Editorial
International J of Engine Research
The role of hydrogen for future
internal combustion engines
Keywords
hydrogen, internal combustion engine, combustion, high pressure injection, zero CO2 emission
Introduction
In order to successfully cope with the trend of mitigat-
ing climate change as outlined in the recommendations
of Paris (COP21) and Glasgow (COP26) Climate
Agreements, propulsion technologies must be able to
achieve the highest CO2 reduction, within very short
time scales. To achieve this challenging goal, electric
powertrains powered by batteries charged using renew-
able energy represents not only a public mandate but
also the focus of research efforts of the relevant aca-
demic and industrial communities. However, this tech-
nology cannot answer all the various needs concerning
personal mobility, sustainability and feasibility. Hence,
in parallel an important role will be played by internal
combustion engines (ICE) fed with non-fossil hydrocar-
bons and hydrogen (H2).1 Today, internal combustion
engines using fossil fuels generate about 25% of the
world’s power and they are responsible for about 17%
of the world’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,2 while
producing other main pollutant emissions such as car-
bon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) with strong
negative impact on air quality in urban spaces.
In the current energy landscape, hydrogen3–9 is per-
ceived as a flexible energy carrier with potential appli-
cations across all energy sectors. Hydrogen represents a
promising energy carrier to store renewable electric
energy when available in excess during peak produc-
tion, due to the typical intermittent character of renew-
able wind and photovoltaic energy plants. Hydrogen
may be used to feed fuel cells (FCs). The current state,
hydrogen FC technology is expensive and requires pure
hydrogen and a high specification compressor to supply
the compressed air. In addition, large batteries would
be needed to store the electricity required to cope with
the transient nature of power demands for vehicle
applications. As a result, the overall current FC-based
powertrain efficiency is much lower than that of the FC
alone.10 A recent study showed how the overall
2022, Vol. 23(4) 529–540
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efficiency of a FC powertrain system is very similar to
that of ICE system for commercial vehicles.11,12
Furthermore, a PEMFC-based powertrain system
rejects nearly all of its heat loss via the coolant, which
also needs to be kept at a significantly lower tempera-
ture than the coolant of an ICE, and hence mandates
significantly larger radiators and cooling systems. This
is particularly critical for heavy-duty vehicles operating
at low speeds, which is relevant considering that this is
the most promising short-term application for FC
powertrain systems.
A detailed analysis of benefits and costs could high-
light the impact of different hydrogen mobility technol-
ogies with respect to alternative solutions in terms of
societal and private costs and gains, taking into account
a variety of socioeconomic and infrastructural con-
texts.13 In the transport sector, which has very few
near-zero emission energy carriers (i.e. electricity and
advanced biofuels), hydrogen has the potential to
address some of the key emission reduction challenges
when combined with ICE technologies. In particular,
the H2 fuelled ICE (H2ICE) is the only alternative
keeping the ICE powerplant that does not produce any
tank-to-wheel CO2 emissions at the tailpipe (as well as
IC engines fed with ammonia,14 however more suitable
for ship applications). Contrarily to FC powertrain sys-
tems, H2 ICEs can be fuelled with non-purified hydro-
gen, resulting in significantly lower production cost of
hydrogen fuel. H2ICEs can take advantage of the exist-
ing advanced combustion and engine control technolo-
gies, such as direct injection, Miller cycle, lean/diluted
combustion, pre-chamber ignition, etc. Thus, the ther-
modynamic efficiency of direct injection H2ICEs can be
similar to the overall efficiency to the FC powertrain.
In terms of pollutant emissions, a certain amount of
NOx is generated during combustion, with traces of
particulates due to the combustion of very small por-
tions of lubricating oil, but all these can be reduced to
zero-impact by means of a lean mixture and a suitable
after-treatment system, together with the choice of a
530
specific lubricating oil.15 In particular, advanced hydro-
gen SCR catalysts16 and particulate filters can remove
these pollutant emissions. The availability of hydrogen
on-board as a reducing agent can represent an innova-
tive and convenient approach for NOx reduction, elimi-
nating the need of urea/NH3 storage in tanks and the
possible ammonia slip at the tailpipe.
The H2ICE is attractive because it takes advantage
of the current advanced state of ICE technologies, such
as reliability, durability, existing supply chain, existing
manufacturing plus recycling infrastructure and afford-
ability, which makes it a near-term, widespread solu-
tion to accelerate the large-scale introduction of H2
into transportation market, for both transitional and
long-term usage. In fact, the existing worldwide know-
how on ICEs and the widespread large-scale manufac-
turing and supply-chains can continue to be utilised,
without any critical interruption. The H2ICE could
provide a reliable, durable and cost-efficient solution
based on a well-known existing technology, contribut-
ing to a fast transition towards carbon-free mobility.
