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A review of electric bus vehicles research topics – Methods and trends

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DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2022.112211

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 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112211

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review of electric bus vehicles research topics – Methods and trends

Jônatas Augusto Manzolli a, *, João Pedro Trovão a, c, d, Carlos Henggeler Antunes a, b
a
INESC Coimbra, University of Coimbra, DEEC, Polo II, 3030-290, Coimbra, Portugal
b
University of Coimbra, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Polo II, 3030-290, Coimbra, Portugal
c
Polytechnic of Coimbra, IPC-ISEC, DEE, 3030-199, Coimbra, Portugal
d
University of Sherbrooke, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sherbrooke, QC, J1K 2R1, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The transportation sector accounts for a significant share of greenhouse gas emissions. Hence, the electrification
Electric bus of this sector is a crucial contributor to the mitigation of global warming. Recent studies suggest that electric
Electric mobility vehicles will be economically paired with internal combustion engine vehicles in the near future. However,
Research gaps
relying on private vehicle decarbonization only cannot deliver comprehensive space management efficiency
Sustainability
Fleet operation
solutions in urban environments. Therefore, it is essential to invest in the technological development and
Energy management deployment of electric buses for public transportation, directly enhancing the quality of life in large cities. From
this perspective, this review examines a wide range of scientific literature on electric bus research using science
mapping methods and content analysis to support critical thinking unveiling the main research streams,
methods, and gaps of the field. The analysis indicates that future research on electric buses will be mainly
devoted to sustainability (encompassing economic, environmental and quality of service dimensions), energy
management strategies, and fleet operation.

The development of FCV technologies is still in the early development

1. Introduction
The transportation sector is one of the major fossil fuel consumers,
contributing to 16.2% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2020 [1].
Passenger travel vehicles (cars, motorbikes, and buses) produce around
45% of this emission share. Therefore, the decarbonization of this sub­
sector can play a crucial role in mitigating climate change and its
damages to ecosystems [2–4]. To face this challenge, alternative fuel
vehicles have replaced traditional internal combustion engine vehicles
(ICEV) in the last years. Several types of vehicles powered with low
carbon fossil fuels (e.g., compressed natural gas, liquid natural gas,
liquid petroleum gas) have appeared as an alternative to traditional
ICEV [5]. Biodiesel and bioethanol powered vehicles also emerged to
answer the need for more sustainable transportation means. The recent
advances in biofuel production and utilization indicate that this tech­
nology is on point of ameliorating the CO2 emission levels of the ICEV
[6,7]. Although these technological advancements are expect to
contribute to the transportation sector decarbonization, the great
turning point relies on vehicle electrification [8]. The direct and indirect
electrification technologies such as hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), bat­
tery electric vehicles (BEV) and fuel cell vehicles (FCV) have the po­
tential to reduce the transportation sector emission levels considerably.
stages, indicating that, in the middle term, the electrification of the
sector will be achieved mainly by HEV and BEV [9].
In addition to helping to diminish the dependency on fossil fuels and
reduce emissions if powered with renewable energy sources (RES), the
deployment of electric vehicles (EV) in an urban context contributes to
improving the air quality, reducing noise pollution and increasing en­
ergy efficiency [10]. The trend of battery price fall significantly impacts
the EV final costs and enhances their adoption [11]. Several countries
have stated proposals to phase out ICEV in the following years [12,13].
Such measure emerges as one of the potentially most disruptive policies
related to the transportation sector mass electrification [14]. Concomi­
tantly, big metropolitan centres implement vehicle registration and city
zoning policies to encourage clean transportation, including allocating
car-free city centres [15]. Driven by these trends, some forecasts indicate
that the global EV stock will jump from the current 8.5 million to more
than 140 million units in 2030 [16], attesting that the electric mobility
revolution is already a reality.
Although EV appear as a more environmentally friendly alternative,
private passenger vehicles cannot deliver a sustainable solution in terms
of space management efficiency considering a green urban development
scenario. Unless public collective transportation systems become the
definitive solution in urban environments, traffic jams and the lack of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: j.manzolli@deec.uc.pt (J.A. Manzolli), joao.trovao@usherbrooke.ca (J.P. Trovão), ch@deec.uc.pt (C.H. Antunes).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112211
Received 10 February 2021; Received in revised form 24 January 2022; Accepted 29 January 2022
1364-0321/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J.A. Manzolli et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112211

List of abbreviations HEB Hybrid electric bus

HESS Hybrid energy storage system
AEB Autonomous electric bus HEV Hybrid electric vehicle
B2G Bus-to-grid ICEV Internal combustion engine vehicle
BEB Battery electric bus LCA Lifecycle analysis
BEV Battery electric vehicle Li-ion Lithium-ion
DMPS Dual-motor propulsion system MILP Mixed-integer linear programming
EB Electric bus MPC Model predictive control
ESS Energy storage system PHEB Plug-in hybrid electric bus
EU European Union PTO Public transport operator
EV Electric vehicle RES Renewable energy sources
FCB Fuel cell bus TCO Total cost of ownership
FCV Fuel cell vehicle TGC Total global citations
GHG Greenhouse gas ZeEUS Zero Emission Urban Bus System

parking spots will still be significant problems [17,18]. Buses alone
represent more than 80% of all public transportation passenger journeys
worldwide [19]. In these circumstances, addressing bus-based trans­
portation systems can directly impact the quality of life in cities.
Therefore, the bus electrification process is becoming global. Some
forecasts indicate that electric buses (EB) will displace the fossil fuels
counterparts still in the present decade [20]. Fig. 1 depicts the share of
annual EVs sales by category. The forecast indicates a significant growth
concerning EB selling, reaching a remarkable value of 80% annual sales
share until 2040 [21].
The reduction of operational costs associated with bus fleets com­
pensates for the electric drivetrain high investment costs. For this
reason, the deployment of EB is becoming increasingly economically
competitive with the diesel counterparts. As a result, several cities
deploy EB units to compose part of the urban bus fleets [23,24].
Further, policies adopted by many countries also drive the increasing
demand for EB. Such actions cover purchasing subsidies, tax reduction
and safety supervision for EB [25–27]. In particular, fiscal policies
related to zero-emission vehicles and fuel economy standards have
played a crucial role in accelerating their adoption [28–31]. Some
governments established subsidies to accelerate EB manufacturing in the
industry and incentives for infrastructure construction [32–35]. Simi­
larly, authorities also embraced policies for the electrification and uti­
lization intensification of public transportation, e.g., subsidies for
electric fleets operation, improved frequency and coverage of services,
lower public transportation fares, reduced trip times, and an increase in
the number of off-peak services [36–38]. Fig. 2 categorizes and sum­
marizes current EB dissemination policies.
Nevertheless, decision-makers still need to surpass several challenges
to attain 100% electric public mobility [39]. Technologies must be

Fig. 1. EV share of annual vehicle sales by segment [%]. Note: Passenger and bus curves are global. Commercial vehicle segment curves cover China, Europe and the
USA (adapted from data presented in Ref. [22]).

