32 Chapter II

2 30 16 3,45 45 1,20
3 20 18 3,20 48 1,15
4 15 20 3 50 1,12
5 12 24 2,30 54 1,6,40
6 10 25 2,24 1 1
8 7,30 27 2,13,20 1,4 56,15
9 6,40 30 2 1,12 50
10 6 32 1,52,30 1,15 48
12 5 36 1,40 1,20 45
15 4 40 1,30 1,21 44,26,40
The last pair contains the number 44,26,40 and also all the
other two-place numbers mentioned above occur as numbers
of the second column. On the other hand, with one single excep-
tion to be mentioned presently, the gaps in our expected list of
multiplication tables correspond exactly to the missing numbers
in our above table of reciprocals. Thus our stock of multiplica-
tion tables is not a collection of tables for all products a . b, for
a and b from 1 to 59, but tables for the products a • b where b
is a number from the right-hand side of our last list. The character
of these numbers b is conspicuous enough; they are the reciprocals
of the numbers b of the left column, 'written as sexagesimal frac-
tions:
i = 0;30
1 = 0;20
1 = 0;15
etc.
1.~1 = 0;0,44,26,40.

\Ve can express the same fact more simply and historically more
correctly in the following form. The above "table of reciprocals"
is a list of numbers, band h, such that the products b • bare
1 or any other power of 60. It is indeed irrelevant whether we
write
2 • 30 = 1,0
or
2 • 0;30 = 1
or
0;2 • 30 = 1
or
0;2 . 0;80 = 0;1 etc.
 Babylonian Mathematics 33

Experience with the mathematical problem texts demonstrates

in innumerable examples that the Babylonian mathematicians
made full use of this flexibility of their system.
Thus we have seen that the tables of multiplication combined
with the tables of reciprocals form a complete system, designed
to compute all products a • b or, as we now can write, all sex-
a
agesimal divisions b within the range of the above-given table
of reciprocals. This table is not only limited but it shows gaps.
There is no reciprocal for 7, for 11, for 13 or 14, etc. The reason
is obvious. If we divide 7 into 1 we obtain the recurrent sexage-
simal fraction 8,34,17,8,34,17, ... ; similarly for n the group
5,27,16,21,49 appears in infinite repetition. We have tables which
laconically remark "7 does not divide", "11 does not divide",
etc. This holds true for all numbers which contain prime numbers
not contained in 60, i. e. prime numbers different from 2, 3, and
5. We shall call these numbers "irregular" numbers in contrast
to the remaining "regular" numbers whose reciprocals can be
expressed by a sexagesimal fraction of a finite number of places.
We have mentioned one exception to our rule that all multi-
plication tables must concern numbers b or, as we shall call them
now, regular numbers. This is the case of the first irregular
number, namely 7, for which several multiplication tables are
preserved. The purpose of this addition is clearly the completion
of all tables a • b at least for the first decade, in which 7 would
be the only gap because all the remaining numbers from 1 to 10
are regular. Thus we see that our original assumption was correct
for the modest range from 1 to 10. Instead, however, of expanding
this table up to 60, one chooses a much more useful sequence of
numbers, namely, those which are needed not only for multipli-
cation but also for division. The mere multiplications could
always be completed by one simple addition from two different
tables. This system of tables alone, as it existed in 1800 B.C.,
would put the Babylonians ahead of all numerical computers
in antiquity. Between 350 and 400 A.D., Theon Alexandrinus
wrote pages of explanations in his commentaries to Ptolemy's
sexagesimal computations in the Almagest. A scribe of the
administration of an estate of a Babylonian temple 2000 years
34 Chapter II

