Infinite Impulse Respon se Filters J.

17

rractke Prohlcm S.3 Find the pole locatio ns of a 6th order Butterworth filte r with
nc- ::= I rad/sl'C .

S.7 Analog Lowpass Chebyshev Fillers

There are two types of Chchyshev filters. Type I Chebys hcv filters are aJl-pole filters
that exhibit equirip ple behavio ur in the passban d and a monoto nic charact eristics in
the stopband. On the other hand, the family of type II Chebys hev filter contains both
poles and zeros and exhibits a monoto nic behavio ur in the passban d and an equirip ple
beha,·iour in the stopban d (Fig. 5.9).

IH(jO)I
IH(i~)I
1.0 l.O i - -- -- .-
I
1
Ji+ £2 [i+7
.
..
I
I
I

''I
I
I

.:'
• I
I
'
I

I
Ji +).l ------------------1---------
I

I
.
'I
----------- -------~-- -
... : ,:
'I

Os n n., n. n
I l'ypc I

Fig. 5.9 Characteristics of Chebyshev filters

Type II

The magnitu de sql;lare respons e of Nth order.ty pe I filter·ea n be express ed as

IH(jn)1 2 =
1
- - -- - N=l,2 , ... (5.33)
1 + c2c2
N ( TI;
n)
where c: is a parame ter of the filter related to the ripple in-the passban d and CN(x)
is
the Nth order Chebyshev polynom ial defined as

C N (x ) = cos (N cos- • x) , lxl ~ 1 (Passba nd) (5.33a)

and
C N (:i; ) == cosh(N cosh- 1 x), lxl > 1 {Stopband) , (5.33b)
The Chebyshev polynomial is defined by the recursive formula

(5.34)
where C 0 (x ) = 1 and C 1(x) = x .
The Chebyshev polynomials described by Eq. (5.34) or Eq. (5.33a) have the fol-
lowing properties.
5. 18 Digital Signnl Processing

1. CN(x ) = - CN( - :r) for Nodd

CN(:r ) = CN( -x) for N even
CN(O) = (- l)N/1 for N even
CN(O) = 0 for Nodd
CN(l) = 1 for all N
CN( - 1) = 1 for N even
CN(- 1) = - 1 for Nodd ,I

2. CN(x) oscillates with equal ripple between ±1 for lxl < 1.

3. For all N O <ICN(x)I < 1 for O < lxl < 1.
ICN(x )I > 1 for lxl > 1.
4. CN(x) is monotonically increasing for lxl > 1 f~r all N.
Fig. 5.10 shows the equiripple characteristics of Chebyshev filter. For odd values
of N, the oscillatory curve starts from unity and for even values of N, the oscillatnn
1 . .
curve starts from ~ . -~

IHGO)I
IH(iO)I
Nodd N even .
1.0
1.0
1
Jt +t2

I I
1
Ji + ,.,2 -- - ----------➔ ----
./t+).l ----- ----- ---r- - -
• I

I
I
I
I I

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.~o Lowpass Chebyshev filter magni tude response.
Taking logarithm for Ecf. (5.33) we get

20log IH(jn )I = 10 log I - 10 log [ 1 + e•ci r~) 1 . (S~

do, iS
Let"op is the attenuation i~ positive dB at the passba nd frequency n,,;;.(SJ~
the attenuation in positive dB at the stopband frequency 0 • At O == 0,,
5
can be written as

Op= lOlog (l +e:2 ) - - (·: CN(l) = 1)

which gives ,~ i-'
e = (100.10,, _ l)1/2
 Infinite Impulse Respo
nse Fi tten 5.19
Alo == n, Eq. (5 .35) ca n be w
rit ten as

0, = 10 log [ 1 + e 2c i ( ~:) ]
= l0log [1 + e2 {cosh(N cosh- 1
(O ,/ 0, )) } 2] [J3 (5 .3 7)
fo r e in Eq. (5 .3 7) , so .
Substituting Eq. (5 .3 6) .
.ext higher integer, w_ lving for N an d ro un
e ge t - - - - - di ng it to th e
- - ~ --- ,

. co sh - 1
N >
10 · a. _- r
1()0,la p - 1
cosh -1 -n. (5.38)

Substituting Eq. (5 .2 5)
and Eq . (5 .2 6) , in Eq. (5.38) w
e obtain
( · co sh -1 A
I~ N-~ ~ 1 .
h - (1 /k ) (5.39)
In F.q. (5.39) co sh - 1 (x
.
) can be evalwitea us in
g the-identity
co sh - 1 x = ln[x + ..jx 2 -1 }

i.7.1 Pole Location,s fo

r Chebyshev Filter
t'be poles for the ty pe I fil
ter are obtained by se
-.iaitozero. tting the denominator
of Eq. (5.33)
Thatis, l +.e (-js) = o. · ~
s·impufying th
2~

e abOp (5.40)
ov e equation we g~t

We define
CN ( - ~ ) = ± j/ e = = -. lN ~ -~ ( t)]- -
f
~ow Eq. (5 .4 0a ) yields
co s- 1 (-~) = < l> -j 9 ✓ /~