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J.A. Manzolli et al.
Fig. 2. Policies concerning EB.
developed, improved and implemented to foster EB dissemination
worldwide [40,41]. Currently, the range anxiety, lengthy charging
times, higher upfront procurement cost and operational issues appear as
the major obstacles to the global electrification of the public trans­
portation sector [42].
Considering the interrelated aspects mentioned above, this article
aims to provide a comprehensive literature review of EB technology
development to unveil the main research streams, shed light on research
gaps, and provide information concerning methods to tackle specific
problems and development trends. The article is developed around four
main inquiries to provide a thorough overview of the topic:
(1) What are the key sources, countries’ production and collabora­
tion, and scientific literature evolution characteristics over the
years? – This first question addresses the relations between the
field’s evolution over time and the actors involved in the scien­
tific production and publication. This information can be valu­
able to researchers that seek collaboration or appropriate sources
to find relevant content. To obtain this information, we employed
science mapping techniques in the selected database.
(2) What are the most prominent research streams in the field? – The
possibilities of research regarding EBs are broad, ranging from
technical and operational aspects to economic and sustainability
issues. Therefore, scrutinizing the field into critical research
streams can be instrumental for shaping future research. To
achieve this goal, we performed a keyword clustering analysis to
map the research streams.
(3) What are the main contents and findings of relevant articles in the
field? – We carried out a citation method to obtain such articles
systematically. Other articles from the database, which we
considered relevant due to their technical and scientific contri­
butions, have also been included to substantially extend the
content analysis.
(4) How have studies evolved, and what are the current research
trends and literature gaps? – This question addresses the main
research topics concerning EB technology and unveils trends for
future works as well as research gaps. We carried out a content
analysis to present the trending topics and research gaps in the
field.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112211
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, there is presently no literature
review offering a comprehensive assessment encompassing science
mapping techniques and in-depth content analysis on electric bus-
related research. Therefore, this article’s main contribution is to pro­
vide a comprehensive review to grasp the signs of progress in EB
research, highlighting relevant works developed on vehicle technology,
environmental policies, fleet operation, energy management, among
other topics. Furthermore, this article also aims to scrutinize promising
research directions and identify research gaps.
The article is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the method­
ology to perform the review, describing the method and the search pa­
rameters used to browse through the data. Section 3 details the science
mapping analysis performed, highlighting the core journals, content
production over time, country collaboration and keyword analysis.
Section 4 presents the content analysis carried out with the relevant
articles in the field. Section 5 presents the most trending research topics
and research gaps. In Section 6, conclusions of this review are drawn.
2. Methodology
Two approaches are commonly employed to systematize research
findings and perform literature reviews on a given topic: the qualitative
and systematic content analysis and the quantitative meta-analysis [43].
In recent years, a third approach has been gaining momentum in the
scientific community – science mapping [44,45]. Science mapping is a
domain analysis and visualization method to describe a scientific
discipline, research field, or topic areas concerning specific research
questions [45]. Such approach employs mathematical techniques and
statistical measurements to evaluate and map a given scientific output
structure development. Hence, this method can perform a systematic,
trustworthy, and reproducible literature review of a topic, group of re­
searchers or scientific activity. In this context, the present study employs
a combination of science mapping methods and content analysis to carry
out the literature review as the basis to grasp the main driving forces of
the field development and support critical thinking to shape future
research. This hybrid approach was selected because of the enlightening
balance it offers - while science mapping methods can handle a broad
spectrum of data (hundreds or even thousands of articles), content
analysis can provide an in-depth analysis of the topic.
J.A. Manzolli et al.
Fig. 3. Research methodology. TGC refers to Total Global Citations.
2.1. Research workflow
The general stepwise procedure proposed by Ref. [46] was selected
as the basis to perform this review. The standard workflow comprises
five different steps, described below. Fig. 3 summarizes the overall
methodology.
1. Study design – The first step is to define the research question(s) and
the methods that will be applied to find their answers. The intro­
duction of this article presented the proposed research questions of
this work.
2. Data collection – In the second step, the articles database to be
searched is selected. Further, the articles collected are filtered and
exported. For this work, the Scopus Web of Science database was
chosen as the article’s primary source and data information. To
obtain the collection of articles to be used in this review, a Boolean
search was performed. Table 1 presents the query string used for the
search in the Scopus database.
The first search resulted in 1393 documents. The documents were
then filtered by language (English), document type (article), research
areas (engineering, energy, computer science, environmental science,
mathematics, social science, business and management, chemistry, de­
cision sciences, chemical engineering, multidisciplinary), and timespan
(2008–2020), resulting in 486 articles to be further evaluated. In the
next step, the articles were examined by title, abstract, and keywords to
identify the ones relevant to the review, resulting in 445. Finally, the
collection was extracted with the information needed to perform the
analysis: article title, author name(s) and affiliation(s), journal name,
number, volume, pages, date of publication, abstract, and cited
references.
Table 1
Query string used in the Boolean search.
Query Documents
TITLE-ABS-KEY “electric bus*" AND (“hybrid” OR “fuel cell” OR 1393
“battery")
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112211
3. Data analysis – For data analysis, two support tools were selected to
evaluate the data collected in this review. The bibliometrix R package
(http://www.bibliometrix.org) is a tool for comprehensive science
mapping analysis, which provides instruments to access, analyse and
visualize the data in an open-source ecosystem [47]. The VOS Viewer
software (https://www.vosviewer.com) is a free Java application
designed to analyse and visualize citation networks of articles [54].
4. Data visualization – In this stage, the visualization method to assess
the analysis results was selected. In this work, the data is mostly
depicted using charts. Figures containing clusters are also presented.
5. Interpretation – Although the science mapping approach delineates
the article’s data content, the results must be interpreted. Therefore,
a content analysis of the articles was carried out, fostering critical
thinking on the topics. In addition to the content analysis, the
interpretation of the keyword analysis was also performed.
3. Research evolution and streams
The first part of this section presents general information about the
collected articles concerning scientific production over time, the most
critical journals in the area, and the countries’ production and collab­
oration. The second part is devoted to present the research streams.
3.1. General information
Annual Scientific Production – The research on EB is not new.
However, the scientific community engaged in more in-depth research
on this topic in this century. The articles collected in this review were
published in twelve years, from 2008 to 2020. There is some minimal
scientific production before 2008 and the content of those articles is not
very relevant in the scope of this work. Fig. 4 depicts the number of
publications by year and the cumulative publication concerning the EB
research.
From 2008 to 2013, little attention was paid to EB studies, mainly
reflecting the early development of technologies that could bring
feasibility and economic attractiveness to vehicle deployment in the
market. However, since 2017 the annual article publication rates have
J.A. Manzolli et al.
Fig. 4. Annual Scientific Production in EB in the proposed analysis.
Fig. 5. The evolution of the cumulative publication of the leading journals in the field by year.
risen sharply. In the last four years, 63.4% of the total articles (282 out of
445) were published. The average annual growth rate of the analysed
timeframe is 26.2%. The analysis indicates the attention that has been
paid to the field, which is likely to increase in the forthcoming years. As
aforementioned, the penetration of EB in the market is increasing fast;
therefore, the scientific community is developing research on a large
scale to address the main challenges concerning the deployment of those
vehicles in urban transportation systems.
Journal Publications – The analysis developed in this subsection
aims to present representative sources in which researchers can find
relevant content. Fig. 5 presents an assessment of the number of papers
per year in the top-10 journals with the highest number of articles on EB
research.
Scientific production and collaboration sorted by country – This
analysis evaluates the regions where research is well developed. Fig. 6
displays the distribution of publications by country.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112211
The findings highlight the countries investing more in developing
EVs globally and creating policies to deploy this technology. China, the
USA, and the European Union (EU) present the largest EV markets.
Considering just buses, China has the biggest fleet – Chinese cities hold
roughly 98% of the deployed EB in the world [49]. The pursuit of a more
electrified transportation sector by those countries has also been asso­
ciated with the fact that they present the highest CO2 emission levels
globally, and vehicle electrification can help diminishing the trans­
portation sector’s environmental impact [50]. As a result, the USA,
China, and Europe implemented several policies and legislation to
promote the market and technology development. In the USA, a series of
programs have been applied to stimulate and enhance EB research and
production, including financial incentives in the forms of tax credits, tax
exemptions, and other different forms of subsidies [51,52]. Since 2010,
China is also adopting incentive policies covering favourable laws, na­
tional sales targets, municipal air-quality targets, and subsidies to
J.A. Manzolli et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112211