before Theon would have rightly wondered about so many words

for such a simple technique.
The limitations of the "standard" table of reciprocals which
we reproduced above (p. 32) did not mean that one could not
transgress them at will. We have texts from the same period
teaching how to proceed in eases not contained in the standard
table. We also have tables of reciprocals for a complete sequence
of consecutive numbers, regular and irregular alike. The reci-
procals of the irregular numbers appear abbreviated to three
or four places only. But the real expansion came in the Seleucid
period with tables of reciprocals of regular numbers up to 7
places for b and resulting reciprocals up to 17 places for b.
A table of this extent, containing the regular numbers up to
about 17 . lOll, can be readily used also for determining approxi-
mately the reciprocals of irregular numbers by interpolation.
Indeed, in working with astronomical texts I have often used this
table exactly for this purpose and I do not doubt that I was only
repeating a process familiar to the Seleucid astronomers.
19. Returning to the Old-Babylonian period we find many
more witnesses of the numerical skill of the scribes of this period.
We find tables of squares and square roots, of cubes and cube
roots, of the sums of squares and cubes needed for the numerical
solution of special types of cubic equations, of exponential
functions, which were used for the computation of compound
interest, etc.
Very recently A. Sachs found a tablet which he recognized as
having to do with the problem of evaluating the approximation of
reciprocals of irregular numbers by a finite expression in sexages-
imal fractions. The text deals with the reciprocals of 7, II, 13,
14, and 17, in the last two cases in the form that b • b = 10
instead of b • b = 1 as usual. We here mention only the two
first lines, which seem to state that

8,34,16,59 < ,.
but
8,34,18 > 7.
Indeed, the correct expansion of" would be 8,34,17 periodically
repeated. It is needless to underline the importance of a problem
 Babylonian Mathematics 35
which is the first step toward a mathematical analysis of infinite
arithmetical processes and of the concept of "number" in general.
And it is equally needless to say that the new fragment raises
many more questions than it solves. But it leaves no doubt that
we must recognize an interest in problems of approximations for
as early a period as Old-Babylonian times.
This is confirmed by a small tablet, now in the Yale Babylonian
Collection (cf. Pl. 6a). On it is drawn a square with its two diag-
onals. The side shows the number 30, the diagonal the numbers
1,24,51,10 and 42,25,35. The meaning of these numbers becomes
clear if we multiply 1,24,51,10 by 30, an operation which can
be easily performed by dividing 1,24,51,10 by 2 because 2 and
30 are reciprocals of one another. The result is 42,25,35. Thus we
have obtained from a = 30 the diagonal d = 42;25,35 by using
VI = 1;24,51,10.
The accuracy of this approximation can be checked by squaring
1;24,51,10. One finds
1;59,59,59,38,1,40
corresponding to an error of less than 22/60'. Expressed as a
decimal fraction we have here the approximation 1.414213 ..
instead of 1.414214 ... This is indeed a remarkably good approx-
imation. It was still used by Ptolemy in computing his table of
chords almost two thousand years later.
Another Old-Babylonian approximation of VI
is known to be
1;25. It is also contained in the approximation of V2
which we
find in the Hindu Sulva-Siitras whose present form might be
dated to the 3rd or 4th century B.C. There we find

whose s~xagesimal equivalent is

1;25 - 0;0,8,49,22, ... = 1;24,51,10,37, ....
The possibility seems to me not excluded that both the main term
and the subtractive correction are ultimately based on the two
Babylonian approximations.
36 Chapter II

JO. The above example of the determination of the diagonal of

the square from its side is sufficient proof that the "Pythagorean"
theorem was known more than a thousand years before Pythagoras.
This is confirmed by many other examples of the use of this
theorem in problem texts of the same age. as well as from the
Seleucid period. In other words it was known during the whole
duration of Babylonian mathematics that the sum of the squares
of the lengths of the sides of a right triangle equals the square of
the length of the hypotenuse. This geometrical fact having once
been discovered. it is quite natural to assume that all triples of
numbers 1. b. and d which satisfy the relation [I + bl = dI can
be used as sides of a right triangle. It is furthermore a normal
step to ask the question: When do numbers 1. b. d satisfy the
above relation'/ Consequently it is not too surprising that we find
the Babylonian mathematicians investigating the number-theoret-
ical problem of producing "Pythagorean numbers". It has often
been suggested that the Pythagorean theorem originated from
the discovery that 3. 4. and 5 satisfy the Pythagorean relation.
I see no motive which would lead to the idea of forming triangles
with these sides and to investigate whether they are right triangles
or not. It is only on the basis of our education in the Greek
approach to mathematics that we immediately think of the
possibility of a geometric representation of arithmetical or alge-
braic relations.
To say that the discovery of the geometrical theorem led natur-
ally to the corresponding arithmetical problem is very different
from expecting that the latter problem was actually solved. It is
therefore of great historical interest that we actually have a text
whieh clearly shows that a far reaching insight into this problem
was obtained in Old-Babylonian times. The text in question
belongs to the Plimpton Collection of Columbia University in
New York.
As is evident from the break at the left-hand side. this tablet
was originally larger; and the existence of modem glue on the
break shows that the other part was lost after the tablet was
excavated. Four columns are preserved. to be counted as usual
from left to right. Each column has a heading. The last heading
is "its name" which means only "current number". as is evident
from the fact that the column of numbers beneath it counts simply
 Babylonian Mathematics 37

