Article
Life-Cycle CO2-Equivalent Emissions of Cars Driven by
Conventional and Electric Propulsion Systems
Mario Hirz * and Thu Trang Nguyen






Citation: Hirz, M.; Nguyen, T.T.
Life-Cycle CO2 -Equivalent Emissions
of Cars Driven by Conventional and
Electric Propulsion Systems. World
Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61. https://
doi.org/10.3390/wevj13040061
Academic Editor: Michael Fowler
Received: 10 February 2022
Accepted: 23 March 2022
Published: 31 March 2022
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13040061
Institute of Automotive Engineering, Graz University of Technology, 8010 Graz, Austria; t.nguyen@tugraz.at
* Correspondence: mario.hirz@tugraz.at
Abstract: As an important trend in the automotive industry, electrification of propulsion systems
has potential to significantly reduce greenhouse-gas emissions of the transportation sector. Whereas
electric vehicles do not produce exhaust emissions during driving, the impact of electricity provision
for charging batteries, as well as the impact of vehicle production play an essential role in a holistic
consideration of the carbon footprint. The paper introduces a comprehensive evaluation of green-
house gas-emission-related factors of cars driven by different propulsion technologies, considering
the entire product life cycle. This comprises vehicle production, including battery system, electric
powertrain and other relevant components, the car’s use phase under consideration of different
electricity mixes and the end-of-life phase. The results of the study give insights of influencing factors
on life-cycle-related carbon-dioxide-equivalent emissions of cars driven by combustion engines,
hybrid powertrains and battery-electric propulsion systems. In addition, a comparison of actual
mass-production cars is made and the total life-cycle carbon footprints are discussed under different
boundary conditions of electric power supply. In this way, the article comprehensively introduces an
automotive life-cycle assessment and provides fundamental information, contributing to an objective
discussion of different propulsion technologies.
Keywords: greenhouse-gas emissions; life-cycle assessment; battery system; electric propulsion;
hybrid powertrain; combustion engine; production technology; technology evaluation
1. Introduction
A comprehensive evaluation of products, systems and technologies under considera-
tion of their entire life-cycle behavior is becoming increasingly important today. Especially
in the automotive industry, the electrification of propulsion systems has been intensively
discussed, and important decisions have to be made by governmental institutions, car man-
ufacturers and in the supplier industry. The methodology of life-cycle assessment (LCA)
provides a powerful tool for the holistic and objective evaluation of different technologies,
and consequently delivers relevant information for decision-making processes.
In this context, the present article investigates CO2 -equivalent emissions as one rel-
evant representative of greenhouse-gas impacts of cars driven by different propulsion
technologies, including internal-combustion-engine vehicles (ICEV), hybrid vehicles (HEV)
and battery-electric vehicles (BEV). Targets of the investigations include an introduction
to standardized life-cycle-assessment processes in the automotive industry and a discus-
sion of influencing factors and boundary conditions. In addition, the influences of main
modules and materials on CO2 equivalents are elaborated and debated for cars driven by
the three different propulsion technologies. Finally, the methodology of LCA is applied
onto actual mass-production cars with different powertrain systems, and their carbon
footprints of both production and use phases are evaluated, compared and discussed. In
this way, the article summarizes the state of the art of automotive life-cycle assessment
and reflects the impacts of different propulsion technologies. Additionally, CO2 -equivalent
emissions-related characteristics of selected mass-production cars are elaborated in detail
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj
 equivalent emissions-related characteristics of selected mass-production cars are elabo-
rated in detail and carbon-footprint-related factors of different powertrain technologies
areJ.highlighted
World Electr. Veh. 2022, 13, 61 and discussed. 2 of 21
The article focusses on aspects that are relevant for LCA-based evaluation and dis-
cussion. In this context, nontargets of the publication include a detailed description of
propulsion- and and vehicle technologies. In addition,
carbon-footprint-related the work
factors of different focuses technologies
powertrain on technologies,
are highlighted
which are availableandin the market on relevant mass-production scale to date. In this way,
discussed.
The article
hydrogen fuel-cell electric focusses
vehicles (FCEV)on aspects that are fuels
and synthetic relevant
arefor
notLCA-based
considered. evaluation
Biofu- and dis-
cussion. In this context, nontargets of the publication include
els, as they are used in some countries, e.g., Brazil, are also not considered in the present a detailed description of
propulsion- and vehicle technologies. In addition, the work
work, because of their limited relevance from the perspective of the worldwide market. focuses on technologies, which
are available in the market on relevant mass-production scale to date. In this way, hydrogen
The applied research methodology is based on standardized LCA processes [1,2] and
fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEV) and synthetic fuels are not considered. Biofuels, as they
makes use of existing databases
are used and procedures
in some countries, [3–5].
e.g., Brazil, are The
also research design
not considered includes
in the presentliter-
work, because
ature study and representation of LCA-based
of their limited relevance from the impacts for the
perspective discussion
of the worldwide of market.
general char-
acteristics of cars driven
The by different
applied propulsion
research technologies
methodology is based (Section 3), and the
on standardized LCAactual
processes [1,2]
application of LCA andfor the use
makes evaluation and
of existing discussion
databases of selected[3–5].
and procedures mass-production cars includes
The research design
literature study and representation
with different powertrain technologies (Section 4). of LCA-based impacts for the discussion of general
characteristics of cars driven by different propulsion technologies (Section 3), and the actual
applicationinofthe
2. Life-Cycle Assessment LCA for the evaluation
Automotive and discussion of selected mass-production cars with
Industry
different powertrain technologies (Section 4).
Life-cycle assessment is a standardized procedure that can be applied to evaluate
products under consideration of their entire
2. Life-Cycle Assessment in thelife cycle, including
Automotive Industryproduction, use phase
and end-of-life phase.Life-cycle
A holistic application
assessment is a of LCA represents
standardized procedurea complex
that can task that re-
be applied to evaluate
quires high effortproducts
and detailed investigations
under consideration of of theentire
their different sections
life cycle, in a production,
including life cycle. This
use phase and
end-of-life
includes raw-material phase. manufacturing
extraction, A holistic application of LCA represents
and assembling a complex
processes task that requires
as sequences
high effort
of production, aspects andproduct’s
of the detailed investigations of the different
usage and service efforts, sections
as well in
asadismantling,
life cycle. This includes
recycling and disposal in the final life-cycle phase. In the automotive industry, sequences
raw-material extraction, manufacturing and assembling processes as standard-of produc-
tion, aspects of the product’s usage and service efforts, as well as dismantling, recycling
ized LCA processes are typically conducted according to the ISO 14040 and the ISO 14044
and disposal in the final life-cycle phase. In the automotive industry, standardized LCA
[1,2]. In this way,processes
the procedure of an LCA
are typically is classified
conducted intotothe
according thefollowing
ISO 14040four main
and the ISOsteps:
14044 [1,2]. In
Goal and scope definition, Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation. Figure
this way, the procedure of an LCA is classified into the following four main steps: 1 Goal and
shows the main phases of LCAInventory
scope definition, and points to factors
analysis, Impactthat are relevant
assessment for the assessment
and Interpretation. Figure 1 shows the
of automotive product life cycles.
main phases of LCA and points to factors that are relevant for the assessment of automotive
product life cycles.

Figure 1. General procedure of an automotive

Figure 1. General procedure ofLCA.
an automotive LCA.

For conducting
For conducting LCA of complex LCA of complex
products, as isproducts,
the caseasinisthe
theautomotive
case in the automotive
industry, industry,
a comprehensive definition of boundary conditions, considered
a comprehensive definition of boundary conditions, considered factors and limitations factors and limitations
plays an important role, because these aspects influence the outcomes significantly. In
plays an important role, because these aspects influence the outcomes significantly. In ad-
addition, types and specifications of resulting parameters have to be defined carefully. Due
dition, types and specifications of resulting parameters have to be defined carefully. Due
to the broad applicability of LCA, different kinds of environmental or economic impacts
to the broad applicability of LCA, different
can be represented, e.g., globalkinds of environmental
warming or depletion,
potential, resource economictoxication
impacts potential,
can be represented, e.g., global warming potential, resource depletion, toxication
energy consumption. Due to the high importance of global warming today, poten-the impact
tial, energy consumption. Due to the
of greenhouse-gas high importance
emissions of global
is often taken warming today,
into consideration, thethe
e.g., in impact
form of carbon-
h. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21