Fig. 6. Number of publications per country.

Fig. 7. Thematic cluster map of the keywords.

intensify core technologies development (including EB) [49,53].
Consequently, the Chinese EV industry rose around 360% from 2010 to
2016 in sales and production [54,55]. The European Parliament adopted
in 2019 new regulations on public procurement to encourage invest­
ment in clean buses (namely electric, gas, or hydrogen) [56]. Further,
the Zero Emission Urban Bus System (ZeEUS) project financed the
deployment of EB in the EU [57,58]. As a result, the EB registrations
increased by 170.5% from 2018 to 2020 [59]. These examples shed light
on the dominance of the research in the field by those regions.
3.2. Research streams
A keyword analysis was carried out to map the evolution of EB
research topics and unveil the main research streams. The VOS Viewer
software was selected as the supporting tool to identify different key
terms and research streams of the 445 selected articles. The thematic
cluster map shows that the keywords can be grouped into five clusters,
indicating the EB research streams (Fig. 7). The circle size represents the
number of times a selected keyword occurred, while the distance among

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J.A. Manzolli et al.
Fig. 8. The evolution of the accumulate of each keyword group by year.
them defines the relationship between each keyword in the cluster – the
closer the distance is, the more related the words are.
After analysing their keyword content, the research streams (clus­
ters) were labelled as follows: Vehicle Technology, Sustainability, Fleet
Operation, Battery Technology, and Energy Management. It can be
noticed that there is a strong synergy between the studies in Sustain­
ability and Fleet Operation clusters. Some keywords of the first one can
be found in the area that belongs to the second one, and vice-versa. The
map analysis also indicates that the research concerning Energy Man­
agement is more considerable between the five research streams, i.e., the
cluster with more terms. On the other hand, the number of keywords
concerning Battery Technology is smaller, indicating that more research
on this topic may be expected.
Further, an analysis of the 20 most common keywords was con­
ducted to evaluate their evolution dynamics over time. The keywords
were aggregated by similarity in six different groups to improve the
chart visualization. Fig. 8 depicts the evolution of each group as a
function of the years, helping to distinguish topics that are receiving
considerable attention from the academia.
The group “Electric Buses” arises in the first place in the number of
appearances by year. This result was expected since the selected articles
deal mainly with this type of vehicle; however, it is interesting to note
that the group “Hybrid Buses” presents 40% fewer appearances. This
comparison indicates that research has focused more on fully electric
buses than on hybrid ones. This trend became more significant after
2014 when the difference was less than 12%. Another important aspect
is that the research focusing on “Charging and Fleet Operation” appears
in second place, reflecting the importance of the topic in the community.
This finding stems from different aspects. First, there is still no consensus
regarding the best strategy to recharge the fleets [61]. Overnight
charging, opportunity charging and in-motion charging appear as the
primary options [62]; however, more research must be done to deter­
mine the most advantageous cost-benefit option and the one that brings
less stress to the electric network while enhancing the battery lifetime.
Further, fleet optimization and scheduling are important topics since
they deal directly with EB implementation feasibility in urban centres
[63]. The “Energy Management and Efficiency” group is in the third
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112211
position of the most cited terms. The studies in this research stream have
been growing faster in the last years, as pointed out by the keyword
dynamic analysis. The importance of studies in this area derives from the
need to optimally managing the high levels of power and energy that the
EB fleets demand and the stress in the grid they represent [64–66].
Moreover, the studies are related to improving the bus fleet efficiency
regarding technical (batteries, charging) and driving behaviour aspects
(e.g., autonomous driving via Machine Learning).
4. Content analysis
This review presents an in-depth content analysis of impacting arti­
cles in the field. It is essential to highlight that the content analysis is
based on the previously developed science mapping analysis but it goes
well beyond it. Firstly, the most cited articles were selected using a
citation method. This approach has been chosen to systematically obtain
a list of articles, acting as a starting point but being aware that a criterion
of highly cited articles is not enough to perform proper content analysis.
Recent articles still need more time to receive many citations. Therefore,
more papers have been selected, analysed and included to enlarge the
content analysis. Broadening the number of papers helps improving the
analysis quality on two fronts: i) a deeper content review focused on
selected article’s findings could be performed; ii) the citation method
limitation could be mitigated. The research streams previously defined
in section 3.2 were employed to categorize the articles into affinity
topics to enrich the study. After selecting the articles, the analysis con­
sisted of observing further the research methods, techniques, and find­
ings and then assessing the works to enlighten possible research
perspectives. Table 2 presents information concerning relevant articles
in the field, unveiling their topics, objectives, and findings. In addition,
the content analysis is shown in the following, scrutinized according to
the different research streams.
Vehicle technology – EBs can be sorted into electrification levels
and different powertrains. HEBs are powered by an electric motor and
an internal combustion engine configured in parallel or series. PHEBs
also have a hybrid powertrain, and this technology allows grid
connection to charge the vehicle. BEBs employ an electric motor to
J.A. Manzolli et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112211

Table 2
Summary of relevant articles in the field.
Ref. Main topic Objectives Findings

