Transportation Engineering 10 (2022) 100132

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Transportation Engineering
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Sub-23 particle control strategies towards Euro VII HD SI natural

gas engines
Chiara Guido, Dario Di Maio *, Pierpaolo Napolitano, Carlo Beatrice
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche - Institute of Science and Technology for Sustainable Energy and Mobility (STEMS), Via G. Marconi, 4, Naples 80125, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Approaching Euro VII regulation limits for natural gas engines represents an arduous but not impossible
Gaseous engines challenge.
Particle emissions The technological improvement and research progress in propulsion systems can offer strong tools in the
Oil formulation
achievement of next emission target. The efforts in this field are justified by the interests in natural gas pow­
Aftertreatment device
ertrains that represent an alternative solution mainly in case of Heavy-Duty engines for off-road and transport
applications. One of the aspects involving the OEMs effort is the particle number emissions abatement, that, due
to the next future stringent limits involving sub-23 nm particles, represents a challenge also in case of natural gas
fueled engines.
The present paper describes the potentiality offered by different strategies in the control of particles emitted by
Heavy-Duty natural gas engines. Three approaches will be described and analyzed using experimental charac­
terization carried out by the authors with the use of an engine test bench. Assuming that the major source of
particles derives from the lube oil combustion, firstly the effect of improved piston ring pack design has been
assessed, comparing two versions of the same engine.
Secondly the quality of lubricant oils in particle formation has been evaluated, testing oils with improved
chemical/physical properties.
A last aspect analyzed was the evaluation of the particulate filter technology capability when applied to a
natural gas engine, a novelty in the scientific literature.
All the investigated approaches proofed powerful tools in the control of sub-23 particle, paving the way for
natural gas engines compliant with Euro VII PN limits.

1. Introduction
In the recent years, engines fueled with Natural Gas (NG) have shown
an increasing popularity in the aim of achieving net-zero Global
Greenhouse Gas (GHG). Especially for Heavy-Duty and off-road appli­
cations, they represent an attractive and viable alternative to traditional
Diesel engines in terms of both performance and durability [1,2]. The
main benefits are linked not only to the wide NG diffusion on the globe
but, essentially, to multiple aspects concerning emissions [3] even more
evident in case of bio-derived methane. As its main component is
methane, which has the highest hydrogen / carbon ratio among all
hydrocarbons, this technology permits to achieve a lower CO2
engine-out concentration with respect to conventional liquid fueled
engines.
Moreover, it is also worth pointing out that the Aftertreatment Sys­
tem (ATS) used to control the exhaust of this kind of engine is the well-
established Three-Way Catalytic converter (TWC). Widely used in Spark
Ignition (SI) engines, TWC technology allows the control and reduction
of NOx, CO and THC emissions when the engine operates in a fixed range
around stoichiometric values [4,5]. Noteworthy is its simplicity and low

