Running Head: HOMININ FOSSILS 1

Hominin Fossils

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Hominin Fossils

Fossil 1

Australopithecus africanus: cranium

Source: Smithsonian

Link: https://www.si.edu/object/3d/australopithecus-africanus-cranium:ea4abc35-be8e-4787-

aec4-ab7e34298f9b

The Genus and species name of this fossil is Australopithecus africanus. During the

Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs, this species existed between 3 million and 2 million years ago

(Smithsonian, n.d). It was first discovered in 1924 in a limestone quarry near Taung, South

Africa (Foerster tv al., 2022). The fossil of Australopithecus africanus provides numerous

anatomical evidence of bipedalism. The fossil has a relatively large brain size, a long and low

skull, a foramen magnum placed beneath the skull, and a spine angled in a way that would have
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allowed for a more upright posture than its predecessors. Additionally, its long hind limbs and

short forelimbs are indicative of bipedalism as well.

Furthermore, there is evidence of cultural behavior associated with Australopithecus

africanus. One example is the discovery of tools that are believed to have been used by this

species. The tools, made of quartz and quartzite, were found in the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania,

suggesting that the species could likely craft and use tools. Additionally, there is evidence that

the species may have been able to use fire. Charcoal deposits from a cave in South Africa

believed to be 1.5 million years old were discovered, suggesting that the species may have the

skills to create fire.

Fossil 2

Australopithecus afarensis: cranium

Source: Smithsonian
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Link: https://www.si.edu/object/3d/australopithecus-afarensis-cranium:6faf8121-250c-47cb-

a5cc-139d7b16c570

The fossil described in the link is a skull belonging to Australopithecus afarensis, a

hominin that lived in Africa during the Pliocene epoch, 3.85-2.95 million years ago

(Smithsonian, n.d). This species is most famously known for the fossil remains of the individual

nicknamed “Lucy,” found in 1974 in the Afar region of Ethiopia. The fossil of the skull provides

evidence of bipedalism in Australopithecus afarensis. The skull is relatively small, with a low

cranial vault, a flat and wide face, and a jawbone with a prominent, projecting chin. The skull

also shows that the foramen magnum is positioned farther forward than other primates,

indicating bipedal locomotion. The foramen magnum is the point through which the spinal cord

exits the skull, where the head is balanced on the spine.

In addition to the evidence of bipedalism, the skull fossil also provides evidence of

cultural behavior in Australopithecus afarensis. The species was found to have utilized stone

tools, which were found in the same archaeological site as the “Lucy” fossil. These tools suggest

that the species could make and use stone tools to acquire food and other resources, indicating

cognitive sophistication (Bobe & Wood, 2022). Overall, the fossil of the skull belonging to

Australopithecus afarensis provides evidence of bipedalism and cultural behavior in this species.

The fossil shows that the species could walk upright and make and use stone tools to acquire

resources. This suggests that Australopithecus afarensis had a complex cognitive capability,

indicative of a sophisticated culture.

Fossil 3
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Early Homo species: cranial fragment

Source: Smithsonian

Link: https://www.si.edu/object/3d/early-homo-species-cranial-fragment:7ca3d255-a3b6-4404-

afa9-d7a50c715909

The fossil is part of the Genus Homo, and the species is Homo heidelbergensis. The

species is believed to have existed between 600,000-400,000 years ago. This fossil was found in

a sand quarry near Mauer, Germany, in 1907 (Smithsonian, n.d). Anatomical evidence of

bipedalism is present on the fossil itself. There is a sagittal keel, a ridge that runs down the center

of the skull, providing evidence of bipedalism. This sagittal keel is believed to have helped the

skull to remain balanced while the individual was walking upright. There is evidence of cultural

behavior associated with this species. Archaeological finds from the same area as the fossil

include stone, bone, and antler tools. This indicates that this species could create and use tools

for various purposes. The tools were likely used for hunting, gathering food, and cutting and
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scraping. This suggests that the species had a complex culture, which included the ability to use

tools.