of greenhouse-gas emissions is often taken into consideration, e.g., in the form of carbon-
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61 3 of 21
dioxide (CO2)-equivalent emissions. In this case, a broad range of influencing parameters
is converted under consideration of their impact on global warming and represented in
form of the corresponding CO2 equivalents’ factors. This approach has become very pop-
dioxide (CO2 )-equivalent emissions. In this case, a broad range of influencing parameters is
ular in the past years because
converted underitconsideration
delivers oneof keytheirperformance
impact on global indicator,
warmingwhich can be in form
and represented
used for evaluation and discussion of different technologies. As a weakness, the
of the corresponding CO2 equivalents’ factors. This approach has become very popular reduction
in data does not sufficiently allowbecause
in the past years consideration of all
it delivers onethe keydifferent
performancefactors that might
indicator, have
which can be used
an impact on a holistic LCA. Therefore,
for evaluation it is important
and discussion of different to technologies.
clearly specify Asthe system bound-
a weakness, the reduction in
data
aries as well as the does not sufficiently
assumptions allow consideration
and simplifications that have of allbeen
the different
made and factors that might
to point out have an
impact
all influences, which on a holistic
cannot LCA. Therefore,
be represented by the itCOis 2important
equivalents,to clearly specify
e.g., land theresource
use, system boundaries
as well as the assumptions and simplifications that have been made and to point out all
demand, environmental pollution, energy storage and system efficiency.
influences, which cannot be represented by the CO2 equivalents, e.g., land use, resource
In the present publication, the greenhouse-gas-emission impacts of cars driven by
demand, environmental pollution, energy storage and system efficiency.
different propulsion systems are evaluated
In the present publication,andthediscussed based on comprehensive
greenhouse-gas-emission impacts ofLCA, cars driven by
including combustion engines,
different hybrid
propulsion powertrains
systems and battery-electric
are evaluated and discussed based cars.onThe equiva-
comprehensive LCA,
lent CO2 emissions are taken
including under consideration
combustion engines, hybrid aspowertrains
a key indicator, and other influencing
and battery-electric cars. The equivalent
parameters are alsoCO2considered
emissions areto enable a holistic
taken under discussion
consideration as of the indicator,
a key technologies. Figure
and other influencing
2 shows an overviewparameters
of the are alsophases
main considered
of a to enable
car’s a holistic
product lifediscussion of the technologies.
cycle: materials production, Figure 2
showscar
vehicle manufacturing, anusage,
overview of the main
end-of-life phase.phases of a car’sthe
In addition, product life cycle:
relevance materials
of energy andproduction,
vehicle manufacturing, car usage, end-of-life phase. In addition,
natural resources as well as a potential backflow of materials and energy from recycling the relevance of energy and
natural resources as well as a potential backflow of materials and energy from recycling and
and recovering are indicated.
recovering are indicated.

Figure 2. Main phases and influencing factors of a CO2 equivalent-emissions-focused automotive LCA.
Figure 2. Main phases and influencing factors of a CO2 equivalent-emissions-focused automotive
LCA. 2.1. Aspects of Energy Provision and Natural Resources
The provision of energy and natural resources has an important impact on life-cycle
2.1. Aspects of Energy Provision
behavior. This and Natural
includes Resources
the electric and chemical energy that is required in all sections of
The provision theoflife
energy
cycle, and natural
as well as air,resources
water andhas an important
of course resourcesimpact on life-cycle
for materials production and
vehicle manufacturing. In this way, impacts of raw-material
behavior. This includes the electric and chemical energy that is required in all sections sourcing and processing
of are
explicitly investigated and material-related aspects are also
the life cycle, as well as air, water and of course resources for materials production and considered in the sections of
vehicle manufacturing, car usage and end of life. In the case of recycling, a certain share of
vehicle manufacturing. In this way, impacts of raw-material sourcing and processing are
materials can be extracted and returned to the previous sections of the vehicle life cycle to
explicitly investigated and material-related aspects are also considered in the sections of
reduce the total carbon-equivalent impact.
vehicle manufacturing, car usage
Besides and end of of
the consideration life. In the
natural case of recycling,
resources, a certain
special attention share
has to be put on the
of materials can be extracted and returned to the previous sections of the vehicle life cycle
provision of energy, which influences all four sections of the life cycle. Specifically, the
to reduce the total carbon-equivalent
provision of energy for impact.
material extraction and processing as well as vehicle manufacturing
Besides the consideration
has a considerableof natural
impact resources, special
on the one-time attention
cost factor ofhas
COto be put on emissions.
2 -equivalent the In
addition, the energy effort for conducting processes of the end-of-life
provision of energy, which influences all four sections of the life cycle. Specifically, the section have to be
provision of energytaken
forinto account.
material In theseand
extraction industrial processes,
processing energy
as well is supplied
as vehicle in different ways,
manufactur-
e.g., in form of heat, fluidic and of course electric energy. Processing heat is important for
ing has a considerable impact on the one-time cost factor of CO2-equivalent emissions. In
addition, the energy effort for conducting processes of the end-of-life section have to be
taken into account. In these industrial processes, energy is supplied in different ways, e.g.,
 in form of heat, fluidic and of course electric energy. Processing heat is important for ma-
terials production, e.g., steel, and is typically provided by a combination of chemical en-
World Electr. ergy carriers
Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61(e.g., natural gas) and electric energy. 4 of 21
Electric energy is required in a multifarious way throughout the sections of the prod-
uct life cycle. In this way, the CO2-equivalent impact of electricity provision is of high
relevance for LCAmaterials considerations.
production, It has to steel,
e.g., be considered that the
and is typically four main
provided by a phases of theof chemical
combination
life cycle of a car energy might carriers (e.g., natural
be conducted withgas) and electric
different energy.conditions of ecological
boundary
impacts and energy provision Electric energy is required
in different in a multifarious
countries around the wayworld.
throughout
Thisthe sectionsthe
includes of the product
life cycle. In this
use of land resources, environmental pollution way, the CO 2 -equivalent
and electricity supply. In this context, a relevance
impact of electricity provision is of high
for LCA considerations. It has to be considered that the four main phases of the life cycle
comprehensive LCA considers the different factors that are valid in the specific regions
of a car might be conducted with different boundary conditions of ecological impacts and
where the corresponding processes
energy provision in take place.
different As an example,
countries around thethe resulting
world. CO2 equiva-
This includes the use of land
lent factors for theresources,
production of steel might
environmental be different
pollution in selected
and electricity supply.Asian
In thisand European
context, a comprehensive
regions, because of LCAtheconsiders
significantly differentfactors
the different carbon footprint
that are validofinelectricity
the specificprovision.
regions where the corre-
Figure 3 shows average
sponding valuestake
processes of carbon
place. As footprints
an example, of selected technologies
the resulting CO2 equivalentof elec-
factors for the
tricity production.production
So-called of steel might technologies”
“renewable be different in selected
have a Asian and European
significantly lower regions,
impact because of
because they do not theuse
significantly
fossil-baseddifferent carbonThe
resources. footprint of electricity provision.
large greenhouse-gas-emission output
Figure 3 shows average values
of fossil-based technologies is based on the conversion of hydrocarbons of carbon footprints of selected technologies
that release CO2 of elec-
tricity production. So-called “renewable technologies” have a significantly lower impact
emissions. A special case represents nuclear energy, because the CO2 emissions are very
because they do not use fossil-based resources. The large greenhouse-gas-emission output
low. However, there are other aspects
of fossil-based to be is
technologies considered,
based on the e.g., efforts for
conversion operation and
of hydrocarbons nu-release CO
that 2
clear-waste management, as well as risks of nuclear contamination. The diagram
emissions. A special case represents nuclear energy, because the CO2 emissions are very low. repre-
sents a holistic LCA-basedHowever, viewthere ofarethe different
other aspects technologies,
to be considered, including construction,
e.g., efforts for operation ser-
and nuclear-
vice and maintenance wasteofmanagement,
power plants, as as well
well as theofimpact
as risks nuclearofcontamination.
electricity production.
The diagram This represents a
is the reason why certain CO2-equivalent emissions are also indicated for the renewableservice and
holistic LCA-based view of the different technologies, including construction,
sources. For nuclear maintenance
energy, the ofefforts
power for plants, as well as the
construction, impact
service andof maintenance
electricity production.
are con- This is the
sidered, but not for reason why certaindeposition
nuclear-waste CO2 -equivalent emissions
and risks are also indicated
of potential for the renewable sources.
nuclear accidents.
For nuclear energy, the efforts for construction, service and maintenance are considered,
but not for nuclear-waste deposition and risks of potential nuclear accidents.

