4

R E L I G I O U S R E F O R M A T I O N

The
0
schism) that
developed in
signiicant
the Christian
developments
church mav ho
in the sixtcenth

regarded as one of themost church which held swav

) y
Europe.The Roma Catholic
century western Europe became corrupt.
of central and
the
all Christians
intellectuals in the sixteenth
credibility with the
over

lost much of its

the purpose for which it was founded
to fulfil
century, and (failed hissuccessor, St. Peter, who became the first
by Jesus Christ) and propagate the teachings
of Christ,
was setup to
bishop of Rome. It the conduct of
individual Chris
and regulate
give proper guidance, attain salvation without
enabled them to
tiansin a way (which
dificulty. the Christian church
(After fall of the Roman Empire, from the perils of
the
the Christians
played an important role in savingumbrella sought
its many Christians
barbaricinvasions and every Pope was
protection.){The papacy was highly respected infallible.
considered to posses_ divinity and therefore regarded
religious
The Catholic &irch served the spiritual and otherbecame
needs of the Christian community( in various ways and
differ 1rom
pOpuar t even mighty Kings of Europe were afraid to ol
T.) They Cled upon all the citizens to obey the church, and such a"
thosewho showed disobedience were declared heretics and burnt
the stake) )
Every baby born in Europe automatically became Christian a
therefore had to go through "sacramental system" in the Cou of
itslife which included baptism, confirmation, penance, Lord pper,
extreme unction,
Holy order and matrimony.
The Catholic church was organised into unitsa heirarchy of ces,

the diocese and

parishes like pr of
officials such which were run by a
heira
as the Pope (bishop Ome), cardinals, archbisho
bishops, parish priests, Rome), of
called curates and deacons.; cardinals
All these
officials
were

mostly "sccular clergy" and distinguished from vho

were monks
who had tn but practiscd

rcnou.ccd he
wc d
 oup so1
RELIGIOUS DiVISIONS
SWEDEN
IN EUROPE Mosco
ABOUT 1600 ScOTLAND DENMARK
StAndrews
CHRISTIANITY NETHERLANDR st RUSSIA
AND
Cathoice IRELAND-
UI Lutheranis m gncon POLAD
Protestant Ghene
Minster.iowittenber)
ANY
Cal vinism
RAnglicanis m FNovon--ofns|il| BOHEM!A-
Paris -Sp ZAUSTRIA
EOrthoda Nanres 6Augsburg HuiNGAR
-FR ANCE Zürich
NoTE genevo
in severa countries -Trent-
there were impor tant
oVianne
rellgious minorities,. OT TO."AN
These are mt shown TLoyöla entindpie
on this maa TALYA
oRome EMPIRE
SPAN
 HISTORY OF ECROPE

The
The whole
48 and
obedience.

and was
poverty Europe
virtues like chastity, and
western

Christian central authority

and spiritual
over
was spread all moral the
organisation exercised great Orthodox
Church,
who
led by the Pope Unlike the Eastern
of European
subjecets. authority
Christian temporal with
over
did not yield to state
within a statej
Church was
Catholic
(thehurch and rcceiving
other words,
to the Pope
kings. In
kings. unflinching loyalty church and the
state
officials owing the
Church Middle Ages The church
him. In the
from repercussions.
guidance serious were
which had from state
laws,
entered into
a rivalry
claimed imnunity
countries them and they
officials in
several owned by
lands and
property the prin-
from tax on those who violated
exempted to punish was
ecclesiastical
courts
of the church
set up authority
The highest conmprised
Christian faith. Council which
ciples of General
and his himn-
exercised by
the Pope c o u r s e of
*ime, the Pope
the ali
However, in church kept all
prominent Bishops. The Catholic
arbiter. the
explanation of
self became the
supreme
its theological
under its fold through
" s a c r a m e n t a l system".
Christians

faith (through
priests) and
church
The decline of the catholic to decline
from the early
the church began movements
The popuarityofduring this time that anti-church
twelfth century.) (Itds
Albigenses
the revolt of the
most noteworthy, bejag their attacks
began,the Thessmovementsdirected

and Waldenses
in France. of introdueing
and priesthood.)(Instéad
church sacraments
the Popes declared
on the aimed preventing abuses,
at
neeessary reforms and brutally suppressed them.
these two groups
crusades against in England which was
led by John Wycliffe,
Lollard movement worldliness of the
The
professor, levelled
its criticism)on the
a priest and practices. (He
advocated a propertyless
church and its superstitfous for finding the
the sole guide
to the Bible
as
Church and a return
(1328-84) trans-
true path of
salvation.)Forthis,pupose Wycliffe
English.THEChurch ordered his expulsion
lated the Holy Bible into his death,
Oxford University where he was teaching, and afcer
from Gerhard
exhumed and desecrated. ) In the Netherlands,
his body was
non-rituafsed and humane Christianity
Grote (1340-84) advocaled a the
Church. He founded the "Brethren of
in the place of the
Common Life."
John Huss
A follower of John Wycliffe was a Bohemian,
and
(1369-1415) wto criticised the Pope for the sale of indulgene:s
 RELIGIOUS REFORMATION

rged people to follow the Bible.