Abbreviations: APC, AVL Particle Counter; ATS, Aftertreatment system; CF, conformity factor; CNG, compressed natural gas; CPF, CNG Particulate Filter; DMS,
differential mobility spectrometer; DPF, Diesel Particulate Filter; GDI, Gasoline Direct Injection; GHG, Global Greenhouse Gas; GPF, Gasoline Particulate Filter; HD,
Heavy-Duty; LVL, low viscosity lubricants; LVO, low viscosity oils; MPS, mean pore size; NG, Natural Gas; OEM, original equipment manufacturer; PFI, port fuel
injection; PM, particulate matter; PN, particle number; PCRF, Particle Concentration Reduction Factor; PSDF, Particle Size Distribution Function; THC, total hy­
drocarbon; TWC, three-way catalyst; WHTC, World Harmonized Transient Cycle.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dario.dimaio@stems.cnr.it (D. Di Maio).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.treng.2022.100132
Received 8 March 2022; Received in revised form 31 May 2022; Accepted 21 July 2022
Available online 2 August 2022
2666-691X/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
C. Guido et al.
cost concept compared to a complex Diesel engine emission abatement
system [6].
The development of recent regulations on pollutant emissions has
increased the attention on Particulate Matter (PM), composed by a
complex physical-chemical mixture of solid and volatile material,
ranging in size from a few nanometers to several hundred nanometers
[7]. The formation of particulate from conventional Diesel and gasoline
engines has been extensively studied and, despite the complexity of the
phenomena, some hypothesis of the physical-chemical mechanisms
involved in it are now assessed. While in Diesel engine the incomplete
combustion of fuel hydrocarbons generating soot comes from condition
of limited oxygen diffusion transfer to the burning fuel (unsaturated
hydrocarbons, like acetylene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are
most likely precursors for soot), the soot from GDI gasoline engine
mainly derives from the pool burning and local rich region in the cyl­
inder, linked to the incomplete process of fuel vaporization and
gas-phase mixing leading to sub-stoichiometric mixture. It is consoli­
dated that other mechanisms can be the cause of PM formation: the
presence of liquid fuel film over cylinder/piston walls and consequent
pool-fire as well as the process of direct carbonisation of remaining
liquid droplets.
On the other side, engines fueled with compressed natural gas (CNG)
are characterized by very low Particulate Mass (PM) emissions, due to
the quasi homogeneity of the air–gas mixture, the absence of large hy­
drocarbon chains and aromatics in the fuel and the less presence of
dissolved impurities, such us Sulphur compounds, than petroleum fuels
[8].
What has been clearly evidenced by previous studies is:
• Reverse blow-by flow of the oil in the combustion chamber appears
the most relevant process related to the PN formation and emission;
• Lube-oil soot quality of the emitted particles is very similar to the
diesel soot quality [9]. Indeed, it was evidenced a similarity of the
particle chemical-physical features with those of soot from Diesel
engine and a burn-off occurring in the typical oxidation temperature
range of Diesel emitted particles (450–650 ◦ C).
The relationship between particulate emission and lubrication oil
leakage between piston and liner is recognized in the literature. Many
researchers, in fact, agree in considering lubricating oil consumption as
the main cause of particle emissions from CNG engines [8,10,11]. A
previous study by the authors has already identified the engine oper­
ating conditions in which the largest presence of PN is found during the
World Harmonized Transient Cycle (WHTC), a transient engine dyna­
mometer test cycle developed by the UN ECE GRPE for the homologa­
tion of Heavy-Duty vehicles [12]. These operating conditions are
represented by rapid acceleration after idle phases, responsible for the
majority of PN emissions from a CNG engine. Following an in-depth
physical/chemical analysis of the soot collected during WHTC tests, it
was found that it has similar properties of Diesel soot, indicating its
origin from lube oil combustion [13].
Therefore, even if for a complete assessment of the particle formation
process in the combustion chamber further specific investigations are
still needed, it can be assumed that particles are formed through a
similar pyrolysis process as for the heavy-fuel oil or diesel combustion,
due to the lack of oxygen in some combustion zones in which lube oil is
rapidly accumulated in vapor or liquid phase, in particular during idle
phases.
What are the relevant zones involved in this process, and what is the
most relevant source, e.g. liquid pool fire in the piston-liner clearance or
over-rich oil vapor in the whole chamber is not yet assessed. If this will
be assessed in future, it will permit a further improve of the design of the
piston bowl and piston ring pack design.
Although a detailed discussion of the health effects of particulate is
beyond the scope of this article, numerous analyses agree that high
levels in the air are associated with cardiovascular diseases and
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Transportation Engineering 10 (2022) 100132
respiratory problems. Briefly, it should be noted that according to the
European Environment Agency (EEA), about half a million premature
deaths per year are attributed to PM2.5 exposure in the 41 European
countries [14,15]. Recently, the WHO halved the PM2.5 exposure
guideline limits to 5 μg/m3 (annual mean) [16].
Historically, PM emissions from automotive engines have been
regulated exclusively in terms of mass. Therefore, Diesel engines spread
has required the use of Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) devices to contain
the high amount of particulate matter in the exhaust. Spark Ignition
CNG engines, considered to have "soot-free" combustion, were not sub­
ject to these regulations due to their low emission of PM. With the
introduction of the Euro VI standard in September 2017, the Particle
Number (PN) limit of 6⋅1011 #/kWh for solid particles larger than 23 nm
was established [2,17,18]. This threshold has been selected to discrim­
inate the smallest soot particles from volatile nucleation mode ones. It is
important to distinguish solid particles < 23 nm that are part of the
lognormal soot accumulation mode from a separate small solid core
mode. Sub 23 nm accumulation mode particles are already regulated
with the current 23 nm cut-off size, at least to an extent, even if they are
not explicitly counted. As an example, for typical size distributions with
means around 50–70 nm, approximately 5–15% of the total particles are
not counted. Lowering the cut-off size reduces these percentages (and
the range of these percentages) but at the same time can increase the
measurement uncertainty due to different losses in the commercial
systems [19].
Such regulation is set in a context of the current evolution of Gasoline
Direct Injection (GDI) engine, which provides important benefits in
terms of fuel economy and power output but shows an increase in par­
ticle number emissions [20]. However, several recent investigations
have shown that particulate emissions from CNG engines are particu­
larly significant in the sub-23 nm size range. More in detail, studies
carried out on Euro VI CNG engines have shown that the number of
particles greater than 23 nm is at least an order of magnitude lower than
with Gasoline engines; particles of smaller diameter, however, are
considerable and need to be assessed with appropriate measuring in­
struments [2,21,22].
Therefore, there is a strong interest, especially within the EU, in the
comprehension of size particles formation smaller than 23 nm and in the
definition of proper measurement procedures, to support the develop­
ment of future European emission standards and to identify more effi­
cient and cleaner engines and aftertreatment devices [23,24].
The control of sub-23 nm PN formation and emissions from NG en­
gines involves different aspects, regarding the engine component tech­
nology, the lubricants quality and the aftertreatment systems
development.
A long research activity was performed by the authors on these topics
during the last years; in the present paper the main findings of the
investigation will be presented and discussed. More in details, aim of the
present work is to highlight the different approaches, currently on the
way, toward developing of NG engines compliant with the forthcoming
stringent particles regulation. The next Euro VII legislation, in fact, will
regulate the emission of particles larger than 10 nm, so including sub-23
nm particles not yet considered in the current standards.
From an engine enhancement point of view, there are numerous
studies dedicated to the optimization of the piston cylinder coupling and
valve seats to reduce oil leakage [25,26], so evidencing that a proper
piston ring pack design, linked to oil consumption reduction, certainly
plays a major role in the analysis of particulate formation processes.
Since the profile of piston rings is an essential design element when
the goal is to control the flow of lubricant on the cylinder liner, advanced
measurement technologies are required to evaluate hydrodynamic per­
formance parameters such as the thickness and distribution of the lube
oil film [27]. However, literature data on the effect of piston ring design
on particle emissions control from NG engines is quite limited. For this
reason, the first intention of the authors is to assess the impact of a
ring-pack optimization on the reduction of oil stored in the crevices and
C. Guido et al.
in the ring seats and so, in turns, on particulate matter formation. A
detailed analysis of the particle number emission at the exhaust of a CNG
engine will be presented. The results confirm the direct relationship
between particle emission and oil leakage, linked to the piston-cylinder
liner coupling and to the reverse blow-by process, which is crucial in the
formation of soot [26].
As a second objective, the authors intend to show the influence of oil
formulation on particles formation by the same CNG engine with the
improved piston ring pack.
In the advancing development of cleaner energy sources and with the
more widespread application of low carbon fuels (i.e. methane/bio-
methane/hydro-methane), the role of lube oil to particulate emission
is even more relevant and its contribution becomes increasingly
important as the admissible particulate emission level is reduced.
In addition, lubricants formulation is an important aspect in the oil
consumption process [28]. It is strongly related to the reliability,
economy and emission of the internal combustion engine [29]. The
combustion of lubricating oil affects soot, ash, soluble organic compo­
nents, metal elements and other pollutants, and the improvement of
emission control technology has required a correspondent adaptability
of lubricating oil.
Generally speaking, a lubricant oil is made of roughly 90% base oil
and 10% additives (antioxidants, detergents, anti-wear components,
dispersants, viscosity modifiers, foam inhibitors and pour points de­
pressants). Base oil formulation, whether mineral, synthetic o renewable
and its manufacturing processes confer important properties to lubri­
cants, including the viscosity index, pour point, volatility, oxidation and
thermal and hydrolytic.
Lubricating oil is a complex compound making the identification of
the exact mechanism of oil influencing the particle formation very
difficult. Moreover, it has to be outlined that scientific literature is full of
studies on the effect of lubricants on pollutant emission from Diesel and
Gasoline engines; on the contrary, same information for NG engines are
still limited.
As regards the physical aspect, viscosity and volatility will influence
the consumption and atomization of lubricating oil, which may lead to
the change of particle formation. As far as the chemical aspect, the
content of metals in oil, as example, can influence the kinetics of
oxidation of soot particles [30,31].
The kinematic viscosity is defined by the SAE Viscosity Grade;
typically, lube oils used in NG engines are multi-grade, showing two
representative numbers: one for cold and one for hot conditions (e.g.
10W-40).
Fontaras et al. and Macian et al. provided experimental data on the