Figure 3. CO2-equivalent-emission impacts of selected

Figure 3. CO2 -equivalent-emission technologies
impacts of selectedof electric power
technologies generation
of electric [6–
power generation [6–9].
9].
Figure 4 shows the average life-cycle-based CO2 -equivalent emissions of electricity
production
Figure 4 shows the average in selected countries. CO
life-cycle-based The2-equivalent
values consider the different
emissions shares of applied
of electricity
production in selected countries. The values consider the different shares of applied tech- mix”. A
technologies for the production of electric energy—the so-called “electricity
separation of regions within the countries is not shown here, but should also be considered
nologies for the production of electric energy—the so-called “electricity mix”. A separa-
in a detailed LCA. As an example, some manufacturers use dedicated energy sources
tion of regions within the countries is not shown here, but should also be considered in a
with low CO2 impact for vehicle manufacturing, e.g., [10], with the target of reducing the
detailed LCA. As an example, some manufacturers
manufacturing-related use dedicated
carbon footprint energy sources
of their products. withFigures
In any case, low 3 and 4
CO2 impact for vehicle manufacturing, e.g., [10], with the target of reducing the manufac-
indicate the importance of electric-energy provision for an objective and comprehensive
turing-related carbon
LCAfootprint
evaluation. ofThis
theirincludes
products. In any case,
the production ofFigures
cars, but3also
andthe4 indicate
use phase, theespecially in
importance of electric-energy provisionvehicles.
case of battery-electric for an objective and comprehensive LCA evalua-
tion. This includes the production of cars, but also the use phase, especially in case of
battery-electric vehicles.
h. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61 5 of 21

Figure 4. CO2-equivalent-emission intensity of electricity

Figure 4. CO2 -equivalent-emission production
intensity of electricityinproduction
selected countries [7–9,11– [7–9,11–13].
in selected countries
13].
2.2. Aspects of Materials Production and Vehicle Manufacturing
2.2. Aspects of MaterialsVehicle production
Production includes
and Vehicle the sections of materials provision and vehicle manufac-
Manufacturing
turing. The carbon footprint of car production is significantly influenced by vehicle type
Vehicle production includes the sections of materials provision and vehicle manufac-
and size, powertrain technology as well as the vehicle’s configuration and equipment. In
turing. The carbonaddition,
footprint of car production
technologies of material is sourcing
significantly influenced
and vehicle by vehicleastype
manufacturing well as related
and size, powertrain technology
processes of energy as well as the
provision arevehicle’s configuration
to be considered. In this and
way,equipment. In e.g., by
published results,
addition, technologies of material sourcing and vehicle manufacturing as well as
car manufacturers, suppliers and scientific institutions, may show certain dissimilarities of related
processes of energy provisionresults
LCA-based are to[14–18].
be considered.
Due to the Inlarge
this way,
number published results,
of influencing e.g., by and their
parameters
car manufacturers, suppliers and scientific institutions, may show certain dissimilarities including
wide range of variation, the following diagrams represent averaged numbers
of LCA-based resultsranges of extension
[14–18]. Due toofthe thelarge
corresponding
number offactors. The diagrams
influencing parameters are based on information
and their
wide range of variation, the following diagrams represent averaged numbers including with own
from above-mentioned literature sources, which are enhanced and combined
computations; see also Section 4.
ranges of extension of the corresponding factors. The diagrams are based on information
In Figure 5, a comparison of relative CO2 -equivalent emissions of vehicle production
from above-mentionedis shown literature
for ICEV, sources,
HEV and which
BEV.areThisenhanced and combined
diagram displays general with
meanown characteristics
computations; seeand alsodoes
Section 4.
not relate to a specific car. In this way, it can be applied for comparison of
In Figure 5, acars
comparison of relative
with different CO2-equivalent
powertrain systems within emissions
similarofvehicle
vehiclecharacteristics,
production e.g., car
is shown for ICEV,typeHEV andand BEV.
size, This diagram
performance anddisplays
equipment. general
The mean
diagram characteristics
shows that the andproduction
of battery-electric cars has about a 50–100% higher carbon
does not relate to a specific car. In this way, it can be applied for comparison of cars with footprint than those of cars
driven by conventional powertrains, which is mainly based
different powertrain systems within similar vehicle characteristics, e.g., car type and size, on the battery system. In this
performance and representation,
equipment. The manufacturing
diagram shows effortsthat
of charging units and of
the production thermal management systems
battery-electric
are assigned to the carbon impact of the battery. The electric powertrain, comprising
cars has about a 50–100% higher carbon footprint than those of cars driven by conven-
inverter, electric motor and transmission, shows a moderately lower carbon footprint than
tional powertrains, thewhich is mainly based onpowertrain,
combustion-engine-based the battery system.the
including Incooling
this representation,
system and transmission.
manufacturing efforts
Taking ICEV as a basis with 100%, the carbon footprint of BEV are
of charging units and thermal management systems variesassigned
in a considerable
to the carbon impact of the
range, battery. by
as indicated Thetheelectric
verticalpowertrain,
double arrow. comprising
This is based inverter,
on the electric
range of technical
motor and transmission,
parametersshows andatheir
moderately
influences lower
on CO carbon footprint
2 equivalents, than
e.g., the combustion-
battery size and manufacturing
technologies
engine-based powertrain, as well the
including as the applied
cooling electricity
system andmixes.
transmission. Taking ICEV as
a basis with 100%, the A general
carbon evaluation
footprint of hybrid
of BEV variescars
inisa challenging
considerable because
range,ofastheir wide variation of
indicated
electrification, see Section 3.2. Nevertheless, the diagram
by the vertical double arrow. This is based on the range of technical parameters and their indicates an averaged behavior un-
der consideration of the technology range. In typical hybrid cars, the combustion engine is
influences on CO2 equivalents, e.g., battery size and manufacturing technologies as well
smaller than in conventionally driven cars of similar performance classes, which is indicated
as the applied electricity mixes.
in a moderately reduced CO2 -equivalent emissions footprint of the ICE power train. On top
A general evaluation of hybrid
come the electric powercars
trainisand
challenging
the batterybecause of their
system, leading towide variation
an increase in theofproduction-
electrification, seerelated
Section 3.2. Nevertheless, the diagram indicates an averaged
carbon footprint of hybrid cars in the range of nearly zero for mild hybrids, aboutbehavior
under consideration plusof25%thefortechnology
full hybrids range.
and up In typical
to 50% plushybrid cars,
for plug-in the cars.
hybrid combustion en-
gine is smaller than in Considering
conventionally comparable
driventechnologies
cars of similar of bodywork,
performance chassis, exterior
classes, and interior
which is mod-
ules, the CO -equivalent-emission impacts of the
indicated in a moderately reduced CO2-equivalent emissions footprint of the ICE power
2 compared vehicles without powertrains
train. On top come the electric power train and the battery system, leading to an increase in
the production-related carbon footprint of hybrid cars in the range of nearly zero for mild
hybrids, about plus 25% for full hybrids and up to 50% plus for plug-in hybrid cars.
Considering comparable technologies of bodywork, chassis, exterior and interior
modules, the CO2-equivalent-emission impacts of the compared vehicles without
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61 6 of 21

powertrains
are are asimilar,
similar, with slightlywith
lowera slightly
impact lower impact
of the BEV of theof
because BEVthebecause of the
integration of integration
the battery
of the battery system
system into the bodywork.into the bodywork.

Figure 5. CO2-equivalent-emission impacts of vehicle production in comparison.

Figure 6 shows a detailed breakdown of the contributions to CO2-equivalent emis-

sions in vehicle production. The representation is based on Figure 5 but displays a more
specific view on the main modules’ impacts and a segmentation of the different materials.
The car’s main modules are defined according to the classification made in Section 3. It
has to be considered that for all three vehicle types, ICEV, HEV and BEV, the total size of
each column indicates 100%. In this way, the percentages of contributions of the individ-
ual factors are shown for each vehicle powertrain technology separately.
FigureConsidering
Figure 5. CO
5. the main modules,
CO22-equivalent-emission impactsitofisvehicle
visibleproduction
that battery-system
production in
in comparison.
comparison.production has the
largest carbon footprint, but also shows the largest variation extension, based on different
Figure
battery
Figure 66shows
sizes and
shows a adetailed
the applied
detailed breakdown
production
breakdown oftechnologies.
the contributions
of the to CO
The variation
contributions -equivalent
to2CO of carbonemissions
2-equivalent footprint
emis-
in vehicle production.
of theinother
sions main
vehicle The representation
modules isThe
production. driven is based
by their technical
representation on Figure 5 but
is basedcharacteristics,displays
on Figure 5 but e.g., a more
bodywork
displays specific
a moredi-
view on view
mension
specific the
andmain
on modules’
weight,
the engine
main impacts and a level
performance,
modules’ impacts segmentation
and aofsegmentationof the
electronic different
equipment,
of materials.
as
the different well as ofThe
materials. the
car’s
The main
applied
car’s modules
materials,
main are defined
e.g.,
modules steel, according
aluminum
are defined ortopolymers.
according the to
classification
theFor HEV, made in Section
the powertrain
classification made 3.isItsplit
in Section has3.up
toIt
be considered that for all three vehicle types, ICEV, HEV and BEV, the
has to be considered that for all three vehicle types, ICEV, HEV and BEV, the total size (e-
into the combustion-engine-based unit (ICE powertrain) and the total size
electric-drive of each
unit of
column
each indicates
Powertrain),
column and 100%.
the impact
indicates In this
100%. way,
ofInthe the percentages
hybrid-system
this way, battery
the percentages of contributions
isofshown of the
separately.
contributions individual
of the individ-
factors are shown for each vehicle powertrain technology separately.
ual factors are shown for each vehicle powertrain technology separately.
Considering the main modules, it is visible that battery-system production has the
largest carbon footprint, but also shows the largest variation extension, based on different
battery sizes and the applied production technologies. The variation of carbon footprint
of the other main modules is driven by their technical characteristics, e.g., bodywork di-
mension and weight, engine performance, level of electronic equipment, as well as of the
applied materials, e.g., steel, aluminum or polymers. For HEV, the powertrain is split up
into the combustion-engine-based unit (ICE powertrain) and the electric-drive unit (e-
Powertrain), and the impact of the hybrid-system battery is shown separately.