49
trineof the Furthermore, he denicd the doc-
infallibility of the Pope. He
at the stake after and his followers doc
clear that the Catho licbeing declared heretics. were burnt
From the
not in tune with the church, being a mcdieval above, it is
1owards constructive changing times and proving itsclf organisation
was
criticism. What was it intolerant
due to?
The Decline of the
papacy
Everything depended the character of
on
at the helm of church the Popes who were
aflairs. Some of
for their vices and them were notorious
partly responsible for
church. For example, Pope lowering the image of the
and wordly life. Julius II Alexander VI was known for his vices
Pope Leo X obtained hardly cared for the subjects he
money to build St. Peter's governed.
unscrupulous sale of Church
indulgences and auctioning of churchthrough
He increased the taxes to
increase his income. The posts.
by their subordinates. The examples
these popes were emulated set by
set
during the period of "Great Schism". papacy declined

Church vs. State

Ia the Middle
Agesthe Church made
great inroads into the
authority of the state. It led to a continuous
quarrel between the
Church and the State. More often than
not the people, for fear of
inviting reprisals, supported the Church. But how long was
this to
continue? Pope Boniface VIII issued a bull of
against state officials who levied taxes on Church excommunication
Order was defied
property. But his
and there ensued a great struggle which ended in
the Pope's
humiliation and death in 1303. Due to frequent inter
ference in state politics, the papacy declined further. The French
Onarchy forced the Pope to shift his headquarters from Rome to
Avignon in France in 1309. The French influence on the Pope con-
tinued til1 1377.
The rise of
humanist movement
he Renaissance brought the humanist movement to the fore-
front. Keuchlin and Erasmus were the first to
atten Reuchlin
(German philologist)
to (Germa he Church its corruptions and incon-
mildly rebuke the Church for inconsistencies of the
fornrOnsistencies o
to
sistencies.h e first named "pointed out
the
made on the basis of a
erpretations
literal
iteral use
Ons of scholastic thcologians,
Erasmus of Rotterdam (see
o t h e text of the Bible".
 HISTORY OF EUROPE
50
a bold attempt to
Renaissance) being a clergyman made
chapter on
and condemn the questionable
ridicule the conduct of the priests Praise of Folly. He
the Church in his famous work, The
practices of would correct their ways and
that the Church and the clergy
hoped laughed at his serious
avoid a split. But Pope Leo only
X
thereby and could not see the
writ-
reform into the church
attempt to bring
ing on the wall.

Spread of secular attitude

secular attitude. Firstly,
Two factors accounted for developing
mostly related to pagan lite-
the spread of "New Learning" which outlook
developed a new
(ancient Greek and Roman classics)
rature since medieval
The old myths propagated by religion
among people. continents. Secondly,
days were exploded withthe discoveries of new dimen
society added a new
in European
the rise of the middle class and
tended to spurn religious orthodoxy
sion to the ethos. They
superiority of the Church. would
class always hoped that a strong monarchy
The middle
in its acquisition of
and restrain the Church frcm interfering
emerge frowned on indivi*
remembered that the Church
wealth. It may be transactions
wealth through monetary
dual acquisition of material the common
Jike lending or borrowing. In the course of time even
affluence of the Church and the profigacy
people began to envy the and
In view of this the Church lost its credibility
of Church officials,
hold the common people. People felt bitter when they
moral over,
for the maintenance
were asked to for Peter's pence (Church tax)
pay the Tudor period
of the Church. The middle class in England during VIII
vis-a-vis the Church when King Henry
supported monarchy of
and declared himself the head
breached bis relations with Rome
the English Church.