advantages offered by low viscosity grade oils (LVO), tested on different
Diesel and CNG technologies [32,33]. The authors highlighted the
benefit of low viscosity lubricants on fuel consumption and CO2 emis­
sions, due to decreased energy dissipation through friction. According to
the fundamentals of hydrodynamic lubrication, the use of LVO is based
on reducing the thickness of the lubricating oil layer that separates two
surfaces in relative motion. Fontaras et al. also reported that, usually,
low viscosity lubricants (LVL) are synthetic and of higher quality with
respect to conventional oils, so it is expected that their application has a
positive impact on pollutant emissions.
Several studies outlined the role of additives on PM formation on
Diesel and gasoline engines. Results of TGA analysis indicate that more
volatile and ash fraction were contained in the particles when oil ad­
ditive package was mixed into Diesel, concluding that the oil additives
may increase the nucleation mode particles and ash component [34].
Pirjiola et al. highlighted that gasoline vehicle particle emissions are
positively correlated with the concentration of additives [35].
The ash content is the inorganic incombustible component of the
lube oil. CNG engines require low ash content with respect to Gasoline
and Diesel applications because, being that CNG fuel is gaseous and dry,
it does not contribute to the lubrication of valves that can readily be
affected by the ash deposits and provoke valve burning, self-ignition or
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Transportation Engineering 10 (2022) 100132
knock and reduced heat transfer [36].
The second part of the present paper refers to an extensive experi­
mental investigation (still ongoing) aimed at evaluating the impact of
the lube oil quality on particle emissions. The present paper will focus on
two aspects that revealed highly prominent on particle formation: the
base oil formulation and the ash content. The designed experimental
protocol, involving WHTC cycles and a discussion of the obtained results
will be presented in the next.
While improving piston rings and oil formulation can influence
particle formation, a further investigated strategy was the imple­
mentation of aftertreatment systems for the abatement of the particulate
at the exhaust of CNG engine. Starting from the well-consolidated and
highly efficient Diesel Particulate Filters (DPFs) technology, CNG Par­
ticulate Filters (CPFs) can be regarded as possible devices in such sense.
Considering the different operating conditions of the two engine
categories, the choice of filter materials for Natural Gas engines and,
more generally, for SI engines is still evolving.
In Diesel applications, currently the substrates adopted for particu­
late filters are classified in SiC (silicon carbide), AT (aluminium titanate)
and Cd (cordierite). SiC DPFs are widely used, due to the appreciable
thermal properties of the material, although higher manufacturing costs
and construction efforts are required for the higher coefficient of ther­
mal expansion (CTE) than AT or Cd substrates. Considering the lower
particle production and the absence of regeneration phenomena (typical
of Diesel engines), Cd filters may be the ideal candidate for reducing
particles in NG engines [37].
The CPF operating principle is very similar to the DPF one. The main
differences rely on the characteristics of NG and Diesel engine exhaust.
Due to the mentioned low PM emissions, in fact, a smaller PM layer on
the CPF walls would be formed, so, differently from Diesel case, the
efficiency of a filter cake has to be assessed. Furthermore, since the
exhaust temperatures of NG engines are generally higher than the Diesel
ones, a CPF with passive soot regeneration may suffice for any appli­
cation although the O2 level in the NG exhaust could be lower compared
to that in the Diesel exhaust.
A third macro-point of the present work will be devoted to the
assessment of the benefits offered by a particulate filter device in terms
of PN number, mass and size distribution, again during WHTCs. Pre­
liminarily, the exhaust stream was characterized downstream the TWC;
subsequently, the CPF (derived from a Heavy-Duty Diesel application)
was included in the ATS layout in order to assess its impact in terms of
particle abatement. It is notable that, to our knowledge, this is the first
work to show the potential of using a particulate filter for Natural Gas
engines. Such aspect is of high interest in view of the future Euro VII
regulation on sub-23 particulate matter.
The performed investigation highlights some thematic strands to­
wards CNG engines compliant with future regulations and key player in
low/mid-terms mobility towards decarbonization, even more if bio-
methane use is foreseen. Moreover, the research findings can offer
interesting insights also for hydro-methane fueled engines, in a future
scenario with hydrogen as potential energy vector for mobility.
1.1. Strategies towards the Euro VII particle emission standards
By mid-2022, the European Commission will concretely establish the
Euro VII regulation limits for emitted particles, that will take effect in
2025/2026. Although, as anticipated, PM does not represent a major
problem for CNG engine category, there is high interest and expectation
about the PN limits dictated by the new regulation.
The main proposals considered by the EU derive from the opinions of
"ACEA - European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association, and "CLOVE
- Consortium for ultra-Low Vehicle Emissions".
ACEA intends to maintain the current Euro VI limit of 6⋅1011 #/kWh
for particles above 23 nm by introducing the more challenging SPN10
test procedure developed by PMP in UNECE. In this case, considering
particles larger than 10 nm, ACEA believes that this change is equivalent
C. Guido et al.
to an increase in stringency for PN control of 30–40% [38], higher than
the approximately 15% reported in [19].
CLOVE proposes to consider three different scenarios regulating the
number of particles larger than 10 nm emitted per kilometer. The
reference limit value in the most restrictive scenario is 1⋅1011 #/km. It
also foresees the introduction of a conformity factor (CF), equal to 1.5, to
take into account the experimental uncertainty of future best in class
emission measurement equipment [39].
Considering the future trend of the EURO VII regulation, Leach et al.
pointed out a high presence of sub-23 nm particles on a GDI engine,
which would result in an increase in PN up to 45% with the extension of
the limit to particles above 10 nm [40]. Assessing particles larger than
10 nm in six gasoline vehicles and one light-duty CNG vehicle, Dimo­
poulos Eggenschwiler et al. also found a roughly double value of PN
emissions [41].
As a preliminary and overview indication of the main findings of the
present work, Fig. 1 shows the advantages revealed by the optimization
technologies on the engine object of the experimental tests, appropri­
ately instrumented in one of the CNR-STEMS laboratories in Naples
(Italy).
Starting from a prototype Euro VI engine, previously located in the
CNR-STEMS test room, the piston ring pack optimization (designed by
the engine OEM) revealed a strong particulate matter reduction of about
95%, as deeply detailed in [13].
Once assessed the strong potentiality offered by the implementation
of the new ring pack, the subsequent steps were performed starting from
the optimized engine version that leads to PN emissions level well below
the Euro VI one.
The oil characterization activity, designed with the aim of reducing
oil consumption so decreasing particle formation, showed substantial
benefit in reducing emitted particles, achieving PN abatement rates of
up to 70%. For a detailed analysis, the reader is directed to Section 4.
At the same time, the filtration efficiency of a specific particulate
filter placed downstream the TWC was evaluated, showing a further
benefit of about 85% in terms of particulate number reduction, as it will
be described in Section 5.
The presented technologies represent strong tools to drive the cur­
rent generation of engines towards Euro VII regulation compliance,
achieving high overall particle reduction efficiency, as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Percentage of particulate reduction for the HD NG 6-cyl engine for each
optimization technology analyzed. The graph axis is shown on a logarithmic
scale for graphical purposes. The percentage of reduction linked to piston ring
pack design refers to the prototype engine, while the other two percentages,
linked to optimization of lube oil and use of CPF, refer individually to the
optimized engine layout.
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Transportation Engineering 10 (2022) 100132
2. Materials and methods
The experimental activities were carried out on a NG Heavy-Duty SI
PFI engine, compliant with EURO VI regulation. The characteristics of
this engine, engineered for on-road applications of trucks and buses, are
shown in Table 1.
The engine piston has a cylindrical shape bowl with hemispheric
bottom. The piston has three compression rings and one oil ring. This
engine is coupled with a fast-response variable-frequency dynamometer
(AVL Dynodur), which allows to perform both dynamic and stationary
tests. The adopted fuel is a pure mixture of Natural Gas with a methane
content of more than 99.5%. Its consumption is measured with an
Emerson Micro Motion ELITE Coriolis flow meter, while an ultrasonic
flow meter AVL Flowsonix monitors the intake air flow rate. An AVL
IndiSmart indicating system, appropriately programmed for the pur­
poses of this research by means of in-cylinder pressure sensors, enables
the acquisition of the indicated pressure signals.
The CAN analyzer software allows the ECU functionality to be
monitored, with variable calibration possibilities based on different
engine feeds.
In a first experimental campaign, the ATS comprised only the TWC.
Subsequently, a CPF was mounted in a closed-couple position, which
will be appropriately detailed in paragraph 5 of this work. Four inde­
pendent stainless steel sampling lines were implemented downstream
the ATS for monitoring of gas-phase pollutants and particulate matter
emissions, as shown in Fig. 2.
Specifically, following the order of the devices shown in Fig. 2, the
first line is devoted to the emissions of gas-phase criteria pollutants
(NOx/NO, CO, CO2, CH4, THC) measured through the Horiba Mexa 7100
exhaust gas analysis system. The other three lines are for particle mea­
surement and are kept at a temperature higher than 100 ◦ C to prevent
water condensation.
In particular, particle number measurements are provided by the
AVL Particle Counter (APC). The measurement principle is the one
adopted for homologation procedure and foresees a primary dilution of
the sampled gas and the vaporization of the volatile components from
the sampled gas (by passing thought an evaporation tube), so leaving
only solid particles (after a second dilution) to pass through the Particle
Number Counter (PNC, or Condensation Particle Counter CPC). The
evaporation tube is heated to a temperature of 350 ◦ C to remove volatile
nucleation mode particles from the primary exhaust gas dilution. A
catalytic stripper is included in the evaporation tube, between first and
secondary dilution, ensuring maximum removal efficiency of the vola­
tile nucleation mode particles. In the CPC the particles, enlarged by
means of butanol condensation, are then counted based on the scattered
light pulses generated when the particles pass through a laser beam. In
the adopted version of APC, the calibration curve of the CPC is optimized
so the lower particle size limit is extended to 10 nm and the measuring
range is from 0 to 50.000 particles/cm3. Depending on the test condi­
tions, the total dilution value can be selected, by means of the Particle
Concentration Reduction Factor (PCRF), from 100 to 20,000 and the
software device accordingly sets the values for the two dilution steps.
The first and second dilution factor demands are set separately. In more
Table 1
Main features of the NG 6-cyl experimental engine.
Engine type 6 cylinders in line
Certification Euro VI
Displacement 5883 cm3
Bore 102 mm
Stroke 120 mm
Valves per cylinder 2
Rated power and torque 150 kW @ 2700 rpm
750 Nm @ 1500 rpm
Compression ratio 10:1
Weight 520 kg
C. Guido et al. Transportation Engineering 10 (2022) 100132