= cos(N<I>) cos(jNB) + sii:t(N<I>

= cos(Nq,)cosh(N8) + jsin(N ) sin(jNB) (
</>)sinh(N9 /
(5.41'
 5.20 Digital Sigr.:,t Pro\·c-~c:ing

Equating the re.al and imaginary parts of both sides of Eq.(5.41) result in

cos(N¢) t osh(N0) =0 (5.42a)

sin(Nrf>) sin ~(;.,O) = ±!€ (5.42b)

since cosh(N8) > Ofor 8 real, then in order to satisfy Eq.(5.42a), we have

(2k - l )1r .
<P--: 2
N k=l,2, . . . N (5.43)

Using this result and Eq.(5.42b) we can now solve fo~ 6, where sin N¢ = ±1.
Now we have ·
8=±..!_sinh-1
. N • e
(!') . (5.44)
' . . ~

Combining Eq.(5.44),. Eq.(5.43) and Eq.(5.40b), we obtain the left half plane
locations given by ' ·

sk = jflp cos(¢ - j0)

= jflp [cos</> cos h8 + j sin¢ sin h8] .
= nP [- sin</> sin h9 + j cos <J, coo h8) (5.45)

·Th~ Eq.(5.4~ can be si~plified using the identity

sinh-1 (e:- 1)" - ~(e- 1 + Vl + e-2 ) r1

. - s-:-in-.h:--_--;1-x-
. . .=-ln-:-(!r_+_../-:::l=+=x:::;;2;:-i)J ·

or
µ. = e"inh-l(i-1) .- E-l + Vl + e-2
From Eq.(5.44) we can write

slnM = ~h (~slnh~,n [•.-sJnhz = e"-r I

. = ·e{l/N)nnh- 1
(1/c) _ e..:(1/N)einJa-1(1/cl
2- .
= [e'"' ~:•c,-1l ]'/N - [.-...~-:(.-')r'N
2

In the same way,

µ1/N + µ.-1/N
cos h8 = .;....__---=---
. 2

-
 Infinite Impulse ke~ponse Filters , .2J

Now
. ( µ1 /N _ µ - l/N) ( µ1/N + 1,- 1/N ] ]
St ~ 0,, - Slll </J
[ 2 + J. cos ¢ (5 .49)
2 ,

= -a sin¢+ jb cos¢ (5.50)

~ . {2k - l)1r .b {2k ·- 1)11'
= -a sm . 2N
2
+ J .cos N
_ '[1r {2k - l)1rl · 'b . [1(' .(2k - 1)11']
_ a cos + N + J sin + N
2 2 2 2
J • = acos<f>k + jbsin¢.£_ __ ~ (5.51)
= <:Tk + jO,k k = 1, 2, ... N (5.15a)
The poles of a Chebyshev filter can be determined by using Eq.(5.51)
where

µ1/N _
a=~ [ . 2
µ-1/N] (5.52)

µ1/N + µ-1/N] (5.53)

b=Op .
[ 2

, · 1r (2k - l)1r k N (5.54)

I .¢k = 2+ 2N = l, 2, . . .
by
'-iµis given Eq.(5.46) . ,, . . .
10
The poles of the Chebyshev transfer function are located on an ellipse tile
1-Jllane as shown in Fig. 5. I_I. The equation of the ellipse is given by
2 . n2 (5.55) I
• (1'k -1Uk
-
a2
+b2
-- J
ti

'1ieat a and b are minor and major axes of the ellipse respecti;ely.

IUIPpol•
LHPpola
or14(-t)
ofH(■)
a,

Pole■ ror
nodd
Ch8 bySheV filter
/
f
• Fig. 5.11 Locus of the poles of .
J'
 S.7.l Ch"bJ!he, l)ptt • 2 Filttr
OK-t,y~hcv rypc-2 filtc.r has both poles and zeros. The magnitude square resP<>nse
1
ghn by 1

IHLJ0)( =
1

1+£2
[C (!!a.)
2
Nu,, ]
(5.56)

ci(¥t)
v.-bcre CN(x) is the Nth-order Chebyshev polynomial, n.,
is the stopband frequency
and flp is lhe passband frequency.
The zeros arc located on the imaginary axis at the points
0
s" = i . :
Sill,yk
k = 1, 2, ... , N (5.57)