Fossil 4

Homo neanderthalensis: mandible

Source: Smithsonian

Link: https://www.si.edu/object/3d/homo-neanderthalensis-mandible:b205ddc0-71c6-4f8c-9fc4-

07f15d49d99f

The fossil in question is a mandible from Homo neanderthalensis, an extinct species of

hominin that existed from around 400,000 to 40,000 years ago (Smithsonian, n.d). This species

was first discovered in the Neander Valley of Germany in 1856 and is the closest relative to

modern Homo sapiens. Homo neanderthalensis fossils have been found in many areas of Europe,

the Middle East, and Central Asia. This fossil was discovered in the Abri Moula cave in France,

one of Europe's earliest known sites of human occupation. Anatomical evidence of bipedalism
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has been found in the fossils of Homo neanderthalensis, namely in the structure of the pelvis,

which suggests that they were capable of walking upright. Additionally, the shape of the femur,

which is the long bone in the thigh, reveals that they had a robust gluteal musculature, which is

an adaptation for bipedalism.

Moreover, there is evidence of cultural behavior associated with this species, such as

using tools and burying their dead. Neanderthals are believed to have made and used tools and

created artwork, as evidenced by the discovery of a Neanderthal flute from a cave in Germany.

Neanderthals are known to have buried their dead, suggesting they had a belief system and

reverence for their deceased.

Fossil 5

Homo floresiensis: cranium

Source: Smithsonian
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Link: https://www.si.edu/object/3d/homo-floresiensis-cranium:425a517b-8308-4ac9-8f3b-

08f74e4ff9e5

The fossil discussed in this link is Homo floresiensis, a species of the Genus Homo. This

species existed from about 95,000 to 17,000 years ago (Smithsonian, n.d). This species was first

discovered on the island of Flores in Indonesia in 2003. Anatomical evidence of bipedalism can

be found in the Homo floresiensis fossils. These fossils show a short stature and a small rib cage,

which suggests that this species was bipedal. In addition, the feet of this species appear to be

adapted for bipedalism, as they are short and wide, with a hallux (big toe) slightly divergent from

the other toes. Evidence of cultural behavior associated with this species has also been found.

For example, Homo floresiensis appears to have used tools and fire, as evidenced by the

presence of stone tools and charcoal at archaeological sites associated with this species. In

addition, the archaeological sites associated with this species show evidence of hunting,

suggesting the use of weapons for hunting. This suggests that the Homo floresiensis had some

level of cultural sophistication.

Fossil 6
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Homo habilis: cranium

Source: Smithsonian

Link: https://www.si.edu/object/3d/homo-habilis-cranium:de47a0c6-20c6-4d70-bcc8-

4992d5f4ff66

The fossil discussed in this link is from the Genus Homo and the species habilis. Homo

habilis is believed to have existed between 2.4 and 1.4 million years ago (Smithsonian, n.d). This

fossil was found in the Olduvai Gorge of Tanzania and is one of the oldest known fossils of

Homo habilis. Anatomical evidence of bipedalism is present in the fossils of this species. The

pelvis of Homo habilis has a wide pelvic outlet, which is a characteristic found in bipedal

species. Additionally, the femur and tibia are relatively short, and the fibula is quite small, which

are also features associated with bipedalism.

There is evidence of some early cultural behavior associated with Homo habilis. Stone

tools have been found at Olduvai Gorge, which is believed to have been used by this species.
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The tools are believed to have been used for cutting, pounding, and scraping. It is believed that

Homo habilis was the first species to use fire, as evidence of burned bones and ashes have been

found near their sites. Overall, this fossil provides a great insight into the evolution of Homo

habilis and the development of bipedalism and cultural behavior.

Fossil 7

Homo erectus: cranium

Source: Smithsonian

Link: https://www.si.edu/object/3d/homo-erectus-cranium:0b1d7e98-3dd0-4614-93d7-

a2ae3cc9b11c

The fossil discussed in the link is a Homo erectus skull, belonging to the genus Homo

and species erectus. Homo erectus existed from approximately 1.9 million to 143,000 years ago,

during the Pleistocene period. This particular skull was found in the 1930s at Zhoukoudian,

China’s Beijing Municipality cave (Smithsonian, n.d). The skull of Homo erectus shows
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anatomical evidence of bipedalism, which is seen mainly in the shape of the skull. This species

has a low forehead, broad, flat face, and long, low braincase. All of these features are indicative

of bipedalism in Homo erectus. There is also evidence of cultural behavior associated with this

species. Homo erectus is known to have used fire, hunted large game, and produced simple stone

tools. They also used caves and shelters to protect themselves from the elements. This species

was also the first hominin to have spread out of Africa and into Eurasia, indicating an ability to

migrate and inhabit different environments. All of this evidence suggests a more complex culture

than their predecessors.