the number of lines from "lst" to "15th". This last column is

therefore of no mathematical interest. Columns II and III are
headed by words which might be translated as "solving number
of the width" and "solving number of the diagonal" respectively.
"Solving number" is a rather unsatisfactory rendering for a term
which is used in connection with square roots and similar oper-
ations and has no exact equivalent in our modern terminology.
We shall replace these two headings simply by "b" and "d"
respectively. The word "diagonal" occurs also in the heading of
the first column but the exact meaning of the remaining words
escapes us.
The numbers in columns I, II and III are transcribed in the
following list. The numbers in [ ] are restored. The initial
r
numbers "[1 in lines 4 fl. are half preserved, as is clearly seen
from the photograph (PI. 7 a). A "1" is completely preserved in
line 14. In the transcription I have inserted zeros where they
are required; they are not indicated in the text itself.

I II ( .. b) III(-d) IV
[1,59,0,]15 1,59 2,49 1
[1,56,56,]58,14,50,6,15 56,7 3,12,1 2
[1,55,7,]41,15,33,45 1,16,41 1,50,49 3
[1,]5[3,1]0,29,32,52,16 3,31,49 5,9,1 4
[1,]48,54,1,40 1,5 1,37 5
[1,J47,6,41,40 5,19 8,1 6
[1,]43,11,56,28,26,40 38,11 59,1 7
[1,]41,33,59,3,45 13,19 20,49 8
[1,]38,33,36,36 9,1 12,49 9
1,35,10,2,28,27,24,26,40 1,22,41 2,16,1 10
1,33,45 45 1,15 11
1,29,21,54,2,15 27,59 48,49 12
[1,]27,0,3,45 7,12,1 4,49 13
1,25,48,51,35,6,40 29,31 53,49 14
[1,]23,13,46,40 56 53 15

This text contains a few errors. In 11,9 we find 9,1 instead of 8,1
which is a mere scribal error. In 11,13 the text has 7,12,1 instead
of 2,41. Here the scribe wrote the square of 2,41, which is 7,12,1
instead of 2,41 itself. In 111,15 we find 53 instead of 1,46 which
38 Chapter II

is twice 53. Finally there remains an unexplained error in 111,2

where 3,12,1 should be replaced by 1,20,25.
The relations which hold between these numbers are the
following ones. The numbers band d in the second and third
columns are Pythagorean numbers; this means that they are
integer solutions of

As band d are known from our list, we can compute I and find

Line I Line I Line I

1 2,0 6 6,0 11 1,0
2 57,36 7 45,0 12 40,0
3 1,20,0 8 16,0 13 4,0
4 3,45,0 9 10,0 14 45,0
5 1,12 10 1,48,0 15 1,30
dB
If we then form the values of II we obtain the numbers of

column I. Thus our text is a list of the values of ~, b, and d,

for Pythagorean numbers. It is plausible to assume that the values

of 1 were contained in the missing part. That they have been
explicitly computed is obvious.
If we take the ratio b for the first line we find 1,59 = 0;59,30
I 2,0
that is, almost 1. Hence the first right triangle is very close to
half a square. Similarly one finds that the last right triangle has
angles close to 30° and 60°. The monotonic decrease of the
numbers in column 1 suggests furthermore that the shape of the
triangles varies rather regularly between these two limits. If one
investigates this general fact more closely, one finds that the
values of ~ in column I decrease almost linearly and that this

