Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Judith Lorber
Graduate Center and Brooklyn College
City University of New York
Property of
Baker College of
Allen Park
F
eminism is a social movement whose basic goal is equality between
. women and men. In many times and places in the past, people have
insisted that women and men have similar capabilities and have tried to
better the social position of all women, as well as the status of disadvantaged
men. As an organized movement, modern feminism rose in the nineteenth
century in Europe, America, and Japan in response to the great inequalities
between the legal statuses of women and men citizens.
Feminist politics does not refer only to the arena of government or strains the behavior of gender deviants through stigmatization, punishment,
the law; it can be confrontational protests, such as Take Back the Night and legal ostracism. Gendered norms and expectations pattern the practices
marches, or work through organizations with a broad base, such as the of people in workplaces, in families, groups, and intimate relationships, and
National ?rganiz~tion of Women (NOW) and the National Organization for in creating individual identities and self-assessments. Peoples' gender con-
Men Agamst SexIsm (NOMAS). It can take place in service centers, such formity supports the gendered social order; peoples' gender diversity and
as b~t.te~ed wome~'s shelters, and informational activities, such as gender- deviance challenge it, but there is no recognized gender status outside of the
sensItivIty and anti-rape sessions for college men.
binaries-boy/girl, man/woman.
Neighborhood or grassroots feminist activism tends to be woman-focused The gendered social order is very resistant to individual challenge. Its
and c~nc~rned with local problems, while transnational nongovernmental power is such that people act in gendered ways based on their position
organ~zatIons (~GOs) and national and international governing bodies and within the gender structure without reflection or question. We "do gender"
agencIes are lOCIfor diversity-based political action. Some feminists have and participate in its construction once we have learned to take our place
despaired as ~omen's movements break up over racial ethnic, religious, and as a member of a gendered social order. Our gendered practices construct
natlO~al Identity ~~litics. The borderlands view offers the possibility of per- and maintain the gendered social order. As the social order changes, and
spectives and polItics based on panethnic and cross-racial affiliations and as we participate in different social institutions and organizations through~
coalitions.
out our lives, our gendered behavior changes. Politically, the major types ot
Chan?ing language. and media presentations to remove sexist put-downs feminism have confronted the gendered social order in three different ,vays:
that de~Igrate ,:omen ISalso feminist politics. Other remedies for redressing reform, resistance, and rebellion.
gender mequal,Ity, s.uch as ~reating culture, knowledge, ethics, and theology
from a woman. s.pomt of VIew, may not look political, but to feminists, they
ue deeply polItical because their intent is to change the way people think
lbout the world.
ith women in other groups. Politically,then, women and men in the same
lCialethnic group band together to rebel against inequalities, but some-
mes women link to other disadvantaged women to create womanist culture, Gender reform feminisms provided the theoretical groundwork for
hics, and theology, a woman-oriented rebellion against the male domina- second-wave feminism by making visible the structural underpinnings
In within their racial ethnic groups. of the gendered social order. Their politics of gender balance and gender
Feminist studies of men bring a critical men's perspective to feminism. mainstreaming are practical and perhaps the best way to redress gender
'omen feminists have written about men and masculinity, both in rela- inequality at the present time. The fight for equal legal status and political
Jnship to women and separately; studies of men by feminist men adds representation for women and men, and for autonomy for women in mak-
1 additional dimension. These studies follow in the footsteps of working- ing procreative, sexual, and marital choices, still has not been won in most
ass social research and politics, and expand their political arena to include countries of the world. Gender segregation in the workplace and lower pay
r women's work is pervasive in all kinds of economies. The global economy societies. That means a dismantling of the matrix of domination embedded
:ploitspoor women as cheap labor, and economic restructuring in industri- in the major social statuses of the social order-gender, social class, racial
izing and postindustrial economies has reduced social-service benefits to ethnic, and sexual identity.
others and children. These economic problems are still an arena for femi-
st gender politics.
Although the politics of gender reform feminisms spill over into the pol-
cs for every disadvantaged person, the battles of gender resistance femi-
sms are for women alone. Fighting to protect women's bodies against Although there is considerable overlap among them, it is useful to separate
lwanted pregnancies and sterilizations, abortions of female fetuses, geni- the concepts of gender, sex, and sexuality in order to illustrate how gen-
I mutilation, rape, beatings, and murder has been an enormous and never- dering modifies bodies and sexual behavior. This book uses the following
ding struggle. The sexual integrity of women and girls needs protection vocabulary and definitions.