Rise of nationalism
sixteenth
The political_situation in Europe during the early
Renaissance
century dramatically changed. During the floodtide of
on the one hand and discovery of the new world on the other the
Church was becoming an obstacle to material and moral
fast
progress. The new generations no longer looked at the Catholic
Church for guidance but frequently depended upon strong rulers.
In the meantime, European monarchs were able to get rid of their
rebellious nobles and eradicate feudal conditions existing in their
RELIGIOUS REFORMATION 51

domain. In the flush of their success against the obstreperous

nobility, the rulers did not brook any inroads into their authority by
the Catholic Church.
The peoples of Europe too began to entertain an exalted notion
of the state and the benign influence of monarchs. Feelings of
national pride began to run high whenever wars broke out and
national boundaries came to be clearly demarcated. England and
France were the leaders in Europe. Religion began to lose its rele-
vance in the prevailing conditions. The rulers of Europe were eager
to lend their ears readily in matters of religious reform. But they
were not yet ready to strike a severe blow to their serious rival-the
Catholic Church. This task was accomplished by Martin Luther.
During the sixteenth century, Europe witnessed a tumultous
revolt against the Catholic Church which resulted in the schism.
Independent Churches were set up in the name of Martin Luther in
Germany, Ulrich Zwingli in Switzerland and John Calvin in France
In England, the Anglican Church emerged as the national church
which did not recognise the Pope as its head. All these Churches did
not have anything to do with the Eastern Orthodox Church, which
was the first to break its connection with Rome much before.

Authernism in Germany
The hold of the Catholic Church over the Germans had not
been so strong as in France or. Spain. The peasant class in Germany
had been fully exploited, and the clergy too had a share in this.
The German princes were eager to assail the Church and deprive it
of its lands and bring to an end its financial abuses. It was in these
circumstances that Pope's (Leo X) emissaries arrived to sell indul-
gences to sinners and transmit the funds for the reconstruction of
St. Peter's Basilica at. Rome.. John Tetzel, Pope's agent, came to
Wittenberg with the same mission and provoked Martin Luther.
Martin Luther was born in 1485 at Eisleben. Although he
belonged to the peasant stock he showed himself to be quite ambi
tious, scholarly, headstrong, and intelligent. Early in life he escaped
death from thunderbolt and took a pledge at that moment in
St. Anne's name that he would become a monk. He studied at the
University of Erfurt and became an Augustinian monk in 1505. The
newly set up Wittenberg University attracted Martin Luther where
he worked as professor of theology. The Elector of Saxony who
founded the university was proud of Luther because students came
 HIS1ORY OF EUROPE

52 prolessor vering erudite

delivering e

hear this young

Germany to
from all
over

lectures on theology. death in his carly da.

escape irom lays
since his miraculous
Ever about his own
salvation. Hi
eternal salvation. His
concerned
Lutherwas seriously St. Augustine. He wa was
works of St. Paul and
reading in uded the church's pretension
that it possessed
the ans mean

not convinced about that "good works and repentance

of salvation. He did not believe convincedin
Luther was
individual salvation.
alone would bring power to bring about
the end that "God's mercy" alone had the
individualsalvation.
Tetzel arrived to
When he was going through this trepidation,
sinners at Wittenberg. Some years
sell indulgences to the so called
visited Rome but was
earlier Luther, like other pious pilgrims,
shocked to see the worldliness of the church. \Tetzel's sale
provoked
Luther to produce the famous ninety-five theses (in Latin) which was
to read.
nailed to the church door at Wittenberg for the public
the chürch.
Luther was not yet ready to cross his swords with
CThe ninety-five theses only explained his differences and extended
an

invitation to any one to debate with him on the points I t was cus-
*

tomary during those days to' attract the attention of church-goers

them to attend any theological debate.The famous
andinvite
ninety-five theses created great sensation and received wide publicity.
Pope Leo X considered Luther's theses as coming from a disgruntied
monk, but thought it prudent to issue summons. But the Duke of
Saxony intervened and the summons. were withdrawn. in 1)I7,
Luther said in the course of a debate with a Catholic theologian, tnae
his views were more or less the
those of John Huss. (who wa
same as
burnt at the stake a
century
earl ier) who advocated man shoula ve
direct relation with God
without the mediation of the
ia
fewer words Luther church He
denied
further continued to assail the
the divine authority
of the church. ree
of his position held by the church in
well-known pamphlets: (1) An Address to the the
German Nation, (2) On. the oy.of Nobility
God, and (3) On Bubylonian
the Freedom of a Captivity ofThe Pope
the Churc was
left with choice but to order his
no Christian Man. The Pope e
publicity to these pamplets. excommunication for givmein ide

ces to liberate The

their country first appealed to the pr rman

the wealth of the from church control ropriäte

church for the and appro
no longer
sacred. reason that Christian riesthood was
attacked the papacy prie
The sccond
mental system. The third
,