Moreover, it is characterised by low total cost of own-
ership total cost of ownership (TCO), especially in the
field of heavy-duty on-road and off-road applications.
It can be argued that H2ICE technology can be less
expensive than the current state of technology for EV
powertrains, due to its minor dependence on low avail-
able and expensive materials as rare earth metals. Last
but not least, considering that H2ICEs are manufac-
tured in the same production facilities and following
the same manufacturing processes as the conventional
fossil-fuel ICEs, they contribute to secure jobs by pro-
viding sustainable industrial and employment opportu-
nities in the automotive industry.
Hydrogen can be produced from diverse resources. It
is abundant in our environment, stored in water (H2O),
hydrocarbons (such as methane, CH4), and other
organic matter. One challenge of using hydrogen as a
fuel is the efficiency of extracting it from these com-
pounds. More specifically, hydrogen can be produced
by several methods: the most widely used is steam
methane reforming, for which the relevant efficiency of
hydrogen production is very high (65%–75%) and the
production cost is relatively low. Nevertheless, it results
in high levels of CO2 emission. Another widely used
method of hydrogen production is coal gasification. In
this case, however, the efficiency of hydrogen produc-
tion is low (45%) while the CO2 emissions are still high,
if the CO2 is not sequestered at the production site.
Electrolysis of water is another method of producing
hydrogen, but it requires the use of large amounts of
electricity and therefore this becomes expensive. In this
case, the level of CO2 emissions depends on the electric-
ity source. Less common methods can also be used to
produce hydrogen, such as biomass gasification,
biomass-derived liquid reforming, or microbial biomass
conversion.17 However, only the solar–hydrogen and
wind-hydrogen system allows emission-free—but
expensive—hydrogen production. The universal
International J of Engine Research 23(4)
applicability of hydrogen for modern energy needs has
boosted significant investment and development of
renewable hydrogen production in many countries.
Developments in storage
Several breakthrough developments of hydrogen tech-
nologies have included production and use, as well as
advanced materials and methods for hydrogen stor-
age.18,19 In the meantime, global, cross-sectoral, hydro-
gen demand is increasing, with a current worldwide
consumption of approximately 70 million metric tons
per year. To meet the demand, a range of hydrogen
production technologies are being developed
As hydrogen has a very low density (0.089 kg/m3) at
atmospheric pressure, the physical storage requires
ultra-high pressure in gas bottles or extremely low tem-
peratures in liquid. The current applications require
that hydrogen is pressurised between 35 and 70 MPa,
and between 11% and 13% of the hydrogen energy
content is expended to reach these pressure levels.3 The
liquification of hydrogen would consume about 30% of
its total energy content. In addition, the hydrogen stor-
age capacity with the physical storage methods is only
4.5 wt%. Solid-state materials can reversibly absorb
and release hydrogen, and the reported highest storage
capacity is 7.6 wt%, but at an operating temperature of
600 K. Therefore, the extreme complexity and substan-
tial cost of hydrogen storage systems and relatively low
gravimetric storage capacity have prevented the wider
use of hydrogen for the long-distance road and marine
applications, as well as the aviation sector, which have
extremely high requirement on the gravimetric energy
density of fuels to be used.
Besides the direct use of hydrogen, another alterna-
tive is to run through subsequent reaction processes in
order to produce low carbon synthetic liquid fuels from
hydrogen, with a large variation of fuel specifications
possible from different process routes. These hydrogen-
based low carbon liquid fuels generated through renew-
able sources have been increasingly applied to speed up
the CO2 reduction in existing combustion engines for
long-distance vehicles and vessels. For example, both
methanol and ethanol can be produced from renewable
sources and used in ICE with zero life-cycle carbon
emissions. Other potential hydrogen-based alternative
fuels are polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether, short: OME
(POMDME) and paraffinic diesel fuel (PDF) – either
purely synthetic from Fischer-Tropsch processes or
derived from biogenic sources through hydrogenation
like HVO (hydrogenated vegetable oil). Due to its par-
affinic nature, PDF is free of aromatics, resulting in a
significantly reduced tendency to form soot compared
to conventional diesel fuel. OME fuels are usually pro-
duced from a reaction of methanol and formaldehyde
through a trioxane route.20
Storing hydrogen in hydrogen-dense liquid fuels also
has the added benefit of being compatible and synergic
Onorati et al.
with grid storage and the transportation of renewable
energy around the world, for example, production of
methanol from solar powerplants in one part of the
world and transporting it to another part of the world,
to meet renewable energy needs and mandates.