The poles are located at the points (xk, Yk), where

f2.,Uk
xk = u 2 + n2 k = 1, 2, . . . , N (5.58a)
k k
n.,nk
Yk = 2 + 02 k·= 1, 2, ... , N (5.58b)
Uk k
where
•
uk = a cos <l>k k = 1, 2, . .. , N (5.59a)
!lk = bsin¢,1c k = 1, 2, ... , N (5.59b)
and
= .,\ + ✓1 + .,\2
µ (5.60)
For the given specifications£,,\, n., and f2p, the order of the filter

cosh-1 ( ~)
N =-- E (5.61&)
n
cosh-1-!
Op /
\- cosh-1A I
- cosh-11/k I
I
I (5.61b)

where ..J

.,\
A=-
E

k=~
n.
E = (100.lop _ 1)0.5 and
.,\ . ( 100,10•. _ 'l )0.5
 Infinite Impulse Response Filters 5.23

~ comparison between Butterworth Filter and

8
Cbebyshev Filter
. \
I. Toemagnitude response of Butterworth filter decreases monotonically as the
rrequency n increases from O to oo, whereas the magnitude res!)Onse of the
Cbebyshev filter exhibits ripples in the passband or stopband according to the
iype.
2. The transition band is more in Butterworth filter when compared to Cheby
shev
filter.
3. Toe poles of the Butterworth filter lie on a circle, whereas the poles of the
.
Chebyshev filter lie on an ellipse.
4. For the same specifications, the number of poles in Butterworth are more
when
compared to the Chebyshev filter i.e., the order of the Chebyshcv filter is less
than that of Butterworth. This is a great advantage because less numbe
r of
discrete components will be necessary to construct the filter.

5.9 Steps to design an analog Chebyshev lowpass filter

I. From the given specifications find the order of the filter 1!.· _. •t
2. Round off it to the next higher integer. ·
3. Using the following formulas find the values of a and b, which are minor
major axis of the ellipse respectively.
and I I

Where

µ = e-1 + ✓e- 2• + 1
..
e = ✓ 1()0,lap - 1
Op = Passband frequency
Op =Maximum allowable attenuation in the passband
(·: For norrna1·
4. Cal 1zcd Chebyshev filter Op 1 rad/:sec)
= . .
t culate the poles of Chebyshev filter which lie on an elhpsc by US1ng
Ortnuta. the

Bk = a cos 'Pie+ jbsin r/J1e k = 1, 2, · · · 'N

where 'Pie = -fl' 2k --
+ (- 1) 11'
le = 1, 2·, •· · , N ·
5 · 2 2N ·
· P'ind th
n uamg c 1hove,poles.
•
e denominator polynomial of the transfer functio • th

1
 5.2 ◄ Digital Signal Procr~~ing

6. The numerator of the transfer function depends on the value of N.

(a) For N odd substitute s = 0 in the denominator polyriornial and find lite
value. This value is equal to th~ numerator of th~ transfer function.
(·: For Nodd the magnitude response IH(jn)I starts at 1.)
{b) Fo: N even substitute s = 0 in ~e denominator polynomial and divide
the resu It by J1 + E: 2• This value as equal to the numerator.

Example S.6 Given the specifications Op = 3dB; 0 8 = 16dB; /p = l KHz and

f , = 2 KHz. Determine the order of the filter using Chebyshev approximation. 1,n11
H(s).

Solution

From the given data we can find

nP = 21r x 1000 Hz = 2000 1r rad/sec

na = 2?r x 2000 Hz = 40001r rad/sec

and ap = 3dB;a = 16dB. .

8

Step 1:

. cosh-•1 l0 · 0•-·1 ~
N;::: 1QO.lap - 1 - -1
cosh- 1 Oa - cosh . i 40001r
nP cosh- 2OO07r
= 1.91

Step_2: Rounding N to next higher value we get N =: 2.

For N even, the oscillatory curve starts from 1 . . _ ./'1
Step 3: The values 0 f • . v'l + e2 , ·I
mmor axis and major axis can be found as below f

E = (1O0.Jo, - l)o.a = (100.3 -1)~.a = 1

µ = E-1 + Vl + E-2 = 2,414
[µ1/N µ-1/Nl '
a= '2p ~ = 200(hr[(2.414)1/2 - (2.414tl/2] == 9101r
fµl/N + -1/Nj 2 ·
b.- np 2µ = 20001rt(2.414)112 + (2.414t1121 == 21911
2
 ,
Infinite Impulse Response .Filters 5.25

• The poles are given by

SltP 4'