holds still more accurately for the ratios ~ themselves (Fig. 3).
This observation suggests that the ancient mathematician who
composed this text was interested not only in determining triples
of Pythagorean numbers but also in their ratios :. Let us inves-
 Babylonian Mathematics 89
tigate the mathematical character of this problem. We know that
all Pythagorean triples are obtainable in the form
I = 2 pq b = pi - ql d = p'l. + q2
where p and q are arbitrary integers subject only to the condition
that they are relatively prime and not simultaneously odd and
p > q. Consequently we obtain for the ratio 1d the expression

d = 1(p . q + p . q)
I
d
where p and q are the reciprocals of p and q. This shows that I
are expressible as finite sexagesimal fractions, as is the case in
our text, if and only if both p and q are regular numbers.
This fact can be easily checked in our list of numbers by
computing the values of p and q which correspond to the I, b,
and d of our text. Then one finds a very remarkable fact. The
numbers p and q are not only regular numbers, as expected,
but they are regular numbers contained in the "standard table"

I"'-.. ~
~
sJ:
K
r----.
~
~

~
~
i"-.
..........
r-.... ~
"""-
-~ ..... ~
-r-.... I"- .........
......... ~ """-

,
~
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
'0, 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 " 12 /3 1+ 1$
Fig. 3.

of reciprocals (p. 82) so well known to us from many tables of

the same period. The only apparent exception is p = 2,5 but
this number is again well known as the canonical example for the
computation of reciprocals beyond the standard table. This
40 Chapter II

seems to me a strong indication that the fundamental formula

for the construction of triples of Pythagorean numbers was
known. Whatever the case may be, the text in question remains
one of the most remarkable documents of Old-Babylonian
mathematics. We shall presently (p. 42) return to the question
how a formula for Pythagorean numbers could have been found.
21. Pythagorean numbers were certainly not the only case of
problems concerning relations between numbers. The tables for
squares and cubes point clearly in the same direction. We also
have examples which deal with the sum of consecutive squares
or with arithmetic progressions. It would be rather surprising if
the accidentally preserved texts should also show us the exact
limits of knowledge which were reached in Babylonian mathe-
matics. There is no indication, however, that the important
concept of prime number was recognized.
All these problems were probably never sharply separated
from methods which we today call "algebraic". III the center of
this group lies the solution of quadratic equations for two un-
knowns. As a typical example might be quoted a problem from a
Seleucid text. This problem requires the finding of a number such
that a given number is obtained if its reciprocal is added to it.
Using modern notation we call the unknown number x, its
reciprocal x, and the given number b. Thus we have to determine
x from
xx= 1 x x = b. +
In the text b has the value 2;0,0,33,20. The details of the solution
are described step by step in the text as follows. Form

(:r = 1;0,0,33,20,4,37.46,40.

Subtract 1 and find the square root

v(it- 1 = V0;0,0.33.20.4.37,46.40 = 0;0,44.43.20.

The correctness of this result is checked by squaring. Then add

b
to and subtract from 2 the result. This answers the problem:
 Babylonian Mathematics 41

z = -b + y- = 1;0,0,16,40 + 0;0,44,43,20 = 1;0,45

2

;: = b _
2
y- = 1;0,0,16,40 - 0;0,44,43,20 = 0;59,15,33,20.
Indeed, z and x are reciprocal numbers and their sum equals the
given number b.
This problem is typical in many respects. It shows, fIrst of all,
the correct application of the "quadratic formula" for the solu-
tion of quadratic equations. It demonstrates again the unrestricted
use of large sexagesimal numbers. Finally, it concerns the main
type of quadratic problems of which we have hundreds of ex-
amples preserved, a type which I call "normal form": two num-
bers should be found if (a) their product and (b) their sum or
difference is given. It is obviously the purpose of countless ex-
amples to teach the transformation of more complicated quadratic
problems to this "normal form"
z·y=a
z±y=b
from which the solution then follows as

x=:+v(:r~a
g=±:~V(~r~a
simply by transforming the two original equations into two linear
equations
z±y=b
z =F y = y-bS-=F-
4 -a.
In other ;words, reducing a quadratic equation to its "normal form"
means finally reducing it to the simplest system of linear equations.
The same idea can be used for finding three numbers, a. b, c,
which satisfy the Pythagorean relation. Assume that one again
started from a pair of linear equations
a=z+y
b=z-y