Therefore, new methods of storing and using hydrogen
in liquid fuels would provide the following two benefits
towards low and zero-carbon transport: (1) immediate
and wider use of hydrogen in existing engines and
(2) improved engine performance and lower emissions
of engines fed with a blend of synthetic fuel achieved
by better atomisation and faster combustion. An emer-
ging approach for storage of H2 is through the use of
gaseous bubbles in liquids. This approach has been
studied for applications in aquaculture, water treat-
ment and biomedical engineering. Bubbles have shown
to remain stable in liquid for months21 and have
extremely high internal gas density (30–340 kg/m3).22 It
has been reported that the concentration of hydrogen
bubbles in liquid can achieve up to ;2e13 bubbles/
m3.23 Their high stability, internal density and concen-
tration make it possible to store considerable amounts
of hydrogen in liquid fuels. The increase in the volume
ratio of dissolved hydrogen bubbles can further
increase the hydrogen storage capacity in liquid fuels.
Because of the 4x higher calorific value of hydrogen
(120 MJ/kg) compared to that of methanol (15.9 MJ/
kg) and gasoline (46 MJ/kg) for example, hydrogen fuel
blend will have a higher energy density compared to
the base liquid fuel, which makes it appealing for
improving the engine performance, and reducing CO2
pollutant emissions.
Developments in injection strategies
Most H2ICE prototypes use a Port Fuel Injection
(PFI) system, benefiting from a straightforward conver-
sion from existing gasoline engines.24,25 However, the
drawbacks of hydrogen PFI are also well known,
including pre-ignition, knocking, backfiring, low volu-
metric efficiency and compression loss problems. This
limits the engine’s achievable load and efficiency, so
engine brake thermal efficiencies up to 37% at medium
loads were reported.26 The negative impact on volu-
metric efficiency results in a decrease of the engine
power density, which can be mitigated by the use of a
turbocharging system, or by port injection of cryogenic
hydrogen at very low temperatures (around 90 K),27,28
with some drawbacks due to possible ice formation in
the intake pipe and the requirement of liquid hydrogen
stored on board.
Controlling backfire and surface ignition restricts
the injection timing as it should be set carefully, allow-
ing a suitable air-cooling period during the early stages
of the intake stroke and assuring that all the hydrogen
is inducted into the cylinder before the end of injection,
with no hydrogen in the intake manifold after the
intake valve closing. The valve timing is also restricted,
531
as negative valve overlaps are usually required to avoid
hot exhaust gases flowing towards the intake manifold.
The previous drawbacks are mitigated by switching
to a Direct Injection (DI) system. To avoid abnormal
combustion, injection, ignition, and mixture formation
are key factors. DI and dedicated injection strategies
that avoid hydrogen backflow towards the intake
manifold, are efficient levers to avoid backfire. The
potential of a DI system has already been demon-
strated by BMW in 2009.28 A hydrogen DI system with
up to 300 bar injection pressure has been integrated
and developed into an SI engine, achieving a maximum
efficiency of 42%. Recent work funded by the U.S.
Department of Energy in hydrogen DI29–35 obtained
thermal efficiency up to 45% at 2000 rpm and a high
load condition of 13.5 bar brake mean effective pres-
sure. Because of this, it seems highly probable that the
future of SI engines will rely on direct injection, so mid
to high pressure DI is very probably the key to success-
fully implement hydrogen combustion.
In Compression Ignition (CI) hydrogen engines
operating with mixing-controlled combustion systems
the high-pressure injection system is obviously manda-
tory, with minimum pressure levels almost doubled
compared to the maximum levels required in SI engines,
in the range of 600 bar. In fact, the lack of commercially
available injection systems is one of the key factors lim-
iting the expansion of hydrogen CI engines. Big players
are currently developing hydrogen DI systems for large
HD CI engines with application to the maritime trans-
port sector. The development and industrialisation of
these systems is critical for enabling the integration of
hydrogen as single fuel in CI engines.
Developments in combustion
Focusing on the combustion of hydrogen-air mixtures
in IC engines, it is important to highlight that H2, in
contrast to commonly used hydrocarbon fuels, exhibits
peculiar combustion properties due to its higher reac-
tivity and diffusivity, such as large flame speeds and
wide flammability limits, tendency of transition from
deflagration to detonation, short quench distances and
instabilities. Therefore, rather than making small
adjustments to existing designs, internal combustion
engines for H2 should be redesigned for this specific
application.