Fossil 8

Homo heidelbergensis: cranium

Source: Smithsonian

Link: https://www.si.edu/object/3d/homo-heidelbergensis-cranium:90b701c6-3b70-41c1-b4f2-

cc1fa8444873
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The fossil discussed in this article is a Homo heidelbergensis skull. Homo

heidelbergensis is a species of the Genus Homo, which is the same Genus as Homo sapiens

(modern humans). This species existed between 600,000 and 200,000 years ago. This fossil was

found in 1907 in a sandpit near Heidelberg, Germany (Smithsonian, n.d). It was the first fossil of

this species to be discovered, making it a key fossil in studying human evolution.

The fossil shows evidence of bipedalism, which is the ability to walk on two feet. This is

evident in the shape of the skull and the size of the foramen magnum, which is the hole at the

base of the skull through which the spinal cord passes. The shape of the skull indicates that the

neck was positioned in a way that allowed the individual to stand upright, and the size of the

foramen magnum indicates that the head was balanced on top of the spine. There is also evidence

of cultural behavior associated with this species. This includes the use of stone tools and

weapons, as well as the formation of complex social groups. Additionally, evidence of symbolic

behavior has been found, such as the production of figurines, as well as evidence of burial

practices, which suggests that this species had some form of belief system.

Fossil 9
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Homo rudolfensis: cranium

Source: Smithsonian

Link: https://www.si.edu/object/3d/homo-rudolfensis-cranium:6d2ecbf8-0d42-4277-a475-

4a3d9208ecd3

The genus and species name of this fossil is Homo rudolfensis. This species existed

between 1.9-1.8 million years ago and was one of the first members of the Genus Homo. The

Leakey family discovered the fossil in 1972 in Koobi Fora, Kenya. Evidence of bipedalism is

found in the fossils of this species, including a relatively short and broad lower jaw, a large

forehead, and a cranial capacity of about 775-850 cm3 (Semaw et al., 2020). The cranial capacity

is more extensive than earlier hominids, and the large forehead suggests that the species was

capable of complex thought and communication.

Additionally, there is evidence of cultural behavior associated with this species.

According to archaeological finds, Homo rudolfensis used tools and butchering tools made of
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stone and bone. They were also capable of creating fire and could likely create shelters and

clothing. This suggests that they were capable of advanced thought and planning and the

development of social structures. This species was one of the earliest members of the Genus

Homo, and evidence suggests that it was a direct ancestor of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens.

Fossil 10

Homo sapiens: cranium

Source: Smithsonian

Link: https://www.si.edu/object/3d/homo-sapiens-cranium:09d681b2-5ae9-44a8-b444-

8e31bb40305e

The fossil in question is a skull of the genus Homo and species sapiens, a human species.

Homo sapiens have existed for the past 200,000 years, with the oldest fossils being found in

Ethiopia (Smithsonian, n.d). This particular fossil was found in a cave in the Czech Republic.

Anatomical evidence of bipedalism on the fossil includes a long, narrow braincase. This lower
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jaw is less massive than its predecessors, as well as a rounded chin, which are all characteristics

of modern humans. Moreover, the skull has a long, low cranial vault and a face that is short and

tucked under the braincase, which are other indications of bipedalism.

Furthermore, there is evidence of cultural behavior associated with this species, such as

using tools, fire and developing complex language and communication. This cultural behavior

can be seen in the fossil, which shows evidence of advanced brain development and a more

complex facial structure. This suggests that Homo sapiens were more advanced in their abilities

than other species at the time. Additionally, the skull shows evidence of more complex social

organization and the development of more sophisticated behavior.

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References

Bobe, R., & Wood, B. (2022). Estimating origination times from the early hominin fossil

record. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 31(2), 92-102.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/evan.21928. Accessed February 27,

2023.

Foerster, V., Asrat, A., Bronk Ramsey, C., Brown, E. T., Chapot, M. S., Deino, A., ... & Trauth,

M. H. (2022). Pleistocene climate variability in eastern Africa influenced hominin

evolution. Nature Geoscience, 15(10), 805-811. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-

022-01032-y. Accessed February 27, 2023.

Semaw, S., Rogers, M. J., Simpson, S. W., Levin, N. E., Quade, J., Dunbar, N., ... & Everett, M.

(2020). Co-occurrence of Acheulian and Oldowan artifacts with Homo erectus cranial

fossils from Gona, Afar, Ethiopia. Science Advances, 6(10), eaaw4694.

https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.aaw4694. Accessed February 27, 2023.

Smithsonian. (n.d). Hominin Fossils. Office of the Chief Information officer.

https://www.si.edu/spotlight/hominin-fossils. Accessed February 27, 2023.