Fig. 2. Engine test bench experimental layout.

detail, depending on the dilution range set on the Primary Diluter (low/
Table 3
high, depending on exhaust particle concentrations), the first demand
DMS 500 sensitivity (RMS at 1 Hz) according to the particle diameters.
(PND1) may be between 10 and 200 or 200 and 1000. The second de­
mand (PND2) is set to 10, 15 or 20. In the present test campaign the 10 nm 1.0 × 103 (dN/dlogDp/cc)
PCRF was set to 3000. 30 nm 4.0 × 102
Table 2 shows the main features of the AVL Particle Counter. 100 nm 1.7 × 102
The Particle Size Distribution Function (PSDF) is derived using a 300 nm 8 × 101
Sensitivity to typical Diesel Number: ~170 N/cc
DMS 500, a differential mobility spectrometer from Cambustion. The accumulation mode (80 nm, σg = Mass: ~0.5 μg/m3
instrument has a two-stage sample dilution system; the adopted dilution 1.8) Indicates typical level at which lognormal
ratio values were equal to 6 and 150, respectively. These values turned mode
out to be suitable for all phases of the WHTC and were kept fixed during falls below detection threshold
the whole tests campaign. The dilution gas temperature was set at 120◦ C
and 40◦ C, respectively in stage 1 and 2. The DMS 500 measurements
gaseous and PN measurements instruments are homologation type de­
include solid and volatile particles (no catalytic stripper device is pre­
vices. The APC is built to fulfill draft specifications according to United
sent in the layout), classified in nucleation and accumulation mode, with
Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), Working Party on
a size range between 5 nm to 50 nm and 50 nm and 1000 nm, respec­
Pollution and Energy (GRPE), Particle Measurement Programme (PMP).
tively. Table 3 reports the DMS 500 sensitivity values according to the
At the same time, the test cell is equipped with DMS and MicroSoot
particle diameters. In the acquisition software of the Cambustion
sensors, advanced research instruments that, although not homologa­
DMS500 the “GDI inversion matrix” has been adopted, as considered the
tion devices, offer additional information for particles and soot
best within the ones available.
characterization.
Soot concentration measurements were performed through a tran­
The engine is an evolution of an earlier version (“prototype engine”),
sient high sensitive photo-acoustic sensor (AVL, MicroSoot Sensor). The
tested in previous investigations by the authors [13] that have identified
the predominant part of particulate emissions occurring after rapid
transitions from idle conditions to high torque demands, resulting
Table 2
AVL Particle Counter technical specifications and key features.
influenced by the duration of the idle phase itself [9,42].