Hydrogen has several physical, chemical, and ther-
mal properties making it superior to conventional fuels,
but at the same time also challenging in practical appli-
cations. Since hydrogen emits zero carbonaceous emis-
sions, it is the ideal environmentally friendly ICE fuel
for the future. Moreover, the high flammability range
of H2 allows ultra-lean operation, enabling low engine-
out NOx emissions. Therefore, its usage reduces harm-
ful emissions into the environment. Also, because of
higher flame speed,36 higher auto-ignition temperature
and octane number (Table 1), the risk of knock is
532 International J of Engine Research 23(4)

Table 1. Main properties of gaseous hydrogen and the power developed by an engine running solely on a
gasoline.37,38 hydrogen-air mixture is expected to be lower than an
equivalently sized gasoline-fuelled engine. Therefore,
Hydrogen Gasoline
slight changes in design, such as higher compression
Formula H2 CnH1.87n ratio, are requested.39,40 However, to prevent the
Density (kg/m3) 0.09 @ 0°C, 1 bar 720–780 engine from knocking, the engine compression ratio
Energy content (MJ/kg) 120.0 44.0 should be optimised, proper mixture formation should
Energy content (MJ/l) 8 32.0 be achieved, and hydrogen-rich mixtures should not be
Octane number (RON) ø 120 92–98
Latent heat of 461 305 used,41–43 especially at high engine speeds.
vaporisation (kJ/kg) As already mentioned, one major problem with
Boiling point (°C) 2252.9@ 1 bar 27–225 hydrogen engines is the occurrence of backfire in richer
Flame speed (m/s) 1.85 0.37–0.43 fuel-air mixtures. This severely limits the performance
Lean equivalence ratio 0.1 0.6
of a hydrogen engine. Because of the relatively smaller
Ad. flame temp. 2380 2300
at 1 atm (K) flame quenching distance, hydrogen flames can propa-
Ad. flame temp. 2490 2405 gate through much smaller gaps than flames of other
at 100 atm (K) fuels. This increases the chances of engine backfire
Auto-ignition temp. (K) 858 550 because flames can propagate into the intake manifold
Stoichiometric A/F 34.3 14.8
ratio (by mass) via very small gaps between the intake valve and the
Quenching distance 0.64 2.84 valve seat, leading to an explosion of the mixture pres-
at stoich. (mm) ent in the intake manifold. One primary source of back-
Min. ignition energy (J) 2 3 1025 5.5 3 1024 fire in conventional hydrogen-fuelled engines is the
spark plug’s hot electrode surface, acting as an ignition
source for the hydrogen-air mixtures. In addition, the
effect of piston liner crevices, where hydrogen can be
reduced and the engine compression ratio can be conse-
stacked, is an issue especially for PFI engines.
quently increased, allowing a better thermal efficiency.
To overcome the challenges related to hydrogen
Some properties of gaseous hydrogen and gasoline
are given in Table 1 for comparison. It is evident that combustion in ICEs, several technological solutions
hydrogen has extremely wide flammability limits, with can be considered to benefit from the positive impacts
a lean limit equivalence ratio around 0.1 and a typical of hydrogen on engine performances, and to minimise
high laminar flame speed around four times that of the negative ones, as illustrated by Figure 1.
gasoline. First of all, to avoid abnormal combustion, injec-
Overall, several challenges need to be overcome, tion, ignition and mixture formation are key factors.
which are linked to the properties of hydrogen as a Direct injection and dedicated injection strategies
fuel.39 The first one is the prevention of abnormal com- which eliminate back-flow are efficient levers to avoid
bustion. The large flammability range and the low igni- back firing. Another way to control the abnormal com-
tion energy of hydrogen can cause pre-ignition due to bustion is the increase of air dilution. With the large
hot spots in the chamber, as well as backfiring in the flammability range of hydrogen, it is possible to run
intake in case of indirect injection engines. Abnormal the engine at very low Fuel-Air Equivalence Ratio.
combustion strongly affects efficiency and engine dur- This lean hydrogen combustion has the further advan-
ability. The second challenge is the efficiency. Some tage of drastically decreasing NOx emissions. Dilution
hydrogen properties like high laminar flame speed are with water injection or Exhaust Gas Recirculation
favourable. Others are disadvantageous, like low (EGR) is an additional lever to limit the occurrence of
quenching distance, contributing to increased wall ther- abnormal combustion, and to further reduce NOx
mal losses. The capacity to reach high thermal effi- emissions. On top of that, lean burn will reduce ther-
ciency also means optimum combustion phasing and mal losses. Due to hydrogen’s properties compared to
high theoretical efficiency. Both depends on the beha- those of gasoline, especially its high flame speed, low
viour of hydrogen regarding occurrence of abnormal quenching distance, low density leading to low injected
combustion and on the maximum in-cylinder capacity. pulse momentum, the required levels of flow turbulence
Moreover, high combustion speed tends to increase the could be lowered to reduce thermal losses, but might
rate of heat release and so the maximum temperature in impact the quality of the fuel air mixture. If abnormal
the chamber, with a negative effect on NOx production. combustion could be avoided, the compression ratio
In addition, as seen in Table 1, hydrogen has a much and so efficiency, would be further increased. The
lower energy per unit volume relative to gasoline. spark plug can play a role in the appearance of abnor-
Hence, the low volumetric energy density of hydrogen mal combustion, by being one of the hot spots in the
requires injection of a large volume of hydrogen in a cylinder. Finally, an optimised lean burn turbocharger
short time to reach high load. This results in a clear is required, and its up-sizing can help to reach the tar-
limitation for power density of the engine. In general, geted performances.
