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Combustion Systems and Fuels Used in Engines—A
Short Review
Dariusz Szpica
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Bialystok University of Technology, 45C Wiejska Str., 15‐351 Bialystok,
Poland; d.szpica@pb.edu.pl
In the coming years, strong measures are planned to reduce emissions from various
transportation modes. CO2 emissions per km are expected to reach 0 g by 2035 [1]. In the
short term, i.e., by 2030, the reduction in CO2 emissions from passenger vehicles is ex‐
pected to reach 55% (43 g∙km−1). In this case, the vehicle should be equipped with EV pro‐
pulsion or have ICE supplemented with 50% PHEV or FCV propulsion. During homolo‐
gation, vehicles are subjected to laboratory (NEDC, WLTC) [2,3] and road (RDE) tests [4].
The imminent introduction of the Euro VII requirements in Europe [5] will pose new chal‐
lenges for vehicle propulsion sources. It is clear that in the course of daily vehicle opera‐
tion, emissions can be reduced through eco‐driving [6]. Current restrictions focus on pas‐
senger vehicles and commercial vehicles. Despite the non‐optimistic scenario regarding
the possibility of the further use of ICE for various means of transportation, there is still
hope for their use in heavy and long‐distance transportation or work machinery [7].
Adapting the ICE to the subsequent emission requirements entails the modification
of the combustion mixture formation process, port/direct injection [8], combined combus‐
tion with main and pre‐chambers [9–12], downsizing [13], the retrofitting of after‐treat‐
ment systems with EC, DOC, FAP, DPF, GPF and SCR [14–17] and many other design and
functional features, such as injectors [18,19]. Modifications to the organization of the com‐
bustion process are especially significant. Here, in addition to the standard methods, one
can distinguish ATAC [20], CAI/HCCI [21,22], HPDI or RCCI [23].
Reductions in CO2 emissions can be achieved by using fuels with a lower carbon con‐
tent than standard fuels [24]. The most commonly used alternative fuels in ICE are LPG
[25–28], CNG [29–31] and LNG [26,32,33]. There is also growing interest in H2 [34–36].
HVO is being introduced with positive results [37,38], and many lead modern engines are
already prepared to run on this fuel. Research is also being conducted on the use of PVO,
especially in agricultural machinery [39]. By using additives with PVO, it is possible to
Citation: Szpica, D. Combustion obtain FAME [40], which is more resistant to freezing. In agricultural applications and
Systems and Fuels Used in Engines—A
stationary power generators, biogas has a positive effect [41]. Current trends in research
Short Review. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3126.
on the use of alternative fuels in transportation focus on fuels that are produced not only
https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053126
directly from plants but also from waste. These are mainly syngas [34], GTL [42], biomass‐
Received: 22 February 2023 gasifier [43], POMDME [44] and TPO [45] or NH3 [46]. OME e‐fuels [47] and fuel cells [48]
Accepted: 27 February 2023 are considered the greenest. In parallel with experimental studies, computer simulations
Published: 28 February 2023 are being carried out that account for the formation of the combustible mixture and the
combustion process itself with regard to alternative fuels. In this case, it is necessary to
determine the characteristic parameters and physical and chemical properties of the fuels
Copyright: © 2023 by the author. Li‐ or their mixtures [49]. In cognitive terms and as an application in modeling the movement
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article of a vehicle, it is very important to know the full load engine characteristic powered by
distributed under the terms and con‐ any fuel. The determination of coefficients describing such characteristics enables their
ditions of the Creative Commons At‐
tribution (CC BY) license (https://cre‐ reproduction under modeling conditions [50]. The procedures described in [51] can be
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). used to determine the full load engine characteristics.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3126. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053126 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3126 2 of 4
Alternative fuels, like any fuels ultimately intended for use in transportation, must
meet the requirements outlined in the CAFÉ General Regulations, AMFA [52]. Any action
in this regard will, in any case, be determined by CO2 emissions (CARB‐CAR) [53].
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations and Acronyms
The following abbreviations and acronyms are used in this manuscript. AMFA—Alternative
Motor Fuels Act; ATAC—Active Thermo‐Atmosphere Combustion; CAFÉ—Corporate Average
Fuel Economy; CAI—Controlled Auto‐Ignition; CARB‐CAR—California Air Resources Board and
validated by the Climate Action Reserve; CNG—Compressed Natural Gas; CO2—Carbon Dioxide;
DPF—Diesel Particulate Filter; EC—Exhaust Catalyst; EURO 7—European Vehicle Emissions
Standards; EV—Electric Vehicle; FAME—Fatty Acid Methyl Ester; FAP—Filter a Particular; FCV—
Fuel Cell Electric Hybrid Vehicle; GHGs—Greenhouse Gases; GPF—Gasoline Particulate Filter;
GTL—Gas to Liquid; H2—Hydrogen; HVO—Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil; HCCI—Homogeneous
Charge Compression Ignition; ICE—Internal Combustion Engine; LNG—Liquefied Natural Gas;
LPG—Liquefied Petroleum Gas; NEDC—New European Driving Cycle; NH3—Ammonia; OME—
Oxymethylene Ether; PHEV—Plug‐in Hybrid Electric Vehicle; POMDME—Polyoxymethylene Di‐
methyl Ether; PVO—Pure Vegetable Oil; RCCI—Reactivity‐Controlled Compression Ignition;
RDE—Real Driving Emissions test; SCR—Selective Catalytic Reduction; TPO—Tire Pyrolytic Oil;
WLTC—Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle.
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