997) Breuer taught Preud about eatharss the process of removing hysterical symptoms through “talking them out.” While using catharsis, Freud gradually and laboriously discovered the free association technique, which soon replaced hypnosis as bis prin- cipal therapeutic technique From as early a adolescenee, Freud literally dreamed of making a monumen- tal discovery and achieving fame (Newton, 1995). On several occasions during the 1880s and 1890s ho believed he was on the verge of such a discovery. His fist op- portunity to gain recognition came in 1884-1885 and involved his experiments with ‘neaine, which we discussed inthe opening vignette Freud’s second opportunity for achieving some measure of fame came in 1886 ater he returned from Pais, where he had learned about mae hysteria fram Char- cot He assumed that this knowledge would gain him respect and recognition fo the Imperial Society of Physicians of Vienna, whom he mistakenly believed would be impressed bythe young Dr. Freud's knowledge of male hysteria. Early physicians ea oa‘rere ena rah (tS) had believed that hysteria was sretly a female disorder beeause the very word had the same origins as uterus and was the result of a “wandering womb,” withthe uterus traveling throughout women's bodies and causing various parts to malfunction. How- ever, by 1886, when Freud presented a paper on male hysteria to the Society, most physicians present were already familie with the illness and knew that it ould also bea male disorder. Because originality was expected and because Freud's paper was rehash of what was already known, the Viennese physicians did not respond well to the presentation. Also, Freud's constant praise of Charcot, a Prenchman, cooled the Viennese physicians to his talk. Unfortunatly, in his autobiographical study, Freud (1925/1959) told avery different story, claiming that his lecture was not well received because members of the learned society could not fathom the concept of ‘male hysteria. Frud’s account of this incident, now known tobe in ertor, was nev- emheless perpetuated for years, and as Sulloway (1992) argued, its but one of many fictions created by Freud and his followers to mythologize psychoanalysis and 10 make a lonely hero ofits founder. Disappointed in his attempts to gain fame and aficted with fetings (both us- tiled and therwise) of professional opposition due t his defense of cocaine and his belief inthe sexual origins of neuroses, Freud felt the need to jin with a more re- spected colleague. He tured to Breve, with whom he had worked while sill a med- {cal student and with whom he enjoyed a continuing personal and professional rela- tionship. Breucr had discussed in detail with Freud the case of Anna O, a young ‘woman Freud had never met, but whom Breuer had spent many hours treating for Inystria several years cartier. Because of his rebufT bythe Imperial Society of Phys cians and his desire to establish a reputation for himself, Freud urged Breuer to col- laborate with him in publishing an account of Anna O and several athe eases of hs teria, Brever, however, was not as eager asthe younger and more revolutionary Freud ‘o publish ull reatise on hysteria but on only a few case tus, He also could ‘not accept Freud's notion that childhood sexual experiences were the source of adult hnyteria. Filly, and with some reluctance, Breuer agreed to publish with Freud Studies on Hysteria (Breer & Freud. 18951955) this bok, Fred introduced thePonty eh ‘Tress ena rah (5) hnyteria. Finally, and with some reluctance, Breuer agreed to publish with Freud Studies on Hysteria (Breuer & Freud, 1895/1955). In this book, Freud introduced the term “psychical analysis" and during the following year, he began calling his ap- proach “psyeho-analysis [At about the time Studies on Hysteria was published, Freud and Breuer had a professional disagreement and became estranged personaly. Freud then turned to his Friend Wilhelm Fliess, Berin physician who served asa sounding board for Freud’ newly developing ideas, Freul’s letters to Fliss (Freud, 1988) constitute a firsthand account of the bevinnings of psychoanalysis and reveal the embryonic stage of Freudian theory. Freud and Fliess had become friends in 1887, but ther relationship ‘became more intimate following Freud break with Breuer. During the late 1890s, Freud suffered both professional isolation and personal crises. He had begun to analyze his own dreams, and afer the death of his father in 1896, he initiated the practic of analyzing himself daily. though his self analysis, ‘was lifetime labor, it was especially dificult for him during the late 1890s. During this period, Freud regarded himself as his own best patient. In August of 1897, he wrote to Flies, “the chief patient I am preoccupied with is myself. The analysis is more dificult than any other. ts, in fact what parayzes my payehie strength” (Freud, 1985, p. 261) stpmeetne | Fant tenis et‘rere ena rah (5) ‘A second personal criss was his realization tht he was now middle-aged and haa yet to achiev the fame he so passionately desired. During this time he had suf= fered yet another disappointment in his attempt to make @ major scientific contsibu tion. Agai he believed himself to ke onthe brink ofan important breakthrough with his “discovery” that neuroses have thei efolog ina chil’ seduction by a parent Freud likened this finding tothe discovery ofthe source of the Nile, However, 1897 he abandoned the section theory and once again had to postpone the discov- ery that would prope him to greatness. ‘Why did Freud abandon his once-reasured sedition theory? In a eter dated September 21, 1897, to Wilhelm Flies, he