)m forced prostitution, exploitative sex work in pornographic productions
ld strip clubs, and unwanted arranged marriages. Lesbian, gay, and trans- GENDER: A social status, a legal designation, and a personal identity.
ndered people need to be able to live free of discrimination and violent Through the social processes of gendering, gender divisions and their
:acks, but many lesbian women also want their own physical space and accompanying norms and role expectations are built into the major social
ltural communities, where they can be safe from sexual harassment and institutions of society, such as the economy, the family, the state, culture,
;m'sdomination, nourish their loves and friendships, and produce books, religion, and the law-the gendered social order. Woman and man, girl and
llsic,art, and drama that reflect their different ways of thinking and feel- boy are used when referring to gender.
5' Standpoint feminists argue that women's experiences and distinctive SEX: A complex interplay of genes, hormones, environment, and behavior,
tlooks on life have to be included in the production of knowledge, espe- with loop-back effects between bodies and society. Male, female, and mter-
Illy in science and social science research. It is not enough to just add sex are used when referring to sex.
)men subjects to research designs; questions have to be asked from a crit-
SEXUALITY: Lustful desire, emotional involvement, and fantasy, as enacted
II feminist perspective, data have to include women's voices, and analysis
in a variety of long- and short-term intimate relationships. Homosexuality,
s to reflect the points of view of those who have been marginalized and
heterosexuality, and bisexuality are used when referring to sexuality.
enced.
Picking up on the importance of social position and distinctive stand- TRANSGENDER: Chosen gender that is different from the one assigned at
ints, gender rebellion feminisms exploded the categories of women and birth, with or without surgical and hormonal transformation of bodies.
m into all sorts of multiples. Multiracial/multiethnic feminisms are part Transwomen, transmen, male-tojemale (MTF), and female-to-male (FTM) are
a powerful political movement to redress past and present legal and social used when referring to trans gender.
;crimination of disadvantaged women in many societies, and to produce
Jman-centered culture, theology, and ethics. Feminist studies of men have Recent feminist theories have analyzed the complex interplay of sex,
alyzed the racial ethnic and social class aspects of masculinity and the sexuality, and gender. These theories speak of genders, sexes, and sexuali-
erplay of power and privilege, powerlessness and violence. They have ties. The two "opposites" in each case-women and men, female and male,
scribed the hierarchies of men in a society and the ways that less advan- homosexual and heterosexual-have become multiple. Since recent research
;ed men retain patriarchal control over women in their status group. has shown that female and male physiology is produced and maintained by
Social construction, postmodern, and third-wave feminisms have just both female and male hormones, the new theories argue that sex is more of
gun to translate their destabilization of the gender order into politics a continuum than a sharp dichotomy. Similarly, studies of sexual orienta-
praxis. Degendering needs to be translated into everyday interaction, tion have shown that neither homosexuality nor heterosexuality is always
dch could be revolutionary enough. But to fulfill their political poten- fixed for life, and that bisexuality, in feelings and in sexual relationships, is
t the gender rebellion feminisms need to spell out what precisely has widespread.
be done in all the institutions and organizations of a society-family, The phenomenon of transgendering further complicates the interplay of
lrkplace, government, the arts, religion, law, and so on-to ensure equal sex, sexuality, and gender. The goal of many transgendered people is to
rticipation and opportunity for every person in every group. Gender "pass" as a "normal" gendered person, but many are now open about their
Jellion feminists have said that there are multiple voices in this world; transitioning and new gender status. Transgendered people usually take
w they have to figure out how to ensure that every voice can be heard in hormones to change their body shapes and secondary sex characteristics,
~production of knowledge and culture and in the power systems of their such as facial hair, but they do not always have surgery to modify genitalia.
Transgendered people may be heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual. Thus, politics. Each chapter ends with a discussion of the feminism's theoretical
transgendering is not always a clear-cut exchange of one gender and sex for and political limitations.
another, but is often a blurring of sex, sexuality, and gender boundaries. In the final section, "Do We Have a New Feminism?" I present my own
Radical gender-benders, who sometimes call themselves "gender queers," ideas about fruitful theoretical and political directions for feminism today.
do not claim identity with men or women, heterosexuals or homosexuals.