Bk = acos</>1c + jb sin¢1c, k = 1,2

71' (2k - 1)11'
<Pk =
2+ 2N k = 1, 2
,,.
y,1 = -71'2 + -71'4 = 1350
71' 3,r
<P2= 2 + 4 = 225°
s1 = a cos </>1 + j bsiu <,b1 = - 643.4671' +j155471'
s2 = a cos </>2 + j bsin ¢2 = - 643.4611' - j15541r

Step 5: The denominator of H(s) = (8 + G43.461r) 2 + (15541r)2

2
Step,6: The numerator of H(s) = (643.4511') + (l55411')2 = (1414.38)211'2
Jl+e 2
The transfer function H (s) = (1414 38) 271'2
·· .
/ · s2 + 128771'3 + (1682) 211'2
I .
E11mple 5,7 Obtain an analog Chcbyshev filter transfer function that satisfies the
constraints ~ ~ IH(jn)I_~ li O~ n ~ 2- _.,.._,. '
IH(jU)I < 0.1; n ~-4 - ' - .

Solution
8tep I: From the given data we can find that

1 1 1 .
--=• • -
./I+,~ ./2' vl + -,i:=::=R •
~:i
0.1,

n, • 2 and n. =4, from which we can obtain t ,. 1 and ~ • 9.95.

'Ye know
~
cosh- 1 - cosh- 1 9.95
N>
- l
it"
,
= - C08h-12 • 2' 269
cosb- -
o,
~- 2· R d' N t n-t higher value we get N = 3. Por N odd, the ,. . _..._.,
-..:p • oun ang O "~ • • 5 12 • •-,
CUrvc starts from unity II shown in f •~· . .
S.26 Digital Signal Processing

11t(JU)I

1.0

0.707

I
Q.J - - - - - - - - - - - ,- - - - - I

Fig. 5.12 Magnitude response of example_5.7.

Step 3: Finding the values of a and b

µ = €-1 + ✓1 + €-2 = 2.414 ·

µ1/N _ µ-1 /Nl _ [(2.414) 113 - {2.414t113]
a= np [ -2 - 2 2
. .

= 0.596
- [µ1/N.+ µ-1/Nl -- 2 [(2.414)1/3 + {2.414tl/3]
b- nP
2 2
= 2.087
.
Step 4: To calculate the poles of Chebyshev filter

,1.,
'#'le
= ~2 + (2k2N
- l)7r k =1 2 3
' ,
<Pl = 120° (P2 = 180° cf,3 = 240°
I I

We know s1c = acos<1>1c + jbsin¢1c k = 1, 2, 3 from which we get

8
1= acos </>1 + jb sin ¢1 = 0.596 cos 120° + j2.087 sin 120° = -0.298 +J·1.807
s2 = a cos "'2 + jb sin "'2 = 0.596 cos 180° + j2.087 sin 180° = -0,596 _ . _ 7
8
= acos<t>a + jbsinq,3 = 0.596cos240° +j2.087sin240° == -0,298 1
180

S~ep S: The denominator polyno~ial is given by ~

(s + 0.596){(, + 0.298) - jl.807}{(8 + 0.298) + jl.807}

= (s +0.596)[(s + 0.298) 2 + {l.807)2)
' = (8 + 0.596)(s2 + 0.596s + 3.354)
 Infinite Impul
. . se Response Filt
.
ers, 5.27
. The
Step 6• . numerator of H (s) can be obtained by substitut·i c
the denonunator. ng 8 = O(,o r N odd ) in
Therefore the numera~or of H (s ). = 2
'The transfe; function ~f Chebyshev filt
er for the given specifications is given
by
H(s) == (s + 0.596)(s2 + 0.596s + 3.3
54)
Example 5.8 Determin~ the order and
the poles of a type I lowpass Chebyshe
ter that has a 1 dB ripple in the pas v fil-
sband and passband frequency nP=
stopband frequency .of 20001r and an 100011', a
attenuation of 40 dB or more.
Solution ~

Given data op = i dB; Op = l0001r

rad/sec; Os = 40dB
n.. = 20007r rad/sec
)

cos h- 1
10 · 1
O:s ~ 1 10 -1 I
----
:p - 1 >
cos h;
N '?. _ _;_ __ __0.lo
·lO
:~ ~,- --- •,.
100.1 - 1 =4.536
20007r
co sh - 1 -0s Cosh -1 --
, Op 100071"
i.c.,N=s