Onorati et al.
Figure 1. Technological assembly with respect to key challenges. Reproduction from Duffour et al.45
Today several research activities have started and
currently grow worldwide, to demonstrate the applic-
ability of hydrogen as a fuel of ICEs, with clear advan-
tages and high potential.
A single-cylinder engine with a displacement of
0.5 L, high compression ratio of 14, high and low tum-
ble air motion, central cold spark plug, direct injector44
has been set-up as a technological demonstrator and
described in Duffour et al.,45 with the aim of investigat-
ing the impact of these technological levers previously
described. Experimental and numerical results high-
lighted the potential of H2ICEs, with the possibility to
reach zero NOx emissions at part load with a high indi-
cated efficiency above 47%. Challenges of H2ICEs
have been pointed out, in particular the pre-ignition
control and the NOx emissions.
As an example, the engine tests have confirmed the
occurrence of pre-ignition. Figure 2 shows an operating
point at 2000 rpm mid load, at a fuel equivalence ratio
of 0.5. Pre-ignition starts to appear at about 150 Crank
Angle Degree (CAD) BTDC. To understand the cause
of this pre-ignition event, 3D CFD simulations were
carried out and compared to another setting of operat-
ing conditions without pre-ignition, also shown in
Figure 2. The results of the 3D CFD calculations show
that local rich mixture zones are witnessed near the
spark plug and near the exhaust valves in the case of
significant pre-ignition, while a better fuel homogeneity
is observed in the case without pre-ignition. This result
confirmed that the presence of local rich mixture near
hot spots is a very probable cause of pre-ignition.
However, some solutions exist to avoid abnormal
combustion, in particular pre-ignition: a suitable opti-
misation of the mixture preparation itself can be
achieved acting on injection parameters (SOI, injection
pressure) and internal aerodynamics. In addition, a
careful reduction of hot spots in the combustion cham-
ber can be obtained resorting to a cold sparkplug or
533
introducing piston cooling improvement and a dedi-
cated lubricant.
Because of their stronger aerodynamics and higher
turbulence kinetic energy, gasoline engine baselines are
well suited to reach high efficiency hydrogen combus-
tion. Nevertheless, a diesel engine baseline could also
be adapted for optimum hydrogen combustion system.
For both architectures, air fuel mixture quality is a key
focus area, not only for controlling the abnormal com-
bustions but also to reduce the NOx emissions. The
mixing process highlights a trade-off between multiple
phenomena: residence time, turbulence, interaction
between the hydrogen jet and the in-cylinder aerody-
namic field, injector design and positioning, injection
timing.
In this context, 3D CFD is a relevant tool for devel-
oping new hydrogen combustion systems or to adapt
existing ones. Rapidly increasing computational
resources further support this approach. This is
reflected in internal combustion engines, for example,
by the transition from URANS to LES.46 These simu-
lations rely on well-established numerical methodolo-
gies and physical modelling approaches that were
previously developed for hydrocarbon combustion.47
In particular, in the case of pure hydrogen as fuel,
although the kinetics of H2 combustion is mostly well
understood, some special challenges exist. In fact, this
diatomic, very light and fast diffusing gas features very
specific molecular transport properties, leading to large
flame velocities, wide ignition limits, and in conclusion
to massive differences in combustion properties and
related safety issues (explosions, detonations) com-
pared to hydrocarbons. Hence, the high diffusion rates
of hydrogen coupled with the ambient flow dynamics
change the internal structure of the reaction zone
(microstructure) and thus the local reaction rate. The
resulting heat release couples with the flow field and
influences the macroscopic flame and flow structures.