[67] Energy - Hybrid engine performance enhancement using dynamic programming and - The applied strategy decreased the fuel consumption by 10.45%.
management recalibration methods.
[68] Energy - Tank-to-wheel energy conversion efficiency evaluation of a plug-in hybrid - Blended charge-depleting and charge-sustaining powertrain opera­
management electric bus (PHEB) using a convex optimization model. tion technique provided the most efficient energy operation in the
vehicles.
[69] Battery - Hybrid energy storage system (HESS) dimensioning optimization for fuel cell - HESS is a more economical option than a unique energy storage
technology bus (FCB) using convex programming. system (ESS) in a battery longevity-aware optimization scenario.
[70] Sustainability - A cost-benefit energy consumption comparison between PHEB and a battery - BEBs are better options regarding energy consumption and
electric bus (BEB). emissions reduction;
- Vehicle adoption is highly impacted by capital and ESS costs;
- Scheduling and route planning are decisive factors regarding fleet
operation.
[71] Energy - Fuel economy optimization and drivability enhancement of PHEB in inclined - Improvements in the energy distribution between the internal
management roads using a correctional dynamic programming approach. combustion engine and the electric machine;
- Ameliorated drivability in face of road slope variation.
[72] Sustainability - Alternative fuel buses evaluation regarding energy savings and GHG - Only half of the studied alternative fuel buses presented energy
emissions reduction using lifecycle assessment methods; savings and emissions reduction when compared to conventional
- Alternative fuel buses policies recommendation. technologies;
- Excluding FCB, all alternative technologies are feasible to be
implemented;
- New policies should be implemented to promote the deployment of
alternative fuel buses.
[73] Energy - PHEB energy efficiency enhancement using a stochastic driving-behaviour- - The strategy focused on drivers’ behaviour could significantly
management aware model. improve the fuel economy compared to the most common charging
strategies.
[74] Vehicle - Alternative powertrain buses (hybrid, fuel cell and battery) comparison - Vehicle deployment and operation are highly sensitive to energy
technology regarding economic, operational, environmental and energy efficiency profile;
performance. - HEBs do not present significant GHG emissions reduction;
- BEBs and FCBs can satisfy the operational requirements; however,
implementation costs arise as a major barrier.
- Overnight BEBs appear as the most suitable option to be deployed in
urban environments.
[75] Sustainability - Lifecycle costs and CO2 emissions evaluation of alternative fuel buses (hybrid, - BEBs have a higher potential to reduce CO2 emissions.
fuel cell and battery), considering purchasing, operating, maintenance, and - PHEBs are economically competitive with conventional
carbon emission costs. technologies;
- High costs of fuel cells and batteries are major barriers to reducing
the lifecycle costs of FCBs and BEBs, respectively.
[76] Battery - HESS sizing based on a fuzzy controller. - Energy storage hybridization reduces the costs of the ESS and the
technology final fuel consumption simultaneously.
[77] Energy - PHEB energy management strategy improvement using a stochastic model - The proposed method produced a comparable total cost to the
management predictive control. globally optimal solution compared to the dynamic programming
method.
[78] Energy - Real-time PHEB fuel consumption minimization using a neural network - The supervisory control strategy presents substantial improvements
management model. in fuel economy compared with a rule-based strategy.
[79] Vehicle - FCB review regarding technological and economic aspects. - FCBs are more fuel-efficient than their other counterparts;
technology - Lack of infrastructure for refuelling, high capital costs and fuel costs
are the main barriers to the deployment of the vehicles.
[80] Energy - EB fuel energy management strategy development using a reinforcement - The fuel economy strategy performance achieves 89% level that of
Management learning method. dynamic programming benchmark in an untrained driving cycle.
- The model can converge to final target values under different initial
state of charge conditions.
[81] Vehicle - Efficient energy recovery control strategy development to ensure braking - The proposed strategy improves the recovery energy by around 17%
technology stability while maximizing braking energy recovery of a HEB. compared with the conventional rule-based braking strategy.
[82] Energy - Series-parallel HEB simulation, considering the vehicle architecture and a - Energy consumption was reduced by 30% with respect to the
management novel transmission scheme; conventional bus driving cycle using the energy management
- Energy management controller development using a fuzzy logic method. strategy.
[83] Sustainability - BEB energy consumption and GHG emissions evaluation under a lifecycle - BEB reduces diesel use by 85–87% when compared to diesel buses;
assessment methodology. - From a life-cycle perspective, BEBs achieve a reduction of 19–35%
in GHG emissions;
- Clean energy grid (based on renewables) and charging efficiency
enhancement would improve the benefits of BEBs.
[84] Fleet operation - Fast-charging BEB fleet feasibility evaluation using computational - The entire vehicle scheduling must be evaluated instead of
simulation. individual trips to project the fast-charging stations.
- The case study shows that half of the service trips can be electrified
with a fast-charging power of 300 kW and buses with a battery
capacity of 220 kWh.
[85] Vehicle - Trolley EB review regarding technologies (powertrain, batteries, sensors, - Trolley EB should be included in city planning.
technology chargers).
[86] Fleet operation - Charging infrastructure location optimization using mathematical - The low operation costs can balance the high capital costs incurred
programming methods. in building charging infrastructures and acquiring the vehicles;
- BEB can reduce emissions by up to 51% and energy use by up to
34%.
[87] Energy - Energy management strategy development using a stochastic model - The offline simulation shows that the energy management strategy
management predictive control. can reduce fuel consumption by 1.9%.
- The hardware-in-the-loop experiments showed a fuel consumption
reduction of 3.9%.