::~r~:::~2~:1;:r 2:9.5:;- ; 0.[!l/;~~-1/N] JMln

.. ;r -- -- · 1 ✓1 +e -2 -4 17

1/>k == ! + (2k - l)1r k = 1;2 , ... 5

2 2N ,
1/>1 =: 1800; </>2 = 1440; <J,3 = 180 o. .- 2520
0; <f,4:: 216 I <f,5 - •
'k== 4 cos tf,k +jb sin tf> k
k = 1,2 , ... 5 c: -28 9.5 ,r
•1 == -89.571" + j9891r· s2 .: -234.211' 83
+ j61211'i
- - 234,271" - j6121rI ; 85 == - 89 5• - 3'9891f'
14 -

'-- --- -.
~ ·I
Q,!
.
.
•"

'th a
- -
l.s e 5.9 Design a Chebyshev filter wa maximum passoca,
' at 0, '= 20 rad/sec and the sto nua tion of 30 dB
--------~
, ~,,,. 11ttenuation of
8t
.. - 50 rad /~.
O, ;;..r:: Ma, '07)
pband ane · (AU ~

--A'&eei er,, == 2.5 dB;

Op = 20 raur er, == 3odB:
o.= 50 rad/sCCi
I I
 fo,h I >./r
N- ~~,._1;-T1/k
Ji<;> 1~. _
, \ ,!I: 1 -: 31.G07
t = /lcf! lo, - l =: 0.&\2

k = !1 = 0.4
n,
Now 31.607
c.osh- 1 - -
N -
> . 0.882 = 2.726•
1
cosh- 1 -
0.4
,.c.. N = 3
µ, = E-1 + fi+e -2 = 2.65
[µ,1/N _ µ,-1/N]
a= Op 2 = 6.6
µ1/N + µ,-l/N1
b -_ Hp,
n =-- --~
2 - = 21.06
[
Bk= acos</>k + jbsin¢1c_
; k = 1,2, 3
'Pk = ~ + ( 2k - 1 ) 1r; k = 1, 2, 3
2 2N
~l = 120° 1 ¢2 = 180°, (?3 = 240°
Bl = -3.3 + jl8.23
s2 = -6.6
B3 = -3.3 - jl8.23
. Denominator of H(,) = (, + 6.6)(,2 + 6.6s + 343.2)
Numerator of H(,) = (6.6)(343.2) = 2265.27
Tran,fer function H (,) = 2265 27
· ·
(, + 6.6)(,2 + 6.6, + 343.2) _____,._
sbt''I
Pndk:t Problem SA For die 1iven 1peclftcations find the order of the (hebY
filter

o, 11:1 1.6d8; o, • lOdB; n • 2rad/sec· n, = aoradl~

• ., I ~

.
Practke Problem 5.5 Fmd the pole location, or a normalized CbebYshCY (llccC
•

order S. ___ _.-/

f
 Infinite Impulse Rcspom,e Filters .S.29

rrartkf Problem 5.6 De-sign a Chebyshev filter for the following ~pecifications

a,,= 1dB ; .,.,,s

_. = 25 dB ,· Op = 1 rad/~cc; fl, =20 rad/sec

S.10 Frequency Transformation in Analog Domain

So far we concentrated on designing a lowpass filter for the given specifications.
In this section we discus the frequency transformations th~t can be used to design
lowpass filters with different passband frequencies, highpass filters. bandpass filters
and bandstop filters from a no~aliz!d lowpass analog filter (Oc = 1 r~d/sec).

S.10.1 Lowpass to Lowpass Filter

Given a nonnalized lowpass filter, it is desirable to have a lowpc\SS filter with a dif-
fmntcutof( frequency Oc (or passband frequency flp). This can be accomplished by
llitransfonnation given in Eq. (5.62a) :

(5.62a)

- ~~ IH(j.0)1

I.O
1.0
::J._
~ --- ---- I
I •
Ji +£2 I

I
I

----------~--- - _L ----------:---- -
' I ./1 +Al • I I
---.J....._-- -1•~-- . nv n·, - a
°'-n.--n
'1s, (b)
(a)

Fig. 5.13 Lowpass to Lowpass transformation

S,to,2
, LowJl!lss to Highpass · ·
fit..~ ano,-._ •. · . · hi h ass filter with cutoff•
~ - · 11llll1Zed lowpass filter, it is des1rabJe to have a g P
Oc. Then the transformation ·is
!le (S.62b)
s-t-
s l
i
I
I
 5.30 Digital Signal Processing

IH(JU)I

10 1 - - - -.......
I
l
j1 +£2
./1+~

I I
I
---- ---- --1---- 1
A+v
I

n·r '1c Q

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.14 Lowpass to Highp_

ass transformation

5.10.3 Lowpass to Bandpass

I
The transfonnation for converting a nonnalized lowpass filter to a bandpasss filter
with cutoff frequencies 01, Ou can be accomplished by

s2 +
S--+ ~ - - -
n,nu (5.63a)
s(f2u - n,)
0,. = min{IAI, IBI} (5.63b)
A= -n~ +n,nu (S.63C)
01(nu - n,)
B = n~ - n,n,. (S.63d>
02(0u - Oz)