534 International J of Engine Research 23(4)

Figure 2. Impact of fuel distribution on occurrence of pre-ignition, 2000 rpm, mid load, lambda = 2. Reproduction from Duffour
et al.45

Figure 3. Thermo-diffusive instability in laminar spherically outwards propagating lean H2/air flame illustrated by a simulation fully
resolving transport and chemistry. From left to right. Left: (a) reaction zone visualisation by the hydroxyl radical highlighting cell
formation at 1 atm, (b) reaction zone visualisation by the hydroxyl radical highlighting cell formation at 5 atm, (c) zoom of the local
reaction zone at 5 atm and (d) zoom of the local air-to-fuel ratio at 5 atm. Figures adapted from Wen et al.48,49

One particularly prominent example for H2 combus-
tion is the so-called thermo-diffusive instability. This is
demonstrated in Figure 3 for a simulation of a lean pre-
mixed H2/air flame. Early on, cell formation occurs
along the reaction zone, made visible by the hydroxyl
radical (OH), which becomes increasingly strong as the
flame spreads outward, resulting in a highly wrinkled
flame structure. Figure 3(a) (1 atm) and (b) (5 atm)
clearly show a strong pressure influence. A more
detailed analysis of the local structure, see zoom in
Onorati et al.
Figure 4. Direct flame images and Hue-based flame division converted images at different mixture formation times. Figure adapted
from Lee et al.51
Figures 3(c) and (d), show that in areas of very high
negative curvature, that is, towards the burned gases,
there is a depletion of hydrogen and corresponding
increase in the air-to-fuel ratio. The flame propagates
more slowly, locally even extinction, that is, negligible
heat release, is observed. In the areas of positive curva-
ture there is an enrichment of hydrogen (reduced air-
to-fuel ratio), so that the flame propagates faster. This
thermo-diffusive instability is based on the higher diffu-
sion coefficient of light hydrogen compared to heat
(more than a factor of three). Further, this phenom-
enon becomes even more relevant with increasing pres-
sure, as shown above.
All of these phenomena must be considered in simu-
lations and looking in particular at turbulent combus-
tion, comprehensive models for engine conditions do
not yet exist. They cannot be devised simply as an
extension of the well-established and validated numeri-
cal methods that have been developed for hydrocarbon
combustion in recent decades.
A very promising combustion mode is based on
high-pressure direct injection (DI) of hydrogen with
stratified charge. In fact, stratified charge combustion
can be used to highly extend the lean limit, without
particulate emission generated by the ignition from a
highly rich-fuel mixture, which is the typical hurdle for
the stratified charge in classical GDI engines. In
535
general, hydrogen DI is fundamental to achieve a
highly efficient engine operation. The investigation of a
high-pressure hydrogen jet is required by means of both
experimental optical diagnostics and numerical CFD
modelling. Some preliminary research on the evolution
of a hollow-cone-shaped hydrogen jet is described in
Lee et al.50,51 and Roy et al.52 The formation of hydro-
gen mixture fraction by laser-induced breakdown spec-
troscopy is described in Roy et al.52 It was observed
that hydrogen rich-combustion emits a visible range of
wavelengths, as shown in Lee et al.,51Shudo and Oba53
and Schefer et al.54 and presented in Figure 4.
The combustion behaviour is strongly dependent on
the mixture formation time and heat loss is the domi-
nant factor for the indicated thermal efficiency, as
shown in Lee et al.55 In this work, although a highly
diluted in-cylinder mixture was formed (lambda ;2.5),
NOx was generated by the combustion of a locally
rich-fuel mixture. Therefore, lean boosting or EGR
should be equipped to approach the zero-emission
vehicles.
Another useful technology for advanced hydrogen
spark ignition engines is represented by laser ignition.
It employs a pulsating laser beam passing through an
appropriate optical arrangement, to focus it tightly on
a small spot and generate high energy intensity, where
plasma formation occurs. Adequate energy density
536
leads to the formation of plasma-based ignition, fol-
lowed by shock waves, leading to flame kernel evolu-
tion and propagation in the combustible mixture.24
Of all these processes, the ignition delay and the
flame kernel development affect the combustion dura-
tion significantly. The ignition begins leading to plasma
formation. The high temperature and high pressure
generated by plasma formation develops a shock wave
that guides the flame kernel evolution.
Laser ignition is an electrode-less ignition; therefore,
chances of surface ignition, pre-ignition and backfire
decrease significantly in the case of the hydrogen-
fuelled engine. Plasma position and location inside the
combustion chamber can also be adjusted using the
laser ignition technique, which can shorten the combus-
tion duration.56
There is also a possibility of stretching the ignition
limit to burn relatively leaner fuel-air mixtures, which a
conventional spark plug ignition system cannot ignite.57
Igniting leaner mixture leads to lower in-cylinder tem-
peratures, resulting in lower NOx formation. A laser
ignition system can achieve precise ignition timings,
and shows excellent potential of laser ignition in hydro-
gen fueled engines.