Confirmed standards UN/ECE-GRPE-PMP for sub-23 nm solid

Measuring range
Lowe particle size limit
Mean instrument response time
(t90)
Mean CPC sensor response time
(t90)
CPC readability
CPC data reporting frequency
Ambient temperature operation
conditions
Ambient relative humidity
conditions
3. Piston ring design optimization
particle counting
3
0–30000 p/cm (single count mode)
As a premise, it is worth mentioning the main mechanisms related to
Linear (R2 > 0.95) up to 50000 p/cm3
10 nm (> 50%) | 15 nm (>90%)
oil consumption during active engine phases. As a result of the piston
4.5 s ring interface lubrication, a percentage of residual oil takes part in the
combustion process. It is the main source of the formation of particulate
2.0 s matter in the exhaust of a CNG engine, with only a minor particle
contribution from the fuel itself [43,44]. Therefore, the analysis of this
0.1 p/cm3
10 Hz aspect is essential in the aim to reduce the particle emissions related to
5–25 ◦ C oil consumption phenomena.
The main contributors to oil consumption are listed below and
0–90% non-condensing
briefly sketched in Fig. 3 [27,45,46]:

5
C. Guido et al.
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the different oil consumption paths.
(a) Throw-off, defined as the passage of lube oil into the combustion
chamber due to the inertia forces caused by acceleration and
deceleration of the piston assembly;
(b) Reverse blow-by, when the pressure leads the gas-containing oil
into the combustion chamber; it represents the main contribution
related to oil consumption and, subsequently, to particulate
matter formation.
(c) Evaporation, when the thermal loading of engine components is
considerable (i.e. hot cylinder liner surfaces) and it is dependent
on engine load and lube oil volatility;
(d) Top-land scraping, when oil is scraped from the cylinder liner by
the piston top surface, or alternatively, by carbon deposits on the
top surface.
A specific optimization of the piston ring design was carried out by
the OEM in multiple operating conditions of the engine workplan with
the aim of particularly minimizing engine oil consumption in reverse oil
blow-by conditions.
The new design was selected by reducing the side clearance and the
volume in the back of the rings.
In recognition of the limitations dictated by the OEM in the publi­
cation of sensitive data, a diagram of the piston and ring pack design of
the engine is shown in Fig. 4, where the reduction in the ring gap is
Fig. 4. Piston and ring pack scheme of the 6-cyl HD CNG engine. Dashed red
line represents the ring pack minimization.
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Transportation Engineering 10 (2022) 100132
represented by the dashed red line.
3.1. Experimental campaign on new ring pack design
The methodology for the characterization of engine emissions was
carried out through the execution of multiple WHTCs. In accordance
with the regulation, a combination of a cold-start cycle, followed by a
hot cycle, was performed, separated by a standard 10 min soak phase. In
order to verify the repeatability of the test, and to ensure greater reli­
ability of the experimental data, this procedure was repeated five times
on different days, with the intake air temperature being 24 ± 2 ◦ C.
Factors of 14and 86% have been adopted for the elaboration of emis­
sions data of cold and hot cycles correspondingly (in the next referred as
“combined” cycle data), as prescribed by the European regulation [13].
Fig. 5 shows tailpipe particulate emissions in terms of mass and
number for both the engines, the initial version (defined prototype,
without the ring pack improvement) and the current one, compliant
with EURO VI regulation, measured respectively with the AVL Micro­
soot sensor and the AVL Particles Counter.
Based on the robust PN and PM emission characterization carried out
from the implemented measurement setup, it was assessed a global
reduction, of about 95% on the WHTC cycle, in tailpipe particulates with
the new ring pack design when compared to the initial version of the
engine, without the optimization of the rings. In particular, as already
reported in [13], the reduction of soot and PN, even if strongly evident in
terms of lower emission peak values moving from idle to an abrupt speed
increase, occurred also along the other test cycle operating conditions.
For a more comprehensive interpretation of the results, it is worth
illustrating the correlation between the adopted instruments. Fig. 6
presents the PN and soot emission traces measured by APC and Micro­
Soot sensors, respectively, in the interval between 200 and 500 s of a
generic WHTC hot-start with the optimized ring design. The data are
normalized with respect to the maximum measured in that configura­
tion. The APC is the instrument properly designed for particle number
evaluation, so it was adopted as reference device for PN measurements.
On the other hand, the DMS500 is devoted to particle size distribution
analysis; however, it can also provide data on the number of emitted
particles, both volatile and non-volatile. The comparison among the
curves highlights first of all peaks of emissions well identified by all the
three devices. Also, a very good correlation between the PN from APC
and DMS is evident, with a trend of higher values measured by DMS as
also volatile particles are included in its measures.
A comparison between the two engine configurations in terms of
particle sizing is provided in Fig. 7, that reports the Particle Size Dis­
tribution Function (PSDF) curves averaged over the WHTC, relative to
the old (on the left) and new (on the right) piston rings. As know, the
presence of particles of different size is due to the occurrence of nucle­
ation phenomena, with smaller diameter particle formation, and accu­
mulation phenomena, with the consequent formation of larger size
particles. Therefore, the distribution curve assumes a "bimodal" trend
C. Guido et al. Transportation Engineering 10 (2022) 100132