sacra a n d the sacra-

teachings, that is, pamphlet and the

explained the essence oI t hers
justilication by faith'. nce of L u t h e r s
*
RELIGIOUS REFORMATION
53
The Schism
Luther burnt the bull of
canon
excommunication and the copy oi
law at public place on December 10, 1520 thereby -markin8
a
hi_ revolt. The Pope urged the
Luther's excommunication, but the
Emperor to issue another bull for
latter wisely decided to invite
Luther to attend the Diet
at Worms to explain his stand before
action could be taken.
Despite many suggestions coming from his
well wishers that he should not
attend (for Luther's life wass in
danger), Luther presented himself there to answer for his conduct.
He boldly declared
before the august assembly that he would not
revoke anything that he had already stated and his conscience is
taken captive by God's word".
The Emperor issued the famous
Edict of Worms which declared
Luther heretic but then no action could
be taken against him be-
cause he went into
secretly arranged confinement by the Elector of
Saxony (his patron) where he engaged himself in
Bible into German. translating the Holy

Lutheranism
During the next few years Lutheranism
spread all over central
and northern Gernmany, and the
ced by the turmoil caused neighbouring eountries-were influen-
by the civil war. Lutheranism assumed
the tone of national movement as
people
denounce the Catholic church. Lutheran and princes joined to
churches were set up
everywhere. Pious and laymen were equally shocked to know the
abuses of the church. The
of many mainly on account of
Catholic church alienated the sympathies
its obduracy and intolerance of the
criticisms levelled against it by intellectuals.
its climax when his teachings were {Luther's action reached
converted into a confession
sometimes known as the confession of Lutheran faith and
came to be
widely accepted. This confession was presented before the
Diet of
Augsburg which rejected it (1530). It may be remembered that in
1526 the Diet of Speyer witnessed
German princes divided into
Lutheran and Catholic and
therefore decided to leave the matter of
choosing the faith-catholic or protestant-to the princes
But in 1529, Emperor Charles V ruled themselves.
out the acceptance of the
Lutheran faith by German princes. The Lutheran
voked and they drafted a legal princes were pro-
protest against this and presented it
to the Emperor. Thus the name
with the followers of Luther.
protestants came to be associatedd
 54 HISTORY OF EUROPE
After the rejection of Augsburg confession, the Lutheran
ces formed a league for mutual protection in 1531. prin-
A nmn
of
factors helped Lutheranism to spread. Firstly, Luther's revolt Was
a logical cutmination of earlier attempts (which had failed) to
the Cathotic thurch from many prevailing abuses. The The time
reform
time was
ripe and Luther struck a severe blow and caused the schism. There
was something heroic
There
about Luther defying both the Pope and the
Emperor simultancously., Secondly, the pious and laymen alike
(including the rising middle class) were shocked and angry at the
abuses prevailing Thirdly,
in the church. the
princes and the middle
class joined the protestant movement With a view to
acquire the
ecclesiastical properties and
lands,Fourthly, the German patriots
looked upon the movement as a national movement in the sense
they
were trying to liberate the
country from alien rulers, Emperor
Charles V on the one hand and the control of the
Pope on the other.
Fifthly, the Emperor did not follow any consistent policy and showed
his inability to cope with the
of Martin
problem. Finally, it goes to the credit
Luther for
mobilising public opinion through pamphlets
and speeches against
the Catholic church, and
sing the Lutheran church which subsequently organi
took
Germany and neighbouring Scandanavian deep
roots in northern
countries. His personal
magnetism and religious conviction went a long way in
Lutheranism a securing
rightful place in the hearts of Christians who likea
piety, simplicity and service.

Civil in
war
Germany
Disunity was endemic in Germany
between catholic and and the religious con lict
protestant faiths made it The princes
upholding Lutheran faith
attempt to suppress
were quite worse.n
prepared to resist the Empe ar's
or's

heresy. It may be remembered that 1n 1524

peasants took advantage of the *
an
open rebellion after protestant movement and Di into

rbi
rary punishments anddemanding the abolition of the
other rights. But this was serfdominm 15 5
crushed
resulting in the slaughter of nearly was erushed
A civil war fifty thousands persons.
the began during the year of and
protestant princes got the Luther's death (15*0
fight against the
estant north and Emperor. The support of the French King "ro
religious conflict
aflict between the pro-
catholic
1555 with the peace of south took a between ded inin
heavy toll and it *ded
contained the Augsburg. The peace, among other things,
following terms: otnc
RELIGIOUS REFORMATION 55

