ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

Endogenic processes are primarily driven by the energy emerging from within the earth. Diastrophism
and Sudden Movements are the two basic forms of earth movements.

Earth's interior heat is the ultimate source of energy that drives endogenic movements. Rotational and
tidal friction, radiation, and primordial heat from the earth's origin all contribute to this energy.

The majority of the earth's internal heat comes from radioactive decay which accounts for 50% of it and
gravitation which causes pressure gradients.

The lithosphere experiences diastrophism and volcanism as a result of the energy released by
geothermal gradients and internal heat flux.

The action of endogenic forces is unequal due to changes in geothermal gradients and heat flow from
within, strength, and crustal thickness. As a result, the original tectonically regulated crustal surface is
not homogeneous.

-When the ground moves, rock layers at the surface of the earth broken, twisted and shaken. Land is
destroyed in many places and created in other places.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT

Early of the 20th century, most geologists believed that the geographic positions of the ocean basins and
continents were fixed. however, data proved that continents move. A revolutionary explanation, called
continental drift was proposed by Alfred Wegener.

Wegener suggested that the continents were all originally part of a huge landmass called 'PANGAEA'
that was surrounded by a single ocean, 'PANTHALASSA.

CONVERGENT BOUNDARY- It occurs when two plates move toward each other. Crust is destroyed when
two plates converge. The heavier plate dives (subducts) beneath the more buoyant plate. Convergent
boundaries are also subduction zones.

Oceanic-continental convergence forms trenches, destructive earthquakes, and rapid uplift of mountain
ranges, as well as the building of volcanic arc.

Oceanic-oceanic convergence also forms trenches (Marianas Trench) and volcanic arc.

Continental-continental convergence forms mountain range like the Himalayan range.

TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARY It occurs when plates slide horizontally past one another. Most
transform faults occur within the ocean basin, but there are a few that can be found in continental
places. They commonly affect the active spreading ridges, producing zig-zag plate margins and generally
defines by shallow earthquakes.

The forces behind Endogenic Movements

Temperature and pressure differences across different layers of the earth cause density variances, which
cause convection currents.
The lithospheric plates (crust and upper mantle) are driven by convection currents in the mantle, and
the movement of the lithospheric plates (tectonics) is the cause of endogenic movements.

Convection currents can be influenced by the Earth's rotation (Coriolis effect).

The nature and location of endogenic motions are determined by the destination of convection currents.

2 main Endogenic Processes

FOLDING -When two forces push towards each other from opposite sides, the rock layers will bend into
folds. The process by which folds are formed are due to compressional forces known as folding.  There
are large-scale and small-scale folds. Large- scale folds are found mainly along destructive plate
boundaries.

FAULTING is the fracturing and displacement of more brittle rock strata along a fault plane either caused
by tension or compression. A break in rock along which a vertical or horizontal rock movement has
occurred is called a fault. The process of forming a fault is faulting. The line of fault which appears on
land surface is known as fault line. These lines are often lines of weakness which allow molten rock to
rise up onto the earth surface when there is active volcanic activity nearby.

A normal fault,(Convergence) also called tension fault and gravity fault, is formed when there is tension
and the rock is being pulled apart from itself. One rock face slips down past the other rock face due to
gravity.

A reverse fault, or thrust fault,(divergence) is due to compression when the rock is being pushed
towards itself. One plate is thrust upwards, vertically, above the fault line.

A strike-slip fault is where one or both plates move horizontally beside the other. The best known
example of this is the San Andreas Fault in California. Finally, the oblique fault is where one or both rock
faces move both vertically and horizontally past each other.

Faulting forms two major landforms - block mountains and rift valleys.

Others Endogenic Processes that are subsequent to the main ones. Volcanism (Volcanic Activity)
Metamorphism.Earthquake (Seismic Activity)

VOLCANISM or magmatism (also known as volcanic activity or igneous activity).Magma beneath the
crust is under very great pressure. When folding and faulting occur, cracks or fractures which are lines
of weakness are created.  When these lines of weakness develop downward in the crust and reach
the magma, they will release the pressure in the magma. This allows magma to rise up along the lines
of weakness and intrude into the crust. Some magma may even reach the earth's surface and some
don’t.

METAMORPHISM -The process of change in the form and structure of rocks by the agency of heat,
water, and pressure.

Diastrophic Movements

Diastrophism refers to all processes that move, elevate, or deform the earth's crust due to diastrophic
movements (deforming movements) such as folding, faulting, warping (bending or twisting of a large
area), and fracturing.
Diastrophic changes are slow and can last for thousands of years.

Orogenic or mountain-forming movements act tangentially to the earth's surface, as in plate tectonics.
The Himalayan-Alpine orogeny is the best instance of this case.

These processes are further classified into Tension and Compression.

Fissures are caused by tension when force is acting away from a point in two directions. The Sierra
Nevada (The USA) mountain range is the best example of a mountain that is formed by tension.

Folds appear as a result of compression when force is acting towards a point. The Himalayas is the best
example of a mountain that is formed by compression.

Epeirogenic Processes

Movements that form continents are known as epeirogenic or continent-forming movements. They are
also known as radial movements because they act along the radius of the earth.

They can move towards (subsidence) or away from (uplift) the center.

They create land upheavals or depressions with long-wavelength undulations (wavy surface) and little
folding. The present-day drainage divides between Limpopo and Zambezi rivers in southern Africa is a
classical example of this type.

Epeirogenic movements are further classified into Downward and Upward.

Subsidence occurs when movement is in a downward direction.

It is uplifted from the center when it is away. Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves, and
so on are examples of uplift.

Sudden Movements

The lithospheric plate boundaries are prone to sudden geomorphic movements. Because of the pressure
caused by the pushing and pulling of magma in the mantle, the plate boundaries are extremely unstable.

Earthquakes and volcanoes are the two best examples of sudden movements that cause significant
deformation in a short span of time.

Significance of Endogenic Processes

Endogenic processes are responsible for shaping the earth's relief and the formation of important
mineral resources.

They are important to maintaining the Earth's crust's unique structure.

The endogenic processes, therefore, are a byproduct of a body’s internal geodynamic activity. Thus they
shaped the surfaces of all terrestrial planets, the Moon, and all other Solar System bodies. The most
recent spacecraft observations have also confirmed this notion. Thus they put important constraints on
the internal evolution and the surface history too.