Fig. 5. PN and Soot concentration during a generic WHTC Cold-start (left) and a WHTC Hot-start (right).
Data are normalized on a 100 basis relative to the maximum PN and Soot value reached in the test. Engine speed traces on secondary y-axis.

Fig. 6. PN emissions from AVL APC and Cambustion DMS500 and Soot con­
centrations from AVL Microsoot sensors between 200 and 500 s in a generic
WHTC hot-start.
with two peaks in the area of 23 and 100 nm [9]. Similar distribution
curve shape has been observed in in another study for CNG engines [47].
The comparison clearly shows the great drop of particle concentra­
tion over the whole spectrum. It must be highlighted that since the DMS
was not equipped with catalytic stripper, the absolute values cannot be
assumed as representative of the solid particle emissions at tailpipe with
respect the PMP standard. The comparison also shows that particle
number reduction was more relevant for the accumulation mode than
the nucleation ones, and with the new design, both nucleation and
accumulation mode seem to reduce.
As said above, the rapid transient power changes in a dynamic
working cycle represent the main critical phases in terms of particle
emissions, relegating the contribution of the steady-state phases at a
marginal role, at least with respect to the Euro VI regulation. Referring
to the previous authors experiences, it was assumed that this typical
emission behavior is correlated mainly to the oil reverse blow-by process
when the engine moves from in-cylinder high-vacuum conditions (en­
gine in idle with closed throttle) to the low-vacuum conditions (engine
with wide open throttle). More details are reported in [13].
The presented results reveal the great importance of the proper
control of the oil flow in the combustion chamber to reduce the particle

Fig. 7. Particle size distribution from DMS500 averaged over the WHTC for engine prototype and optimized ring pack design.

7
C. Guido et al. Transportation Engineering 10 (2022) 100132

emissions within the current and future regulations. The improvement Table 5
obtained with the re-design of the piston ring pack is a restricted area of PN and Soot percentage reductions with reference to “Ref” oil in the “Combined”
action. To minimize the PN emissions in CNG engines, several other WHTCs Cold+Hot.
aspects, like the general piston-liner coupling, the in-cylinder oil accu­ Emission particle reduction wrt "Ref" Oil [%]
mulation and evaporation, as the interaction between gas flame and Combined: Cold + Hot WHTCs
flowed oil, required further specific investigations. PN Soot
Oil 1 -36% -35%
4. Effect of lubricants quality on particle emissions Oil 2 -71% -79%

An extensive experimental campaign was carried out, testing a large

increase with the oil having higher volatility and ash content [33,48].
matrix of lubricant oils in which several chemical-physical parameters
The same trend is observable for soot: the different oil ash content
were changed. The lubricant oils were selected to underline the influ­
has a similar impact.
ence of physical and chemical properties on PN emissions and fuel
The results suggest a strong correlation between physical/chemical
consumption. While correlation data between oils and emissions were
parameters and particle emissions, confirming that the oil formulation is
still under analysis at the time of preparation of this manuscript some
a crucial aspect in PN and soot emission control.
relevant trends were assessed, in particular on base oil property and ash
Similar PN and soot trends were observed in Cold and Hot condi­
content. In the present work, the focus was on three oils with different
tions, highlighting the effect of oil formulation independently from the
specifications reported in Table 4 together with their SAE grade.
test conditions. In more detail, Oil 1 and Oil 2 showed a PN reduction
In recognition of the limitations dictated by the lubricant designer in
with respect to Ref of about 30 and 70% in Cold conditions and about 40
the publication of sensitive data, the specific base oil properties inves­
and 75% in Hot conditions, respectively. The major reduction was
tigated is stated as “base oil property” and real values are not shared.
measured during the hot tests, which in general show lower emissions
“Ref” oil refers to commercially available lubricant oil in the market,
than the Cold-start tests, as expected. The best performance of Oil 2,
while “Oil 1” and “Oil 2” (both compliant with regulated oil specifica­
with optimized base oil property at same SAE grade, is confirmed in both
tions) have been specifically formulated to study the effects of different
Cold and Hot WHTCs.
“base oil property” and ash content on PN emissions and fuel con­
The effect of oil formulation was investigated also in terms of particle
sumption. Oil 1 and Oil 2 were selected keeping the same SAE grade to
sizing by means of the differential mobility spectrometer. The adoption
highlight the benefit of their specific formulation. To characterize the
of the reformulated oils affected the size distribution that remained
effect of chemical composition on particle emissions, Oil 1 was blended
substantially the same of the reference oil, with a bimodal curve shape
using half additive package, resulting in 50% less ash content with
and two main peaks at about 25 and 150 nm. On the contrary, a
respect to Oil 2 and “Ref” oil.
considerable reduction of both nucleation and accumulation mode
Comparing Oil 1 to “Ref” oil allows to have a clear picture of the
particles were measured, as is reported in Table 6 and in line with soot
impact of different ash content, while comparing Oil 2 to Reference
and PN emissions trends.
leads to investigate on a significant reduction of “base oil property”.
This result appears informative for the design of future aftertreat­
Particular attention was given to on test conditions and intake air
ment devices at the exhaust layout of CNG engines: the use of oils with
temperature and humidity were monitored.
improved quality does not alter the size distribution of the particle
The same oil drain procedure, also including the filter oil replace­
entering the filter.
ment, was adopted for each oil change. After each oil characterization, a
An interesting aspect evidenced during the study was the effect of the
“Ref” oil repetition day was performed, comprising 1 cold and 3 hot
improved oil formulation, keeping the same SAE grade. This analysis
WHTCs.
permits to untie the benefits on particle emissions from fuel consump­
Table 5 shows the percentage of particle emissions reduction, both in
tion. The minimal impact of fuel consumption, in fact, was + 0.4% for
terms of PN and soot, as combined data of cold and hot cycles, averaged
Oil 1 and -0.4% for Oil 2 on combined WHTCs, compared to Ref oil.
among all the performed WHTCs, with respect to the “Ref” oil, charac­
Then, the above illustrated benefits obtained from base oil property
terized by the highest PN and soot values.
and ash content can be combined with lower viscosity oil in view of a
A strong reduction of particulate emissions in correspondence of
fuel consumption optimization. This approach represents a simple
different base oil property was detected both in terms of PN and soot.
implementation that can positively impact on the emissions trade-off of
The table values clearly highlight a strong reduction of PN emissions
the last generation HD CNG engines.
in correspondence of different base oil property; important reductions
were measured also in terms of soot emissions, showing the high po­
tential of the selection of the base oil without modifying the final 5. Use of CPF for particle emission abatement
lubricant viscosity grade. This approach is complementary to the posi­
tive impact of low viscosity lubricants highlighted by other researchers In this section, the impact of a particulate filter, properly designated
for different engine technologies [32,33]. in accordance with the OEM, on the particle abatement efficiency of the
The lower ash content for Oil 1 has a lower impact on PN emissions tested HD CNG engine (see Table 1 and Fig. 2) was analyzed. This filter
with respect to a change of base oil property; a further reduction of represents a device still in development and therefore, the results ob­
about 30% on PN, in fact, is achieved moving from Oil 1 to Oil 2, in line tained, already very encouraging, should be seen as part of a path that
with what was observed by Macián et al. and Premnath et al. on a may include further optimizations and improvements. To our knowl­
Gasoline vehicle which showed that PM, PN and ash number emissions edge, no similar solutions have been studied in literature for CNG