(a) Each prince was given the right to adopt the faith he would
likehis subjects to follow, (b) Church property confiscatced by pro
testants before 1552 was to remain in the hands of those who held
them, (c) except Lutheranism, no other form of protestantism was
to be tolerated, (d) 1Lutheran subjects in catholic states in Germany
were not obliged to renounce their faith, and (e) a catholic prince
who embraced protestantism should give up his see.
Thus Lutheranism was recognised by the Holy Roman Emperor
in 1555 and it rapidly spread to Denmark, Norway and Sweden.
King Frederick I of Denmark patronised protestantism as well as
catholicism. But the Catholics tried to prevent his son Christian III
from succeeding to the throne. When their attempt failed, King
Christian III suppressed catholicism with a heavy hand in 1536.
Protestanism was recognised as state religion in 1537. King Gustavus
of Sweden quarrelled with the Pope, suppressed catholic monasteries
and officials, and seized church lands. After his death protestantismn
finally triumphed after some setbacks.

Protestantism in Switzerland
Switzerland was the first country directly affected by Protestant
movement in Germany. In the sixteenth century it comprised some
thirteen cantons, all acknowledging the sovereignty of the Holy
Roman Emperor. But each canton enjoyed autonomy, and with
others i t entered into defence treaties. Huldreich Zwingli (1484-
531) belonged to the town of Einsiedeln in the canton of Schwyz.
He became a catholic priest. He was well educated and came under
the influence of humanist scholar, Erasmus. He was transferred to
Zurich in 1519 where he felt the impact of Luther's movement.
Luther's pamphlets focussed on the prevailing abuses of the church,
and Zwingli was convinced that the Catholic
church should undergo
a thorough reformation. But more pressing than his religious con-
viction was the political nature of his struggle. He attacked the
church for encouraging the practice of hiring out Swiss troops to
foreign rulers. He exposed the other abuses of the Catholic church
and broke away with it in 1523.
Zwingli: Zwingli denigrated the papacy, condemned fasting.
the veneration of the saints, and the celibacy of the clergy. He
preached that only Bible can become the sole guide and considered
it as the supreme authority. Zwingli got married and his disciples
indulged in desecrating the church edifices. He diftered from Luther
56 HISTORY OF EUROPE
in his interpretation of the sacrament of the Lord's supper, and h a
form of service in the Catholic Church", Zwingli's sixty-seven
theses
emphasised the supreme authority of the Bible more firmly than
Luther's and differed more radically than Luther's about "catholic
traditions"
Except five centrally located forest cantons, Zwingli's move-
ment took deep roots in others. These cantons declared their inde-
pendence from the Catholic church. In 1531 Zwingli asked his
followers to convert the catholic citizens of other five cantons by
force of arms and this led to a civil war. Zwingli was killed and the
peace of Tappel followed. According to this settlement each canton
was allowed to choose its own religion. Like Germany, this moun-
tainous country thus became partly catholic and partly. protestant.
John Calvin (1509-64): Protestantism reached the acme of glory
in Switzerland under the leadership of John Calvin. He was a
Frenchman born_in 1509. He intended to be an ecclesiastic and
studied atPáris specialising in literature and theology. Calvin studied
law at the instance of his father to become a lawyer. However, in
1529 he began to devote great attention to religious reforms. Like in
refor-
Germany and Switzerland, France too witnessed advocates of
ms attacking the Catholic Church for its abuses. In the same
year, Calvin suddenly convertd to prötestant faith for he thought
he was fulfilling a divine call for setting up a purer Christianity".
After breaking his connections with the Catholic Church he pursued
a purer doctrine. Many came to him for spiritual guidance. King
lett
Francis decided'to crush religious dissent and therefore Calvin
was how
France to seck asylum in Basel, a town in Switzerland. This
he became the successor to Zwingli.
It was in this town that Calvin was able to sum up his belieis
and write about them in 7he Institute of the Christian Religion. Tn
work was dedicated to the French King Francis I (probably to wea
him away from Catholic faith) and published in 1536. Although t
French King was not influenced by it, it was nevertheless a most t p o r
on
tant contribution to protestant theology. It provided a comn
religious rule and guide. for all Christians who rebelled aga
Rome
No other work had helped the cause and spread of protest
hat
tism more in Europe than this. The most important doctrine IItt
.
he advocated in his work was the Doctrine of predestinationous
says, "God chooses His own elect", and they live in totalrgmst
For almost