8
J.A. Manzolli et al.
provide propulsion while the electricity is stored in battery packs. A grid
connection also performs vehicle battery charging. Charging power
varies from slow (30–50 kW) to fast (100–600 kW) rates. FCBs use
hydrogen fuel cells to generate electricity on-board during operation.
Overhead wires feed trolleybuses (however, studies concerning this kind
of vehicle are out of the scope of this paper). An extensive review
regarding EB powertrains can be found in Ref. [74]. Vehicle technology
literature focuses on advancing features regarding EBs energy con­
sumption performance, drivability, and security. The majority of studies
are from the period 2008–2012, attesting to the maturity of the EB
technology. Nevertheless, regenerative braking and adaptive control
systems are still topics of interest.
Regenerative braking configures an effective method to increase EB
energy economy since part of the kinetic energy is converted into elec­
tricity, later returning to the batteries [88]. However, this is still a se­
curity issue concerning braking stability and energy recovery
optimization. Ref. [81] proposes a modified nonlinear model predictive
control method to deal with this problem. Simulation and
hardware-in-loop tests showed an energy recovery improvement of
almost 17% compared to a rule-based strategy. Ref. [89] deals with
regenerative braking under safety-critical driving situations. The au­
thors developed a novel adaptive control strategy, which improved
braking stability and deceleration compared to two anti-lock braking
system benchmarks.
Proper control strategies can enhance EBs internal operation (e.g.,
fuel consumption performance, drivability and power control im­
provements). Adaptive control strategies emerge as an attractive
methodology in this regard. Ref. [90] presents an adaptive control
strategy to optimize the power control of a PHEB. The authors developed
a dynamic programming method to deal with this issue. The approach
developed could adjust the power distribution in real-time, leading to
significant energy efficiency enhancement. In order to improve driving
safety, Ref. [91] introduces an adaptive cruise control, adopting a hi­
erarchical structure (upper level – velocity controller; lower level –
torque coordination controller) to improve a HEB drivability. Outcomes
indicate improvements in drivability (with the driver’s burden reduc­
tion) and energy consumption decrease.
This literature analysis indicates a maturity regarding EB vehicles
technology, with most studies in 2008–2012. Still, adaptive control
strategies applied to internal vehicle operation performance enhance­
ment are worth attention. Autonomous driving also arises as an inter­
esting topic (see section 5.2).
Energy management – The literature reveals that the dual-motor
propulsion system (DMPS) has become the powertrain standard
configuration in EBs, driven by better operational flexibility and power
split control efficiency [92]. Therefore, substantial research has been
developed to improve DMPS energy management. Regarding the
methods, energy management strategies can be sorted into four different
groups: i) rule-based power management; ii) optimization algorithms (e.
g., dynamic programming, Pontryagin’s minimum principle, convex
programming); iii) model predictive control (MPC); and iv) machine
learning methods (e.g., neural networks, reinforcement learning).
Rule-based power management is an engineering experience-based
approach [93,94]; however, some studies indicate it lacks efficiency
and robustness [95,96].
Optimization methods emerge as a better option to design energy
management strategies. The work in Ref. [67] proposes a novel frame­
work to enhance a PHEB engine performance by employing dynamic
programming and recalibration methods. The strategy applied
decreased the fuel consumption by 10.45%. The work in Ref. [68]
applied a convex optimization model to evaluate the tank-to-wheel en­
ergy conversion efficiency of a PHEB. The results suggested that a
blended charge-depleting and charge-sustaining powertrain operation
technique provides a better efficient energy operation. Ref. [71] pre­
sented a correctional dynamic programming algorithm to deal with the
balance of fuel economy optimization and the drivability of PHEB in
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112211
inclined roads. The findings confirmed that the proposed energy man­
agement strategy could afford high-efficiency and optimal energy dis­
tribution between the internal combustion engine and the electric
machine while keeping drivability in the road slope variation. Some
studies employ dynamic programming as a benchmark in comparison
with other methods [77,80,97].
MPC methods are also widely applied to energy management in EB.
Differently from optimization methods, MPC relies on predicting the
vehicles’ torque and velocity to perform energy management. Some
studies point out advantages of the MPC method when compared to the
most common optimization methods. Ref. [77] introduced a stochastic
model predictive controller presenting higher computational speed
while producing a comparable optimal solution to a dynamic pro­
gramming benchmark. The findings in Ref. [87] indicate that a sto­
chastic MPC strategy can reduce fuel consumption by 3.9% in a
hardware-in-the-loop experiment compared to dynamic programming.
More recently, novel machine learning methods have been employed
to improve DMPS energy management. There is still a lack of experi­
ments in the literature regarding the use of machine learning techniques
in energy management [98]; however, the findings so far are promising.
Ref. [78] employs a neural network model to predict the vehicle energy
demand. The authors developed a mathematical model to track the
batteries’ state of charge and distribute the energy between the engines.
Simulation results indicate that the developed supervisory control
strategy presents substantial fuel economy improvements compared
with a rule-based strategy. A reinforcement learning approach is pre­
sented in Ref. [80]. The findings indicate a remarkable economic
strategy performance that is 89% better than a dynamic programming
benchmark in an untrained driving cycle. Concerning improving energy
efficiency by driving behaviour approaches, the study in Ref. [73] pre­
sents a stochastic driving-behaviour-aware model. The K-means method
was employed to classify the driving behaviour, while the driver models
are based on Markov chains. The findings indicate that an energy
management strategy focused on drivers’ behaviour could significantly
improve the PHEB fuel economy compared to the most common charge
depleting–charge sustaining strategies.
In summary, energy management strategies can be efficiently per­
formed using dynamic programming and MPC. Machine learning
methods arise as an interesting approach to be explored.
Sustainability – Sustainability works mainly employ a lifecycle
assessment (LCA) methodology to compare different vehicles, charging
strategies or batteries regarding environmental impacts. Cost-benefit
analysis is employed to evaluate the possibilities of implementing
alternative powertrain buses in urban environments.
Concerning different vehicles technology, there is a consensus in the
literature that EBs can reduce the carbon footprint compared to diesel
powertrain vehicles. Ref. [83] assesses the impacts of BEB on on-road
testing in terms of energy consumption and CO2 emissions. The find­
ings indicate that BEB diminishes diesel consumption by 87% compared
to a conventional bus. Considering a lifecycle perspective, BEB savings
reach a 46% decrease in fossil fuel use and up to 35% CO2 emissions.
Further, tank-to-wheel studies proved that electric fleets are responsible
for reducing urban environment pollution, noise pollution and
enhancing energy efficiency remarkably [99–101]. However, from a
well-to-wheel perspective, studies have shown that the electricity mix
has a significant impact on GHG emissions [72,83,102]. It is recom­
mended to charge the vehicles using clean energy sources to reduce the
carbon footprint of EB fleets. Therefore, countries with a more signifi­
cant share of RES in their electricity grid will benefit more from the
environmental improvements of EBs. Another alternative is imple­
menting distributed generation hubs (mainly powered with solar en­
ergy) to charge bus fleets. A cleaner energy production allied with an
enhancement of the system charging efficiency could further improve EB
environmental benefits. Battery technology improvements and recycling
can also reduce the lifecycle impacts of EBs [103]. Although the litera­
ture presents several studies regarding EVs, works regarding
J.A. Manzolli et al.
cradle-to-grave lifecycle impacts specifically oriented for EBs are infre­
quent [104]. Studies in this area could enlighten the environmental
impacts of battery disposal.
Regarding lifecycle cost-benefit analysis, capital and ESS costs
appear as the most critical factors for EBs massive adoption [70].
However, the price of lithium-ion (li-ion) batteries is expected to drop
significantly in the following years [105], resulting in a reduction of
acquisition costs, thus making BEB economically competitive with diesel
counterparts. Further, studies indicate that operational costs (energy
acquisition and maintenance costs) are a balance factor for the high
capital costs [106–108]. The study in Ref. [75] performs an LCA to
evaluate the lifecycle costs and CO2 emissions of different alternative
powertrain buses (battery-electric, hybrid, and fuel-cell). The analysis
considers the purchase, operating, maintenance, and possible carbon
emission costs of the vehicles studied. The results indicate that BEBs
have a higher potential to reduce CO2 emissions. Also, the analysis
showed that PHEBs are economically competitive with diesel and nat­
ural gas counterparts. The study presented in Ref. [109] goes further,
presenting a lifecycle cost comparison between three different charging
methods (overnight, end station, and opportunity charging) in a bus
network context. Considering a 12-year service life simulation, the re­
sults indicate that the end-station charging strategy can be economically
competitive with diesel equivalents in the best scenario. Concerning
FCB, Ref. [110] describes a total owner cost analysis indicating that the
current technology has 133% higher costs (capital, operational and
fuelling costs) than a diesel counterpart. However, the recent de­
velopments on green hydrogen can change this panorama shortly [111].
In summary, EBs are at the point of improving carbon footprint
compared to traditional powertrain vehicles from a tank-to-wheel
perspective. Still, the LCA studies point out the necessity of using
clean energy to charge the vehicles to reduce the well-to-wheel envi­
ronment impacts. Further, more studies regarding the vehicles cradle-to-
grave lifecycle impacts should be developed to enlighten the environ­
mental consequences of battery disposal. In this context, second-life
batteries and recycling appear as crucial environmental studies.
Regarding cost-benefit analysis, the findings indicate that PHEBs are
economically competitive with their fossil-fuel counterparts. Further,
the expected drop in battery prices will soon make BEBs economically
paired with diesel counterparts. On the other hand, FCBs still needs to
develop technology maturity to become economically paired.
Battery technology – The most common technologies regarding ESS
include batteries, super-capacitors, fuel cells, and flywheels. A
comprehensive review of ESS technologies can be found in Ref. [112].
Batteries present high-energy densities and low-power densities. On the
other hand, super-capacitors present high-power densities and
low-energy densities. Thus, several works evaluate the hybridization
possibilities of both technologies. The work in Ref. [69] introduces a
HESS that combines li-ion cells and supercapacitors. The methodology is
based on convex programming to simultaneously optimize the HESS
dimensions and the power allocation between the HESS and a FCB
powertrain. In a battery longevity-aware optimization scenario, the
outcomes indicate that the HESS is a more economical option than a
single ESS. Ref. [76] also deals with HESS, developing a formulation
based on a fuzzy controller for battery sizing purposes. The case study
simulates the application of a HESS in a PHEB. The findings indicate that
energy storage hybridization can reduce the cost of ESS and the total
vehicle fuel consumption simultaneously. Other studies indicate that
HESS is a promising alternative [113–116]. Still, technology maturity,
production costs and sizing are the main drawbacks of HESS.
Compared to other battery chemistry technologies (e.g., lead-acid,
nickel, etc.), li-ion batteries arise as the standard and most suitable
technology to be employed in EBs. Such batteries achieved technology
maturity and the prices are decaying considerable – around 97% in the
last three decades [117]. Nevertheless, ageing mitigation strategies
appear as an appellative research topic since more frequent charging
events during operation inflicts an accelerated lifespan reduction.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112211
Data-driven models [118,119], convex programming [120], ESS hy­
bridization [121,122], and multi-objective programming [123] are
some examples of methods employed to develop solutions to decrease
battery’s degradation. Further, safety, battery-pack sizing and thermal
stability are other topics of interest regarding li-ion batteries technology.
From the above, energy storage hybridization has the potential to
improve vehicles fuel consumption and reduce costs. However, HESS
still lack the technology maturity to become a standard technology.
Further, li-ion ageing mitigation methods arise as compelling topics to
be studied since battery degradation directly deals with EBs operation
and maintenance costs.
Fleet operation – Differently from diesel powertrain buses, EB sys­
tems implementation needs to deal with a series of issues (e.g., driving
range limitations, time-consuming charging events, higher upfront
costs, electrical grid congestion). Therefore, extensive research has been
developed regarding fleet operation optimization. EB systems planning,
chargers location planning, and charging scheduling appear as main
fleet operation research topics [124].
Regarding EB systems planning, the works are mainly related to fleet
sizing, charging rate sizing, battery sizing, and total cost of ownership
(TCO) minimization. Several studies employ mathematical program­
ming methods to model the EB systems, considering deterministic var­
iables (battery discharging rate, charging power, and velocity) [42,84,
125–132]. Some studies include stochastic variables in the models to
deal with uncertainty [133–136]. The work presented in Ref. [84] an­
alyses the feasibility of existing bus networks to be electrified with
fast-charging battery buses. The results indicate the necessity to focus on
the entire vehicle schedules instead of individual trips to project
fast-charging stations. Ref. [86] focuses on charging infrastructure
location optimization. A mixed-integer linear programming (MILP)
model was developed to simulate a bus line charging profile and vehi­
cle’s routes in Sweden. The analysis is performed on the costs and energy
consumption perspectives, and the outcomes indicate that the lower
costs of electricity can balance the high investment costs incurred in
building charging infrastructures. Ref. [137] evaluates the TCO of
lightweight and heavyweight BEBs – considering the initial investment,
operation costs and fleet schedule. The outcomes indicate that light­
weight BEBs present a total energy consumption up to 32% lower than
heavyweight ones, with the drawback of increasing the dead mileage for
charging the empty lightweight vehicles. However, the economic eval­
uation demonstrated that the TCO for the two fleets operation is rela­
tively close due to deploying a bigger lightweight fleet. The work in
Ref. [126] presents a layout for optimising a city bus network using a
fast-charging strategy. The results unveil a significant trade-off between
battery capacity and charging infrastructure under different operational
and infrastructure conditions. In general, the studies highlight the
feasibility of deploying EB fleets in urban centres. However, the majority
of studies considers a 100% EB fleet to perform the analysis. Considering
that, in the near future, public transport operators (PTO) will need to
deal with mixed bus fleets (diesel and electric), the literature has failed
to capture the challenges at stake in this scenario. Further, since EBs
holds large batteries, PTOs could take advantage of selling energy to the
grid and participate in demand response programs. However, the liter­
ature did not yet duly characterise the participation of EBs fleet in
bus-to-grid (B2G) schemes.
Furthermore, there is still a debate regarding the most suitable
charging strategy for BEBs. Therefore, studies regarding chargers’
location planning and charging management are frequent in the litera­
ture [138–142]. Different approaches are proposed to deal with this
issue: overnight, opportunity, and in-motion charging. All three strate­
gies present advantages and disadvantages. Overnight charging offers
lower infrastructure costs since it employs slow chargers for charging
operations. On the other hand, the EB acquisition costs increases due to
battery’s costs since the vehicles need enough energy to operate all day
without charging. Opportunity charging strategies employ a
fast-charging approach to charge the vehicles during the day. Therefore,
J.A. Manzolli et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112211