"<i<ll I • IHOOM
1.0
I 1.0
li ♦ e2 ....J_
./i+J I
I
I
I
I
I
I

...'
I
I I ••-
•• •
----•--------·
(a)
(I,)
Fig. 5.15 lowpaaa to bandpass transformation.
 Infinite Impu)se Response Filters SJ J

~10., Lowpass to Bandstop

lbc tranSfonnation to convert a nonnalized Jowpa.ss fliter to a bandstop filter is
S -+ s(nu - n,)
s2 + n,nu
nr = mi~{IAI, IBI} (5.63e)
A= n1(nu - n,)
(5.63f)
-n~ + n,nu
.. B = n2(nu - n,)
(5.63g)
-n~ +n,nu

IH(iO)I

1.0,___ _
1.0
I
~ ---------
i '
I
I
I i
.,.--,
I
I
I I

t
(a) (b)

Fig. 5.16 L!)Wpass to bandstop transformation.

i •
t11
lo Design of highpass, band pass and bandstop filters
6nd the . .
'-find tb transfer function of highpass, bandpass and bandstop filters of any type
Ol'c descri1.:~rcr function of nonnalized lowpass filter using
any one of the metb-
.
~ ut:U 111 SCcti
ons S.6 and 5.9 and then use suitable transfonnatton.
i.._Plts.10 .. .
111d n, : : 50o For the given specifications ap = 3 dB; a. = 15 dB; Op = 1000 rad/sec
"'-11ot rad/sec design a higbpass filter.
Pi , .

let Ille -~
~~ t....._ ign a normalized lowpass filter and. then use
suitable tranSformab.on
• of a bighpass filter.
· """llllfer function .
For IOWpass filter For higbpass filter
0c === 0,, = 500 rad/sec !le = Op = 1000 rad/sec
n. ::: 1000 rad/sec n. = 500 rad/sec
,
 '. 5.32 Digital Signal Processing
IH(i!l)idB
,r,

\H(iil)ldB 0 _____________· ----------- - -·::.,

- -~
. 01-------...
J -3 -----------------------
-3 -----------------'
'''
''
'' '
'''
- 15 ----------------- ~-------
' .,'
'

o: n:
I
0 n. n
_
.,, . .n . .,,
►..S . ~
Fig. 5_17 Lowpass to highpass transformation

Lowpass filter specificatt~ns

Oc = Op = 500 rad/sec; Op = 3 dB
Os = lO00rad/sec;. Os = 15 dB
We have
A
log -
N = e
log 1/k
,\ = ✓1rJuo. - l = 5.533
E = ✓irjuo, - 1 = 1
k=
n.· = 0.5
& .. • Lolli
· er wep11•·
f;~i
Therefore N = 10 33 ....:. 2.468. Approximating to next higher mteg
N=3.
H(s) for Oc = 1 rad/sec arid N =3 is.
H(s) = l
(s + 1)(,2 +, + 1)
To get highpass filter having cutoff frequency

0c =n,. = 1ooondl•
. .
Substitute s - ~
s
H.(a) = H(s)I

.
---• 1000

1
= (a+ l)(a2 + • + l} __;~
I
-
- (a+ 1000)(,Z + 1000. + (1~) ~ '1/ 2
1 ,.
 Infinite Impulse Response Filters 5.33

Design of IIR· filters from analog filters.

ftere are several methods thut can be used to design ~igital filters having an infinite
duration unit sample response. The techniques described are all based on converting
• analog filter into a digital ,filter. If the conversion technique is to be effertive. it
lholdd possess the following desirable properties .
.
I. The jO-axis in the s-pla1ie should map into the unit circle in the z-plane. Thus
there will be a direct relationship between the two frequency v.µ-iables in the
two domains.
. .
2. The left-half plane of the s-plane should map into the inside of the unit circle
in the z-plane. · Thus a stable analog filter will be converted to a stable digital
filter.
. .
The four most ·w idely used methods for digitizing the analog filter into a digital
include
.
' l~roxim ation of derivatives.
'
~1'!1e impulse invariant transformation.
j,;ttie bilinear transforma tion.
4. The matched z-transform ation technique.