Table 6
Table 4 Nucleation and accumulation mode particles reductions with reference to “Ref”
Technical specifications of oils tested. oil in the “Combined” WHTCs Cold+Hot.
“Ref” Oil Oil 1 Oil 2 Emission particle reduction wrt "Ref" Oil [%]

SAE Viscosity grade 10w40 10w40 10w40 Combined: Cold + Hot WHTCs
Viscosity [mm2/s] @ 100◦ C 13.49 13.8 13.53 Nucleation Accumulation
Base oil property A A B Oil 1 -40% -38%
Ash content [%] 1 0.5 1 Oil 2 -70% -72%

8
C. Guido et al. Transportation Engineering 10 (2022) 100132

engines, while the use of GPF is becoming more and more important in
GDI engines.
The ATS is designed to allow the coupling between a standard TWC,
specific for the CNG engine, and a particulate filter. The use of this
technology is not entirely new, as it is equipped on recent Diesel vehicles
to capture engine-out particles. However, the development of particu­
late filter technology, both for gasoline and CNG engines applications,
must take into account the different operating conditions of SI engines
compared to DI engines, in particular in terms of ATS temperatures and
amount of residual O2 concentration in exhaust [49].
However, as partly anticipated above, since lower peak temperature
regeneration events are present in SI engines, this type of filter may have
lower thermal mass wall flow than DPFs. For this reason, cordierite
filters can be used to reduce the pressure drop, as reference material for
GPF application. At the same time, for Natural Gas engines, considering
in addition the lower carbon content compared to Gasoline, cordierite
filters are an ideal candidate to test the impact of this technology [37,
50].
Some characteristics of the TWC and CPF tested are summarized in
Table 7. Due to confidential reasons, PGM and material properties of the
TWC are not indicated.
Given the current availability of the described experimental instru­
Fig. 8. Reduction of PN and Soot with the use of CPF compared to the condi­
mentation for particulate measurement, tests were first performed only
tion without filter. Ref" oil is used. Data are scaled to the maximum value of PN
with the TWC, to characterize particles level downstream of it. Subse­ and Soot obtained in the "Combined" cycle.
quently, the CPF was added to the ATS, and the amount of PN and PM
was measured, together with the particle size distribution. The meth­
The considerable reduction in particles is also measured by the
odology adopted in the experimental campaign again involved the
Cambustion DMS500 as observable in Fig. 10 The distribution of particle
repetition of multiple WHTCs. As for the previously described test
geometry retains the previously described bi-mode characteristic.
campaign, a cold-start cycle was performed, followed by three WHTC
The described test results demonstrate the great contribution of the
hot-start; this protocol was repeated for each condition, (without/with
CPF technology to the PN emission control. However, as mentioned, the
CPF), for three days, with a total amount of three cold-start WHTCs and
investigations carried out in this test campaign represent only a pre­
nine hot-start WHTCs, in order to obtain a correct reliability of the
liminary assessment of the potential of the CPF in the particle filtration
experimental data. No substantial increases in fuel consumption were
in CNG engines. Considering the very low exhaust PM level, it could be
found when the particulate filter was applied. At the same time, no
assumed the absence of a real soot cake on the inlet surface of the filter
significant increase in CO2 emissions and pressure drop was detected
wall, supporting the hypothesis that the so-called deep filtration plays
throughout the entire ATS.
the main role in the particle abatement, differently from the Diesel en­
With reference to the previous chapter, it should be noted that all
gine where soot cake filtration is the most important one. Even more
tests were carried out with "Ref" oil, described in Table 4.
important is the evolution trend of the PN emissions: differently from
The main results in terms of PN and Soot are highlighted in Fig. 8. It
Diesel and also GDI engine, detectable particle concentration is emitted
reports the particle efficiency reduction of the installed CPF during the
during strong engine accelerations. So, the assessment of the trapping
combined WHTC (Cold+Hot) tests. The data are scaled down with
and oxidation dynamic in a CPF installed at the exhaust of a CNG engine
respect to the value obtained without CPF, for confidentiality reason.
appears more complex and it will require dedicated experiments,
Fig. 9 shows the percentage of abatement obtained in the cold-start
employing more advanced diagnostic to characterize such processes.
cycles compared to that obtained in the hot-start tests. It should first
be noted that PN emissions, as with the previously reported WHTCs, are
6. Final remarks and conclusions
higher in the cold-start cycle than in the hot-start cycle. This phenom­
enon is essentially due to two macro aspects: the first concerns the
The present paper offers an overview of different strategies for the
greater contribution of the lubricating oil, which causes an increase in
control of sub-23 nm particles emission from a spark ignition natural gas
sub-23 nm particles, the second is linked to a higher level of engine
heavy-duty engine.
emissions and lower ATS efficiency due to low operating temperatures.
The potentialities of various technological improvements, such as
In absolute terms, the emissions of PN and Soot with cold-start are still
piston rings design, lube oil formulation and particle filter have been
higher, especially in the first part where the ATS has not reached a high
highlighted, based on the authors’ experiences gained over many years
temperature. However, the presence of CPF determines a reduction of
of experimental work on HD CNG engines. The authors started from the
85% of PN and 80% of soot in a cold cycle, while for the tested tech­
assumption, corroborated by previous studies and from literature data,
nology, the efficiency value in a hot cycle is 82% in terms of PN and 70%
that in SI gaseous fueled engines the particle emissions are directly
for soot amount.
linked to oil consumption mechanisms. In this sense, the first step was
the evaluation of the improvement offered by a new piston ring pack: a
strong PN emission reduction, of about 95% with respect to the first
Table 7
Main features of the TWC and CPF used in the tests campaign. prototype engine version, was obtained. Then, the advantages offered by
the quality of lubricant have been quantified, revealing further PN
TWC CPF
reduction, of about 70% when the oil formulation is specifically opti­
Volume [dm3] 8.51 7.09 mized for SI CNG engine. Finally, the authors evaluated the performance
Wall Thickness (mil) 4 8
of the particulate filter technology in the PN exhaust abatement; the
Cell Density (cpsi) 400 200
Porosity [%] - > 55% results of the test campaign highlighted a reduction of about 85% across
MPS [µm] - Std - approx. 10 µm–15 µm an ATS device including CPF technology.