Developments in turbocharging
For H2 IC engines the power output compared to a
conventional gasoline engine is significantly lower,
especially for port fuel injection (PFI) type hydrogen
engines. This is mainly due to the low density of hydro-
gen (15% lower than gasoline at stoichiometric condi-
tions) which reduces volumetric efficiency.58 In
addition, H2ICEs operating at lean to very lean levels
bring operating and performance challenges, requiring
either increased displacement or increased levels of
forced induction, since more air mass flow is required
to compensate for the power deficit and for lean com-
bustion. One of the effective ways to supply such a
high air mass flow is to introduce a turbocharging sys-
tem in order to achieve comparable power to current
state-of-the-art gasoline engines. A turbocharging sys-
tem can improve the power output by pushing more
air into the combustion chamber; however, incorrect
matching results in lower levels of power output com-
pared to what can be achieved from a careful H2ICE-
turbocharger system match.59
Compared to stoichiometric gasoline ICEs, the air
consumption level of a lean H2 engine is expected to be
about 50% higher. To supply such a high mass flow, it
is expected that high boost pressure is necessary in the
H2ICE application. In the case of PFI H2ICE, it has
been shown that in addition to 50% higher mass flow,
a 90% higher boost pressure compared to the turbo-
charged gasoline engine is required. This in turn means
that a single-stage charging system is not able to supply
the required boost and mass flow over the wide range
of operation required. Instead, a two-stage boosting
International J of Engine Research 23(4)
system with Variable Geometry Turbocharger60 is man-
datory. The boost and mass flow demand are mainly
influenced by the operational lambda (l) and target
performance which should be considered carefully
when designing the boosting system for the PFI SI type
H2ICE. Curiously, even though the hydrogen engine
exhibits low exhaust enthalpy with lower exhaust tem-
perature, nevertheless, the total mass flow is increased
by lean mixture operation. Hence, the amount of the
available energy at the turbine would be similar or
higher under the same power output.
Moreover, it has been observed that by boosting the
engine with a supercharger, a lower pumping loss and
higher indicated mean effective pressure can be
obtained, when compared to turbocharger boosted
engines under low-load conditions.60,61 However, a sin-
gle stage is unlikely to produce the required boost pres-
sure, twin-charger combinations are suggested in order
to achieve beyond Euro VI type certifications (and its
equivalents around the world).
Of course, challenges for turbocharging can be
improved by combining hydrogen-diesel in conven-
tional (commercial) engines with hydrogen being port-
fuel injected at the expense of a more conventional
and, therefore, larger carbon footprint compared to
pure H2ICEs. Even for such configurations, a Variable
Geometry Turbocharger for the provision of higher
boost pressure during the engine run has been deemed
necessary according to Taghavifar.62
The two other main requirements from an H2ICE
system are NOx reduction (since other emissions are
largely suppressed or non-existent in an H2ICE) and
combustion stability. For NOx, the previously men-
tioned study by Nguyen et al. (2020) showed that at an
optimisation point of air excess ratio between 1.4 and
1.8, NOx emissions were lower than that of an equiva-
lent turbocharged engine.61 With respect to combustion
stability, there is a clear correlation between boost pres-
sure increase (up to 40 kPa in this case) and a Coefficient
of Variation of IMEP (COVIMEP) reduction of more
than 15%. This shows that the relatively more stable in-
cylinder combustion conditions support the increase in
engine power.63 The same authors indicated that an
increase in NOx emissions with increasing boost pressure
is detrimental to the environmental-economic indicators
of the H2ICE. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out a
careful selection of engine tuning parameters (combus-
tion duration, start of injection, valve timing, possible
inclusion of water injection etc), to achieve the targeted
engine performance and NOx mitigation, depending on
individual engine classification and type. Finally, a dedi-
cated after-treatment system is the key technology to
reach the requested zero-impact NOx emissions.
Engine-out emissions and after-treatment
systems
One critical issue with H2 combustion in IC engines is
certainly the generation of NOx pollutant emissions
Onorati et al.
due to stoichiometric/lean combustion. NOx must be
removed from the exhaust gas by an efficient catalytic
conversion process in a dedicated after-treatment sys-
tem, to guarantee zero-impact emissions.
One possibility could be to exploit an SCR after-
treatment system based on the injection of urea
(CO(NH2)2) to produce ammonia (NH3). The draw-
back would be the production of CO2 emissions as a
side product of the urea conversion reaction, which is
clearly unwanted, since the H2 engine should not pro-
duce any CO2, of course. As an alternative, it is possible
to directly use H2 as reducing agent to convert NOx to
N2 and H2O. In this case, selective catalytic reduction
can be achieved on active catalytic substrates loaded
with Pt and supported by g-Al2O3, SiO2, TiO2, which
have been demonstrated to be suitable in the low tem-
perature range, typical of hydrogen-fuelled engines run-
ning in lean/stoichiometric conditions.64–67 Moreover,
in the literature there are some examples of the combi-
nation of different catalysts, in particular Pt and Pd
based catalysts supported on CeO2 and MgO,65 which
provide a good solution for the whole 100–400°C tem-
perature range.