1 Approxim ation of Derivatives

of the simplest- methods of digitizing an ~nalog fl!ter into a.,_digi~al filter is to
iimate the differential equation by an equivalent difference equation. .
to.;.._ th d • · d~t) at time t -- nT• .we substitute the backward difference
rur e envauve . ..
- nT-T

dy(t) . == y(nT) - y(nT-T)

· Thus
dt 1t=nT .. .· T
y(n) .... y(n - 1) (5.64) .
= T
T represents the sampling interval and y(n) = y(n~)- · ted
'" &
"e know Laplace. trans,orm O f d¾(tl
t
= sY(s), which can be represen ~
.
in Fig. 5.1 Sa.
.dy(t) .
__:...y(~t)_~•{ . H(s) s ~
Fig. 5.18a
t-
_ - dt

( -U.. {!-z- 1 }Y(zl whichcanb erepresen tedasshow n

1'be .z-transfonn of t1(n)-f n IS T ' .
&. 5.18b.
 •
. 1 Processing
5 34 Digital S1gna
y(tl { ~
J L--- -~
y(n) - y(n - I)
T

Fig. 5.18b

. . 5. l Sb for analog and digital domains

F' 5 18a and Fig. . we &ct
Companng ig. · · -1
1-z ·
s= T (5.6~

th .
tern function r,or the digital IIR filter
. obtained as aresuhof
Consequently e sys . . by finite difference. 1s .
. tions of the denvat1ves .
the approx1ma .

H(z) = H(s)L,;i-;.-1 (5.66)

.
1
.
From the relation_s = -,r- get
1-z-we

l ~- 1 _ 1 + jOT ·
z = 1- sT = 1- jnT - 1 + -n2~2
·1 · - jOT
(5.68)
= 1 + n2T2 + 1 + n2r2
=x+jy (5.69)

where X
1
= 1 + f!2T2 ~ . = 1 +nT
an y
. We can find that x and Y are related by
n2T2 ' . . .

which can be written as

( 1)
x--
2
+y2 =- 1 (S.111)

. 2 4 . . . f dill$ 1/2.
• of the 8 -plane 1s o ra
Thus the image in· the· z-plane of the Ju-axlS
•n
shown in Fig. 5.19, Which bas the following characteristics. - tf21
1. The left half s-plane maps inside a circle of radius· 1/2 centered at z - .
the z-plane. . . · ,: ' f radius 1/2'
2. The right half s-plane maps into the region outside the circle 0
the z-piane. · . i1J ~ ,.p,
3. The jO-axis maps on to the perimeter of the circle of radius 112 _.,,,,t
Th th
. us 1s . anal?~-to-di . • transformation
. g1ta1 a stab
. teehn'1que. d oes map on to the~ ~ tJ
1e 81"""'1
~ mto a stab!~ d1g1ta1 filter'. but the jll-axis docs not.~n map le 1.,call~1
cuele•.Thus 1h11 transformauon severely restricts the digital filter Po .5 ,.slfl r,
lie confined to relatively •mall frequencies. As a result, this mapp••~; ~
the design of lowpass filters and banc1pas. filters having relatively SDI olf"I"'"""
q~encies. I_t is not possible to transform a higbpass analog filter into a c
htghp- digital filter.
 Infinite Impulse Response Filters 5.35
Im (Z)
jO

s-plone

I Re(z)

unit/,
circle

r: S19 Mapping of the s-plane_ \o the z-plane using approximation of derivatives

rll• ·

S.12.2 Design of IIR F#ter using Impulse Invariance Technique

In impulse invariance method the IlR filter is designed such that the· unit impulse
rcspoose h(n) of digital filter is the sampled version of the impulse response of analog
filter.
The z-transfonn of an infinite impulse response is given by

00

H(z) = L h(n)z-n (5.71)

n=O
. 00

H(z)L=eAT = L h(n)e-aTn
n=O
Let us consider the mapping of points from the ·s-plane to the z-pl~e in\plied by ·
die relation · ·
z ~ •etfl'· · .. (5.12>
lfwe substitute 8
l:::: reiw
= <J + 'fl and express the complex .variable z in polar form as
3 . .
lb we get
.
re'w = e(e1+jU)T
. o'J' _;uT
=e ~ (5.73)

\ .
e11'
r == e (5.74a) .

w == UT (5.74b)
'I'
1\ . E (S.73), e" 'bas a magnitude of~ and Ill
1aa1e: first_term in the product anoni~ertn e;ur, has ~ity magnitude and an,anglc
•nr fQ _areal number. The sec is mapped to a place ID the %-plane of magnitude
· Therefore, our analog pale
· 5.36 Di~it.u Signal rro...-cssing

e~r anJ angk nr. The ~~1 p.u1 of the analog polo llctcrmines the rad·
. •usor!L
plM)e P'--'1e and the imaginary r ~1rt of the nnatog po1c d1ctatcs the angle of
pole~
l- the;.
11141
CoosiJe-r any pole (1n th<' j O-axis, where u = 0 ns shown in Fig. 5_
20
I'l'ks map to the i-plane at a radius r = e0·T = 1. Therefore. the impulse .' ~
mawing map poks from the s-pl~e·s jn-nxis_to the z-plane's unit circle. 'llVari-

lm(z)
' ljO
s~plane

n
a

Rg. 5.20 j!l-axis mapping to the unit circle

Now consider the poles in the left half of s-plane where u < 0. These pol~ 1111P
inside the unit circle as shown in Fig: 5.21, because r ~ e"T < 1 for u < O.
1