Figure6.6. Contributions
Figure Contributions of
ofmain
mainmodules
modulesand
anddifferent
differentmaterials
materialstotoCO
CO2 -equivalent
2-equivalent emissions
emissionsof
of
vehicle production.
vehicle production.

Considering the main modules, it is visible that battery-system production has the
largest carbon footprint, but also shows the largest variation extension, based on different
battery sizes and the applied production technologies. The variation of carbon footprint
of the other main modules is driven by their technical characteristics, e.g., bodywork
dimension and weight, engine performance, level of electronic equipment, as well as of
the applied materials, e.g., steel, aluminum or polymers. For HEV, the powertrain is
split up into the combustion-engine-based unit (ICE powertrain) and the electric-drive unit
Figure 6. Contributions of main modules and different materials to CO2-equivalent emissions of
(e-Powertrain), and the impact of the hybrid-system battery is shown separately.
vehicle production.
Looking at the material-based effects on CO2 -equivalent emissions of ICEV, the main
share is represented by the provision of steel and aluminum, and a considerable share
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61 7 of 21

by electrics and electronics. For BEV, battery-cell manufacturing as well as electric and
electronics components are the source of about 40–55% of the entire carbon footprint.
Preparation of steel and aluminum is still relevant for BEV but reduced in comparison
to components of energy storage and electric powertrains. For HEV, the material-related
impact on greenhouse-gas emissions is considerably defined by the actual powertrain
configuration. In case of mild hybrids, the characteristics are similar to those of ICEV.
In case of full hybrids and plug-in hybrids, the impacts of larger electric-drive units and
battery systems have to be considered accordingly.

2.3. Aspects of the Car’s Use Phase

Influencing factors on CO2 -equivalent emissions during the use phase of a car include
the vehicle’s driving resistances, powertrain efficiency and the type of fuel (energy) used
for propulsion. In addition, user behavior and driving patterns, service and maintenance,
including spare- and wear parts, have to be considered. A significant share of greenhouse-
gas emissions that are generated during the use phase of a car are caused by the provision
of chemical energy, in the form of fuel in the case of cars driven by combustion engines, or
hydrogen in case of fuel-cell-electric vehicles. In case of battery-electric vehicles, electric
energy is provided. In ICEV, gasoline or diesel fuel is converted in the engine, producing
harmful emissions (such as hydrocarbons (HC), carbon-monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides
(NOx ), particulate emissions), and CO2 . In case of FCEV, hydrogen is converted in fuel cells
to water (H2 O) to produce electric energy for propelling the car. In BEV, there are no exhaust
emissions produced in the car, but upstream in the course of electric-energy generation.
In the following, the behaviors of ICEV and BEV are investigated, focusing on
CO2 -equivalent emissions. FCEV are not considered further here, because this technology
is not on a large-scale production level yet, which hinders a reasonable comparison in view
of material production, vehicle manufacturing and the end-of-life phase.
Figure 7 shows the different sequences of energy provision and conversion for vehicle
propulsion as well as their influencing factors on CO2 -equivalent emissions. The so-called
“well-to-tank” (WTT) emissions are generated in the course of energy-, respectively fuel
provision. For gasoline and diesel fuel, this includes production of crude oil, refinery pro-
cesses, transportation and distribution. For electricity, different technologies of electricity
production, transfer, transformation and distribution are to be considered. The so-called
“tank-to-wheel” (TTW) emissions stem from the conversion of energy in the vehicle. For
ICEV, this comprises the combustion process of fuel, resulting in exhaust emissions. 8BEV
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 21
do not produce exhaust emissions, leading to zero TTW emissions. The sum of WWT and
TTW emissions is defined as “well-to-wheel” (WTW) emissions and represents the actual
CO2 -equivalent-emission impact when operating a car.

Figure7.7.Sequences
Figure Sequencesofofenergy
energyprovision
provisionand
andconversion for
conversion vehicle
for propulsion.
vehicle propulsion.

For BEV, the electricity mix in the corresponding countries and regions has a signifi-
cant impact on greenhouse-gas-emission behavior (cf. Figures 3 and 4). In addition, losses
of energy transport and of charging the battery have to be considered. In a modern elec-
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61 8 of 21

For BEV, the electricity mix in the corresponding countries and regions has a significant
impact on greenhouse-gas-emission behavior (cf. Figures 3 and 4). In addition, losses of
energy transport and of charging the battery have to be considered. In a modern electricity
grid, the average transportation and transformation losses can be estimated in a range
of about 5% [19]. Charging losses of the battery are strongly influenced by the specific
charging power. In this way, low-power charging takes longer, but enables high efficiency
of the charging process of up to 95%. High-power charging—so-called “supercharging”—is
able to reduce the charging time considerably, but can lead to electrical losses of more
than 30%, which requires specific cooling of the charging system and battery [20,21]. In
conclusion, the resulting WTW emissions of BEV are defined by the technology of electricity
production, losses of electricity transfer and storage as well as the energy consumption of
the observed vehicle in the considered driving pattern.
For ICEV, there are several factors to be considered in the calculation process of WTT
emissions, including type and quality of crude oil, upstream technologies of fuel production,
transportation and distribution. In this way, WTT emissions are in the range of 10% to
20% of the TTW emissions for conventional fuel, with a lower impact for diesel and higher
impact for gasoline fuel [22]. In the combustion engine, hydrocarbons of fuel are burned
by use of aspirated air. Considering the average content of hydrogen and carbon and
assuming perfect combustion [23], the TTW emissions can be calculated directly from the
fuel consumption with linear factors:

fuel consumption in liters per 100 km * ψ = CO2 emissions in grams per km (1)

The factor ψ varies for gasoline and diesel because of their slightly different ratio of
hydrogen and carbon content, with ψ = 23.2 for gasoline and ψ = 26.2 for diesel fuel.
The specific user behaviors, including driving pattern and style, driven mileage,
and in case of BEV also the charging patterns, significantly influence the CO2 -equivalent
emissions. User-related factors are very complex to consider and are the topic of different
investigations, e.g., [24]. In the present work, the standardized driving cycle WLTC (World
harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycle, [25]) and averaged user-behavior schemes are taken
under consideration.
In relation to the greenhouse-gas-emission impact of vehicle manufacturing and
propulsion, the effects of service, maintenance and spare parts are relatively low. In
general, ICEV have a higher demand of service and wear parts, e.g., filters, clutches,
oil changes and brakes. BEV have a higher mass due to the battery system and con-
sequently a slightly higher tire wear, but significantly lower effort for powertrain and
brake-system maintenance.

2.4. End-of-Life Phase

The end-of-life phase of a car includes vehicle dismantling, separation of materials and
recycling processes as well as thermal and energetic recovery. Due to the high relevance on
environmental pollution, different legislative boundary conditions regulate the handling of
old cars in this sequence, e.g., [26,27]. Focusing on the impact of the end-of-life phases on
the LCA-related carbon footprint, the relevance of recycling is relatively small. A certain
share of materials can be recycled and fed back to earlier sequences, which has potential
to reduce the total carbon footprint (see Figure 2, dotted arrows). On an actual industrial
scale, recycling is well-introduced for steel and aluminum, on a lower level for plastic
parts, and on a minor level for other materials [28]. A special case represents the battery
systems of electrified or electric vehicles, because of the very valuable materials, which
would make sense to apply recycling processes. Unfortunately, automotive lithium-ion
batteries are not designed for recycling and as of yet there are no effective dismantling
and recycling processes defined on an industrial scale [29–31]. In addition, there are plans
to use the (still valuable) cells of old batteries in so-called “second-life” applications in
stationary electric-storage systems. In the present work, effects of the end-of-life phase and
of recycling are considered for steel and aluminum, which reduces the carbon footprint of