the vehicle’s battery capacity can be smaller. In this context, the fleet
acquisition costs are lower, with the drawback of increasing the fleet size
and electricity costs, leading to higher operating costs. Further, the high
power required to charge the vehicles may result in technical problems
(voltage, frequency and peak demand violations) in power distribution
systems, which may jeopardize the transit schedule timetable and the
needs of energy stored in the vehicles’ batteries [143]. Lastly, in-motion
charging (using wireless chargers) appears as a promising alternative
[144–146]; however, implementation costs are still prohibitive.
Vehicles’ energy consumption evaluation also represents a vital
performance factor in the context of fleet operation planning. Studies
commonly employ complex kinematic models of vehicle movement to
estimate energy consumption, which encompass road topography and
vehicle construction-related factors [147–149]. However, battery dis­
charging is impacted by a set of external factors (e.g., weather condi­
tions, traffic, changing numbers of passengers), which are not pondered
by standard methods. Therefore, standardized energy consumption
scenarios present a significant drawback in estimating energy con­
sumption, leading to operational problems. Recent studies propose
data-driven approaches to provide sound energy consumption models to
deal with these problems [150–152]. Ref. [153] presents an extensive
study of machine learning methods for this purpose.
In summary, the fleet operation topic is one of the most vital study
topics regarding the implementation and feasibility of EBs in urban
environments. Battery and fleet sizing problems, chargers’ location
planning, and TCO minimization appear as main research directions.
Significant research has already been done in this area; however, some
gaps and research topics could be better explored. Mixed fleets planning
and B2G interactions rise as topics not duly studied in the literature.
Further, still open questions regarding charging strategies exist. Lastly,
energy consumption is a crucial feature to be addressed to enhance the
quality of EB operation. In this context, artificial intelligence methods
can be employed to improve energy consumption forecasting models.
5. Trends and future perspectives
This section provides an analysis of research trends and literature
gaps in the field, which are expected to be the focus of extensive work in
academia, industry and PTO.
5.1. Research trends
A content analysis has been performed to examine the trending
topics in the field. Table 3 presents a list based on the selection of
trending articles in the period from 2018 to 2020. The citation method
was employed as a systematic approach to obtaining the articles and a
high-level view of the topics. Still, the trends and gaps presented in this
section are not restricted to those papers, and have been unveiled from
the critical assessment of their contents.
The literature analysis unveils a predominance of recent studies on
energy management and efficiency. This research topic focuses mainly
on developing energy demand forecasts of EB fleets, driven by the high
amount of energy that those vehicles require from the grid. Several
works apply optimization and artificial intelligence methods to provide
fleet energy planning solutions [136,154–159]. Transportation infra­
structure planning is also receiving significant attention from academia.
The studies on this topic are mainly related to the optimization and
cost-effectiveness of charging station implementation. The studies usu­
ally use MILP models considering different charging strategies, such as
fast charging, opportunity charging and overnight charging. Recently,
the possibility of in-motion charging has gained momentum in research
[160,161]. The studies related to the fleet operation and infrastructure
also develop optimization models to minimize EB fleets charging de­
mand by applying different charging methods [162,163]. Further, since
EBs present a limited driving range, many studies address fleet sched­
uling to optimize the bus-network implementation [164–167]. Con­
cerning the sustainability topic, the studies involving LCA still drive
greater attention from the community. The efforts in this topic are
mainly related to the lifecycle costs of different vehicles or charging
technologies. The studies concerning vehicle and battery technologies
receive less attention from the community, possibly indicating the EB
technology maturity. Nevertheless, substantial research focuses on
developing better regenerative braking systems, secondary li-ion bat­
teries, and FCB improvement [168–175]. Table 4 illustrates these
research directions, providing hints for future research on EB across
various subjects.