ness in this world and "enjoy salvation in the next". F

RELIGIOUS REFORMATION
51
evervthing Calvin insisted on the strict interpretation of the Bible
and rigid enforcement of a code of conduct. In 1536 he went to
Geneva and made it his base of operations. It was here that he
helped the people to free themselves from the feudal hold of the
Duke of Savoy who was a champion of the Catholic Church. Calvin
was appointed Chief Pastor of the city, and thanks to his dedication,
Geneva became a great centre of learning. Graduates of this univer
sity spread the teachings of Calvin in other Europcan countries.
It was in Geneva that he tried to set up his reformed church
made
of the faith was drawn up.Worship
was
after the.confession m

and the practice of reading the p_alm books and singing of

simple
regulated life
psalms were encouraged. Calvin insisted on strictly and other
both inside and outside the church. Gambling, dancing
for his brief exile (1538-41)
worldly pleasures were forbidden. Except
Geneva became a great
due to some opposition to his teachings,
did not tolerate any opposition
centre of Calvinist Church. Calvin
theocratic state he set up in Geneva. Servetus,
to his church, and the
Catholic church
a celebrated Spanish
unitarian, persecuted by the
that he
protection of Calvin at Geneva. But Calvin ordered
sought because Servetus rejected the doc-
be burnt at the stake for heresy
trine of Trinity.
views may be regarded_ as

By modern standards Calvin's did not permit

in Geneva because he
extreme. He made life dull kind. Adultery
celebrations of any
theatre and
revelry, gambling, dictatorship. Some
His was the theocratic
was severely punished.
Pope. He wrote a number of trea-
people described him as Protestant He made the
He
French translation
of.the Bible.
Ises and issued.a learning.
seat of higher
of Geneva a prestigious wide in
University spread far and
and doctrines of Calvin
The teachings Church in Scotland
Presbyterian
followed by the Church in
Europe. They were Dutch Reformed
John Knox, the
Which was founded byof Puritans in Britain and the USA, centreand the
of
Churches a great
Holland, the Geneva became
Church in France.
univer-
studied at the
Huguenot students who
foreign John Calvin.
Keformation and many
teachings of
ideals and and dissimilar
Ey propagated the certain similar
had faith
justification by
Calvinism
Lutheranism and
emphasis o n
For exámple,
both laid Both taught that
Both taught
res, o r rule of faith.
faith and faith
and BibBe being the sole guide is possible by
is and salvation of Christianity
w e r e the
uman nature
nature corrupt
two sects
these
-alone. What distinguished
 HISTORY OF EUROPE:
58 c
doctrines of absolute
on the
doctrines. Calvin laid emphasis
and "predestination".
of the divine will
reigty
Anglicanism belong to the Anglican
Another group of protestants
large and Methodist
the state Church of England. Episcopal
Church,
elsewhere may be regarded its offshoots
Churches in the USA and other country
true catholics like in any
The English had remaincd as
of the Pope until the advent of the
and recognised the supremacy
like Colet and Sir Thomas
sixteenth century. However, humanists
More urged reforms. In tune with rising nationalism, it was felt
that the Catholic Church in England should not remain subservient
to the papacy. For several centuries the Catholic Church of England
went by the name Anglican Church, and in the sixteenth century it
was to lose its international connection and come under "privilegcd
independence" of the Tudors.

Origin of Reformation Movement in England

King Henry VIII was unhappy with his wife, Catherine of
Aragon, who could not present him with a male heir. Meanwhile,
he fell in love with Anne Boleyn, a
maid-in-waiting at the court and
decided to marry her. Being a devout catholic-he
had condemned
Luther's doctrine for which the
Pope had given him the title of
"Defender of the Faith"; he
of his marriage with
applied to the Pope for tie annulment
Catherine. The Pope was in a
Catherine was the aunt of the dilemma, because
whom his ties had Holy Roman Emperor Charles V witn
couli not displease the
always been friendly. At the
same time, nc
English King. When he kept the matter
pending, King Henry VIII could no longer wait
became pregnant since Anne Boleyn
(Henry had secretly
child). Thomas married her to make sure o
the legitimacy of the
Canterbury, who was appointed to Cranmer, the Archbishop
matter in the King's deal with
favour, divorce, settled tno
gave a broad hint to the Thomas Cromwell
England he was not King that he could (Henry's minisi bf
Parliament in England answerable to the Pope.claim, that as Kng
the Pope and the passed series of The Reformation
Reforma of
Catholic Acts curbing the
supreme hcad (Act of Church and made poweT
Queen Catherine from Supremacy). The the English
lish King
Thomas Cromwcll, the appealing to the Act of Ppeals
App
Kidc
forb
to the architect of
king ways and means Papal court in ome..