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61
dismantling and recycling processes defined on an industrial scale [29–31]. In addition
there are plans to use the (still valuable) cells of old batteries in so-called “second-life”
applications in stationary electric-storage systems. In the present work, effects of the end
of-life phase and of recycling are considered for steel and aluminum, which reduces the
carbon footprint of vehicle production, but due to the above-mentioned uncertainties
9 of 21
they are not considered for the battery system.
3. Vehicle
vehicle Inventory
production, Analysis
but due to the above-mentioned uncertainties, they are not considered
for the battery system.
As an important section of LCA, the inventory analysis includes a breakdown of sys
tems,
3. modules
Vehicle andAnalysis
Inventory components of a car and the corresponding investigation of produc
structure and related processes
As an important section for materials
of LCA, preparation
the inventory analysis and vehicle
includes manufacturing.
a breakdown of
systems, modules and components of a car and the corresponding investigation of product
3.1. Mainand
structure Modules
relatedofprocesses
a Car for materials preparation and vehicle manufacturing.
In many cases, the inventory analysis is conducted in form of a top-down breakdown
3.1. Main Modules of a Car
which targets the definition of main modules. In subsequent steps, the main modules are
In many cases, the inventory analysis is conducted in form of a top-down breakdown,
fragmented into various submodules and components, which for each the required data
which targets the definition of main modules. In subsequent steps, the main modules are
for the LCA are generated. This includes a detailed analysis of materials and the chain o
fragmented into various submodules and components, which for each the required data
manufacturing-related
for the LCA are generated. processes. Figure
This includes 8 shows
a detailed an exemplary
analysis top-level
of materials and the structure
chain of a
car, including the main modules. Depending on vehicle type and size, implemented
of manufacturing-related processes. Figure 8 shows an exemplary top-level structure of tech
anologies, powertrain
car, including system
the main andDepending
modules. equipment, on each module
vehicle influences
type and the results of an
size, implemented
LCA in different
technologies, ways.system and equipment, each module influences the results of an
powertrain
LCA in different ways.
Figure8.8.Main
Figure Mainmodules
modulesof aofcar.
a car.
The main module, bodywork, includes the vehicle body as well as doors and closures.
Different material combinations are applied in modern cars, mainly based on steel sheets
combined with aluminum and synthetic components. Aluminum bodies have a great
potential for weight reduction but require higher effort (and consequently produce higher
CO2 -equivalent emissions) in the manufacturing phase. Carbon-fiber bodies have the
uppermost weight-reduction potential, but are rarely used in larger-scale mass production
due to the high manufacturing efforts [32].
Exterior components include plastic parts for bumpers, styling and outer components,
but also supplementary parts that complement the vehicle body. The exterior module
typically has a low carbon footprint in relation to the bodywork.
Interior includes seats, inner panels, dashboards, air-conditioning systems and comfort-
related equipment. As well as the seats, the comfort equipment has a large impact on both
manufacturing-related greenhouse gas emission balance and vehicle weight.
The electrics module includes electric standard components, wiring and the power
supply of electric and electronics systems on different voltage levels. This module differs
greatly for conventional, hybrid and battery-electric cars.
Chassis includes the lower vehicle structure, suspension, brakes and wheels. Electric
cars often have a changed vehicle architecture in comparison to conventionally powered
cars, which comprises a large, flat battery below the passenger cabin. In this case, chassis
and car body design differs from those of conventional cars, which has to be considered in
the course of the inventory analysis.
 World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61 10 of 21

3.2. Powertrain System

Of course, the powertrain system represents the most important module when it comes
to a comparison of ICEV, HEV and BEV. This is caused by the very different approach of
energy conversion for propelling the car, influencing the use phase. In addition, effects of
the different powertrain technologies have to be considered in course of the manufacturing-
related investigations of an LCA. There are several works that introduce the technologies
of automotive powertrain systems, e.g., [33–35]. In the present article, the focus is put on
aspects that are relevant in view of LCA and a corresponding evaluation of the carbon
footprints of the investigated propulsion technologies.
The powertrain structure of cars driven by internal-combustion engines is character-
ized by a considerable number of mechanical components of high complexity (Figure 9).
This comprises the combustion engine with pistons, valves, a number of shafts and bearings,
as well as cylinder heads, crankcases, housings and covers. Driving power is transferred to
the wheels via a manual or automated shiftable transmission system in combination with
one or several clutches, differential gears and drive shafts. The main materials applied in
the powertrain include different types of steel for shafts and moveable components, cast
iron REVIEW
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER for some shafts, cylinder liners and housings, as well as aluminum for housings and 11 of 21
covers. Fuel is supplied via a tank system including fuel pump and filters, and the exhaust
gases are concerned to after-treatment in the exhaust system by use of highly effective
catalytic converters and filters.

Figure9.9.Powertrain
Figure Powertrainstructure of conventionally
structure driven
of conventionally cars. cars.
driven

The powertrain structure of electric cars is simpler considering the mechanical parts
The powertrain structure of electric cars is simpler considering the mechanical parts
but includes a higher share of electrical components and the complex high-voltage battery
but includes a higher share
system for electric-energy of electrical
storage components
(Figure 10). and the
This comprises an complex high-voltage
electric motor, holding battery
system
stator forrotor,
and electric-energy storage
power electronics (Figure
as well 10). This comprises
as high-voltage an electric
charging system. motor, holding
Depending
stator and rotor, power electronics as well as high-voltage charging system.
on the applied electric-motor technology, magnetic materials might be used (e.g., in per- Depending
on the applied
manent electric-motor
magnet-synchronous technology,
motors), magnetic
which requires materials
high effort formight be usedof(e.g.,
the provision the in per
corresponding resources [36]. In addition, copper and semiconductor-based components
manent magnet-synchronous motors), which requires high effort for the provision of the
are applied in various
corresponding components,
resources [36]. Ine.g., inverter,
addition, converter
copper andand battery.
semiconductor-based components
The high-voltage system requires efforts for electric protection, and the thermal man-
are applied in various components, e.g., inverter, converter and battery.
agement of BEV has to be designed more complex than those of ICEV because of the
different operating-temperature levels of the inverter, electric motor and battery system.
The carbon footprint of mechanical components of an electric powertrain is considerably
lower than those of a conventional powertrain because there is a lower number of mechan-
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61 11 of 21

ical parts and the transmission system is much simpler. Most electric cars are equipped
with a nonshiftable gearbox without a clutch.
Hybrid propulsion systems are defined by a combination of combustion engine and
electric powertrain. There are different architectures of hybrid powertrains available, which
differ according to the arrangement of combustion engine and electric-drive unit, Figure 11.
In the serial hybrid configuration, the combustion engine is not mechanically connected
to the wheels, but drives an electric generator that supplies the electric-drive unit with
energy. In this way, serial hybrids have a similar electric-drivetrain configuration as
battery-electric cars, but with the extension of a combustion-engine-based power supply.
In another configuration (not shown here), fuel-cell-electric vehicles are also serial hy-
brids, whereby a hydrogen fuel-cell system provides electric power for driving the car. In
parallel hybrid configurations, both the combustion engine and electric motor are mechan-
Figure 9. Powertrain structure of conventionally driven cars.
ically connected with the wheels. Different configurations can be defined according to
the position of the electric motor in the powertrain system: P0 (electric motor/generator
The powertrain structure of electric cars is simpler considering the mechanical part
connected to the crankshaft via a belt drive), P1 (electric motor/generator directly at the
but includes
crankshaft, a higher
typically share
at the of electrical
flywheel), components
P2 (electric and the complex
motor separated high-voltage
from the crankshaft by battery
an additional clutch), P3 (electric motor at the output shaft of the gearbox) and P4 (one axle holding
system for electric-energy storage (Figure 10). This comprises an electric motor,
stator
of and
the car rotor, power
is driven electronicsengine,
by the combustion as welltheas other
high-voltage charging
one is driven by an system. Depending
electric-axle
on theDue
drive). applied
to theelectric-motor
high variabilitytechnology, magnetic
of the powertrain setup,materials might are
parallel hybrids be applied
used (e.g.,
in in per
very different configurations according to the actual requirements of a specific
manent magnet-synchronous motors), which requires high effort for the provision of the car model.
Combined hybrid configurations,
corresponding resources [36]. also
Incalled “power-split”
addition, copper and hybrids, are characterized by
semiconductor-based a
component
central transmission system, which combines the combustion engine and one or several
are applied in various components, e.g., inverter, converter and battery.
electric motor/generator units. In this way, the drive system can be controlled very flexibly
according to the actual driving situations.

Figure10.
Figure 10.Powertrain
Powertrain structure
structure of electric
of electric cars. cars.

Besides their architecture, hybrid powertrains can be distinguished according to the