gave four reasons why he could no longer believe in his seduction theory. First, he said the seduction theory had not enabled him to successfully treat evena single patient Second, a great number of fathers, in- cluding his own, would have to be accused of sexual perversion because hysteria was quite common cven among Freul’s siblings. Third, Freud believed thatthe uncon- scious mind could probably not distinguish reality from fiction, a belief that later evolved into the Oedipus complex. And fourth, he found that the unconscious men ‘ores of advanced psychotic patents almost never revealed eaty childhood sexual experiences (Freud, 1985). fier abandoning his seduction theory and with no Oedi- pus complex to replace it, Freud sank even more deeply into his midlife exsis. Freud’ official biographer, Ernest Jones (1983, 1955, 1957), believed that ‘Freud sufleed from a severe psychoneursis during the late 1890s, although Max Schur (1972), Freud’s personal physician during the final decade of his life, con- tended thet his illness was du toa cardiac lesion, aggravated by addiction to nico tine. Peter Gay (1988) suggested that during the time immediately after his fathers death, Freud “Telived his oedipal conficts with peculiar ferocity” (p. 141). But Hen Ellenberger (1970) described this period in Freud's life as atime of “reatve illness.” 1 condition characterized by depression, neurosis, psychosomatic ailments, and an intense preoccupation with some form of ereative activity, In any event, at midlife, Freud was suffering fiom selfdoubts, depression, and an obsession with his own oath Desite these ficulties. rembeemmlerebererentereweniieroretation of2 ‘rere ena rah (5) ® Despite these difculties, Freud completed his greatest work, Interpretation of Dreams (1900/1953), during this period. This book, finished in 189, was an out- growth of his selF-analysis, much of which be had revealed to his friend Wilhelm Fliess. The book contained many of Freud's own dreams, some disguised behind fic- ‘Almost immediately after the publication of Interpretation of Dreams, bis fiendship with Fliess began to coo}, eventually 1 rupture in 1903. This breakup pat- alleled Freud’ earlier estrangement from Breuer, which took place almost immed tel after they had published Studies on Hysteria together. It was also a harbinger . of is breaks with Alfed Adler, Carl Jung, and several other close associates. Why id Freud have difficulties with so many former friends? Freud himself answered this ‘question, stating that “itis not the scientific diferences that are so important; tis Dic usually some other kind of animesity, jealousy or revenge, that gives the impulse to FE enmity. The scientific differences come later” (Wortis, 1954, p. 163) “Although Faterpecation of Dreams didnot create the instant international stir Freud had hoped, it eventually gained for him the fame and recognition he had sought. Inthe 5-year period following is publication, Freud, now filled with renewed fomzesetmoierst —apayaotmnie — | 2heutraebamys | ‘eneacaont ‘cin So” Tein Swi f Part tt Pycbodyumie Toes‘rere ena rgeh (5) self-confidence, wrote several important works that helped solidify the foundation of psychoanalysis, including On Dreams (1901/1953), writen because Interpretation of Dreams had failed to capture much interest; Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901/1960), which introduced the work to Freudian slip; Tiree Essays onthe The- ‘ory of Sexuality (1905/1953b), which established sex a the cornerstone of psycho- analysis; and Joles and Their Relasion tothe Unconscious (1905/1960), which pro- posed that jokes, ike dreams and Freudian slips, have an unconscious meaning. ‘These publications helped Freud attain some local prominenes in scientific and med- ical circles In 1902, Freud invited a small group of somewhat younger Viennese physi cians to meet in his home to diseuss psychological issues. Then, in the fall of that year, these five men—Freud, Alfied Adler, Wilhelm Stekel, Max Kahane, and Rudolf Reitler—formed the Wednesday Psychological Society, with Prev as discussion leader. In 1908, ths organization adopted a mere formal name—the Vienna Psycho- analytic Society. In 1910, Freud and his followers founded the Inerational Psychoanalytic AS- sociation with Carl Jung of Zirich a president Freud was atiracted to Jung Because of is keen intellect and also because he was tether Jewish nor Viennese. Between 1902 and 1906, all 17 of Freud’s disciples had been Jewish (Kurzweil, 1989), and Freud was interested in giving psychoanalysis a more cosmopolitan favor. Although Jung was a weleome addition tothe Freudian circle and had becn designated as the "Crown Prince” and “the man ofthe future." he ike Adler and Stckel before him, eventually quarreled bitterly with Freud and left the psychoanalytic movement. The sceds of disagreement between Jung and Freud were probably sown when the 00 ‘men, along with Sandor Ferenczi waveled to the United States in 1909 t deliver a series of lectures at Clark University near Boston. To pass the time during their rav= cls, Freud andl Jang interpreted each other’ dreams, a potentially explosive practice {hat eventually led to the end of thei relationship in 1913 (MeGuire, 1974). ‘The years of World War I were dificult for Freud. He was eut off from com- ‘munication with his faithful followers, his psychoanalytic practice dwindled, his home was sometimernrttmmetrmmmt-hesmins frilv had litle food. ARer the‘Tresor (5) The years of World War I were dificult for Freud. He was eut off from com- ‘munication with his faithful followers, his psyeheanalytic practice dwindled, his home