trol. All
Church of English Reformation, sug d
appointments keeping the Church
(including that under hrn Con
of Thomas r
NLIGNNs REORMATON
59
ww made by the king. thanks the support extended by the sub-
to
servient Parliament. The Pope (Clement VII) finally settled the
issue in tavour dM Catherine (of course influcnced partly by the
Duneror and partly by the detiant attitude of King Henry VIID
and exeonunivated the English King. The King suppressed the
nonasteries ruthlessly by imposing heavy fines and stopped the flow
s money nom Engand to the Pope by the Act of Annates. Thomas
Cromwell payed his part in securing the support of parliament for
Reformation in England. Fortunately, the middle class supported
the Tudor monanehy in its tight against the Catholic Church. It may
e noted that Henry VIl did not like Lutheranism ond therefore it
was not until two years after the accession of King Edward VI (1547-
$3) that the protestant faith was fully accepted and Cranmer's new
prayer books were inroduced (1549). The English translation
of the Bible was kept in English Churches in 1538. But the Church
of England (the Anglican Church) was fully established by Elizabeth I
in 1563 atter the adoption of the 39 Articles which combined pro-
testant doctrine with Catholic Church organisation (compromise
of
formula) to end religious contlict which characterised the reign
remembered that Queen
her predecessor, Queen Mary. It may be
on account of which many
Mary brought about catholic reaction the stake burnt at
were driven to exile and 300 were
protestants settlement
Elizabethan Church
(inciuding Archbishop Cranmer).
deviation was severly punished.
was imposed upon all and any
several forms of radical protes-
On the continent and England
names of Evangelical
are known by the
tants formed sects and they and
Mennonites, Congregationalists*
protestants, Ana-Baptists,
Unitarianns.
The Counter-Reformation
in variousforms severely damaged
The rise of protestantism sixteenth century.
Catholic Churclh in the
of the disturbed
The redibility Catholic nations
of Europe were deeply
early half of the to Catholic Chureh.
their allegiance
discontinued
made things worse and
t h e peoples the Catholic Church were
of But there
cstubborn attitude be stemmed.
could not reputation of
protestanism a m o u n t of
pread of substantial VIE
still feltt that
Clement
C a t h o l i c s who
X and
salvaged. Popes Leo
be
the Catholic Church could problem
the prodie
of the
magnitude of
COuld
n a r d B y cope
with the
C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n

King Philip 1lI: within, as if in

eanghtened Popes and reformed
from
Church got
means how the Catholic
60
HISTORY OF EUROPE
response to the challenge posed by the rapid spread of
of Protesta.
Protestanism.
After the early attempts to arr+ve at a compromise with the
he protes
tants failed, it becam necessary for the Catholic Church to
sincere attempt to put up a united front to stem
Church to make.
stem the rot
rot.
Paul III and his successors tried to restore the pristine Pope
glory of the
Catholic Church during the later half of the sixtcenth cenfi
During the first phase, these Popes appointed men of great honestiry.
sincerity, and great virtues to all high posts in the Church so that-
their examples could be emulated by the lower
clergy.
They adopted
several measures to curb the vices
prevailing in the Church.
Philip II of Spain goaded these Popes to adopt a tough line King
with
regard to the corruption in the Church. It may said that he spear-
headed the Counter-Reformation movement, partly to refurbish the
image of the Catholic Church and partly to impose his royal
despotism.
Council of Trent During the next phase,
the Council of Trent
(1545-63) began to take steps in reviving and salvaging the
tion of the Catholic Church whose reputa
credibility had been badly
damaged by Lutheranism and Calvism. In very difficult political
circumstances, this General Council of the Catholic Church carried
out its work in two
directions-dogmatic reassertion of the faith and
purging.
Dogmatic Reassertion: Luther's challenge was met. It was
stated that the Catholic
Church stood by the theology which had
been expounded by St. Thomas
based on tradition and the
Aquinas. Christian religion was
Holy Bible, and only the Catholic Churcn
enjoyed the right to interpret the Holy scriptures. Lutheran teach-
ings of grace and justification of faith were condemned and
Catholic church stood by the
rituals,
veneration of the saints. Beliefs in sacraments, Lord's suppeT
veneration of the saints,
images, purgatory and indulgences were reasserted. The rritual
authority_of Church officials, right from the Pope down the