Gender queers openly subvert binary gender and sexual categories through
their deliberate mixtures of clothing, makeup, jewelry, hair styles, behavior,
relationships, and use of language. By not constructing gender and sexuality
in expected ways, they make visible, in Judith Butler's term, the perfor7llativity 1. The Nineteenth Amendment, called the Susan B. Anthony Amendment, was
on which the whole gender order depends. They parody and play with ratified by Tennessee on August 18, 1920,and became law on August 26, 1920. .
gender, transgressing gender norms, expectations, and behavior. 2. There is some question about the dating of the second and thud waves. In thIs
book I consider the second wave to last from 1970to 2000 and to encompass post-
mod~rn feminism and queer theory. I reserve the third wave for a feminism that
began in the 1990s.
3. http://data.unaids.org/ pub/EPISlides/2007 /2007_epiupdate_en.pdf
4. Stephanie McCrummen, "Women Run the Show in a Recovering Rwanda,"
The focus of this book is the continuities, discontinuities, and convergences
Washington Post, October 27,2008, A01. .
in recent feminist theories and politics. I will be combining ideas from dif-
5. By coming in second in the 2008 Democratic primaries for presiden~, .HIIlary
ferent feminist writers, and usually I will not be talking about any specific
Rodham Clinton said there were 18 million more cracks m the glass ceIlmg (her
writers, except for the excerpted authors. A list of suggested readings can be popular vote). Sarah Palin (Republican) was the second woman vice-presidential
found at the end of each chapter. nominee in a general election; the first was Geraldine Ferraro (Democrat), who ran
Because I am not examining the ideas of particular feminists but speaking with Walter Mondale in 1984.
of ideas that have emerged from many theorists, I will usually talk of femi- 6. The decade time line is a depiction of when different feminist theories and politics
nisms rather than feminists. Any feminist may incorporate ideas and politics emerged as predominant. Although many theories were correctives and expan-
from several feminisms, and many feminists have shifted their views over sions of earlier theories, all of the feminisms are still thriving.
the years. I myself was originally a liberal feminist, then a socialist femi-
nist, and now consider myself to be primarily a social constructionist gender
rebellion feminist.
What I am looking at first are feminist theories about why women and
men are unequal, and second, feminist politics, the activities and strategies Aikau Hokulani K., Karla A. Erickson, and Jennifer L. Pierce, eds. 2007. Feminist
for remedying gender inequality. Feminist theories and feminist politics are Wa~es, Feminist Generations: Life Stories from the Academy. Minneapolis: University
the result of personal experiences shared among friends and in conscious- of Minnesota Press.
Andersen, Margaret. 2005. "Thinking about Women: A Quarter Century's View."
ness-raising groups. They are developed in classes and conferences on all
Gender & Society 19:437-455.Also see Symposium on Andersen, Gender & Society
kinds of topics. They are refined in journals and books. And they are trans-
22:83-125,2008.
lated into political action through large and small feminist organizations, in Bern, Sandra Lipsitz. 1993. The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual
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he feminisms of the 1960s and 1970s were the beginning of the second
T wave of feminism. Like the first wave of feminism, which sought equal
rights as citizens for women in Western societies, liberal feminism's
roots are in eighteenth and nineteenth century political philosophies that
developed the idea of individual rights. Liberal feminism asks why women's
rights are not part of these individual human rights. Marxist feminism's base
is Marx's nineteenth-century analysis of capitalism and the division of labor.
Marxist feminism argues that women's place in the capitalist division of labor
is invisible because housework is not recognized as work. Socialist feminism
inserts gender into current debates over class and racial ethnic relations and
the complex inequalities that result from their multiple effects. Postcolonial
and Asian feminisms use ideas of national development and economic glob-
alization and examine their effects on women in developing countries and
in Asia. The countries are diverse, but there is a thread of unity that is both
generally feminist and distinctively national in experiences, empirical data,
and politics.
From the beginning of the second wave, the goal of gender reform femi-
nisms has been gender equality-legally treating women and men alike, even
while granting that they are biologically different. Gender reform feminisms
argue that society creates or exaggerates sex differences, especially in the
socialization of children. Their main argument about socialization is that it
constructs personality and attitude differences in boys and girls to prepare
them to live different lives-men as power brokers, bosses, laborers, soldiers,
assertive husbands, and authoritative fathers; women as helpers, clerical
workers, teachers, nurses, dedicated mothers, and compliant wives.
Gender reform feminisms are critical of the exploitation of women's labor
and emotions in the service of marriage and motherhood. They argue that
the gendered division of labor makes women dependent on a waged husband
or the state. Their main solution has been the encouragement of women's
entry into the labor force or, in developing countries, support for women's
land ownership and small businesses. These solutions give women eco-
nomic independence, but do not address the problem of the "second shift,"