Table 3
Summary of trending articles (2018–2020).
Ref. Main topic Objectives Gaps

[176] Energy - Predictive energy management strategy development considering - There is no development of predictive energy management strategies for
management on-board power sources (fuel cells and batteries) degradation. FCB considering battery and fuel cell degradation in a cost-optimal
manner.
[77] Energy - PHEB energy management strategy improvement using a stochastic - The majority of studies regarding predictive energy managements
management model predictive control. strategies have a limited emphasis on computational efficiency.
[177] Energy - EB fuel energy management strategy development using a - State discretisation limits the application of Q learning (a reinforcement
management reinforcement learning method. learning method) in energy management strategies.
[118] Battery - Battery ageing prediction using a novel battery ageing assessment - The data used in the majority of studies are obtained in well-controlled
technology method based on machine learning techniques. conditions in laboratories;
- There is a lack of validation on large-scale real-world operating vehicles.
[178] Energy - Energy management strategy development for HEB using a deep - Deep reinforcement learning presents a main limitation regarding the curse
management reinforcement learning algorithm. of dimensionality when applied to energy management.
[109] Sustainability - Lifecycle cost analysis considering BEB in different conditions; - The literature lacks in-depth evaluations of BEB lifecycle costs, especially
- Charging power and battery requirements, and energy consumption regarding multiple charging strategies.
measurement.
[137] Fleet operation - Cost-optimized planning of a BEB fleet considering a depot slow- - Most studies consider the charging infrastructure as an input of the
charging approach. problem; therefore, charging power sizing optimization is not evaluated.
[179] Energy - Machine learning-based energy management strategy development - System coupling and nonlinearity are the main challenges regarding the
management for a HEB, considering battery thermal safety and degradation. application of machine learning in the development of energy management
strategies;
- The literature lacks in exploring the impacts on battery while improving
fuel economy.
[180] Energy - Low-cost energy management controller development for a PHEB, - Most studies neglect system computational efficiency while developing
management considering fuel consumption minimization and high-computational energy management strategies.
efficiency.
[181] Battery - Li-ion battery temperature-dependent model development using a - Battery modelling data (e.g., dimensionality) presents several challenges
technology machine learning approach. for applying neural network training, mainly regarding dynamic driving.

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J.A. Manzolli et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112211

Table 4
Promising research directions.
Topic Research

Energy management ⁃ Deep reinforcement learning for EB energy demand forecasting.

⁃ Machine learning applied to energy efficiency enhancement of charging infrastructures.
⁃ Predictive control models for bus-to-bus and bus-to-infrastructure communication.
Sustainability ⁃ EB second-life batteries and disposal.
⁃ LCA applied to different charging strategies.
⁃ Integration of EB systems and stationary battery storage systems.
⁃ Lifecycle cost analysis of mixed charging strategies.
Fleet operation ⁃ Wireless charging strategy.
⁃ Charging infrastructure optimization considering mixed charging strategies and mixed bus fleets.
⁃ Non-linear charging and discharging optimization models – robust and stochastic optimization models.
⁃ Schedule-based charging optimization framework.
⁃ Development of meta-heuristics to solve difficult MILP models of fleet scheduling and charging optimization problems.
Vehicle technology ⁃ Autonomous driving applied to EB.
⁃ Fuel cell buses.
⁃ Regenerative braking.
Battery technology ⁃ Thermal management system in batteries applied to buses.
⁃ Hybrid storage systems applied to PHEB.
⁃ Battery lifespan enhancement.