The presence of high concentration of water vapour
in the exhaust gas can result in a reduction of the cata-
lytic activity, due to competitive adsorption of H2, O2,
NO and H2O on the active surface, which can also lead
to an increase of N2O production, which is obviously a
drawback.
However, in some cases, the addition of water
vapour can lead to a positive effect on the catalytic
reactions in terms of NO conversion, for example with
a Pt/Mg-Ce-O catalyst in the low 100-200°C range; the
N2 selectivity appears to be only affected at tempera-
tures higher than 200°C.64–66
Generally, a higher hydrogen concentration in the
exhaust gas results in an increase of both catalyst activity
and N2 selectivity. On the other hand, this high H2 con-
centration could favour the NH3 production mechanism,
so that N2 selectivity is reduced.64 In other papers66,67 it
is remarked that also a dependency on temperature has
to be considered, when looking at the concentration of
H2 in the feed gas. In fact, in the 170°C–220°C range, the
high conversion of NO resulting from a higher H2 con-
centration, is accompanied by a significant ammonia for-
mation. In addition, a higher hydrogen concentration in
the gas leads to high water production.
Oxygen concentration largely influences the reduc-
tion of NOx; in particular, if oxygen concentration is
reduced, NO conversion increases. Moreover, the
reduction of NO starts at lower temperature and the
conversion remains high for a broader range, even at
temperatures above 200°C. In contrast with this benefit,
if less oxygen is present in the feed, the selectivity of N2
reduces and a promotion of side reactions is observed.66
As suggested in Liu et al.,67 new catalyst based on tran-
sition metals added to the noble ones to form alloys or
other new structures should be investigated in order to
reduce the cost and to improve the catalytic performances.
537
Final remarks
The transition towards a sustainable, secure and equally
accessible energy system requires a radical transforma-
tion of the mobility system including road as well as
industrial and off-road, naval and aeronautical trans-
portation sectors.
Considering the trend of mitigating climate change
worldwide, the contribution of a widespread, reliable
and affordable propulsion technology like the IC engine
can be significant, once a renewable fuel is used as
replacement of typical fossil fuels. Hydrogen and
hydrogen-dense liquid fuels can play a relevant role in
this sense, allowing zero CO2 emissions and zero-impact
pollutant emissions from IC engine powertrains.
The main issues are related to the availability and
production of H2 and its safe storage at the point of
use. These factors involve economic considerations that
must be balanced against the costs to society, associ-
ated with the potential reduction of carbon emissions
from existing hydrocarbon fuels.
As a matter of fact, hydrogen represents a promising
energy carrier to store renewable electric energy when
available in excess during peak production, due to the
typical intermittent character of renewable wind and
photovoltaic energy plants.
The H2 fuelled IC engine is a viable alternative to rely
on the thermal powertrain without producing any tank-
to-wheel CO2 emissions at the tailpipe. Moreover,
H2ICEs can be fuelled with non-purified hydrogen,
resulting in significantly lower production cost of hydro-
gen fuel. High boost pressures, direct injection, advanced
combustion modes, deployment of laser ignition, and
dedicated after-treatment SCR systems will guarantee a
competitive, high efficiency propulsion technology.
Considering the possible developments of the next gener-
ation of H2ICE, the resulting thermodynamic efficiency
will be similar to that of a modern Fuel Cell powertrain.
Overall, the H2 (and H2-dense fuel) IC engines will
provide a reliable, durable and cost-efficient solution
based on a well-known existing technology, contribut-
ing to a fast transition towards carbon-free mobility.
The low total cost of ownership, especially in the field
of heavy-duty applications, as well as its negligible
dependence on low available and expensive materials
such as rare earth metals, make this solution appealing
and convenient in some application fields.
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Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Payri, R
CMT Motores Termicos,
Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain
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CNR-Institute of Sciences and
Technologies for Sustainable
Energy and Mobility, Italy
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Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur,
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Korea Advanced Institute of
Science and Technology, Daejeon
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IFP Energies Nouvelles, France
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Canakci, M Novella, R
Kocaeli University, Turkey CMT Motores Termicos,
Gavaises, M Universitat Politècnica de València,
City University of London, England, UK Spain
Günthner, M Pesyridis, A
University of Kaiserslautern, Germany Metapower, UK
Hasse, C Reitz, R
Technische Universität (TU) University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
Darmstadt, Germany Ryan, T
Kokjohn, S Southwest Research Institute, USA
University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Wagner, R
Kong, S-C Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Texas Tech University, USA Knoxville, USA
Moriyoshi, Y Zhao, H
Chiba University, Japan Brunel University, London, UK