9
C. Guido et al.
Fig. 9. PN and Soot amount during WHTC cold and hot start.
Fig. 10. Particle Size Distribution from Cambustion DMS 500 with/
without CPF.
The three steps of improvements are briefly schematized as follow:
It is worth noting that the results of the study enlarge the current
scientific literature that is poor or absent of information on PN emission
control from CNG engines. Also, the results presented in this paper stem
10
Transportation Engineering 10 (2022) 100132
from a larger and extended research activity with significate effort in
terms of testing hours, diagnostic devices, experimental methodology
and analysis, and could represents a quantitative database, valuable for
the research community involved in similar activities.
All the three studied strategies clearly revealed to be powerful tools
in sub-23 particle abatement.
Each technology in line of principle can be implemented indepen­
dently, also taking into account other aspects not analyzed in this paper
as e.g. the cost effectiveness of the adoption in new generation SI Heavy-
Duty CNG engine. (e.g. ultra-lean combustion systems).
Notwithstanding the high reduction efficiency shown by the filter
device alone, the quality of the oil is an important aspect to consider and
should be optimized close together with the ATS development. In fact,
the filter load reduction offered by the use of low viscosity/ash content
oils is a crucial aspect for operation, ageing and maintenance of the
aftertreatment system.
The technologies were not evaluated alone, in a sort of parametric
analysis, neither in combination “all together”; however, looking at the
involved process for each of them: oil back flow during reverse blow-by,
oil properties affecting particle formation and filtering of the engine-out
emitted particles, it can be reasonable assumed a possible synergy of
them when combined, providing a robust control of the emitted PN.
The combined implementation of the three improvement steps en­
sures a very significant PN emission reduction, of about 99%, that is in
line with the current proposed tightening in Euro VII PN emission limit.
So, once validated also in endurance tests, the technologies exploited
can represent a feasible way for the future Heavy-Duty CNG engine
emissions compliance.
As final remarks, considering the upcoming emission regulations (e.
g. Euro VII in Europe), and on the way of the development of the fully
sustainable CNG engines in the long-term, the authors would point out
the most relevant aspects that should be further investigated with
respect to particle emissions.
The lube oil combustion process and its interaction with gas flame,
becoming the most important topic for the control of the in-cylinder oil
pyrolysis and the related particle formation, is relevant also concerning
the lube oil role on the pre-ignition and knocking phenomena (in
particular for hydrogen and hydrogen-methane blends). To this aim,
deepen investigations on the chemical-physical mechanisms related to
the particle formation from oil combustion are mandatory for a better
C. Guido et al.
optimization of engine combustion system design that should be
assessed through specific in-cylinder diagnostic and dedicated CFD
simulations.
In the same way, since lube oil is the main source of PN emissions, its
proper formulation represents the first step in the system optimization.
The reported results represent only the first feedback from a dedicated
experimental campaign. As it has been over the years for fuels (Diesel
and gasoline), the complete assessment of the direct correlation between
oil parameters and particle formation needs more complex parametric
tests that have been scheduled in the next future.
Concerning the CPF technology applied to HD CNG engines, the
presented data represent the first published results. As initial step, the
experimental investigations were addressed to a first quantification of
the particle reduction efficiency over homologation tests. Despite the
great contribution to the PN reduction at the tailpipe, more insights are
needed for the complete exploitation of this technology, with particular
focus on details in the trapping and oxidation processes occurring in the
filter, as well as specific parametric correlations between thermo-
chemical conditions of the filter (e.g. lambda, temperature, gas flow
rate, etc.) and filtration efficiency.
Finally, the illustrated findings represent useful research insights for
Euro VII CNG engine application, also in case of hydro-methane mix­
tures and in view of alternative energetic source like hydrogen in future
powertrains, as the PN emissions control from lubricant will remain an
open topic also in the next generation of the internal combustion engine.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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