Parish priest,
was confirmed. The papal interpretation of the to n
and his authorityover his subordinates
were confirmed. The Holy
inquisitions
were revived
bcoks were banned. and all guilty oficials punished. no al
The Council of Trent
pline among the officials implemented
with a
steps to enforce stri
seething corruption. Church view to purge the Churcn
ites
The sale of Church offices wasdiscipline was defined throug ofi
cials stopped, and Bishops
their headquarters.and
were ordered not to had to
Ieave
RELIGIOUS REFORMATION 61
abandon wordly pursuits. Seminaries be started for impart-
werc to
ing education and training of priests. Sale of indulgences was
stopped. Officials were to conduct proceedings and sermons in the
Church in regional languages also, besides Latin. The Church shouid
not charge for bestowing the sacraments. By the end of the sixteenth
century the revival of Catholic Church was almost accomplishcd.
The process of Counter-Reformation would not be
complete
without a reference to the achievements of the Society of Jesus
founded by Ignatius Loyola. He played a dynamic role in the revíval
of the Roman Catholic Church for which he was conferred the
honour of a Saint subsequently.
Tgnatius Loyola and the Society of Jesus: Ignatius Loyola (1492-
1556), a Spanish nobleman, was born in 1491. He became a soldier
and served Emperor Charles V by fighting the French. He was
wOunded in a battle,and during the period of treatment he had
strangereligious experiences. He underwent a great transformation
after studying the works relating to the lives of Jesus Christ and
other saints. He became a scholar at Sorbonne (Paris) and took a
vow to serye Christ, his vicar, and the Catholic Church. He founded
a religious order which went by the name of Society of Jesus with
papal consent and enrolled sixty members (Jesuits) who were subjec-
ted to most severe religious discipline and training. Each member
had to undergo Loyola's Spiritual Excercises and in 1540 the Pope
sanctioned increase in the strength of Jesuit members. From mid-
sixteenth to mid-seventeenth century, the Jesuits, who swore to lead
a life of poverty, chastity and "service to God and Christianity",
spread themselves throughout the European Continent (some left for
working in other continents) and worked tirelessly with grcat zeal as
missionaries. They spread the mcssage of Christ and opened schools
everywhere. They toiled for improving the image of the Catholic
Church. Their dedicated services did not go in vain. A
special
mention must be made of a jesuit priest, St. Francis Xavier. He
went to China and Japan and worked for propagating Christianity.
He cameto India and breathed hls tast His mortat remainswere
preserved in the Church of Bom Jesus in Old Goa. He was raised to
sainthood by the Catholic Church.

Results of the Reformation

Let us examine the consequenees of Reformation in Europe.
Firstiy, Reformation gave birth to protestantism. Protestantism
62
HISTORY OF EUROPE
in three forms: (a) Lutheranism, (b)«Calvini
mainly appeared and
Had it not been for the stubborn attitude, nr
(c) Anglicanism. The Catholic Church baro
Protes.
tantism would not have arisen. under ely
stood people's demand for reforms. When it came, it was too late.
Secondly, Reformation not only brought about clash betwoon
Catholicism and Protestantism but also intolerance. Religious intal
rance found expression in the civil war in Germany and suhso.
quently the thirty years war. Both sides did not tolerate heresy and
burnt dissenters at the stake.
Thirdly, the Reformation assumed the form of nationalism,
partculary in England and Holland. Those who urged reforms
sided with the monarchy in its dispute with the Pope. Had it not
been for the support that Henry VIII received from the Parliament
and the middle class, his struggle with the Catholic Church would
not have succeeded. Similarly, in Germany the Protestant move
ment led by Luther assumed the form of a national movement. The
outcome was the rise of national monarchies.
Fourthly, religion and politics got mixed up in national politics.
Religious minorities and dissenters were severely punished. Huguenots
and Puritans had to leave their homeland as they were no longer
tolerated.
Fifthly, Reformation at its extreme produced reaction in the
form of Counter-Reformation. The Catholics under the Pope and
under the guidance of Council of the Trent, took steps to revivo
Catholicism.
Sixthly, Catholicism could not regain the status quo ante. The
Fope' s authority as the undisputed leader of Western Christendo
dwindled. His position was frequently assailed by the ruling
monarchs of
the role of a
Europe and in the course of time he no longer P*
ved
supreme arbiter in European politics."

Suggested Readings
1. Bainton, Roland H., The
Age of
2. Grimm, Harold, 7The
Reformation
Reformation (1956).
3. Hughes, Philip, A Popular Era (1966).
4. Roth, Cecil, The History of the Reformation (1957).
SpanishInquisition (1964).