5.2. Literature gaps
With the accelerated electrification process of the transportation
sector, many challenges emerge at the operation, energy demand, and
environmental levels. Therefore, extending from existing literature, this
section is devoted to presenting open issues regarding EB research.
Dynamic fleet management strategies – Up to now, the stochastic
behaviour of EB operation has not been duly investigated. Therefore, the
application of robust or stochastic optimization models appears as an
appellative research topic [182]. Noise factors leading to increased
consumption can be addressed in future research, such as driving style,
elevation profile, number of stops, route type, weather and
traffic-related issues. Future studies should also consider battery ca­
pacity, mixed charging approaches, and mixed bus fleets to design
optimized fleet management strategies [183]. Further, adopting com­
plex (non-linear) charging rules can bring sounder results to the
computational simulations. Additionally, the development of custom­
ized meta-heuristics to solve MILP mathematical models is an attractive
topic considering that these models generally present difficult combi­
natorial features. The number of decision variables and constraints in­
creases rapidly for larger bus networks, making models difficult or
impossible to solve by exact algorithms. Also, it becomes crucial to
develop robust energy consumption methods to perform an intra-day
fine-tune regarding EB charging to match the vehicles actual energy
requirements. There is a lack of studies regarding dynamic energy
management strategies considering real-time variations.
Grid impacts and interaction – The rapid adoption of EBs will
impose a high-power demand on the grid, impacting utilities and power
systems operation. In general, PTOs do not hold the infrastructure
needed to deal with such issue. One option is to extend the distribution
system capacity; however, this approach requires high capital costs and
significant implementation periods. Therefore, developing novel solu­
tions to mitigate extensive grid stress due to fleet charging arises as a
critical issue [184–186]. For this purpose, smart coordinated charging
strategies should be considered as one of the uppermost topics to be
addressed. Furthermore, energy management strategies must consider
the bus system and the grid operation interactions. Then, bilevel and
multi-objective optimization appear as the most suitable approaches to
deal with hierarchical decisions and decisions involving multiple, con­
flicting and incommensurate aspects to optimize. The topic of bus-grid
interactions also arises as an interesting research perspective
regarding B2G schemes. For instance, PTOs can take advantage of
intra-day electricity price fluctuations to sell energy back to the grid.
Such variations may occur in short periods, thus leading to the need for
real-time energy management systems. Further, EB fleets present an
enormous battery capacity,1 making them “moving” ESS. In this context,
PTOs could offer ancillary services to the grid using idle battery ca­
pacity. Therefore, as EBs may impact the grid due to high power de­
mand, they can also contribute to grid resilience. The achievement of a
reliable EB system operation relies on a strategy that considers sto­
chastic system behaviour, bus-grid interactions and real-time energy
management. Studies in these topics can be paramount to facilitate the
adoption of EBs and their seamless interaction with the grid.
Environmental impact analysis – There is extensive literature
regarding LCA studies applied to EVs. However, the outcomes of such
studies cannot be entirely employed for EBs, since the operation, usage,
manufacture, and fuel consumption of buses differ from conventional
cars. Thus, LCA studies applied to EVs must be extended to EBs to bring
sounder results. In this sense, in addition to well-to-wheel analysis,
cradle-to-grave lifecycle studies of EBs deployment in urban environ­
ments are crucial to understand the actual environmental impacts of
such technology. Further, the increasing utilization of li-ion batteries
can lead to significant environmental impacts, not only regarding GHG
emissions but mainly regarding acidification and toxicity [187].
Therefore, recycling/refurbishment should be considered in the devel­
opment of battery systems. Ref. [188] presents an extensive review of
this topic, introducing strategies to mitigate battery disposal impacts. In
addition, batteries that are not anymore suitable for automotive appli­
cations still have, in general, enough energy capacity for several other
purposes. Thus, EB second-life batteries may be applied in different
stationary applications [189].
Autonomous driving – Autonomous driving can be considered one
of the most disruptive technologies in the future, completely changing
how mobility is conceived and implemented. Extensive research has
been developed regarding autonomous driving EVs. However, few
studies are focused on driverless buses [190]. The cyber-physical sys­
tems designed for autonomous EB (AEB) must consider many features
and configurations that differ from conventional vehicles: energy man­
agement, charging schedules, battery health, inter-vehicle safety, com­
fort, energy consumption, etc. Therefore, studies should focus on solving
these challenges regarding AEB. Further, studies regarding the end-user
acceptance of AEBs are also relevant to accelerate vehicle diffusion
[191].

1
For instance, a 20-vehicle fleet can easily reach 1 MWh of energy capacity.

12
J.A. Manzolli et al.
6. Conclusions
This study conducted a literature review focusing on EB research
through an in-depth analysis of 445 articles identified in the Scopus
database in 2008–2020. Scientific production, research streams,
methods, trends and gaps were thoroughly assessed using science
mapping techniques and content analysis.
The scientific production analysis demonstrated the increasing
number of studies developed in the field, with an average annual growth
rate of 26%. The analysis also unveiled that research is primarily
concentrated in China, the USA and the EU. The findings indicate a
strong correlation between investments and policies implemented by
those countries in the deployment of EB and its research. Further, five
clusters concerning the EB research were mapped and defined. The
selected cluster labels, which indicate the streams that drive the EB
research, are: i) vehicle technology; ii) sustainability; iii) fleet operation;
iv) battery technology; v) energy management.
A content analysis was carried out to assess the methods and tech­
niques that have been employed in the field. We used the research
streams previously defined to classify the articles main topics. This
analysis indicates that vehicle technology studies are mainly devoted to
developing adaptive control strategies applied to drivetrain operation
performance enhancement. Energy management studies focus on
improving optimization algorithms, considering driving behaviour
techniques, and developing novel technologies to promote energy effi­
ciency and fuel savings. Sustainability studies mainly employ LCA or
cost-benefit analysis to compare different EB regarding environmental
impacts and total implementation costs. Studies concerning battery
technology apply HESS technology to enhance energy management. The
studies concerning fleet operation address scheduling and charging
stations optimal location to reduce total cost and improve fleet imple­
mentation feasibility in urban environments.
The trending topics in the field have been assessed using content
analysis. The findings unveil a predominance of energy management
and efficiency studies, focusing on grid energy demand forecasts.
Transportation planning, better regenerative braking systems, second­
ary li-ion batteries, and FCB development are also important research
topics. In addition to the content analysis, extending from existing
literature, research gaps have been presented. Research related to
improving fleet implementation reliability and route planning is ex­
pected to play a crucial role to foster real-world applications. Robust and
stochastic optimization models applied to fleet scheduling appear as an
interesting research direction, bringing sounder results in computational
simulations. Further, adopting non-linear charging and discharging
schemes can bring more realism to the mathematical models. Energy
demand forecasting and grid impact mitigation also arise as important
research topics. Deep reinforcement learning methods can be applied to
demand forecasting, helping to anticipate and develop actions to miti­
gate grid stress. Considering noise factors (e.g., driving style, elevation
profile, number of stops, route type) is also relevant to improving de­
mand forecasts and optimization models. Stationary battery storage
systems can also be used to alleviate demand in peak hours. Looking
forward to more sustainable transportation means, studies concerning
battery disposal and their possible use as second-life devices arise as a
fundamental topic. Lastly, autonomous driving is an emerging theme to
be explored.
The present work presents some limitations. Science mapping is, in
general, employed to provide insights regarding specific themes and
research fields. In this context, this article provides a high-level review
of EB research topics. The content analysis performed gives more depth
regarding particular subjects of the field, and authors seeking more
knowledge in particular topics need to look further in the specific
literature examined in this work. Using citation metrics to evaluate the
impact of articles in the scientific community has well-known short­
comings. Although highly cited articles have the potential to influence
several other works, these can be cited for reasons beyond scientific
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112211
ones, and the citation method fails in capturing such a variety of reasons.
Also, this review evaluated papers published in scientific journals;
therefore, conference papers and grey literature have not been
addressed. Lastly, scientific mapping indicators need to be regularly
examined and updated.
The need for decarbonization of the transportation sector and the
efforts concerning climate change mitigation drive the current acceler­
ated deployment of EB in urban environments. Such trend brings chal­
lenges and a broad scope of research avenues. The scientific community
needs to address fleet operation, energy management, sustainability,
vehicle technology, and battery technology to face these challenges in a
comprehensive manner. The findings presented in this review give in­
sights on the most promising topics and may serve as a basis for
designing promising research directions in the field.
Data availability
Datasets related to this article can be found at https://doi.org/10
.17632/9c8xn7djp7.1, an open-source online data repository hosted at
Mendeley Data (Manzolli, 2021).
Authorship contributions
Jônatas Augusto Manzolli: Investigation, Methodology, Software,
Writing – original draft. J. P. F. Trovão: Resources, Conceptualization,
Validation, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – review & edit­
ing. Carlos H. Antunes: Resources, Conceptualization, Validation,
Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The first author acknowledges FCT, the Portuguese Foundation for
Science and Technology, for the PhD grant no. 2021.04879. BD. This
work was partially supported by projects UIBD/00308/2020 and the
European Regional Development Fund through the COMPETE 2020,
FCT and the Regional Operational Program of the Centre Region
(CENTRO2020) within the project MAnAGER (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-
028040), and by grant no. 950–230672 from Canada Research Chairs
Program.
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