was sometimes without hes, and he and his family had litle food. Aer the war, despite advancing years and pain suffered from 33 operations for cancer of the ‘mouth, he made important revisions in his theory. The most significant of these were the elevation of aggression toa level equal to that ofthe sexual drive, the inclusion ‘of repression as one a the defenses of the ego: and his attempt to clarify the female ‘Oedipus comple, which he was never able to completely accomplish, ‘What personal qualities did Freud possess? A more complete insight into his personality canbe found in Breger (2000), Clark (1980), Ellenbergr (1970), Fetis (1997), Gay (1988), Handlbauer (1998), Isbister (1985), E. Jones (1983, 1958, 1957), ‘Newton (1995), Noland (1999), Roazen (1993, 1995, 2001), Silverstein (2003), Sulloway (1992), Vitz (1988), and dozens of other books on Freud life ‘Above all, Freud was 2 sensitive, passionate person who had the capacity fori imate, almost secretive friendships. Most of these deeply emotional relationships came to an unhappy end, and Froud often felt persecuted by his former friends and regarded them as enemies. He semed to have needed bath types of relationship. In Interpretation of Dreams, Freud both explained and predicted this succession of in- ‘ecpersonal ruptures: “My emotional life has always insisted that I should have an in- | peut retains | ‘eneuant a‘rere ena rah 5) timate friend and a hated enemy. I have always been able to provide myself afesh with both” (Freud, 1900/1953, p. 483) Uni he was well past $0, all these re ships were with men, Interestingly, Freud, the man who ssemed to be constantly thinking of sx, had avery infrequent sex life himself. After Anna, hs youngest child ‘vas born in 1895, Freud not yet 40 years old, had no sexual intercourse for several years. Much of his sparse sexual life stemmed from his belie that use ofa condom, coitus interruptus, as well as masturbation wore unhealthy sexual practices, Because Freud wanted no more children ater Anna was bora, sexual abstinence was bis only alternative (Breger, 2000; Freud, 1985). In addition to balancing his emotional life between an intimate frend and a hated enemy, Freud possessed an outstanding talent as awrite. apf that helped him become a leading contributor to 20th-centuy thought. He was a master of the Ger- ‘man tongue and knew several other languages. Although he never won the coveted Nobel prize for science, he was awarded the Goethe prize for literature in 1930, Freud also possessed intense intellectual curiosity: unusual moral courage (demonstrated by his daily selfanalyss); extremely ambivalent feelings toward his father and other father figures: a tendeney to hold grudges disproportionate to thea leged offense: a burning ambition, especially during his earlier years: strong feelings of isolation even while surrounded by many followers; and an intense and somewhat irrational dislike of America and Americans, an atte that became more intense alter his trip tothe United States in 1909. ‘Why did Freud have such a disdain for Americans? Pethaps the most impor. tant reason is that he rightly believed Americans would trivialize psychoanalysis by ying to make it popular. In addition, he had several experiences during is trip to the United States that were foreign toa proper bourgeois Viennese gentleman. Even before he embarked on the George Washington, he saw his name misspelled as “Freund” onthe passenger list (Ferris, 197). A numberof eter events—some of which seem almost humorous—made Freues visit more unpleasant than it might have been, First, Freud experienced chronic indigestion and diarrhea throughout his visit, probably because the drinking wage did not aurce with hima, In addition, he found it i é De‘Tres ena rah (5) ‘Why did Freud have such a disdain for Americans? Pethaps the most impor. tant reason is that he righily believed Americans would trivialize psychoanalysis by vying to make it popula. In addition, he had several experiences during his trip the United States that were foreign toa proper bourgeois Viennese gentleman. Even before he embarked on the George Mashington, he saw his name misspelled as “Freund” onthe passenger lst (Ferris, 1997). A. numberof eter events--some of which sccm almost humorous—made Freud’ visit more unpleasant than it might have been, First, Freud experienced chronic indigestion and diarrhea throughout bis visit, probably because the drinking water did not agree with him, In addition, he found it bth peculiar and problematic that American cities did no provide public restrooms ‘on street comers, and with his chronic indigestion he was frequently in search of public lavatory. Also, several Americans addressed him as Dos ot Sigmund while challenging him to defend his theories, and one person tried unsuccessfully, of course—to prevent him from smoking a cigar ina nonsmoking area. Moreover, when Freud, Ferenezi, and Jung went toa private camp in western Massachusetts, they were greeted by a barrage of flags of Imperial Germany, despite the fet that none of them wes German and each had reasons to dislike Germany. Also at camp, Freud, along with the others, sat on the ground while the host grilled steaks over charcoal, custom Froud deemed tobe both savage and uncouth (Roazen, 1993) Levels of Mental Life Freud's greatest contribution to personality theory is his exploration of the uncon- scious and his insistence that people are motivated primarily by drives of which they Inve litle or no awareness. To Freud, mental ife is divided into two levels, the un conscious and the conseious. The unconseious in turn, has two differnt levels, the a