· lm(z) jll
z-plane ---
.a-plane

· O
Rc(z)

Fig. 5-:21 Stable poles mapping Inside the unit circle ...:i
Therefore all
the . . • a-plane poles with negative real parts· map to z-plaDC paleS~
· iD""
. ~1t arcle - stable analog poles are ""..__. to tabl diaital poles,
'Jbe
IDvanant mappin . ---ri-.a s c o- ...a
. g ~reserves the stability of the filter. . ~~
• JAIi ~les m the right half of the s-plane map to digital p0les outside
• CU'C e. .

,f •
r = e"r > 1 for u > O
The mapping is shown in Fig. 5_22_

.I
 Infinite Impulse R;sponse Fitters 5.37
Im (z) jO
z-planc

a-plane

Rc(z) a

circle
Fig. 5.22 Unstable poles mapping, outside the unit
le, it is not one-to-one map ping
Although the jfl-a xis is map ped into the unit circ
poin ts in s-pl ane are map ped to a
rather it is many-to-one map ping , whe re ·man y
~in this is to consider two poles in
single point in the z-pl ane. The easi est way to expl .
inar y components differing by 2;
Gt a-plane with iden tical real parts, but ~ith imag
•shown in Fig. 5.23.
let the poles be ·

s1 = u + jO .

s2 = u + ,j ( n + ~ )
(5.7S)

Thi• pole will

be aliaaed

t3~

lm(z ) ,-plane
z.plane

Fig. 5.23 Impulse Invariant pole mapping

 S.38 Digital Signal Processing

These poles map to z-planc poles z1 and z2, via impulse invariant mapPin1,

z1 = ea1 T == e<11+jll)T s: e"T ' eJUT (,.16-)

= e r = e [11+J ( n+Y ) ]r = e"T

,,2 . eJUT+J21r
z2
= e"T . eJUf (·: eJ21r = 1) ('.76b)

From Eq.(5.76a) and Eq.(5. 76b) we find that these poles map to the same location
in the z-plane. There are an infinite number of s-plane poles that map to the same
location in the z-plane. They must have the same real parts and imaginary ~
that differ by some integer multiple of ¥.
This is the main disadvantage of impoJse
invariant mapping. The s-plane poles having imaginary parts greater than f or lea
than -f cause aliasing, when sampling analog signals. The analog poles will a«
be aliased by the impulse invariant mapping if they are. confined to the a-plane's
"Primary strip" (within 1r/T of the real axis).
Let Ha(s) is the system function of an analog filter. This can be expressed ii
partial fraction fonn as

N
Ha(s) = L- Ck (S.7T)
.k=l 8 - Pk

wh~ {pA:} are .the poles oftbe analog filter and {c1c} are die coefficients in the partial
· &action expansion. · ·
The inverse Laplace transform of Eq.(S.77) is

N
. h"(t) = L c1ce"•' t ·> 0 (5.78)
k=l

lfwe sample h"(t) periodically at t = nT, we have

h(n) • ho(nT)
N
• L c1,t!•nT
"•1
Weknow

00

H(i) = L h(n)i-n
n•O
 Infinite Impul se Rcsponse Filters 539

......;ng Eq.(5.79) in Eq.(5.80) we obtain

t;,_~iY'-'
•
oo N
H(z) = L' L CkeP1cn'l'z-n
n=Ok=l
N 00

= Lc kL (eP tTz -1) n

k=l n=O
N
-~ Ck •
eP1cT z-1
(5.81a)
a
L 1_
k;::l

. N . N
•
'r'.Jtisif Ha(s) =L Ck then H(z) =~
· ~I-
Ck
ePtT z- 1
•
s - Pk k=l
k=l
is high. Therefore,
f-or high sampling rate s (for sma ll T), the digital filter gain
m!CadofEq. (5.81a) we can use · "'
N .
· · Tck (5.81b)
H(z ) .= L
k=l
1 - ePtT z-1

opriate for
Due to the presence of aliasing, the impulse invariant method is appr
ce method is
~ design of lowpass and ban dpa ss filters only. ~e impulse invarian
~lter.
Dnsuctcssful for imp lem enti ng digital filters such as a bighpass