The high-voltage system requires efforts for electric protection, and the thermal man
degree of electrification, which defines the electric-performance capability. In this way,
agement of BEV
so-called mild has
hybrids aretotypically
be designed more
equipped complex
with than
relatively those
small of ICEV
electric motorsbecause of the dif
(less than
ferent
15 operating-temperature
kilo Watts (kW) power) and small levelslow-voltage
of the inverter,
batteryelectric
systemsmotor
(less and
thanbattery system. The
1 kilo Watt
carbon footprint of mechanical components of an electric powertrain
hour (kWh) energy capacity). The electric unit serves as a starter/generator and eventually is considerably
lower than
enables thoseshare
a certain of aofconventional
brake-energypowertrain
recuperation. because
Electricthere
driveisisanot
lower number
possible for of me
mild hybrids.
chanical Full and
parts hybrids
the aretransmission
equipped withsystem
powerfulis electric
much motors
simpler.(depending on the cars are
Most electric
vehicle
equipped classwith
withamore than 100 kW),
nonshiftable but relatively
gearbox without small battery systems with a capacity
a clutch.
of typically up to 5 kWh. The propulsion system of full hybrids allows electric drive for short
distances and—depending on the drivetrain architecture—can provide effective brake-
energy recuperation. Finally, so-called plug-in hybrids are equipped with powerful electric
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61 12 of 21

motors with up to more than 100 kW power output, depending on the vehicle class, and
significantly larger battery systems (capacity between 8 and 30 kWh), which optionally
can be charged externally from the electric power grid. In this way, plug-in hybrids provide
electric-driving ranges from 30 to more than 60 km [37].
Concerning the life-cycle assessment of the different technologies, hybrid powertrain
systems are characterized by a wide range of carbon-footprint characteristics. This is related
to all sections of the life cycle. In the production phase, the degree of electrification plays an
important role, because it defines the types and quantities of materials and the technologies
of production. In this way, mild hybrids have a very similar production-related carbon
footprint as comparable to conventional cars. Depending on their architecture and degree
of electrification, full hybrids are characterized by a 5 to 10% higher production-related
carbon footprint. Due to the larger battery system, plug-in hybrids can have up to a 25%
higher carbon footprint than conventional cars of similar size and performance. Own
measurement series have shown that the reduction potential of fuel consumption is in
the range of 0–5% for typical mild hybrids and up to 15% for full hybrids. In the case of
plug-in hybrids, the evaluation of potential reduction of fuel consumption (respectively
carbon footprint) during the use-phase is much more complex, because it is significantly
influenced by the actual driving pattern and user behavior. If plug-in hybrid cars are
frequently charged from the grid, and the driving distances are below the maximum
electric range, the combustion engine is not in operation, leading to zero fuel consumption.
On the other hand, if the car is not charged from the grid, it is operated like a full hybrid,
and the potential benefits of external electric power supply are not taken.
Concerning the life-cycle assessment of the different technologies, hybrid powertrain
systems are characterized by a wide range of carbon-footprint characteristics. This is related
to all sections of the life cycle. In the production phase, the degree of electrification plays an
important role, because it defines the types and quantities of materials and the technologies
of production. In this way, mild hybrids have a very similar production-related carbon
footprint as comparable to conventional cars. Depending on their architecture and degree
of electrification, full hybrids are characterized by a 5 to 10% higher production-related
carbon footprint. Due to the larger battery system, plug-in hybrids can have up to a 25%
higher carbon footprint than conventional cars of similar size and performance. Own
measurement series have shown that the reduction potential of fuel consumption is in
the range of 0–5% for typical mild hybrids and up to 15% for full hybrids. In the case of
plug-in hybrids, the evaluation of potential reduction of fuel consumption (respectively
carbon footprint) during the use-phase is much more complex, because it is significantly
influenced by the actual driving pattern and user behavior. If plug-in hybrid cars are
frequently charged from the grid, and the driving distances are below the maximum
electric range, the combustion engine is not in operation, leading to zero fuel consumption.
On the other hand, if the car is not charged from the grid, it is operated like a full hybrid,
and the potential benefits of external electric power supply are not taken.
The battery system is composed of modules that include a number of cell elements,
which represent the basic units of electric-energy storage (Figure 12). Cells and modules are
electrically connected in serial and parallel order to provide a certain voltage and current
level via so-called “bus bars” and high-voltage connectors. A rigid housing including
stiffener elements protects the battery against mechanical deformation, e.g., in case of a
crash. Lithium-ion batteries are sensitive against high and low temperatures, which requires
accurate management of the temperature in the cells. This is provided by a complex thermal-
management system, including sensors and controllers. The battery-management system
comprises several cell-management controllers on module level as well as the general
battery management that controls the battery during charging, discharging as well as in
case of error and crash scenarios.
 Hybrid propulsion systems are defined by a combination of combustion engine and
electric powertrain. There are different architectures of hybrid powertrains available,
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61 13 of 21
which differ according to the arrangement of combustion engine and electric-drive unit,
Figure 11.

Figure 11. Powertrain

Figure 11. Powertrainarchitectures
architectures of hybrid
of hybrid cars.cars.
 quires accurate management of the temperature in the cells. This is provided by a complex
thermal-management system, including sensors and controllers. The battery-manage-
ment system comprises several cell-management controllers on module level as well as
the general battery management that controls the battery during charging, discharging as
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022,
well as13,
in61case of error and crash scenarios. 14 of 21

Figure 12. Configuration of a modern battery system for BEV, modified from [38].
Figure 12. Configuration of a modern battery system for BEV, modified from [38].

In an inventoryInanalysis of the
an inventory battery
analysis system,
of the batterythe different
system, materials
the different used used
materials and and
the the vari-
ous manufacturing
various manufacturing processesprocesses
have to behave to be investigated
investigated and analyzed.
and analyzed. In general,
In general, automotive-
auto-
battery manufacturing can be separated into the production
motive-battery manufacturing can be separated into the production of cells and the pro- of cells and the production
duction of the battery unit, including assembling of cells to modules, adding conductors, sensors
of the battery unit, including assembling of cells to modules, adding conductors,
and controllers, as well as integration of the entire battery with a thermal system, battery
sensors and controllers, as well as integration of the entire battery with a thermal system,
management and housing. In most cases, the cells are produced at cell-supplier factories in
battery management and housing. In most cases, the cells are produced at cell-supplier
China, South Korea or Japan and shipped to the battery-system-manufacturing plants lo-
factories in China, South
cated Korea
near the or Japan and shipped
car manufacturer’s to the battery-system-manufactur-
vehicle-assembly lines. Some car manufacturers integrate
ing plants located near the car manufacturer’s vehicle-assembly
the entire battery-manufacturing chain in large, so-called lines. Some car manufac-
“gigafactories”, e.g., [39].
turers integrate the entire battery-manufacturing
Cell manufacturing chainprocess
is a very complex in large, so-called
that includes“gigafactories”,
the preparation of active
e.g., [39]. materials for anodes and cathodes as well as separators and electrolytes, surfacing tech-
nologies for electrode production and foil slitting-, winding- and stacking processes. Due
to the high sensitivity of electrochemical reactions, initial charging processes, so-called
“formation”, has to be conducted with high accuracy and control effort. Finally, all cells
are checked before delivery and a certain share of potentially defective cells are sorted
out, which has a considerable impact on the LCA [40]. Typical materials for anodes are
graphite and silicon–graphite combinations. At the cathode, lithium-metal oxides come
to use, integrating e.g., lithium, cobalt, manganese, nickel, aluminum and iron phosphate.
The actual material mixtures are designed specifically and may vary between different car
manufacturer and vehicle types. The carrier foils of the electrodes are made of aluminum
and copper, and the separator is typically a polymer membrane.
The entire cell-manufacturing process is related to high demands on accuracy and
cleanliness. Extraction and processing of active materials in the cells, as well as manufac-
turing processes, require high effort, which significantly influences the life-cycle balance.
In an average consideration, about the half of production-induced CO2 -equivalent emis-
sions of an automotive-battery system stem from cell production and the other half from
battery-system manufacturing and transportation. Figure 13 shows the distribution of
CO2 -equivalent emissions of battery manufacturing. It is visible that the high electric-
energy demand represents the most important factor, followed by materials extraction,
processing and the production of electrodes [41]. The figure also shows that due to the high
energy impact of battery production, the application of low-carbon electricity sources plays
an important role to reduce the life-cycle carbon footprint of electric cars. In a comprehen-
sive LCA, the electricity mixes of both cell production and battery-system manufacturing
have to be considered. In this context, it makes a relevant difference if the battery is pro-

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61
ergy demand represents the most important factor, followed by materials extraction, pro-
cessing and the production of electrodes [41]. The figure also shows that due to the high
energy impact of battery production, the application of low-carbon electricity sources
plays an important role to reduce the life-cycle carbon footprint of electric cars. In a com-
prehensive LCA, the electricity mixes of both cell production and battery-system manu- 15 of 21
facturing have to be considered. In this context, it makes a relevant difference if the battery
is produced in a country with high CO2-equivalent-emission impacts or in a country with
a large share of renewable energy sources (see also Figure 4).
duced in a country with high CO2 -equivalent-emission impacts or in a country with a large
share of renewable energy sources (see also Figure 4).
Figure13.
Figure CO2-equivalent-emission
13.CO 2 -equivalent-emissionimpacts
impactsofofbattery-manufacturing-related
battery-manufacturing-relatedfactors.
factors.
The end-of-life phase of lithium-ion batteries provides great potential in general
The end-of-life phase of lithium-ion batteries provides great potential in general be-
because of the valuable materials [42], but recycling processes are not introduced on a large
cause of the valuable materials [42], but recycling processes are not introduced on a large
industrial scale yet. Reasons are the highly complex processes of battery disassembling
industrial scale yet. Reasons are the highly complex processes of battery disassembling
and materials extraction and the relatively low volume of available exhausted automotive
and materials extraction and the relatively low volume of available exhausted automotive
high-voltage batteries today. In addition, there are alternative business models coming up,
high-voltage batteries today. In addition, there are alternative business models coming
which could make use of old automotive batteries in so-called “second-life” applications in
up, which could make use of old automotive batteries in so-called “second-life” applica-
stationary power-storage systems. Studies show that in case of recycling, a reduction in the
tions in stationary power-storage systems. Studies show that in case of recycling, a reduc-
carbon footprint of battery manufacturing in the range of 5–10% is feasible [41,42].
tion in the carbon footprint of battery manufacturing in the range of 5–10% is feasible
Another issue to be considered in an LCA is the lifetime of lithium-ion batteries. In the
[41,42].
initial years of BEV, the battery system was concerned with relevant aging effects, which
Another issue to be considered in an LCA is the lifetime of lithium-ion batteries. In
often made replacement of the battery within the lifetime of a car necessary. However,
the initial years of BEV,
battery technology the battery
has improved system wasinconcerned
significantly with relevant capability
view of energy-storage aging effects,
and
which often made replacement of the battery within the lifetime of a car
degradation behavior during the past years. In modern electric cars, the battery necessary.
system is
designed for the entire lifetime of the car, which does not require replacements. Usually,
car manufacturers provide warranty of 8–10 years and a mileage of 150,000–200,000 km
for the battery, considering a reduction in energy storage capability of a maximum of
20–30% [43,44].
Due to the fact that a major share of the carbon footprint of BEV is caused by the
production of the battery system, the size and energy storage capability significantly
influences the total CO2 -equivalent emissions characteristics. In today’s cars in the markets,
the storage capability varies widely, depending on vehicle type, class and variant. Small,
low-cost BEV are equipped with batteries of about 10 to 20 kWh energy-storage capacity;
compact and midsize cars with about 20 to 75 kWh; and large and premium-class cars
with about 60 to more than 100 kWh. Hybrid cars are equipped with smaller battery-
storage capacities, ranging from less than 1 kWh in mild hybrids to up to 30 kWh in
plug-in hybrids. Considering a direct influence of the energy-storage capacity on the
CO2 -equivalent-emission impact, the actual battery size has to be included carefully in the
course of LCA-based evaluations and discussions.
4. Results and Discussion
The introduced procedure of LCA has been applied to evaluate the CO2 -equivalent-
emission impact of electric cars in comparison with hybrid and conventionally driven
cars under consideration of the above-mentioned boundary conditions and influencing
factors. The following three sections represent results of the investigations, divided into
vehicle-manufacturing-related sequences, the phase of car usage and a consideration of the
behavior in the total life cycle. The underlying LCA has been conducted according to the
referred ISO standards [1,2] under consideration of large databases [3–5]. Table 1 shows
the main characteristics of the investigated cars with different propulsion technologies.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61 16 of 21

Table 1. Main characteristics of investigated cars with different propulsion technologies.

ICEV HEV BEV

Car type: Compact car (C-class) Compact car (C-class) Compact car (C-class)
Vehicle mass: 1400 kg 1450 kg 1800 kg
Propulsion: Gasoline engine Comb. full hybrid, gasoline engine Permanent magnets synchr. Motor
Max. power 90 kW 90 kW 110 kW
Fuel/energy consumption: 6 liter/100 km 4.5 liter/100 km 20 kWh/100 km incl. charging losses
Battery capacity: - 1.3 kWh 60 kWh
Country of battery cell production: - China China
Country of vehicle manufacturing: Germany Japan Germany
Car body main material: Steel Steel Steel
Vehicle comfort equipment level: Standard Standard Standard
Total carbon footprint of production: 7.5 tonnes CO2 equivalents 9.0 tonnes CO2 equivalents 14.0 tonnes CO2 equivalents

In the present study, vehicle characteristics of the compact car class (C-segment) are
taken under consideration, because this vehicle class is very popular in the European
market. The investigated cars represent selected actual vehicles of comparable size and
performance, driven by different propulsion technologies including combustion-engine-
based powertrains (ICEV and HEV) as well as battery-electric propulsion systems. The fuel-
and electric-energy consumptions are based on the standardized WLTP-driving cycle. The
hybrid car (HEV) is a typical power-split full hybrid driven by a combination of gasoline
engine, automated transmission system and a configuration of two electric motors. For
the BEV, the electric-energy consumption considers 16 kWh per 100 km for propulsion in
the standardized driving cycle plus 10% energy demand for passenger-cabin climatization
and auxiliaries (e.g., for heating/cooling the car in winter/summer). In addition, charging
losses are included for an assumed charging behavior of 75% slow charging and 25%
high-power charging.

4.1. Vehicle Production

Figure 14 shows the LCA-based production-related CO2 -equivalent-emission impacts
of the investigated cars. For cars with internal combustion engines, the main contributions
stem from the car bodywork, ICE powertrain, interior and electrics and electronics modules. With
9.0 tonnes of CO2 equivalents, the investigated hybrid car shows a 20% higher production-
related carbon footprint than the conventionally driven car. Whereas the car bodywork,
interior, chassis and exterior modules display the same masses of CO2 equivalents, the
impact of the ICE power-train is slightly lower for the hybrid car, which is caused by a
smaller (and moderately less-performant) combustion engine. Additional modules of the
hybrid car, relevant for the production-related carbon footprint, are the e-powertrain and the
battery. Together, they contribute to about 1.5 tonnes, respectively 17 % of CO2 equivalents.
The battery-electric car has a significantly higher production-related carbon footprint
with 14.0 tonnes. Here, the battery system acts as a main contributor with 7.0 tonnes. Due
to a high integration of the battery housing into the vehicle structure and a larger share
of plastic exterior parts, the car bodywork module shows a slightly lower CO2 -equivalent
mass impact than those of the ICEV and the HEV. The considered BEV has relatively simple
comfort equipment in comparison to the two other cars, resulting in a slightly reduced
carbon footprint of the interior module. Relevant is the electric powertrain module with
10% of the total CO2 -equivalent impact. The impact of the electrics and electronics module
considers only low-voltage components, as all high-voltage elements are included in the
CO2 -equivalent balance of the battery system.

4.2. Use Phase

The LCA-based evaluation of the car’s use phase includes CO2 -equivalent emissions
during driving, as well as the impacts of maintenance, service and wear parts. A relevant
 4.1. Vehicle Production
Figure 14 shows the LCA-based production-related CO2-equivalent-emission im-
pacts of the investigated cars. For cars with internal combustion engines, the main contri-
butions stem from the car bodywork, ICE powertrain, interior and electrics and electronics mod-
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61 ules. With 9.0 tonnes of CO2 equivalents, the investigated hybrid car shows a 20% higher 17 of 21
production-related carbon footprint than the conventionally driven car. Whereas the car
bodywork, interior, chassis and exterior modules display the same masses of CO2 equivalents,
the impact of the ICE power-train is slightly lower for the hybrid car, which is caused by a
share of carbon footprint is caused by vehicle propulsion, which comprises well-to-tank
smaller (and moderately less-performant) combustion engine. Additional modules of the
emissions (WTT) for preparation of electric energy, respectively fuel, and tank-to-wheel
hybrid car, relevant for the production-related carbon footprint, are the e-powertrain and
emissions (TTW) caused by combustion of fuel. As mentioned in Section 2.3, BEV do not
the battery. Together, they contribute to about 1.5 tonnes, respectively 17 % of CO2 equiv-
produce TTW emissions. For cars with combustion engines, production and provision of
alents.
fuel (WTT) has to be considered.

Figure14.
Figure 14.LCA-based
LCA-basedproduction-related
production-related
COCO 2-equivalent-emission
2 -equivalent-emission impacts
impacts of selected
of selected compact
compact cars,
cars, equipped
equipped with different
with different propulsion
propulsion technologies.
technologies.

The
The diagram in Figure
battery-electric car15hasshows the well-to-wheel
a significantly (WTW) CO2 equivalent
higher production-related carbonemissions
footprint
of the14.0
with investigated compact
tonnes. Here, cars with
the battery systemdifferent
acts as propulsion systemswith
a main contributor and7.0varied carbon
tonnes. Due
footprint of electricity
to a high integration of production. It is visible
the battery housing thatvehicle
into the hybrid propulsion
structure and technology
a larger share has
of
the potential
plastic to parts,
exterior reducethethecarcarbon
bodyworkfootprint
module byshows
abouta25% in comparison
slightly to conventional
lower CO2-equivalent mass
combustion
impact than engines. Considering
those of the ICEV andthe thebehavior
HEV. The ofconsidered
electric cars,BEVthehas
importance
relativelyof low-
simple
carbon electricity production is clearly demonstrated (c.f. Figures 3
comfort equipment in comparison to the two other cars, resulting in a slightly reducedand 4). In this way, a
modern hybrid car can have a lower use-phase-related greenhouse-gas-emission
carbon footprint of the interior module. Relevant is the electric powertrain module with 10% impact
than
of theantotal
electric car that is charged
CO2-equivalent impact. in Thea impact
countryofortheregion with
electrics andhighly carbon-intensive
electronics module con-
electric-power generation.
siders only low-voltage It is interesting
components, tohigh-voltage
as all see in Figure elements
15 that in are
most of the exemplarily
included in the CO2-
considered countries, the usage
equivalent balance of the battery system. of BEV leads to a significantly lower carbon footprint
than those of ICEV and HEV. In countries with very low carbon-intensive electric-power
generation,
4.2. Use Phase the well-to-wheel CO2 -equivalent-emission impact can be reduced to 7.5%
(France) or even 4% (Norway) in comparison to those of the ICEV.
The LCA-based evaluation of the car’s use phase includes CO2-equivalent emissions
4.3. Totaldriving,
during as well as the impacts of maintenance, service and wear parts. A relevant
Life Cycle
share of carbon footprint is caused by vehicle propulsion, which comprises well-to-tank
Combining the carbon footprints of production and those of the use phase, Figure 16
emissions (WTT) for preparation of electric energy, respectively fuel, and tank-to-wheel
illustrates the life-cycle CO2 -equivalent emissions of the investigated compact cars with
emissions (TTW) caused by combustion of fuel. As mentioned in Section 2.3, BEV do not
different propulsion systems and varied carbon footprints of electric-power generation. In
the present consideration, the vehicle production was assumed to be in Germany (ICEV and
BEV) and Japan (HEV), and the battery-cell production in China. In this way, the results
represent exemplary behavior that might be different in specific cases under dissimilar
boundary conditions. Anyway, the impact of electricity provision to the total carbon
footprint is clearly visible.
The high CO2 -equivalent emissions of BEV production are compensated relatively
quickly in case that the cars are operated in countries with low-carbon electricity production,
e.g., Norway. Considering the average EU 28 electricity mix, the break-even point with
 The diagram in Figure 15 shows the well-to-wheel (WTW) CO2 equivalent emissions
of the investigated compact cars with different propulsion systems and varied carbon
footprint of electricity production. It is visible that hybrid propulsion technology has the
potential to reduce the carbon footprint by about 25% in comparison to conventional com-
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61 bustion engines. Considering the behavior of electric cars, the importance of low-carbon 18 of 21
electricity production is clearly demonstrated (c.f. Figures 3 and 4). In this way, a modern
hybrid car can have a lower use-phase-related greenhouse-gas-emission impact than an
electric car that is charged in a country or region with highly carbon-intensive electric-
ICEV is reached at about 65,000 km. In the case of high-carbon electricity production, e.g.,
power generation. It is interesting to see in Figure 15 that in most of the exemplarily con-
in Poland, the break-even point will not be reached within the considered mileage range
sidered
of 200,000 countries,
km. HEVthe areusage of BEV leads
characterized to a asignificantly
by about lower carbon
20% higher carbon footprint
footprint than
production
those of ICEV and HEV. In countries with very low carbon-intensive electric-power
than ICEV, but have considerably lower CO2 emissions during operation, which leads gen-
to
eration, the well-to-wheel CO 2-equivalent-emission impact can be reduced to 7.5%
significant advantages of the lifetime CO2 -equivalent-emission behavior. However, the
(France) orofeven
potentials BEV4% (Norway)
that in comparison
are charged to those
with low-carbon of the ICEV.
electricity can clearly not be reached
with combustion-engine-based technologies.

Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 21

Figure 15.Well-to-wheel
Figure15. Well-to-wheelCOCO2 -equivalent
2-equivalentemissions
emissions ofof
selected compact
selected cars
compact with
cars different
with propulsion
different propul-
systems and varied
sion systems carbon
and varied footprint
carbon of electricity
footprint production.
of electricity production.

4.3. Total Life Cycle

Combining the carbon footprints of production and those of the use phase, Figure 16
illustrates the life-cycle CO2-equivalent emissions of the investigated compact cars with
different propulsion systems and varied carbon footprints of electric-power generation.
In the present consideration, the vehicle production was assumed to be in Germany (ICEV
and BEV) and Japan (HEV), and the battery-cell production in China. In this way, the
results represent exemplary behavior that might be different in specific cases under dis-
similar boundary conditions. Anyway, the impact of electricity provision to the total car-
bon footprint is clearly visible.
The high CO2-equivalent emissions of BEV production are compensated relatively
quickly in case that the cars are operated in countries with low-carbon electricity produc-
tion, e.g., Norway. Considering the average EU 28 electricity mix, the break-even point
with ICEV is reached at about 65,000 km. In the case of high-carbon electricity production,
e.g., in Poland, the break-even point will not be reached within the considered mileage
range of 200,000 km. HEV are characterized by about a 20% higher carbon footprint pro-
Figure 16. Life-cycle CO2-equivalent emissions of compact cars with different propulsion systems
Figure
duction Life-cycle
16.than ICEV,CO 2 -equivalent
but emissions of
have considerably compact
lower CO2 cars with different
emissions duringpropulsion
operation,systems
which
and exemplarily varied carbon footprints of electric-power generation.
and
leadsexemplarily variedadvantages
to significant carbon footprints
of theoflifetime
electric-power generation.
CO2-equivalent-emission behavior. How-
5. Conclusions ever, the potentials of BEV that are charged with low-carbon electricity can clearly not be
5. Conclusions
reached with combustion-engine-based technologies.
A holistic evaluation
A holisticand comparison
evaluation andofcomparison
cars drivenofbycarsdifferent
drivenpropulsion
by differenttechnol-
propulsion technolo-
ogies requiresgies
the application
requires theof extensive of
application life-cycle assessment.
extensive Due to the high
life-cycle assessment. Duecomplex-
to the high complexity
ity of modernofvehicles
modernand the related
vehicles and themanufacturing and supply-chain
related manufacturing processes,
and supply-chain com- comprehen-
processes,
prehensive investigations integrate
sive investigations energy
integrate provision,
energy materials
provision, production,
materials production,vehicle man-
vehicle manufacturing,
ufacturing, carcar usage
usage and end-of-life
and end-of-life treatment.
treatment.
The article introduces
The article processes
introduces andprocesses
influencingandfactors of life-cycle
influencing factorsassessment
of life-cycleinassessment in
the automotive the automotive
sector sectormodern
and discusses and discusses modern
propulsion propulsion
technologies technologies
in view of their COin2- view of their
CO2 -equivalent-emission
equivalent-emission impacts. Based onimpacts. a literatureBased on a the
study, literature
rangesstudy,
of CO the ranges of CO2 -equivalent-
2-equivalent-

emission impactsemission impacts

are shown forare
theshown for the main
main modules modules
of modern of driven
cars modern bycars driven by combustion
combustion
engines, hybrid engines,
cars andhybrid cars and battery-electric
battery-electric cars. Subsequently,
cars. Subsequently, the standardized
the standardized methodol- methodology
of life-cycle
ogy of life-cycle assessment assessment
is appliedison applied
actualon actual mass-production
mass-production cars of the cars of the C-segment and
C-segment
the impacts of the investigated powertrain technologies
and the impacts of the investigated powertrain technologies are evaluated for the vehicle’s are evaluated for the vehicle’s
production
production phase and thephase and the
use phase. use phase.
Focusing on theFocusing
production onphase
the production phase including ma-
including materi-
als processingterials processing
and recycling, and recycling,
battery-electric carsbattery-electric
are characterized carsbyare characterized
a 50 to 100% higher by a 50 to 100%
carbon footprint than comparable cars driven by combustion engines. In the case of hybrid
cars, the wide range of powertrain architectures makes a clear definition regarding hybrid
drive configuration and the degree of electrification necessary. In this context, the produc-
tion-related carbon footprint of hybrid cars can be up to 50% higher than those of compa-
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 61 19 of 21

higher carbon footprint than comparable cars driven by combustion engines. In the case
of hybrid cars, the wide range of powertrain architectures makes a clear definition re-
garding hybrid drive configuration and the degree of electrification necessary. In this
context, the production-related carbon footprint of hybrid cars can be up to 50% higher
than those of comparable conventionally driven cars. In the phase of usage, the technology
of electric-power generation significantly influences the carbon footprint of electric cars.
In the case of low-carbon electric-energy supply, battery-electric cars are characterized by
remarkably low carbon footprints. In the case of fossil-based electricity production, the
level of CO2 -equivalent emissions is comparable with those of cars driven by combustion
engines. In total consideration, the higher carbon footprint of electric-car production can
be compensated by the lower carbon impact during the use phase, but only if there is
a low-carbon electric-power supply for charging available. Hybrid cars can reduce the
life-cycle-related CO2 -equivalent-emission impacts considerably in comparison with con-
ventionally driven cars, and seem to be an attractive alternative to battery-electric cars in
the case that low-carbon electric energy is not available in a certain region.
Considering future trends of increasing implementation of electricity production
with low CO2 -equivalent emissions and the introduction of low-carbon manufacturing
technologies, battery-electric cars have a large potential to contribute to a reduction in
greenhouse-gas emissions in the transportation sector.

Author Contributions: M.H., conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal analysis, investiga-

tion; T.T.N., resources, data curation, validation; M.H. and T.T.N., writing—original draft preparation,
review, editing and visualization; M.H., supervision, project administration, funding acquisition. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The publication of this article was supported by TU Graz Open Access Publishing Fund.
Acknowledgments: Open Access Funding by the Graz University of Technology.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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